carl friedrich gauss: (1777, brauschweig - 1855, göttingen)

Carl Friedrich Gauss: (1777, Brauschweig - 1855, Göttingen)

高斯數學是科學的皇后狐狸的足跡

生命綿延的數學性 : 另一種思維習慣

( 德語世界的科學事件之一 )

For lecture only; BC Yang

Johann MENDEL (der Vorname Gregor wurde ihm nach seinem Eintritt ins Kloster verliehen), geb. 1822 in Heinzendorf (im deutschen Teil des damals österreichischen Schlesiens), Abt in Brünn, gest. 1884, publizierte 1866 (?) eine zwar kleine aber inhaltsschwere Schrift mit dem Titel “VERSUCHE ÜBER PFLANZEN-HYBRIDEN.


In the Footsteps of Mendelby Margaret Hermánek Peaslee

Professor of Biology and Vice President for Academic AffairsUniversity of Pittsburgh at Titusville

http://www.mendelweb.org/MWpeaslee.html

孟德爾的花園

他想要回答什麼問題 ? 為什麼結果被埋沒近 (35) 年 ? 是什麼認知環境，讓後人了解到孟德爾

研究的重要性 ?


"gelb x gelb = grün ...wenigstens manchmal"

1865+35=1900

很完整的討論 : http://www.weloennig.de/mendel.htm

Warum seine Entdeckungen 35 (72?) Jahre ignoriert wurdenEin paar kritische Kommentare von Pionieren der Gen

etik sowie weiteren Biologen und Biologiehistorikern zur Wirkung des Darwinismus auf die biologische Forschung

Why his discoveries were ignored for 35 (72) yearsSome critical comments about the effects of Darwinis

m on Biological Research by Pioneers of Genetics as well as further Biologists and Historians of Biology (German with English Summary)


A link between the study of natural disciplines, such as botany and zoology, and physics had already been expressed by Andreas Baumgartner (1793-1865), professor of Physics at the University of Vienna until 1864, who acted as examiner for Mendel in Brno in 1850. Baumgartner had been so impressed by Mendel, that he suggested to Abbot Napp that the young monk should be sent to the University of Vienna. Professor Baumgartner emphasized the importance of studying nature, not through random speculation but through experiments theoretically underpinned by mathematical models.


Andreas Baumgartner (1793 - 1865)

In 1823 he lectured at Vienna university, published his works as well as a Magazine of physics and mathematics, and wrote a book of elementary physics.

A native of Frymburk in the Český Krumlov region.

孟德爾的老師


http://ois.ckrumlov.info/obr/region/obce/503b.jpg

孟德爾的老師 Franz Unger (1800-1870) : about

Evolution (1852, Wien), test how variation is formed (How to do this?).

Darwin published “On the origin of species: in 1859

1869, Mendel had talked about evolution, and sent a copy of paper to Darwin.

Christian Doppler (1803-1853 ): on physics.


http://www.gmi.oeaw.ac.at/institut2geschichte.htmFor lecture only; BC Yang

F. Jahn Ed. Lucas, J. Oberdieck Illustriertes Handbuch der Obstkunde (Stuttgart, Verlag von Ebner & Zeubert, 1859 sq) vol. I (Birne-1860) p. 355, Comparison of seed disposition in pears.Brno, Library of the Abbey of St Thomas

這是孟德爾讀過的書吧


http://www.mendel-museum.org/

孟德爾還知道哪些事 ?

Atomic theory by John Dalton (1766-1844).

可能知道 Statistic 嗎 ?

http://falcon.sbuniv.edu/~ggray.wh.bol/CHE1104/pcp3outl.html


Father of epidemiology: John Snow: 1813-1859

http://www.weloennig.de/mendel.htm

After two lectures in 1865, Mendel published his famous Pisum-t

reatise VERSUCHE ÜBER PFLANZEN-HYBRIDEN in 1866. His wo

rk was quoted at least 14 times before 1900, the year of its 'redis

covery'. There were references in such widely distributed works

as Focke's DIE PFLANZEN-MISCHLINGE (1881), THE ENCYCLOP

AEDIA BRITANNICA (1881) and the CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC

PAPERS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY (1879). The treatise had been

sent to the libraries of some 120 institutions including the Royal

and Linnean Society of Great Britain. Moreover Mendel had 40 a

dditional reprints at his disposal, many of which he sent to leadi

ng biologists of Europe. In fact, professor Niessl (1903 and 1906)

emphasized that Mendel's work was "well known" at his time.


是什麼東西引起孟德爾如此大的興趣，讓他願意花費八 (?) 年時間進行植物雜交實驗 ?

在費曼之前 – 二十世紀的科學簡史 ; 陳恒安譯 , 究竟 , 台北 (2002).

Ernst Peter Fischer (1995), Einstein & Co.: Eine kleine Geschichte der Wissenschaft der letzten hundert Jahre in Porträts.


或者他只是無聊找事做 ?

Mendel's green pea (Pisum sativum), is also called the garden pea or English pea.


A. List of seeds ordered by Mendel to Ernst Benary for the Abbey, 2nd November 1878, and a bill from the seed firm, Bestell Nota Herrn Ernst Benary in Erfurt..Brno, Abbey of St Thomas

B. Grafting and pruning tools in wooden box, Dittmar Keilbronn Brno, Abbey of St Thomas

A B

孟德爾用的工具吧For lecture only; BC Yanghttp://www.mendel-museum.org/eng/1online/room1.htm

Mendel‘s green pea ( 這是錯 ! 的說法 )

D R D R

Seed shape

Seed color

Flower color

Pot color

Pot shape

Stem high

Flower position


http://ridge.icu.ac.jp/gen-ed/mendel-gifs/03-mendel-characters2.JPG

應該是子葉的顏色

就是這樣做So ist es gemacht!


http://www.giddings.txed.net/biology/ch12.html

Mendelregeln 1. Uniformitätsregel ( 顯隱律 ):

– Kreuzt man zwei Individuen einer Art, die sich nur in einem Merkmal unterscheiden und in Bezug auf dasselbe homozygot sind, so sind die Individuen der Tochtergeneration (F1) im betrachteten Merkmal gleich, d.h. uniform. Alle Individuen der Tochtergeneration haben nicht nur denselben Phänotypus, sondern auch denselben Genotypus. Dies trifft sowohl beim intermediären als auch beim dominanten Erbgang zu.

2. Spaltungsregel ( 分離律 ):– Kreuzt man Individuen der F1- Generation unter sich weiter, so kommt es

zu einem Aufspalten der Merkmale. Vom Phänotypus findet das Aufspalten beim intermediären Erbgang im Verhältnis 1:2:1 statt, beim dominanten im Verhältnis 1:3. Der Genotypus tritt in beiden Erbgängen im Verhältnis 1:2:1 auf.

3. Regel von der Unabhängigkeit der Erbanlagen ( 獨立分配律 ):– Kreuzt man zwei Individuen einer Art, die sich in zwei Merkmalen untersc

heiden und in Bezug auf dieselben homozygot sind, so findet man in der F2- Generation eine Aufspaltung der Merkmale im Verhältnis 9:3:3:1 beim dominanten Erbgang. Dies beweist, dass die Gene unabhängig voneinander vererbt werden und frei kombinierbar sind.


When Mendel's paper was published, in 1866, it received little attention, and was rarely cited by botanists or biologists during the next 34 years. Mendel's work has been thought to exemplify everything from the failure of traditional modes of scientific communication (Bush [1945]) to the phenomenon of "premature scientific discovery" ( Stent [1978]). In 1900, Mendel's work was cited by three botanists, writing in different parts of Europe: Hugo de Vries, in Amsterdam; Carl Correns, in Tübingen; and Eric Von Tcshermak, in Esslingen, Austria. Although their interpretations of what Mendel had shown were arguably inaccurate, these citations caused what has come to be known as the "rediscovery" of Mendel.

For lecture only; BC Yanghttp://www.mendelweb.org/MWhartl.intro.html

Two stories A fellow Dutch scientist, Professor Beyerinck of Delft, knew

that de Vries had been hybridizing plants and wrote asking if he would be interested in an old reprint dealing with the same subject. It was Mendel’s “Versuche über Pflanzen Hybriden”, which reached de Vries in 1990, just as he was preparing to publish his own experiments.

In the autumn of 1899 the solution came to Correns in a “blind flash”, which seems to be the origin of the truly important breakthroughs in science. A short time later he found a reference to Mendel’s paper and looked it up. He published his own data and showed how it confirmed what Mendel had found.

Summary by Moore JA, 1993, in: Science as a way of Knowing, The foundations of modern biology. p286Moore 也把 Eric Von Tcshermak 的貢獻忽略了 ! For lecture only; BC Yang

http://www.mendelweb.org/MWbib.html#tschermak


Correns was a tutor at the University of Tübingen when he began to experiment with trait inheritance in plants in 1892. Correns already knew about some of Mendel's hawkweed plant experiments from Nägeli. Nägeli, however, never talked about Mendel's key pea plant results, so Correns was initially unaware of Mendel's laws of heredity.

However, by 1900, when Correns submitted his own results for publication, the paper was called: G. Mendel's Law Concerning the Behavior of the Progeny of Racial Hybrids.

Correns and de Vries were the ones who most clearly "redefined" Mendel's laws. Correns (with credit to de Vries) restated Mendel's results, giving us Mendel's law of segregation and Mendel's law of independent assortment.

Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli (1817-1891)


Eric von Tcshermak 的貢獻被忽略了 !

Nägeli 做這個也是八年



我曾經在 TübingenFor lecture only; BC Yang

Correns 待過的植物園Correns C 用的材料 Matthiola incana 紫羅蘭

由種子商購買 34 個豌豆品種，培育兩年成為純系。他發現有 22 株系的性狀穩定，然後又選定 7 種性狀作為觀察性狀在世代間傳遞情況的指標 .......

豌豆有七條染色體。據說研究進行八年，對兩萬八千株植

物進行交配實驗。這八年孟德爾在想什麼 ?


在費曼之前 – 二十世紀的科學簡史 ; 陳恒安譯 , 究竟 , 台北 (2002), p 70.

在接受且理解孟德爾發現的必要條件有哪些 ?

孟德爾以概念 ( 以 Elementet 稱呼他所追蹤的遺傳

單位 ) 和假設的理論掌握自然的規律 ( 關係 ) 。但是概念必須有實物相對應，才能展現其存在的意義。


1866, Mendel published his lecture, a work that was to establish him as “the father of genetics”.

1869 Johann Friedrich Miescher (nuclein) 1873 Anton Schneider (meiosis) 1879 Walther Flemming (chromaton, mitosis) 1888 Wilhelm von Waldeyer-Hartz, (term chromo

some) 1902 Walter Stanborough Sutton. (chromosomes c

arry the units of inheritance) 1904 Theodor Boveri (correlation between Mende

l's factors and chromosomes ) 1904 William Bateson (genetics) 1909 Wilhelm Johannasen (gene)

DNA to chromosome to DNA

1869 Johann Friedrich Miescher identifies a weakly acidic substance of unknown function in the nuclei of human white blood cells. This substance will later be called deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA.

1924 Microscope studies using stains for DNA and protein show that both substances are present in chromosomes.

1928 Franklin Griffith, a British medical officer, discovers that genetic information can be transferred from heat-killed bacteria cells to live ones. This phenomenon, called transformation, provides the first evidence that the genetic material is a heat-stable chemical.

1944 Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty, and Colin MacLeod, identify Griffith's transforming agent as DNA.

http://www.csuchico.edu/anth/CASP/Carmosino_P.html

Good & simple reference to read:

It was while working on pus cells at Tübingen in 1869 that Miescher made his fundamental discovery. It was thought that such cells were made largely of protein, but Miescher noted the presence of something that "cannot belong among any of the protein substances known hitherto."

He showed that the new substance was derived from the nucleus of the cell alone and consequently named it 'nuclein'.

Miescher was soon able to show that nuclein could be obtained from many other cells and was unusual in containing phosphorus in addition to the usual ingredients of organic molecules - carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen. It was not until 1871 that Miescher's paper, delayed by Hoppe-Seyler (who wanted to confirm the results), was published.

http://www.laskerfoundation.org/news/gnn/timeline/1869a.html


Miescher, Johann Friedrich II1844-1895

Switzerlander

The discovery of chromosomes cannot be pinpointed to a single person. It was a consequence of the growing interest in the division processes of the fertilized egg.

Scientists on cell division : Anton Schneider, Eduard Strasburger, Otto Bütschli, Edouard van Beneden, Leopold Auerbach, Hermann Fol, Walther Flemming.


1873 and after

Walther Flemming1843 - 1905

1879: he described and named "chromaton", "mitosis" and "spireme", made the first accurate counts of chromosome numbers and figured the longitudinal splitting of chromosomes.


http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nrm/journal/v2/n1/full/nrm0101_072a_r.html

Flemming observed for the first time that the chromosomes during cell division became split along their longitudinal axis, now known to consist of chromatids, and in 1880 he formulated the sentence: "Omnis nucleus e nucleo".

All nuclei come from nuclei

(1863), omnis cellula e cellula

He was the U.S. geneticist (and also surgeon) who provided the first conclusive evidence that chromosomes carry the units of inheritance and occur in distinct pairs.

The two papers (Sutton, 1902, 1903) written as a graduate student under E. B. Wilson at Columbia University formulated the concept that chromosomes carried the units of heredity and explained Mendel's laws.

http://www.kumc.edu/research/medicine/anatomy/sutton/surgical_career.html

1877-1916

Walter Stanborough Sutton.


http://post.queensu.ca/~forsdyke/guyer.htm#Chromosomes%20in%20Heredity

While he was working as a graduate student at Columbia University, studying grasshopper cells, Sutton observed that chromosomes occurred in distinct pairs, and that during meiosis, the chromosome pairs split, and each chromosome goes to its own cell. Sutton announced this discovery in his 1902 paper On the Morphology of the Chromosome Group in Brachyotola.

I believe this is what Sutton has seen during his study at Columbia University (BC, 2004)

For lecture only; BC Yanghttp://www.kumc.edu/research/medicine/anatomy/sutton/surgical_career.html

Theodor Boveri (1862-1915)

He saw that as egg cells matured, there comes a point where chromosome numbers are reduced in half. Boveri was one of the first to see evidence of the process of meiosis. (In the late 1880's and early 1890's)

When Mendel's laws were rediscovered in 1900, Boveri recognized the correlation between Mendel's factors and the cytology work being done on chromosomes (1904?).

Some one had already improved the staining technique for chromosomes

http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/concept_8/con8bio.html


Theodor Boveri, making use of the ideas from Carl Rabl put forward the hypothesis of the constancy of the amount of chromosomes and of their continuity during the Interphase stages of the nucleus (1887-1888). In 1904 Boveri already even thought it might be possible that the pairing of chromosomes would result in an exchange of genetic substance.


來源資料待查Bamburg, Deutshland

William Bateson (1861-1926)

William Bateson describes gene linkage, showing that more than one gene may be required for a particular characteristic or trait (1904).A hereditary factor like, for example, the shape of the seed, the colour of the cotyledons or the colour of the seed shell shall be called a gene (following a suggestion of BATESON made in 1905).


http://post.queensu.ca/~forsdyke/bateson1.htm

http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e10/bateson.htm

First page of a 1905 letter written by William Bateson, first Director of the John Innes Institute, to Adam Sedgewick, Cambridge professor. Bateson coined the term "genetics" in this letter. he felt the need for a new term to describe the study of heredity and inherited variations. But the term didn’t start spreading until Wilhelm Johannsen suggested that the Mendelian factors of inheritance be called genes.


http://www.dnaftb.org/dnaftb/concept_5/con5gallery.html

Wilhelm Johannasen

Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen coined the word gene (1909) to describe the Mendelian units of heredity.

He also made the distinction between the outward appearance of an individual (phenotype) and its genetic traits (genotype).

The proposed word traced from the Greek word genos, meaning "birth". The word spawned others, like genome.

http://www.genome.gov/Pages/Education/Kit/main.cfm?pageid=24

1857-1927


carl friedrich gauss: (1777, brauschweig - 1855, göttingen)

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