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Common Final Review Topics

Ch 1 - OverviewComputers are ubiquitousUsed in home, education, work, on the go

Smart appliancesData – text, sound, image, video

All data maintained in filesFile systems have folders (directories) and files

Hierarchical structureNTFS – recommended for XP, Vista, Win 8FAT32 – still used on some external devices

Computers process binary dataConvert data to information

Computer System: input -> process -> output with storage and communicationInput converts data to binary to be processed by computerOutput converts binary to be processed by human beingsInput devices – keyboard, mouse, microphone, digital camera, webcamOutput devices – monitor, printer, projector, speaker via sound cardSystem box contains

motherboard, and motherboard holds processor, memory slots,expansion slots, buses, control circuitry

internal hard drives, optical drives, power system unit, connectorsSoftware – system vs application

Computers need OssModern OSs – Windows XP, Vista, 7, and soon 8; Apple OS X; LinuxMobile OSs – iOS and AndroidSystem programs help manage computer devices and resources

OSs and utilitiesUser interface of OS often uses a desktop paradigm

Application programs do something useful for the userGames still dominant application sectorProductivity software such as word processing, spreadsheets and presentation pkgsWritten in high level programming languages – C++, Java, C#, VB, Python

Computers always follows instructions laid out in the softwareDifferent sizes of computers

EmbeddedMobilePersonal – handheld (ultra mobile PC),tablet, netbook, ultrabook,

laptop, desktop, workstation, all-in-oneMid-range – 100s of users, small and medium businessesMainframe – 1000s of users, schools, businesses, web search sitesSupercomputer – few users, extremely high processing

Modeling applicationsLarge numbers of processors tied together through high speed busHigh end super computers process in the peta flops

Grid computing

John North 1 CIT120


Computer usersProgrammers, analysts, operators, administrators, end users

NetworkingNodesWired and wireless

EthernetHot spots

Sharing – data, printing, communicationInternet considered largest network

Internet and WebInternet uses TCP/IP protocolInternet connects computer networks throughout the worldWeb – a collection of publicly available web pagesISPs provide access to the internet for most people, typically at a small chargeDifferent protocols

http – transmits hypertextsmtp & pop – handles emails

asynchronous communicationxmpp – IMftp – file transfers

Web sitesHome pageWeb pages

.html, .asp, .jsp, .php, .cgi – static vs dynamic web pagesHyperlinksFavorites / bookmarksBrowser software used to process HTML (display language for Web pages)

Address barSearch sites

AddressingIP address: 225.129.30.18Domain name: google.com; clcillinois.eduDomain name serverURL: protocol, domain, directory(s), webpage name http://home.clcillinois.edu/bdv603Email addresses: [email protected]

Society Issues with ComputingMalware – viruses, wormsIdentity Theft – a major concern for most users as we move to the cloudScamsPrivacyAddictionChanging personal and work habits / proceduresHigher productivityAvailability of answersOpening up new solutions

John North 2 CIT120


Ch 2 – ProcessingFirst electronic computer created in 1946Transistors are the key element in the microprocess – currently 10-core Zeon has 2.6 billionCPU

Arithmetic and Logic UnitControl Unit

Address Register – next instructionInstruction Register – decodes instruction

Registers – manipulates the binary dataInstruction steps – fetch, decode, execute, store

Prefetch unitCache memory levels

Most cache memory has been moved onto the processor chip rather than externalPipelining used to do concurrent steps for instructions; used to speed up process

Main CPU manufacturers Intel, AMD, ARM, IBM (PowerPC, Cell)Common desktop processors have 4 coresHigh end desktop and workstation processors have 6 and 8 coresMid priced laptops have 2 coresProcessors capable of giga ops

Main GPUNvidia, ATI

Newer APU (Accelerated Processing Unit) integrates CPU and GPU functionalityUsed for lower end desktops, laptops

System clock – crystal on mother boardMultipliers for processor, memory, front side bus (data)Synchronizes operations between componentsThe clocks are measured in hertz – cycles per second; CPUs currently run around 2 to 3 GHz

MemoryROM – bootFlash – non-volatileRAM – volatile (needed for fast changes of state from 0 to 1 and back), also called main memoryPhysical memory vs virtual memory (implemented on hard drive)

Physical is a million times faster than virtualNumber systems

Decimal – based on powers of 10; has range of 0 – 9Binary – based on powers of 2; has range of 0 – 1

Binary representation of 11 is 1011 – 8 + 0 + 2 + 1Hexadecimal – based on powers of 16; based on range of 0 – 9, a, b, c, d, e, f

Types of data – all must be represented in binary for computer to manipulateText – encoding standards – ANSI (8-bit), EBCDIC (8-bit), Unicode (16 or 32-bit)Sound or audio– frequency represented in 16-bits; sampled 44,100 times/secondImage – pixels represented by 24 or 32 bits typicallyVideo – Images at 24 or 30 frames per second; usually includes sound

Bits, Bytes, and Nibbles

John North 3 CIT120


A byte is 8 bits or able to represent values between 0 and 255 for a total of 256 different valuesBuses often measured by throughput or bandwidthBuses on mother board

DataAddressControlPower

External busesUSB: 2.0 speed 480 Mbps; 3.0 speed 5 GbpsFirewire: 400 Mbps, 800 Mbps – used often for video esp by AppleIntel Thunderbolt: 10 Gbps; Apple uses it in newer PCsSCSIWireless connections: WiFi, WiMax, Bluetooth

Important numbersKilobytes millisecondsMegabytes microsecondsGigabytes nanosecondsTerabytesPetabytesExabytes

John North 4 CIT120


Ch 3 – Storage – persistant, non-volatile storageMost data is stored as random access data – retrieve data from any location directly

Tape drives are the typical sequential access deviceRemovable media vs fixed mediaMedium vs deviceMagnetic

HD, floppy, zip/jazz drives, portable drives, external hard drivesData stored as polarityTracks, sectors, cylinders, clustersLow cost, high density

HD capacity – 3 to 4 TBHD speed – 166 MBps

Tape – sequential storageBackup and logging

OpticalCD, DVD, BluRayUses lasersROM – lands and pitsR, RW – reflective and non-reflectiveRemovableCheap media

Solid StateRAM disk

RAM memory, hard drive, UPSExpensive, but extremely fast

Solid State Drives (SSDs)Based on using flash memory5th generationExtremely fast – 550 MBps

OtherSmart cards – has memory and possibly processor

Potentially add biometric data for security purposesHolographic storage, a 3-D device –but is it just a vaporware device?Online storage – often called Cloud storage

Storage drives usually given letters in Windows – C: drive most often hard drive and contains OSPhysical drives can be partitioned into logical drives

Vendor systems often come with a small partition called the recovery partition

NAS vs SANRAID disk implementation

Striping, mirroring, striping with redundancy

John North 5 CIT120


Hot-swappableOften use RAID (redundant array of independent disks) to provide fault tolerance and increased

read speeds

John North 6 CIT120


Microsoft WordWord processor

Word wrapParagraphs and paragraph stylesFormatting

FontsAlignmentIndentsSpacingTabsShort-cut key

Header / Footer sectionsBody sectionTables

Table stylesNormal.dotm

John North 7 CIT120


1) Chapter 4 – Input and Outputa) Two most common input devicesb) Keyboards

i) Qwerty vs Dvorakii) Ergonomic keyboardiii) Mobile device keyboards

c) Keyboard layouti) Alphanumeric/cursor movement/numeric pad/function key/modifier keysii) Esc/Window/Scroll/delete/backspace/insert

d) Micei) Mechanical mouse – rolling ballii) Optical mouseiii) Trackball/joystick/game pad

e) Other input devicesi) Microphoneii) Digital camera/page scanner/barcode scanner – resolution/storageiii) Graphics tablets – stylusiv) Touch screensv) RFID trackingvi) Biometric reader – unique physical characteristics of a personvii) Optical character recognitionviii) Magnetic ink

f) Common output devicesi) Monitor – pixel/RGB/dot pitch

(1) CRT(2) Flat-panel – most PC monitors are LCD, some use LED, smart phones may use AMOLED

ii) Printer – monochrome/color:KCYM; measured in dots per inch(1) Ink-jet – spray ink(2) Laser-jet - uses layer to charge drum that picks up toner and rolls it onto paper(3) Impact printers – can make multiple copies in a single pass via carbons(4) Thermal printers – more stable but more expensive

iii) Projectors – LCD vs DLP which use nanotechology MEMs (mirrors)iv) Plotters – large format documents such as architectural drawings, mechanical drawings,

posters

John North 8 CIT120


2) Chapter 5 – System Software – helps manage hardware and software on systema) OS

i) Devices that need OSs – allii) Functionality of OS

(1) User interface(a) Command line(b) GUI

(i) Desktop(ii) Ribbon

(2) File management(3) Services(4) Kernel(5) Device drivers – tailored programs to communicate and interact with devices(6) Boot(7) Virtual memory – where/speed

iii) Common products(1) Windows

(a) DOS/Windows 1.0, 2.0, 3.0,3.1Single user, single task

(b) Windows 95/98/98 SE/ME – called the Windows 9x seriesSingle user, multiple tasks

(c) Windows XP/Vista/7/8 – 8 is still beta and not in production(d) Windows NT/Windows 2000/Windows 2003 Server/Windows 2008 R2 Server

Servers are multi-user, multiple processors (multiprocessing), multiple tasks,parallel processing used in HPC (supercomputers)

(e) Mobile/Embedded/Auto/CompactiOS, Android, Symbian, Palm

(2) Mac(a) OS X – Tiger/Leopard/Snow Leopard/Lion/Mountain Lion

(3) Linux(a) LAMP – open source software to build a web server

(i) Linux(ii) Apache Web server – most used web page server(iii) MySQL – full featured open source relational DB(iv) PHP

(b) Most common distributions - Red Hat/Fedora/SUSE/Ubuntu/Debian(4) UNIX – late 1960s by Bell Labs(5) IBM mainframe – System 390 z/OS(6) Netware – first file servers

b) Utilitiesi) File management

(1) Scan/defragmentation/compression/encryption

John North 9 CIT120


ii) Security – (1) Anti-virus/spam/spyware/intrusion(2) Firewall

John North 10 CIT120


3) Ch 6 - Application Software – what is useful for user/specific tasksa) Acquiring software

i) Software license(1) Commercial – shrinkwrap/site licenses(2) Shareware – try before you buy; honor system(3) Freeware – use “as is”(4) Public Domain – abandoned; modified, distributed(5) Open Source – source + executable

ii) DVD/Online/Bloatware



b) Local vs remote software and datai) Cloud computingii) SaaS, PaaS, IaaSiii) ASPs are the main purveyors of SaaS

c) Software suitesi) Bundled componentsii) Common interface/interactioniii) Lower priceiv) MS Office, graphic packages, ERPs

d) Productivityi) Word processing – character/paragraph/page/document

(1) Enter key paragraph(2) Tables(3) Point sizes – 72 points in an inch

ii) Spreadsheets – column/row/cell/worksheet/chart sheet/workbook(1) Absolute vs relative addressing - $ used to indicate absolute(2) Fill down/across(3) Ranges – C14:F14, B5:B10, A5:E10

iii) Databases – field(attribute)/row(record)/table/database(1) Forms and reports



(2) Queries – questions posed to the DB(3) Most common today - relational

iv) Presentation software – frame/slide/slideshow(1) Slide transitions(2) Custom animations

e) Communicationi) IM – synchronousii) Email – asynchronousiii) Text messagingiv) Twitter – Internet text messaging

f) Searchingg) Social networking softwareh) Graphics packages

i) Paint programs – bmp type filesii) Draw programs – vector graphicsiii) Photo-manipulation programsiv) CAD



4) Ch 7 - Networkinga) Nodesb) FCC controls allocation of the electromagnetic spectrum – radio, electricity, light, and

microwavesc) Packet vs circuit switching/transmission

Internet uses packet switchingd) Types – computer/internet/telephone/TV & Radio/Monitoring/GPS/sensors for monitoring

i) Dual-mode phones(1) 3G or 4G/WiFi(2) CDMA / GSM / LTE / (3) Cellular / Satellite

e) Applications – Videoconferencing/Collaborative/Telecommuting/Telemedicine/Multimediaf) Topologies (physical arrangement of nodes) – Star/Ring/Bus/Meshg) Architecture – Client/Server & P2Ph) Network Size and Coverage

i) PAN – blue tooth networksii) TAN – home networksiii) LAN – small geographical area; used by schools, companiesiv) CAN - campusv) MAN – metropolitan; vendor leases bandwidthvi) WAN – wide area

i) Wired connectionsi) Twisted pair – phone linesii) Coax – cable TViii) Fiber optic – Uses one or more lasers to pulse light down fiber, not affected by

electromagnetic interferencej) Wireless

i) Cellular radioii) BlueToothiii) WiFiiv) WiMaxv) Microwave – towers(stations)/satellitevi) Infrared

k) Devicesi) Hubii) Switchiii) Routeriv) Gatewayv) Bridgevi) Multiplexor/Concentratorvii) Repeaters/Range Extendersviii) WAP – wireless access point; think Starbucks



l) Common usagei) Internetii) Intranetiii) Extranet

(1) VPN(2) Telecommuters/Salespeople/Executives/Suppliers/Customers

m) Serial vs parallel transmissionn) Simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplexo) Synchronous vs asynchronous messagesp) Satellites

LEO, MEO, geosynchronous



Chapter 8 – The Internet and the World Wide Web

ARPANET, NSFNET, Internet 2o ICANN – domain name assignmentso Internet2 – consortium developing advanced networking technologies

Access providers, ISPs, internet backbone providers, content providers ASP providers, SAAS, IAAS, PAAS Modem (POTS) vs broadband

o Voice-grade lineso Cable, DSL, WiMax, Satellite, 3G/4G data plans

Cable most widely usedo Fiber to the Premise (FTTP), Broadband over Fiber (BoF)

Hotspots Portals Searching

o Key-word searches Web-crawlers / search engines

o Directorieso Phrases, Booleans, Advanced searching

Types of Serviceso Synchronous

IM Skype Teleconferencing, videoconferencing, webconferencing VOIP – voice over data lines

o Asynchronous Email Text messaging

o Telecommuting Distance learning

o Web-based trainingo Online classes, online testingo Podcasto Webinarso Wikis, blogs, e-portfolios

Push technologieso RSS

Censorship Privacy

o Presence technologyo Tracking



o Cookies



Chapter 9 – Network and Internet Security

Hacking, white-hat vs black-hat Cybercrime

o Scams, dot conso Identity thefto Data losso Cyberbullyingo Cyberstalkingo Anonimityo Computer sabotage

Malwareo Virus, Trojan horse, computer wormo Computer sabotageo Bots and botnets

Internet security packageso Anti-virus, anti-spam, anti-spyware, firewall, intrusion detection

Spoofing, phishing, spear phishing, pharming Cyberbullying / cyberstalking Denial of service attacks WiFi for business or home

o Default securityo WEP, WPA, WPA2o MAC addresseso SSID

War-driving vs WiFi Piggybacking Cookie

o First-party vs third-party Private-key vs Public-key encryption

o VPN Authorization vs authentication

o Possessed knowledgeo Possessed object

Biometric accesso Two-factor authentication

USA Patriot Act of 2001o Obtain real identity of Internet usero Intercept Internet communicationso Impact on data records for public schools



Chapter 10 – Multimedia and the Web

Different learning styles – visual, auditory, kinesthetic Large web docs should be available as .doc or .pdf Fonts – serif (headlines) vs san serif (large amounts of text) Image formats

o BMP GIF – 256 colors, line art, smallest size, animation, logos, banners JPEG/JPG – most common for photos, lossy, quality vs compression specified,

true-color PNG – lossless compression, true-color TIFF – favored by pro photographers, lossless Paint programs Thumbnails

o Vector-based CAD Clipart Resizable Drawing programs Scalable vector graphics

o Photomanipulation Photoshop Multi-layered

Animationo Java appletso Animated GIFso Javascripto Flash / Silverlight

Videoo Formats – MS: avi, wmv; Apple – mov (QuickTime); Movie Pictures Group: mp2, mp4

Internet based languages – most are based on some markup languageo HTML, XHTML, DHTML, WML

Specifies formatting webpage to browsero AJAXo Web authoring software

Adobe Dreamweaver MS Expression Web

o Plug-ins Flash Adobe reader Shockwave



Link to plugin source Website development

o Storyboards, flowcharts, page layoutso Navigational elementso Site maps

Streaming data – buffered before actually playing



Chapter 11 – E-commerce

What is E-commerce Online stores (dot-coms), brick & mortar, and click and mortar Advantages vs disadvantages

o Comparison shopping web sites – shopping bots E-commerce models

o B2C – eTailers such as Walmart, Amazon, NewEgg, BestBuyo B2B

Expected to surpass B2C marketo C2C (P2P)o B2Go Brokerage sites

Intermediary hub model Horizontal vs Vertical hubs

Bring buyers and sellers together Dynamic pricing sites – Priceline.com

Software for web site developmento eCRM – order status, tracking links, downloads, technical supporto Storefront softwareo Shopping cart software

Shopping cart abandonmento Payment collection

Online payment services: PayPal (owned by E-bay), Google Checkout Digital wallets Gift cards, coupons One time password

o Marketing Sponsored links Banner ads Rich media ads Behavioral targeting

o Search site optimization (SSO) Security

o Secure transactionso Secure documents / fileso Authentication



Access

DB vs DBMS Structure – field, record, table, database Critical Objects

o Table Fields and data types

Text vs memo Number – byte, integer, long integer, single, double, currency Boolean (yes/no) OLE objects Attachments, hyperlinks

Indexes Primary key – key symbol

o Composite or concatenated Secondary keys Foreign keys

Properties Validation rules and messages Default values Required fields Format / masks

o Relationships 1-1, 1-M, M-M Intersection table Referential integrity

Cascade update/deleteo Forms – one record at a time

Single record at a time Master / Child forms Hybrid forms

o Queries – answering a question about the data Joins Aggregate (Totals) Wildcards - * and ? Criteria Parameterized queries

o Reports Formalized tables and queries Detail / Summary Calculated fields Group breaks



Chapters 12 and 13 – Information System and Application DevelopmentInformation systems consist of hardware, software, data, people, and procedures

MS .NET Framework and Sun/Oracle Java both provide virtual machines and thus are portable

Java applets run inside webpages and often provide animation on these web pages

Object-oriented development encapsulates both state (data or attributes) and behavior (methods or functions or processes) which manipulates the state

Expert Systems are one aspect of AI and consist of 3 major components: knowledge base (rules and data), inference engine, and a user interface (to ensure knowledge transfer)

AI uses neural networks as a mechanism similar to the human brain

System Types – Office –

o Document Management Systemo Content Management Systemo Communication System

Transaction Processing Systemo Non-management users typicallyo Deals with action right nowo Provided biggest bang for the development bucko Payroll, inventory control examples

Management Information Systemso Short range – hour, day, week, montho Intended for low to middle management for controlling purposeso Often uses planned reports, queries, forms

Decision Support Systemso Intended for middle to upper level managemento Planning purposeso Uses statistical packageso Often done on data warehouse corporate data rather than transaction processing

systems Executive Information Systems

o Adds external data sources to DSS above

System Development Life Cycle – provides checkpoints for the current phase and documentation for the next phase

Preliminary investigation – feasibility System Analysis – determining the what System Design – determining the how System Acquisition – make or buy Implementation – deliver installation package, conversion, documentation Maintenance – fix broken items and gather information for next release



Conversions are done Direct Parallel Phased Pilot

Programs written in specialized languages – programming languages

Statements must follow rules that constitute valid statements – the syntax of a programming language invalidly constructed program statements are considered syntax errors and logic errors occur when what was expected did not occur

Programs have three types of control structures Sequential flow statements Selection or decision statements – if and select case Repetition or looping statements – while, for

Program development uses an integrated development environment that provides for Editor to record program instructions Compiler to convert a specific programming language into machine code or intermediate

language (.NET and Java for their virtual machines) Linker to combine programmer’s code with code from libraries or assemblies Loader to load program for testing Test generators to develop and run tests Debuggers to help isolate programming logic errors

Interpreters convert one line of code at a time to executable machine code while a compiler converts the whole program into object code that will be executed as machine code when the program is run

Interpreters good for debugging code Compilers can optimize code

Language generations1. Machine code2. Assembly languages – intro to mnemonics for instruction codes and variable names for memory

addressesNote: Machine code and assembly languages are referred to as low-level languages

3. Third generation languages – process oriented or functional decompositionCobol, Fortran, PL/1, Pascal, Basic, CObject-oriented languages mistakenly included in this generation – Smalltalk, C++, Java, C#, Objective-C, Python

4. Fourth generation languages – generative languagesespecially DBMS software such as forms, queries, and reports to access databasesWeb based programs developed with Dreamweaver or MS Expression WebSpecialized 4th generation languages – Progress, Focus

5. Fifth generation languages – logic basedProlog, LISP, Scheme, Expert Systems, Automated Reasoning



Application Lifecycle Management (ALM) deals with an application from creation to shelving

Patches are sent out to fix bugs, security leaks, or misinterpreted procedures



Chapter 14 – DatabasesDatabases built to provide sharing of data

Evolution of structured databases – hierarchical, network, relational, object-oriented, multi-dimensional

The Web has made unstructured data more common today, primarily through its search engines

Database consists of fields collected into a record, records collected into a table, tables collected into a database

Fields in structured databases require both a field name and a data type

Database data types include text, memo, number, autonumber or autoincrement, boolean or yes/no, date/time, objects, hyperlinks, attachments, and lookup

Numbers include both integer – byte, integer, longdecimal – single, double, decimalcurrency

Tables are almost always given a primary key – a field or collection of fields that can uniquely define a record

Secondary keys are used to speed up searches and sorting of data

Database designers use normalization to remove redundancy from the data tables

Desktop to small workgroup databases include the dominant MS Access, Corel Paradox, and Lotus Approach, and Open Office Base

Enterprise databases include dominant Oracle, IBM’s DB2 and Informix, MS SQL Server, Sybase, CA’s Ingres, open source MySQL and Postgres

Queries are questions posed to the database looking for specific data that meet certain criteria

People involved in databases include Data architects Data analysts Database administrators Application Programmers Users DP Director

Database types Single user Client – server Multi-tiered



Distributed – needs replication of shared dataMoving from one version to another or changing database management software forces use to migrate the data from the old to the new database.



Chapter 15 – Protection and PrivacyBrownouts and blackouts

Surge protectors, uninterruptable power supplies (UPS), and generators

Dropping, spilling liquids, dust, static electricity

Protecting the physical computers for individuals as well as data centers

Ruggedized PCs – OLPC’s XO computer for kids in developing countries

Green computing and the energy star rating scheme

Specialized software for recovery of lost or stolen PCs

Clearing a browser’s cache when working on a public computer

Taking care of spam and spyware – Internet security packages, email filters

Vaporware – software that never made it off the drawing boards

Encryption software for files, logical disks, whole disks

Wiping data off a disk drive removes any trace of it

Information privacy – the rights of individuals or companies to control how information about them is collected and used.

Electronic profiling of a person – marketing

Identity theft

Presence technology

Digital surveillance

Employee monitoring –employers tracking employee activity on the job Proximity cards – uses smart cards or RFID enabled cards to track location as well as video surveillance

Throw-away email address for junk mail

Besides backup/recovery procedures, companies need disaster recovery planning Off-site storage of critical data Recovery facilities – within organization or specialized companies



Chapter 16 – Intellectual PropertyCopyrights – good for 70 years after person’s death

Google booksProject GutenburgDigital watermarks

Anticounterfeiting systemsHologramsTraceless – system using invisible chemical markers thatDRM software

Trademarks: Registered, trademark, servicemark – good for 10 years but can be renewed Patents – most are good for 20 years can be read by special deviceDomain name squabbles can use WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization) to resolve

Plagiarism

Fair use of copyrighted material – commentaries, news reporting, research, education

Ethics vs law

Code of conduct – written rules on what can and cannot be doneCode of ethics – usually industry or organization based rules – Engineers, lawyers, doctors

Whistle blowers

Cheating and falsifying informationCheating is rampant; MBAs lead the wayResume padding vs Job requirements padding

Computer hoaxes

Digital manipulationDoctored photosUS Gov releases new cash bills every 7 to 10 years to prevent counterfeiting

Ethical Business practicesFraudulent reporting

Pulling up sales Ethically questionable products

Age verificationVaporwareWorkplace monitoringCultural considerations



Digital divide occurs in both developed and developing countries OLPC is attempting to address the digital divide through its XO computer for children; Intel is providing the Classmate computer as an alternative to the XO

Ergonomics

Repetitive Stress Syndrome and carpal tunnel syndrome

Stress, burnout, addiction are emotional concerns with computer usage

Green computingEnergy Star ratingMore energy efficient processors, monitorsAlternative energy – solar energy, fuel cells

Getting rid of computer hardware and softwareIncreased paper usee-trash - Toxic material needs to be recovered

Assistive technologies provide accessibility to computers for users with disabilities Being driven by the Americans with Disabilities Act

LegislationUS Anticybersquatting Consumer Protection ActDigital Millennium Copyright Act – illegal to bypass DRM protection


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