bsc (monash), gradcertbus(mkt) (moorabbin tafe ...€¦ · bsc (monash), gradcertbus(mkt)...
TRANSCRIPT
MARKETING EDUCATION: INVESTIGATING THE
SKILLS AND TASKS ESSENTIAL FOR THE
ESTABLISHMENT OF MARKETING CAREERS
JOHN BOYD-GERNY BSc (Monash), GradCertBus(Mkt) (Moorabbin TAFE), GradDipMkt (Monash),
MBus(Mkt) (Monash)
Submitted in total FULFILMENT of the requirements of the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Faculty of Business and Enterprise
Swinburne University of Technology
2015
i
ABSTRACT
The higher education sector in Australia employs over 100,000 people, contributes $170
billion per annum in wages, and is the third largest export industry within the economy.
Continued growth is fundamental to economic and social improvement, however,
increased competition from overseas institutions, international economic volatility and
perceptions of curriculum relevance have placed the industry at risk.
Over the past decade, studies have identified deficiencies in the capacity of higher
education programs to develop the skills required by graduates to establish careers in a
dynamic, global environment. These findings suggest that the ability of Higher
Education institutions in Australia to attract both domestic and international students
may be diminished. By examining the perceptions of marketing managers of the skills
required to enable career establishment, this study extends our knowledge of the skills
that are required within the contemporary marketing environment. The study then
furthers our understanding of the role of post-graduate marketing programs in
developing or refining these skills and highlights a number of areas where the
curriculum is perceived to be inadequate.
A mixed methods approach is employed, which involves four phases of research. The
first phase included a comprehensive review of literature and a content analysis of;
Australian post-graduate course curricula, marketing management job advertisements,
and marketing position descriptions. Phase two involved in-depth interviews with
marketing industry professionals, academics and marketing management recruitment
consultants. The third phase was a mail survey of marketing managers to capture their
perceptions of career establishment skills, and the role that their post-graduate studies
played in developing these skills. The fourth and final phase involved the presentation
of results of the survey to Phase two respondents in order to validate these results.
The survey found that a wide range of skills were perceived to be important for career
establishment, but the key skills were people management skills. This finding was
confirmed by identifying the tasks required by marketing managers and the frequency of
conduct of these tasks as well as the identification of the skills needed to undertake such
ii
tasks. Survey respondents, all of whom had undertaken a post-graduate marketing
program in Australia, also reported that the programs they had undertaken did not
provide the skills which they saw as fundamental to their management roles.
As well as extending knowledge, the research findings provide an opportunity for
academia and policy makers to reflect on the higher education curriculum to ensure that
the skills required in later career stages are indeed delivered to postgraduate students.
iii
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP Except where reference is made in the text of this thesis, this thesis contains no material published
elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis submitted for the award of any other
degree or diploma. No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the
main text of this thesis. This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma
in any other tertiary institution.
All research procedures reported in the thesis were approved by the relevant Ethics Committee or
Safety Committee or authorised officer.
Signed ----------------------------------------------------------------
John Boyd-Gerny
Dated ------------------------------------------------------------------
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to acknowledge and offer my sincere gratitude to all those people who
have supported and assisted me in making this thesis possible. I would like to thank
the management and staff at Swinburne University for accepting me into their PhD
program. I would like to make particular attention to the following:
Professor Valarie Clulow – who with her encouragement and belief started me on my
academic journey towards my PhD,
Joel Haire – who believed in the story and why it should be told,
Dr. Judy Rex – who introduced and coached me in the art of marketing research,
Professor Linda Brennan – who patiently prepared and taught me the art of academic
research,
Dr. Joan Grainger – who is my mentor and for whose assistance I am eternally indebted,
Mr Craig Allen – who as a true friend helped and guided me in completing this thesis,
Professor Barry O’Mahony – for his patience, guidance, and imparting his immense
knowledge, that without which I could not have imagined completing this study,
To the Marketing Managers, Marketing Management Recruitment Consultants and to
the academics who gave their time so freely, my sincere appreciation,
And finally to my immediate family to whom this thesis, I dedicate to. My daughter,
Caitlin Boyd-Gerny and my wife, Renita Boyd-Gerny whose emotional support and
strength for all of these years, I will now spend the rest of my life repaying.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... I
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP ............................................................................. III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... IV
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1
1.1: OVERVIEW ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2: THE CONTRIBUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION .......................................................... 4
1.3: THE QUALITY FRAMEWORK FOR THE HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR IN AUSTRALIA . 6
1.4: EDUCATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF MARKETING MANAGERS ......................... 8
1.5: SKILLS AND TASKS OF MARKETING MANAGERS ...................................................... 9
1.6: IMPORTANT SKILLS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS ................................................. 11
1.7: CAREER ANCHORS OF MARKETING MANAGERS .................................................... 14
1.8: PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH .................................................................................. 16
1.9: RESEARCH QUESTIONS .......................................................................................... 16
1.10: OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH DESIGN ....................................................................... 18
1.11: JUSTIFICATION ..................................................................................................... 20
1.12: CONTRIBUTION .................................................................................................... 21
1.13: OVERVIEW OF STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS .......................................................... 22
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................... 24
2.1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 24
2.2: BACKGROUND .................................................................................................. 25
2.3: CHANGING CAREER STRUCTURES, IMPLICATIONS AND DRIVERS OF SUCCESS ..... 27
2.3.1: THE TRADITIONAL AND NEW CAREER STRUCTURE ........................................ 29
2.3.2: IMPLICATIONS OF CHANGING ENVIRONMENT FOR EDUCATORS, MARKETERS
AND EMPLOYERS ...................................................................................................... 31
2.3.3: IMPLICATIONS OF CHANGING CAREER STRUCTURES FOR EMPLOYERS ........... 35
2.3.4: CAREER ANCHORS AS DRIVERS OF SUCCESS .................................................. 36
2.4: ROLE OF THE MARKETING MANAGER ................................................................... 45
2.4.1: CHANGES IMPACTING MARKETING MANAGEMENT ........................................ 46
2.4.1.1: THE WEB.................................................................................................. 46
2.4.1.2: THE DATA EXPLOSION ............................................................................. 47
2.4.1.3: CHANGING COMPANY NETWORKS ........................................................... 47
vi
2.4.1.4: NEW BRANDING CHALLENGES ................................................................. 47
2.4.2: MARKETING MANAGEMENT PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT ......................... 48
2.4.3: ROLE AND TASKS OF MARKETING MANAGERS ............................................... 50
2.4.4: CHARTERED INSTITUTE OF MARKETING FRAMEWORK: IDENTIFYING THE ROLE
OF MARKETING MANAGERS: .................................................................................... 52
2.4.5: RESEARCH INTO THE ROLE OF MARKETING MANAGERS IN AUSTRALIA ......... 56
2.4.6: MAJOR TASKS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF MARKETING MANAGERS ............... 60
2.5: SKILL REQUIREMENTS FOR ESTABLISHED MARKETING MANAGERS ............ 63
2.5.1: MARKETING SKILL REQUIREMENTS IDENTIFIED IN RECENT STUDIES ............. 65
2.5.2: MARKETING KNOWLEDGE .............................................................................. 66
2.5.3: FINANCIAL SKILLS .......................................................................................... 69
2.5.4: NEGOTIATION ................................................................................................. 71
2.5.5: LEADERSHIP .................................................................................................... 73
2.5.6: CREATIVITY .................................................................................................... 75
2.5.7: PEOPLE MANAGEMENT .................................................................................... 77
2.5.8: VERBAL AND ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS ................................................ 79
2.5.9: INTERPERSONAL SKILLS .................................................................................. 81
2.5.10: ANALYTICAL SKILLS ..................................................................................... 83
2.5.11: CRITICAL THINKING ...................................................................................... 85
2.5.12: DECISION MAKING SKILLS ............................................................................. 86
2.5.13: PROBLEM SOLVING ....................................................................................... 87
2.6: THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN PREPARATION OF STUDENTS
FOR SUCCESSFUL CAREERS ................................................................................. 90
2.7: SUMMARY ............................................................................................................. 93
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN & METHODOLOGY .................................... 97
3.1: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 97
3.2: RESEARCH DESIGN: A MIXED METHODS APPROACH ............................................ 99
3.3: THE CHOICE OF RESEARCH METHODS ................................................................. 100
3.4: OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................ 104
3.5: JUSTIFICATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................. 106
3.6: PHASE ONE: CONTENT ANALYSIS ....................................................................... 106
3.6.1: CONTENT OF ANALYSIS OF JOB ADVERTISEMENTS ....................................... 107
3.6.2: CONTENT ANALYSIS OF POST-GRADUATE MARKETING PROGRAMS ............. 108
vii
3.6.3: PHASE TWO - IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS WITH STAKEHOLDERS ........................ 109
3.6.3.1: THE SETTING .......................................................................................... 111
3.7: SUMMARY OF PROFILES OF PARTICIPANTS IN QUALITATIVE STUDY .................... 113
3.8: RESEARCH HYPOTHESES ..................................................................................... 114
3.9: PHASE THREE: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH .......................................................... 115
3.10: MAIL SURVEY ................................................................................................ 116
3.10.1: SUPPLIER OF THE MAILING LIST ................................................................. 117
3.10.2: SAMPLE SIZE ............................................................................................... 118
3.10.3: DATA COLLECTION ..................................................................................... 119
3.10.4: RESPONDENTS ............................................................................................. 120
3.10.5: SURVEY INSTRUMENT ................................................................................. 120
3.10.5.1: PILOT TESTING OF SURVEY INSTRUMENT ............................................. 122
3.10.5.2: SECTION 1: SKILLS OF A MARKETING MANAGER ................................. 122
3.10.5.3: SECTION 2: TASKS OF A MARKETING MANAGER ................................. 123
3.10.5.4: SECTION 3 CAREER ANCHORS OF A MARKETING MANAGER ................ 124
3.10.5.5: DEMOGRAPHICS ................................................................................... 127
3.11: ETHICS APPROVAL ............................................................................................ 127
3.12: CHAPTER SUMMARY.......................................................................................... 127
CHAPTER 4: THE QUALITATIVE STUDY ..................................................................... 128
4.1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 128
4.2: DATA COLLECTION AND PREPARATION FOR QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS ................ 130
4.3: STEP 1 DATA REDUCTION .................................................................................... 131
4.4: RESULTS .............................................................................................................. 132
4.4.1: THE CONTENT ANALYSIS OF ROLES IN MARKETING JOB APPLICATIONS ...... 132
4.4.2: THE CONTENT ANALYSIS OF SKILLS IN MARKETING EMPLOYMENT
APPLICATIONS ........................................................................................................ 132
4.4.3: THE CONTENT ANALYSIS OF POST-GRADUATE MARKETING PROGRAMS. .... 133
4.5: RESULTS OF EXPERT INTERVIEWS ....................................................................... 134
4.6: STEP 2 – DATA DISPLAY ...................................................................................... 135
4.6.1: THE IMPORTANT SKILLS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS................................. 135
4.6.1.1: PEOPLE MANAGEMENT SKILLS .............................................................. 135
4.6.1.2: FINANCIAL SKILLS ................................................................................. 136
4.6.1.3: MARKETING COMPREHENSION SKILLS ................................................... 137
viii
4.6.1.4: INTERPERSONAL SKILLS ......................................................................... 138
4 6.2: THE COVERAGE OF SKILLS IN POST-GRADUATE MARKETING PROGRAMS .... 140
4 6.3: THE EMPHASIS OF SKILLS IN POST-GRADUATE MARKETING PROGRAMS ...... 142
4.7: THE TASKS OF MARKETING MANAGERS ............................................................. 144
4.7.1: CIM PROFESSIONAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................ 145
4.7.1.1: RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS ..................................................................... 145
4.7.1.2: STRATEGY AND PLANNING ..................................................................... 147
4.7.1.3: BRANDS ................................................................................................. 148
4.7.1.4: IMPLEMENTATION OF MARKETING PROGRAMS ...................................... 149
4.7.1.5: MEASURING EFFECTIVENESS ................................................................. 152
4.7.1.6: MANAGING PEOPLE. ............................................................................... 154
4.8: STEP 3 – CONCLUSION AND VERIFICATION .......................................................... 155
4.8.1: CONTRIBUTION OF QUALITATIVE FINDINGS TO QUANTITATIVE STUDY ........ 156
4.9: SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... 158
CHAPTER 5: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS .......................................................... 160
5.1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 160
5.2: SURVEY ............................................................................................................... 160
5.3: SURVEY RESPONSE RATE .................................................................................... 161
5.4: RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF SURVEY INSTRUMENT ....................................... 162
5.4.1: MISSING VALUES .......................................................................................... 163
5.4.2: ASSESSMENT OF NORMALITY ....................................................................... 164
5.4.3: DATA SCREENING ......................................................................................... 165
5.5: METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS FOR PHASE THREE .............................................. 165
5.6: SURVEY PARTICIPANT PROFILE ........................................................................... 168
5.7: IMPORTANT SKILLS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS ................................................ 170
5.7.1: PEOPLE MANAGEMENT SKILLS ..................................................................... 171
5.7.2: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN IMPORTANT SKILLS ............................................. 174
5.8: COVERAGE OF IMPORTANT SKILLS IN POST-GRADUATE MARKETING PROGRAMS.
................................................................................................................................... 178
5.8.1: COMPARISONS BETWEEN IMPORTANCE AND COVERAGE OF SKILLS .............. 181
5.9: EMPHASIS PLACED ON SKILLS IN POST-GRADUATE MARKETING PROGRAMS ...... 185
5.9.1: IMPORTANT SKILLS COMPARED TO PROGRAM EMPHASIS ............................. 188
5.10: TASKS OF THE MARKETING MANAGER .............................................................. 192
ix
5.10.1: THE MOST IMPORTANT TASKS OF THE MARKETING MANAGER .................. 193
5.10.2: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TASKS OF THE CIM FRAMEWORK ...................... 195
5.10.3: FREQUENCY OF CONDUCT OF TASKS BY THE MARKETING MANAGER ........ 196
5.10.3.1: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT ................................................................... 199
5.10.4: SKILLS USED TO UNDERTAKE THE TASKS OF A MARKETING MANAGER ...... 200
5.11: THE CAREER ANCHORS OF ESTABLISHED MARKETING MANAGERS .................... 204
5.11.1: DOMINANT CAREER ANCHOR ..................................................................... 205
5.11.2: DETERMINANT OF SKILLS IMPACTED BY SCHEIN’S CAREER ANCHORS ........ 206
5.11.2.1: MODEL FIT ........................................................................................... 206
5.12: SUMMARY OF RESULTS .................................................................................... 209
CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ....................... 213
6.1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 213
6.2: IMPORTANT SKILLS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS .............................................. 214
6.2.1: KEY SKILLS .................................................................................................. 215
6.2.2: DISCIPLINE KNOWLEDGE: MARKETING AND FINANCIAL .............................. 216
6.2.3: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE 14 SKILLS UNDER INVESTIGATION ................ 218
6.3: COVERAGE AND EMPHASIS OF SKILLS IN POST-GRADUATE MARKETING PROGRAMS
................................................................................................................................... 223
6.3.1: MARKETING KNOWLEDGE ............................................................................ 225
6.3.2: FINANCIAL KNOWLEDGE .............................................................................. 227
6.3.3: SKILL GAPS IN HIGHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS ........................................... 228
6.4: TASKS AND RELATED SKILLS OF A MARKETING MANAGER ................................ 232
6.4.1: RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS ............................................................................ 235
6.4.2: STRATEGY AND PLANNING ........................................................................... 237
6.4.3: BRANDS ........................................................................................................ 239
6.4.4: IMPLEMENTATION OF MARKETING PROGRAMS ............................................. 240
6.4.5: MEASURING EFFECTIVENESS ........................................................................ 242
6.4.6: MANAGING PEOPLE ...................................................................................... 243
6.4.7: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT ............................................................................ 244
6.4.8: SKILLS USED TO COMPLETE THE TASKS OF THE CIM FRAMEWORK ............... 245
6.5: CAREER ANCHORS OF MARKETING MANAGERS .................................................... 249
6.5.1: SKILLS AND CAREER ANCHORS .................................................................... 255
6.6: CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................ 256
x
6.7: PHASE 4 – TRIANGULATION OF QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH RESULTS ............................................................................................ 259
6.8: THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTION OF RESEARCH ...................................... 261
6.8.1: NEEDED SKILLS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS ............................................. 261
6.8.2: THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN SKILL DEVELOPMENT ........................ 262
6.8.3: ACTIVITIES AND TASKS OF MARKETING MANAGERS ................................... 263
6.8.4: CAREER ANCHORS OF MARKETING MANAGERS ........................................... 264
6.9: PRACTICAL CONTRIBUTION ....................................................................... 265
6.9.1: IDENTIFIED SKILLS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS IN THE HIGHER EDUCATION
SECTOR ................................................................................................................... 265
6.9.2: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS ......................... 266
6.9.3: ACTIVITIES AND TASKS OF MARKETING MANAGERS .................................... 269
6.9.4: ROLE OF CAREER ANCHORS ......................................................................... 269
6.10: LIMITATIONS ................................................................................................ 271
6.11: DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH .................................................... 272
6.11.1: STUDY EXTENSION ..................................................................................... 272
6.11.2: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES .......................................................................... 273
6.11.3: SITUATIONAL VARIABLES ........................................................................... 273
6.11.4: SKILL DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................. 273
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 275
APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................... 1
APPENDIX 1: GLOSSARY OF TERMS ................................................................................ 1
APPENDIX 2 - SUMMARY OF CORE SUBJECTS IN POST GRADUATE MARKETING
PROGRAMS IN AUSTRALIA ............................................................................................ 1
APPENDIX 3: LIST OF SKILLS FOUND IN THE LITERATURE ............................................... 1
APPENDIX 4 - SUMMARY OF TRANSCRIPTS FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .................. 1
LIST OF INTERVIEWERS – INDUSTRY ........................................................................... 1
LIST OF INTERVIEWERS – LECTURERS ......................................................................... 4
LIST OF INTERVIEWERS – MANAGEMENT CONSULTANTS ........................................... 6
APPENDIX 4.1: INTERVIEW NO. 1 (FULL TRANSCRIPT) .................................... 8
APPENDIX 4.2: INTERVIEW NO. 2 (FULL TRANSCRIPT) .................................. 15
APPENDIX 4.3: INTERVIEW NO. 3 .................................................................. 23
APPENDIX 4.4: INTERVIEW NO. 4 .................................................................. 26
xi
APPENDIX 4.5: INTERVIEW NO. 5 .................................................................. 28
APPENDIX 4.6: INTERVIEW NO. 6 .................................................................. 31
APPENDIX 4.7: INTERVIEW NO. 7 .................................................................. 33
APPENDIX 4.8: INTERVIEW NO. 8 .................................................................. 35
APPENDIX 4.9: INTERVIEW NO. 9 .................................................................. 37
APPENDIX 4.10: INTERVIEW NO. 10 .............................................................. 39
APPENDIX 4.11: INTERVIEW NO. 11 .............................................................. 41
APPENDIX 4.12: INTERVIEW NO. 12 .............................................................. 42
APPENDIX 4.13: INTERVIEW NO. 13 .............................................................. 43
APPENDIX 4.14: INTERVIEW NO. 14 .............................................................. 45
APPENDIX 4.15: INTERVIEW NO. 15 .............................................................. 47
APPENDIX 4.16: INTERVIEW NO. 16 (FULL TRANSCRIPT) ............................... 49
APPENDIX 4.17: INTERVIEW NO. 17 .............................................................. 55
APPENDIX 4.18: INTERVIEW NO. 18 .............................................................. 57
APPENDIX 4.19: INTERVIEW NO. 19 .............................................................. 59
APPENDIX 4.20: INTERVIEW NO. 20 .............................................................. 61
APPENDIX 5: ROLES AND SKILLS FREQUENTLY FOUND IN JOB ADVERTISEMENTS FOR
MARKETING MANAGERS ................................................................................................. 1
APPENDIX 6: SKILLS FREQUENTLY FOUND IN JOB ADVERTISEMENTS FOR MARKETING
MANAGERS ..................................................................................................................... 1
APPENDIX 7: ROLES FREQUENTLY FOUND IN JOB DESCRIPTIONS FOR MARKETING
MANAGERS ..................................................................................................................... 1
APPENDIX 8: COVER SHEET OF SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE................................................ 1
APPENDIX 9: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE .......................................................................... 1
APPENDIX 10 – ETHICS APPROVAL FOR STUDY .............................................................. 1
APPENDIX 11 – CIM PROFESSIONAL STANDARD FRAMEWORK ...................................... 1
APPENDIX 12: FULL ANALYSIS OF HYPOTHESIS 5.2. ...................................................... 1
xii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Typology of Career Anchors ...................................................................................................... 40 Table 2.2 CIM Framework for a Marketing Manager ................................................................................ 53 Table 2.3 Tasks of Product Managers (Dawes and Patterson, 1987) as they relate to the CIM Professional
Standards Framework ....................................................................................................................... 59 Table 3.2.1: Profile of Marketing Managers in Industry .......................................................................... 113 Table 3.2.2: Profile of Academics ............................................................................................................ 113 Table 3.2.3: Profile of Marketing Management Recruitment Consultants ............................................... 114 Table 3.4: The Skills under Investigation ................................................................................................ 123 Table 3.5: The Skills of a Marketing Manager ......................................................................................... 123 Table 3.6: The Tasks and Skills of a Marketing Manager ........................................................................ 124 Table 3.7: Career Anchors of Marketing Managers ................................................................................. 125 Table 3.8: Profile of Survey Respondents ................................................................................................ 127 Table 5.1: Reliability of Career Anchor Scale in Main Study .................................................................. 163 Table 5.2: Description of the Survey Respondents .................................................................................. 169 Table 5.3: Important Skills required by Marketing Managers ................................................................. 170 Table 5.4: Important Skills required by marketing managers for 3-5 years, 5-10 years and Greater than 10
years ................................................................................................................................................ 173 Table 5:5: Important skills Scale Factor Analysis with Varimax Rotations ............................................. 177 Table 5.6: Coverage of Important Skills in Post-Graduate Marketing Programs ..................................... 179 Table 5.7- Comparison of Important Skill for Marketing Managers and Coverage of Skills taught within
Programs ......................................................................................................................................... 183 Table 5.8: Emphasis on Important Skills in Post Graduate Marketing Programs .................................... 186 Table 5.9: The Ranking of Important Skills and the Emphasis of Skills in Post Graduate Marketing
Program .......................................................................................................................................... 190 Table 5.10: Ranking and Correlation of Tasks of the CIM Framework ................................................... 194 Table 5.11: Importance and Frequency of Marketing Tasks with the CIM Professional Standard
Framework ...................................................................................................................................... 197 Table 5.12: The Skills required undertaking the CIM Framework .......................................................... 202 Table 5.13: Career Anchors of Marketing Managers ............................................................................... 204 Table 5.14: Dominant Career Anchor ...................................................................................................... 205 Table 5.15: Model Summary .................................................................................................................... 206 Table 5.16: Anova Values ........................................................................................................................ 207 Table 5.17: Collinearity Coefficients ....................................................................................................... 207 Table 5.18: Parameter Estimates .............................................................................................................. 208 Table 5.19: Summary of Results .............................................................................................................. 210 Table 6.1: Summary of Results: Hypotheses Testing of Important skills ................................................ 214 Table 6.2: Classification, Importance and Ranking of Skills ................................................................... 214
xiii
Table 6.3 Summary of Results: Hypotheses Testing of Perceptions of Post-Graduate Marketing Programs
........................................................................................................................................................ 223 Table 6.4: Comparison of Importance versus Coverage/ Emphasis in Post-Graduate Marketing Programs
........................................................................................................................................................ 224 Table 6.5 Summary of Results: Hypotheses Testing of Tasks and Skills of Marketing Managers .......... 232 Table 6.6: Importance of Tasks of Marketing Manager ........................................................................... 233 Table 6.7: Ranking of Most Important Skills Required to Conduct Tasks ............................................... 246 Table 6.8: Summary of Results: The Career Anchors of Marketing Managers ....................................... 249 Table 6.9: Career Anchors of Managers .................................................................................................. 251
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 5.1: Types of Descriptive Statistical Analysis 166
Figure 5.2: Scree Plot for Exploratory Analysis for Grouping of Important Skills 176
Figure 6.1: Career Anchors of Marketing Managers by Importance 250
1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1: OVERVIEW
The Higher Education sector throughout the world is facing increasing pressure to
perform in an era where resources are shrinking and there are increasing demands from
key stakeholders including students (Phillimore and Koshy, 2010). There is general
agreement within the literature that Higher Educational Institutions are entering an era
of turbulence where their role in society is unclear, the value of programs is disputed
and current modes of delivery, along with the content of some programs are being
questioned (O’Mahony and Salmon, 2014). Where universities were once seen as places
where students valued learning and were encouraged to ask questions and critically
evaluate those things we sometimes take for granted, they now operate under a
framework of neoliberalism, which refers to the generation of wealth by opening up
countries to free trade (Ayikoru, Tribe and Airey, 2008). Within the boundaries of this
thesis, neoliberalism refers to Higher Education institutions and their deregulation,
which has had a significant impact on university resources, syllabi and content.
Neoliberalism posits that Higher Education Institutions must prepare graduates with
appropriate skills, to achieve ones end goal, establish a career and add value to industry
and the economy. Thus, graduates are valued as a source of economic input and as a
future labour force as well as a central element in the development strategy of nations
and their economies (Rieckmann, 2012). The notion that Higher Education Institutions
exist in society to provide communities with education as a public good is now being
examined to the extent that the value of the curriculum is assessed in terms of the
development of the knowledge skills and attributes graduates require to succeed in the
world of work as well as students perceptions of measures of satisfaction (O’Mahony
and Salmon, 2014).
Within this increasingly competitive global environment, Australia has been successful
in recruiting international students and continues to register year-to-year increases in
international student enrolment (Burdette and Crossman, 2012). Such is the impact of
2
international students on the higher education budget; university administrators in
Australia are concerned that their system of higher education is becoming dangerously
dependent on overseas students for their future viability (Slattery, 2008).
Australian Higher Education has a strong international reputation and is known for its
effective structure and innovative policy developments. The Australian Government has
invested significant resources into the development of a national framework for the
delivery of quality education (Australian Quality Framework), and into the
establishment of bodies to manage and monitor quality in the education system.
However, Slattery (2007) noted that Australia is losing its edge as a competitor in
higher education due to the perception of Australian education as a “beer-and-beaches
holiday” as opposed to a valuable learning experience. With this in mind, any
suggestion that the curriculum does not address important learning issues could have a
significant negative impact on the Australian Higher Education industry.
A review of Australian Higher Education has affirmed that the reach, quality and
performance of the nation's higher education system will be key determinants of its
economic and social progress in the future (Australian Government, 2011). The Higher
Education sector is Australia's third largest export industry and is expected to continue
to grow at 4.2 % per annum (IBIS, 2014). From many perspectives, therefore, the
maintenance of a quality higher education system is seen as key to the maintenance of
economic and social well-being.
In 2010, the Australian Qualifications Framework Council determined that Australia
needed an outstanding, internationally competitive higher education system with
increased participation and higher attainment levels in order to be globally competitive
and to secure improve employment in the future. Australia also needs quality Higher
Education Institutions to sustain the international education industry and a specific goal
of Government has been to ensure that this goal is realised. In order to develop and
deliver a quality education, however, Australian Higher Education Institutions must
concentrate their efforts on the needs of the range of stakeholders invested in this
process. For example, in Australia, the Karpin Report (1995) recommended that tertiary
education improves business and management education to meet the needs of industry
more effectively. Suggestions included ‘an increasing emphasis on soft skills,
3
internationalization and cross-functional integration, diversity, and links to industry’
(Karpin, 1995, Report Ch. 11, p. 300). Other marketing research (Achrol and Kotler,
1999; Homburg, Workman and Jenson, 2000) suggested a requirement for major
changes in the marketing education landscape. These changes have implications for the
manner in which marketers are prepared for an effective role in a marketing
organisation and in the development of an ongoing career in marketing. This thesis
considers whether Higher Educational Institutions have fallen behind in their efforts to
develop programs that accommodate the massive changes that have occurred in the
marketing landscape over the past decade.
Most research into the skill development outcomes of higher education programs has
focussed on students at the entry or novice stage of their career. There is scant research
into the outcomes of post graduate programs and the skill needs of marketing
professional that are seen as established in marketing management roles. This is
particularly concerning as there is a long-standing understanding that a post-graduate
qualification increases the career potential and success of individuals who undertake
these qualifications.
Whilst there are many areas of education that warrant attention, given the importance of
the marketing management role to business success, the success of individual
organisations and the national economies, research into the demands placed on
marketing managers1 requires investigation. This research sought to identify the current
tasks of marketing managers and the skills they need to effectively undertake these
tasks. In addition, the research investigates marketing manager’s perceptions of the
effectiveness of their post graduate marketing qualifications in developing the skills
needed at this mature stage of a marketing professionals’ career.
The following sections of this chapter identify the broad issues impacting the
development and delivery of higher education in Australia as well as the skill needs of
marketing managers. Support for the research questions to be investigated in this thesis
is also provided
1The term “marketing manager”, will be used to cover this wide range of marketing professionals in management roles in industry.
4
1.2: THE CONTRIBUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Higher Education and the resources that support it play a critical role in the development
of what is referred to as the Knowledge Society. The knowledge society is an entity that
is founded on diversity and is valued for its capabilities to improve conditions for all
citizens (UNESCO, 2005). As a result, the protection of the quality and the relevance of
Higher Education Institutions programs as a means to reduce inequity and increase living
standards are fundamental to society. However, learning in society is not just about
learning theoretical concepts and skills, but understanding them in context. Higher
Education Institutions therefore have a major responsibility to assist in achieving these
goals because Higher Education Institutions are responsible for the facilitation of
knowledge and the provision of access to social community and economic benefits.
The importance of Higher Education Institutions within communities is significant. In
Australia, these Institutions contribute over $170 billion per year in wages to our
economy, as well employing over 100,000 staff. University graduates comprise of 25%
of the population but generate almost a third of Australia’s wages. As a consequence, its
significance to the economy is immense. At the same time, the education sector has
become the third largest export industry contributing $26.6 billion dollars to the
economy in 2011 (IBIS, 2014). This is the largest export earner after resources within the
national economy. Higher Education therefore, has major role in the ongoing social and
economic development of society. At a more local level, within the next decade,
employment in the Australian state of Victoria is predicted to grow by almost 14%.
Occupations that require formal university qualifications will form part of this growth.
To address the emerging need for qualified employees, post-graduate degrees are
predicted to increase significantly (Shah and Burke, 2007). This presents an opportunity
for Higher Education Institutions to support and capitalise on this anticipated growth.
However, increased competition from overseas Institutions, together with a volatile
economy, possibly caused by the Global Financial crisis could dramatically impact this
growth. Higher Education programs must prepare students for a dynamic industry sector
5
and for professional life by ensuring the content of programs and the units (or subjects)2
that make up the programs adequately and appropriately prepares them. In the context of
this thesis, this means ensuring that post graduate marketing programs deliver the
necessary knowledge and skills required by marketing professionals to establish and
advance their careers.
A substantial number of marketing professionals undertake post-graduate programs to
prepare for careers in marketing and to develop the appropriate skills required to
successfully progress to managerial positions. Consequently, this study examines
marketing managers’ perceptions of the adequacy of their post-graduate studies in
providing the skills required for career establishment and organisational success. In order
to obtain recent and relevant information to assess this, it is felt that asking marketing
managers who have at least three years’ experience in a marketing role about their skills
which have enabled them to obtain and sustain their current positions will best achieve
this aim.
In order to establish the appropriate curriculum content of post graduate programs, it is
important that researchers, managers and academics within Higher Educational
Institutions, keep abreast of the changing roles of marketing professionals. This will
allow a complete focus on identifying and developing the business skills necessary for
success among post-graduate marketing students. As a result, this thesis examines the
tasks, skills, and career anchors of post-graduate marketing managers in Australia.
This chapter will now provide a review of potential supporting literature followed by an
outline of the key questions examined in this thesis, the justification for the study and the
contribution of the study to knowledge. The next section will briefly explain the role of
Higher Education in the preparation of competent graduates that are capable marketing
professionals in a position to tackle the emerging challenges of a marketing role.
2 Within this thesis, a course is the term used to denote is a unit or subject of degree program. A degree program is composed of
various units which the student needs to complete successfully in order to graduate. The term program is used throughout this thesis
to denote a degree while a unit is use d to describe a subject within a degree. (O’Mahony, Whitelaw and McWilliams, 2008)
6
1.3: THE QUALITY FRAMEWORK FOR THE HIGHER
EDUCATION SECTOR IN AUSTRALIA
The strength of the Australian education system is, in part, attributed to the Australian
Qualifications Framework (AQF) which encompasses the national policy for regulated
qualifications in Australian education and training. The Australian Qualifications
Framework (AQF) is administered by the Australian Government Department of
Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. The content of programs provided
by Australian Tertiary Education Institutions, at both undergraduate and post-graduate
levels is regulated by standards incorporated in the Australian Quality Framework
(AQF).
The national framework of qualifications benefits not only education and training
providers, but employers as well by ensuring that the programs are standardised and
recognised across Australia. The framework identifies the expected learning and skill
outcomes under various levels of educational qualification. The framework, developed
in conjunction with various stakeholders, also identifies the skills and tasks that allow
graduates of educational programs to succeed in the workplace upon graduation and to
sustain employment. As such, the framework seeks to support and facilitate delivery of
educational outcomes that meet the expectations of employers and allow the students to
operate effectively in a contemporary work environment.
To supplement the development of the Australian Quality Framework, The Australian
Parliament passed the Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency Act 2011
(hereafter referred to as TEQSA) to ensure that current standards of provision are
improved and a quality education system is maintained. Thus, TESQA is charged with
monitoring the performance of all Australian Universities and other higher education
Institutions. The performance of education providers is to be assessed against a Higher
Education Standards Framework that comprises five fields: These are: Information
Standards and Research Standards, Provider Standards, Qualification Standards,
Teaching and Learning Standards. Higher Education Institutions must achieve all of
these standards to remain within Australia’s higher education classification. In this way
TEQSA seeks to encourage and promote a higher education system that is appropriate to
7
meet Australia’s social and economic needs now and in the future (Australian
Government, 2011). In order for TESQA to achieve this objective, there must be an
understanding of the skills and tasks required by graduates to become established in their
marketing careers. Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1985) refer to this as competent professionals
with three years’ experience or more, which is referred to in this thesis as “established in
their careers”. However it is by correctly identifying the skills required at the various
levels of study that TEQSA’s objectives can be achieved. In this thesis marketing
managers selected as respondents because, as well as having three or more years’
experience, they had achieved a level of career advancement that suggests an overall
competence in the marketing, and as such were more likely to have made a decision to
continue to build their career in the marketing profession.
Under the Tertiary Education and Standards Agency accreditation standards Act,
universities have the authority to self-credit their programs of study. In order to self-
accredit, however universities are required to ensure that programs comply with the
Provider Course Accreditation standards. There are six standards, one of which is
program design and the appropriateness of the program to meet the qualification
standards. This standard ensures the content of Higher Education Institutions programs is
drawn from a large and comprehensive body of knowledge. In other words, the content
of the program is relevant and up to date and meets industry demands. For this goal to be
fulfilled, Higher Education Institutions must understand the needs of the industry in
terms of the knowledge and relevant skills that are included in the curriculum as such to
achieve the graduate outcomes that are relevant to industry. This research sought to
identify the skills and knowledge that enable marketing professionals to be successful,
and to examine the extent to which the post graduate marketing programs that have been
undertaken by these professionals have contributed to this skill development.
In summary, Australian Higher Education Institutions currently operate within a strong
quality framework. Some stakeholders perceive that the quality framework places too
much emphasis on institutional quality assurance and not enough on learning outcomes
(D.E.S.T, 2002). The current employment environment places emphasis on developing
graduate attributes in Higher Education programs, a move that has been influenced, in
part, by a greater focus on the relationship between education and the employment
outcomes of graduates (Cummings, 1998). As a result, Higher Education Institutions are
8
expected to develop programs that are designed to facilitate successful career outcomes
for graduates. Such outcomes are seen as beneficial not only to the individual student,
but also to the community and the economy in which the individual participates.
The intent of this thesis is not to examine the role of educational Institutions in Australia
but rather to identify and understand the skill requirements and contribution of post-
graduate marketing education to the development of the skill sets of marketing managers.
In this respect, it concentrates on the learning standards and the emerging issues of these
standards of Higher Education Institutions by examining the skills developed within
post-graduate programs that are required for marketers to become established in their
careers after they have graduated from their tertiary marketing programs. Thus, the
emphasis on the output of Higher Education Institutions, rather than the input that makes
up the programs they deliver (Australian Government, 2011). Consequently, the
following sections of this chapter provide a discussion of the skills, tasks and factors
critical to the success of marketing managers. This is followed by a brief outline of the
thesis research questions, its justification and contribution.
1.4: EDUCATION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF MARKETING
MANAGERS
A primary objective of marketing programs in Higher Education Institutions is the
preparation of graduate and post-graduate students to be productive performers in
organisations. In Australia, Higher Education Institutions comprised of public and
private universities and registered training organisations, some of whom deliver post-
graduate marketing programs. The notion of professional competence has been the focus
of research attention across the spectrum of applied and vocational disciplines for some
time (Hunt 2007), and the marketing discipline has been no exception. Indeed, the
critical components of marketing education have been the subject of debate by academics
and marketing professionals for many years. In particular, this debate has centered on the
skills, knowledge and competencies that are needed by graduates at different stages of
professional development. However, research into the contribution of Higher Education
Institutions to the development of marketing professionals has focused, in the main, on
9
its contribution to undergraduate education (Kelley and Bridges, 2005; Gray, Ottesen,
Bell, Chapman, and Whiten, 2007).
Employers have expressed concern that Higher Education post-graduate programs and
the curriculum does not adapt to changes in the marketing landscape. One aspect in
particular, is the perceived lack of adaptation of the marketing curriculum to changing
technology (Lamont and Friedman, 1997; Baker, Kleine and Bennion, 2003; Schlee and
Harich, 2010). Indeed a number of studies such as Teer, Teer and Kruck (2007), provide
empirical evidence of the slow pace of the marketing curriculum to incorporate
technological developments in the practice of marketing which has resulted in
deficiencies in student skill sets (Lamont and Friedman, 1997; Koch, 1997; Floyd and
Gordon, 1998; Mitchell and Strauss, 2001; Smith, 2004). In all, these findings give
support to the notion that Higher Education Institutions are not adapting program
curricula to meet the demands of the marketing professional. As a result, a
comprehensive understanding of the tasks of marketers would inform universities of the
skills and competencies marketers need to be established in the contemporary marketing
environment. In the following section a brief discussion of the skills and tasks of
marketing mangers is undertaken.
1.5: SKILLS AND TASKS OF MARKETING MANAGERS
The past decade or so has been seen as a period of revolutionary change in the marketing
landscape. For example, the use of technology such as the web, access to information,
the changing company networks and brand proliferation have all had a profound impact
on business success (Achrol and Kotler, 1999). It is therefore critical that marketing
programs maintain their relevance to the changing needs of business and graduates. In
fact, Higher Education Institutions must keep abreast of these changes and assist in the
development of the skills required by aspiring marketing professionals in a dynamic,
global environment. This will also allow Higher Education Institutions to develop
competitive advantages as they seek to increase student numbers.
10
As a result, an understanding of the nature and frequency of tasks undertaken by
marketing managers is a necessary basis to develop an understanding of the skills
required of marketing professionals to operate successfully in the work place. A review
of relevant literature (Thomas, 1984; Constable and McCormick, 1987; Boatwright and
Stamps, 1988; Porter and McKibben, 1988; Middleton and Long, 1990; Handy, 1994)
has found that studies into the daily tasks of a marketing manager are scant with only two
studies identified. This is problematic given that an individual’s career success will be
influenced by how well these tasks are perceived to be undertaken and the extent to
which the task objectives are met.
The two major studies on marketing tasks include a study of marketing managers by
Dawes and Patterson (1987) and the more recent study of marketing professionals
conducted by the Chartered Institute of Marketing, UK. This study resulted in the
development of the Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM) Professional Standard
Framework which provides a comprehensive view of the tasks of marketing
professionals at various levels, including those of marketing managers. The review of the
suitability of the CIM framework for Australian conditions was conducted as a part of
this research. The CIM Standard Framework, which is fully discussed in Chapter Two
did provide a useful benchmark for the performance of post-graduate marketing
professionals in this thesis.
As noted above, the CIM framework recognises the different tasks undertaken at
various stages in an individual’s marketing career. Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1985)
provided a model identifying five stages of professional career development. The stages
range from beginner to competent professional and include: novice, advanced beginner,
competent, proficient and expert stages.
The first stage of professional development, the novice is described as having a rule or
theory orientated behaviour with little experience of the industry. Novices
understanding of marketing are essentially based on their educational studies. This stage
is normally seen as the graduate level where the position is normally sales support or
even a sales role. The role of education therefore at this level is to provide them with the
basics so they obtain an entry level position.
11
The advanced beginner has had at least 1-2 years’ work experience. This group is
perceived to have enough work place experience to allow them to differentiate
situations. Those at this level can apply their knowledge to company initiatives and
according to the Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1985) model, they are essentially marketing
assistants or account managers. The role of education in their careers is now concerned
with initiating a career as they begin to consider marketing as their profession.
Marketers who have three to five years of work experience, under the Dreyfus and
Dreyfus (1985) model may be described as competent. This means they can organise,
plan, and deal with some unpredictable situations (Daley, 1999; Walker, Tsarenko,
Wagstaff, Powell, Steel and Brace-Govan, 2009) suggested that after three years the
professional marketer should understand the tasks and skills that have allowed them to
be gainfully employed. Their research concurs with Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1985) that
this is a period in which the post-graduate marketer has become established and
competent in their careers.
The next two stages are proficient professionals, who are expected to have a holistic
approach to the company, and the expert professional, who are experiences enough to
have an innate understanding of problems when they are confronted with them and
understands how to overcome them. They now view marketing as their career and any
form of further education must therefore enhance or contribute to their chosen
profession. Their choice of program now becomes dependent on their specialised aspect
of business (Monks and Walsh, 2001). Higher levels of the model are most value to the
economy because they have experiences the industry and decide the make a career in
marketing. There is a need to explore the literature to ascertain the skills that scholars
believe are necessary for marketers to undertake the tasks required for each stage in the
Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1985) model. This is discussed in the next section.
1.6: IMPORTANT SKILLS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS
Professional competence has been the focus of research attention across the spectrum of
generalised learning and activities for some time (Daley, 1999). In this context, this
thesis was broadly focussed, rather than specific to a domain or even a level of academic
12
or professional level. Of particular interest to this thesis, is the identification of the
different skill needs of marketing professionals who are established in their careers, as
distinct from novice professionals. As noted by Schlee and Harich (2010), the skill needs
of marketing professionals are seen to vary by job level, with the expectation of
enhanced knowledge and skills as careers develop. In essence those respondents at the
marketing manager level are the most appropriate group to answer the research questions
proposed in this research. For that reason, the thesis will only concentrate on the
marketing managers.
In developing the marketing curriculum at the post-graduate level, Higher Education
programs seeks to obtain an optimum balance between generic (Buchanan, Yu,
Wheelahan, Keating and Marginson, 2010) and marketing specific skills (Walker et al,.
(2009).The skills are made more difficult by ever-changing marketing organisation
structures which redefine roles and tasks. The need for industry-specific marketing
skills will also influence these tasks.
In the case of marketing professionals it is widely recognised that discipline specific
knowledge and skills are essential. However, other skills, which are often labelled
transferable or generic skills, are also seen as important. Transferable skills are those
skills which are required in almost any job. Such skills were described as including
basic literacy and numeracy, the ability to work well with others, communication skills,
self-motivation, the ability to organise one’s own work, and a basic capability to use
information technology (DfEE, 1997). It was posed that all of these skills are vital, and
the absence of any would seriously limit one’s usefulness (Stewart and Knowles, 2000).
The question then becomes, to what extent established marketing professionals are
seeking the development of marketing knowledge as well as, generic or even more
advanced management skills in the post graduate programs they undertake with a view
to enhancing their career success?
The most significant concern of industry, educators and students alike relates to the
quality of business school education. It appears there are a sizeable proportion of
business graduates that are perceived as lacking communication (Davis, Misra and Van
Auken, 2002; Bruce and Schoenfeld, 2006), managerial skills (O’Brien and Deans,
1995) analytical thinking (DETYA, 2000), and negotiation skills (Cunningham 1999;
13
Dacko, 2006). This lack of acceptable graduate outcomes has been blamed on marketing
academics, which have been perceived to allocate a disproportionate amount of their
time to research and consulting activities at the expense of devoting time to students
(Keillor, Bush and Bush, 1995; Madhavaram and Laverie; 2010). With increasing
professional demands on academics (from research requirements and non-traditional
students), an environment marked by an explosion of information technology, and, in
many cases, decreasing resources from downsized faculties (Smart, Kelley and Conant,
1999), there is considerable pressure on Higher Education Institutions to deliver with
reduced and continually diminishing resources. Smart, Kelley and Conant (1999)
contradict a number of these acquisitions. They suggest that there is a common theme
running through business schools generally, and within the marketing faculty is that
there is a greater emphasis on teaching which allowed students to develop those
distinctive competencies (e.g., problem solving) which are in demand by prospective
employers.
In today’s workforce employees are ultimately responsible for managing their own
career progression an era where mobility is often sideways and uncertainty abounds
(Anakwe, Hall and Schor, 2000; Tempest, McKinlay and Starkey, 2004; Ballout, 2007).
Though there is a strong case for employers to fulfil all of the staff career management
as it could promote staff stability it unlikely going to happen. Therefore, there appears a
need for post graduates to be directed to mentors or career advisors that can assist them
in making the right career decisions. The career management literature suggests
individuals should be aware of their own limitations and strengths in order to fulfil their
own career ambitions. In order for this to occur, they will need to build up on their self-
awareness skill sets. These skills allow the individual to possess the knowledge and
abilities to make informed decisions about their career (Malkin, Allen, Hambly and
Scott, 1997). This would mean that the new marketer has to be more actively engaged in
their management of their career. For this reason, many see post-graduate degree
programs as a viable option for professional development and this is perceived to have
two benefits. Firstly, the completion of a post-graduate marketing qualification is often
seen as a mechanism to signal one’s career aspirations (Monks 1993; Brown, Bimrose
and Barnes, 2010). Secondly, it is assumed to provide the pre-requisite skills to advance
to high level positions within an organisation. With this in mind, this thesis seeks to
determine if Higher Education Institutions are developing the skills in demand by
14
employers and ultimately aid post-graduate students to advance their careers. In order to
answer this question, the research seeks to determine which skills are required by
marketing managers and if their post graduate marketing studies have met these skills
needs.
This study is innovative in that it focuses on identifying the skills that are required for
career advancement. In this study, the respondents are marketing managers, who have
undertaken post-graduate marketing programs as part of their professional development.
The marketers’ perceptions of important skills, and the perceived adequacy of the post-
graduate program in developing those skills, are examined. It is envisaged that the
career aspirations of a professional marketing manager will have an influence on the
skills they have or need to possess in the future. The next section of this chapter briefly
examines the influence of internal factors on the career success of the marketing
manager.
1.7: CAREER ANCHORS OF MARKETING MANAGERS
The emphasis on employees as strategically important to a firm’s success has contributed
to the interaction and convergence of a firm’s strategy and human resource management.
In effect, human capital has become one of the most important resources a businesses
can use to become competitive in the global economy (Tan and Quek, 2001). As a
consequence, the development of skills provided in post-graduate marketing programs
are seen as not just important for the individual employee, but also a requirement for
organisational success (Burgoyne, Hirsch and Williams, 2003).
In the changing work environment, companies no longer expect individual’s to develop a
hierarchical career within a single organisation. The companies that remain competitive
and retain the greatest number of employees are those that emphasise continuous training
for their staff (Tan and Quek, 2001). Not surprisingly then, post-graduate marketing
education has appeal to both organisations and individuals for the benefits that should
accrue from improved skills and job performance. Whilst an individual having acquired
high level skills places themselves in a position to achieve career success, there are other
factors that are also important determinants.
15
In looking to examine the determinants of career success, another factor, that is, the fit of
the individual’s internal career need with their occupations, was seen as having relevance
to understanding success among marketing managers. Internal careers are defined as an
individual’s perception of work and personal definition of success (Schein, 1986). The
theory developed by Schein (1986) provides that perceptions of career success are seen
as strong, the greater the congruity between an individual’s career anchor and their job.
Additionally, past studies of career anchors have found different skill sets and skill levels
associated with certain career anchors. A career anchor is viewed as cluster of self-
perceived talents that form the basis of a person’s occupational self-interests (Schein,
1975). In other words, they are the foundation one chooses in an occupation which meets
their career needs (Cromie, 1994). A review of literature has found that no known studies
have been conducted that examined the career anchors of marketing managers who have
post graduate degrees and have at least three years’ experience in Australia.
It is considered that the study of these career anchors would provide additional insights
into the career aspirations and skills of marketing managers and therefore add value to
the current study. Career anchors are seen as guiding future career directions and
decisions and can be thought of as the values and motives the individual will not give up
if forced to make a choice (Schein 1978). Career Anchors provide a useful means of
linking the individual’s career stabilisers or anchors to their career choices. It is posited
that Schein’s managerial or creativity anchors should be the dominant career anchor of
marketers who have undertaken post-graduate programs. This thesis will explore the
relationships between career anchors and the orientations of marketing managers with a
view to obtaining insights into the skill development of marketing managers.
The previous sections of this chapter have examined the importance of the higher
education sector at the broadest level, to both the Australian economy and society, and to
the individuals who are undertaking studies to improve their potential for career success.
In the following sections, the purpose, methodology and justification of the thesis is
articulated.
16
1.8: PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH
The key problem to be addressed in this research is:
“What are the skills and career anchors that enable marketing managers, who
have a post-graduate marketing qualification, to become established in their
career?”
The key focus of the research is to examine the perceptions of marketing managers, with
a post graduate marketing degree, of the important skills and knowledge that enabled
them to become successful in their career. In doing so, the study will examine the skills
that are important for career establishment. In addition, it will identify respondent’s
perceptions of the role of their post-graduate marketing qualification in developing the
needed skills.
The study examines the professional marketer’s skills in the context of current marketing
tasks and industry needs. The career anchors of the marketing professionals are also
examined, with a view to identifying some commonalities in career anchors and career
choice and links between career anchors and skills.
1.9: RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The industry standards as set by TESQA suggest that graduates of programs post-
graduates must be prepared for industry requirements in order for Higher Education
Institutions providers to retain their accreditation. This research seeks to identify the
perceptions of marketing managers of the quality of the post graduate marketing
qualifications they have undertaken. The results of the research should provide
information on the marketing manager’s perceptions of the contribution of the program
skill development outcomes as contributing to their career success. Such insights should
provide understandings that will enhance the delivery of quality outcomes for
stakeholders in the delivery of post graduate marketing programs. In particular, the
relevant higher education Institutions and TESQA should develop understandings into
the needs of established marketing professionals in the research findings.
17
However, an understanding the skills that allow post-graduate marketing managers to
become established will not uncover what tasks have to be undertaken. In order to
determine what tasks are to be completed, the Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM)
Professional Standard framework was used. The framework was developed with aid from
the British Government to ensure that marketing professionals met a specific standard. In
a sense, it is a more precise standard than TEQSA has implemented. The determination
of what tasks and how often they were completed will aid in the understanding of what is
needed for today’s marketing professional. In addition, the determination of what skills
are needed to complete these tasks will provide a further understanding of the importance
of skills to complete particular tasks. This study will be the first research, in Australia
that has utilized the CIM task classification as a basis for investigation of tasks required
of Australian marketing professionals albeit in a global context.
Marketing managers play a central role within an organisation. As such, performance can
affect many areas of an organisation. As a result, understanding of their career anchors
will aid in the retention and ultimately the performance of the organisation. It is therefore
important to understand the career anchors of marketing managers. The career anchor
theory as proposed by Schein (1978; 1990) suggested that there is one career anchor that
professionals will adopt. In this study it is posited that the identification of this career
anchor will provide an understanding of career aspirations of marketing managers.
In drawing the above identified issues together, a series of research questions have been
developed, which also provide a framework for this thesis. These questions to be
answered by this thesis are as follows and were derived from the literature review which
is presented in the next chapter:
18
What are the important skills marketing managers need to undertake the tasks
required for career establishment?
What is the relationship between skills? Do these relationships support the
identification of composite or layered skills?
What are the perceptions of marketing managers, who have undertaken
postgraduate education, of the effectiveness of these programs in covering
important skills for their career establishment?
What are the perceptions of marketing managers, who have undertaken
postgraduate education, of the effectiveness of the programs they undertook in
emphasising important skills for their career establishment?
What are the important tasks required of established marketing managers?
What tasks of the CIM Professional Standard Framework do established post-
graduate marketing managers undertake?
What is the frequency of the tasks an established post-graduate marketing
manager undertakes relative to the CIM Professional Standard Framework?
What are the important skills marketing managers use to confirm with the CIM
Professional Standard Framework?
What are the career anchors of established marketing managers who hold Post-
graduate marketing qualifications?
1.10: OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH DESIGN
In order to answer these research questions, a mixed method approach is used. The
mixed method approach offers the researcher the opportunity to answer the research
19
questions simultaneously by two different methods, qualitative and quantitative
techniques (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2010). These two methods are best thought of as
complementary (Das 1983), as they allow the researcher to obtain insights and results
from one method, and to test these ideas uinganother method. Yin (1994) refers to this
research approach as triangulation, which is essentially a combination of methodologies
to study the same occurrence.
Four phases of research were undertaken in this thesis. The first two phases are
exploratory. They include the identification of the skills seen as necessary to perform
the tasks of a marketing manager. In addition, the common skills that are seen by
universities to be relevant to the professional marketer and incorporated in the post-
graduate program curriculum are identified. This was achieved by firstly, conducting a
literature review, followed by the content analysis of advertisements for senior
marketing managers, job descriptions and a review of the content of marketing post-
graduate programs within Australia. The second phase of the qualitative research
involved a series of interviews with academics, professional marketers and marketing
management recruitment consultants in order to .further clarify the list of skills obtained
from the content analysis of the previous phase.
The third phase, which is the quantitative phase of the research, involved a study of the
perceptions of marketing managers about their roles required, tasks, skills and career
anchors. The study also solicited their perceptions of the adequacy of their post-
graduate program in cultivating the skills required for career development and success.
Following, the quantitative phase, a further reaffirmation of the results was conducted
with participants who participated in the interview stage of the qualitative research.
Each of the research phases is fully described in Chapter 3.
The study participants were marketing managers who were registered with a commercial
database, List Bank. All of the registered marketing professionals in List Bank’s
database, who had a post-graduate marketing qualification, were invited to participate in
phase three, the survey.
20
1.11: JUSTIFICATION
This study draws upon a rich area in educational studies and may be justified on several
grounds. First, the study represents an extension of existing studies into student skill
requirements to specifically study the needs of marketing managers, and the extent to
which post-graduate marketing programs are meeting those needs. This study is seen as
most important in the current competitive educational climate, as Australian Higher
Educational Institutions face significant challenges in not only meeting the demands of
various local stakeholders, but also in meeting the demands of international students
seeking quality post-graduate education.
The present situation of Australian Universities is not as assured as it once was. Now
Higher Education is confronted with a stronger Australian dollar, increased competition
particularly from the USA and the United Kingdom, changes in student visa rules and
skilled migration. At the same time, highly publicised attacks on international students
have resulted in a decline in international students coming to Australia. The decrease in
international students’ coupled with current government to propose changes to funding
could have a dramatic effect on the sustainability of universities. In order to prospering
Higher Education providers will have to develop units and programs that at least satisfy
the needs of both local and international students in attempt to attract and sustain
university enrolments. This thesis contributes to this goal by uncovering the skills and
the tasks that professional marketers who have established their careers actually possess
and are relied on in professional practice. The results will therefore assist Higher
Educational Institutions in develop programs that could potentially attract prospective
business students to Australia. Furthermore, it will aid in the choice of University
programs for prospective students.
Despite the importance of Higher Education in developing competent marketing
professionals, there is only one published study (Walker et al., 2009), that has examined
the perceptions of graduates about the skills and competencies that are essential to
progress from a novice graduate to a level of career establishment. Much of the previous
research has focussed on entry-level positions, and the development of entry-level skills
(Walker et al., 2009), while larger studies (Schlee and Harich, 2010) into the roles and
21
required skills of professionals have been undertaken using job content analysis surveys,
rather than directly approaching individual employees. It is expected that once graduates
move from entry-level positions, and undertake post-graduate marketing qualifications,
that more sophisticated or enhanced skills are required, and this study examines if this
requirement is being met in post-graduate programs.
This study is, to the author’s knowledge, one of the first to identify the career anchors of
post-graduate marketing managers in Australia. It is expected that a knowledge of the
career anchors of these individuals, which are posited to be largely managerial in nature,
would provide further insights into their career needs and also into how these individuals
will measure their success.
Finally, the examination of the marketing managers’ skill requirements in the context of
the tasks undertaken in the work-place will enable academics and industry alike to
identify the current tasks of established marketing managers. It could be expected that
these tasks would reflect changes in the marketing landscape. Those changes, for
example, could be a result of technological developments consequent to the increase in
use of the internet. Moreover, the CIM Professional Standard Framework has been used
as the basis for benchmarking the marketing professional’s role (Woodburn 1999), and
this is one of the few studies that have examined this model, or marketing roles, in an
Australian context. These findings should assist academics to design program curriculum
with a better idea of the nature of tasks required in industry.
1.12: CONTRIBUTION
Even though there is an increasing interest in education outcomes, and post-graduate
marketing education in particular, there have been few studies (Walker et al., 2009) of
the important skills marketing managers require for career establishment. The primary
purpose of this study is to advance our understanding of marketing skills research, by
examining the tasks and skills of marketing managers. This study uncovers the
perceptions of marketing managers, rather than relying on the more familiar content-
analysis approach which is seen as a common methodology in this area of research. In so
doing, the thesis no only identifies what are considered important skills for career
22
success at a middle-level career stage, together with marketers’ perceptions of the role of
their post-graduate programs in developing the required skills, but also provides a richer
tapestry of the context in which these skills are practiced.
The value of this research is therefore to aid Higher Education Institutions to determine
the skills and tasks that marketers must possess and practice competently to become
established in their careers. These skills can then be embedded in program structures thus
creating a bridge between the industry and academic demands. In a sense, the
identification of these skills can enhance and sustain the programs within marketing post
graduate schools and reinforce their ability to meet the quality framework of the
Australian Higher education system.
The thesis also provides guidance for students, recruiters and industry alike, in having an
up-to-date appreciation of the tasks of marketing managers. As such, the thesis findings
may better inform graduates embarking on a career in marketing of the tasks they will
need to undertake to achieve career success. The determination of the career anchors of
professional marketing managers should also provide insights into the career aspirations
of post-graduates that translate into the development of successful marketers.
To sum up, an understanding of the tasks required of marketing managers and the skill
required to complete these tasks as well as an appreciation of career anchors, adds to our
understanding of the individual’s career aspirations. This information provides a more
comprehensive and in-depth view of this segment of post-graduate marketing managers,
and the needs these marketers have in terms of career development. It is in the interests
of both the marketer, and the firm, that these individuals receive professional
development, so that they progress on their career path and are retained within the
industry.
1.13: OVERVIEW OF STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS
Chapter 1 contains the introduction and background to the research problem. This
chapter also includes the problem statement and outlines the justification and
contribution of the study.
23
Chapter 2 provides a literature review to ground the various core constructs and to
provide support for the basic structure of the research design. The chapter is important as
it allows the reader to develop an appreciation of the tasks undertaken by a marketing
professional, together with identification of the skills that are needed to successfully
conduct the tasks. The changing nature of professional careers is outlined, and the
implications for the marketer in terms of career development are covered. In particular,
the importance of an individual’s career orientation in influencing success is examined.
Chapter 3 outlines the research plan and methodology. This chapter also includes the
steps undertaken in data collection in all four phases of the research (the qualitative and
the quantitative phases).
Chapter 4 presents the findings and discussion of the qualitative research.
Chapter 5 presents the quantitative results which were designed to support the
implementation of Phase Three, the quantitative study survey.
Chapter 6 presents the discussion of the overall findings as well as a review of the
limitations and contributions, of this research. In addition, the theoretical and managerial
implications of this research are reviewed, and recommendations for further research are
outlined.
24
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1: INTRODUCTION
There is a consensus in the marketing literature that an organisation holding a marketing
orientation is more likely to obtain organisational success. The role of the marketing
manager in cultivating this orientation and developing and managing products that
deliver profitability to the firm is seen as pivotal. Consequently, marketing professionals
who attain a management role in marketing see this as a statement of career success.
The key focus of this thesis is to is examine the role of individual factors, principally the
skills needed to undertake the role of a marketing manager, that marketing managers
ascribe to their success. The literature thus examined in this chapter will look to not
only the needed skills but first examine the role of the marketing manager, and changes
impacting the role that have implications for skill development.
This chapter is organised into four parts. First, a very brief introduction to the chapter
by identifying the importance of the role of the marketing manage is delivered. Second,
an overview of the organisational drivers, that are providing the environment and
employment structure in which marketing professionals operate, is presented. Third, the
roles and activities of marketing managers are identified, and environmental changes
impacting on their activities are discussed. The implications of these environmental
changes on the needed skills to effectively undertake marketing management roles are
examined. Finally, the needed skills of the marketing manager are identified through an
examination of research that has been undertaken in both the Australian and
international context. In this part, the contribution of higher education institutions to the
development of these needed skills is also identified and discussed.
25
2.2: BACKGROUND
The marketing concepts view is to determine the needs and wants of its target market and
to satisfy them more successfully and proficiently than the competition. The organisation
focused on serving its customers by the continual development of products and services
will ultimately be in a position to gain a competitive advantage over their competitors.
One of the basic tasks of a company, therefore, is to market its products and services
(Lehmann and Winer, 2004). In this sense, marketing and innovation, through new
product development, could be deemed as an essential activity of any business as without
either, long term success may be compromised (Drucker 1974; Dougherty, 1992;
Leonard-Barton, 1995; Slater and Narver 1998). As such, the marketing managers
responsible for these tasks have primary responsibility for the success of the company’s
products and services, and the long-term viability of the organisation. Given the
importance of the role of marketing managers in the creation of organisational
profitability, it therefore behoves researchers to develop an appreciation of the skills
needed by marketing managers to effectively undertake these roles. This situation is
particularly warranted as there appears to be a growing resource-based view of strategy
that involves investment in human knowledge and skill development, as facilitators of
successful corporate performance (Dunphy and Griffiths, 1998). In order to develop a
fuller appreciation of the factors or drivers of the performance of marketing managers, as
well as identifying their skills, this study will also examine their career anchors and the
perceived impact of post graduate education on skill development.
As the intent of this thesis is to examine factors that influence the career development of
marketing professionals, it is important to provide some context in relation to the people
that undertake a marketing management role. Not every marketing organisation has a
position with the exact title of “Marketing Manager”. Typical positions for marketing
professionals include marketing, product, brand and communication managers,
marketing directors, market segment managers, geographic segment managers, national
account managers, database marketers and specialist roles of marketing research,
advertising, sales promotion, and on-line. For the purpose of this study, therefore, the
term “marketing manager”, will be used to cover this wide range of marketing
26
professionals in management roles in industry. Appendix 1 provides a Glossary of terms,
including a description of the generic marketing management roles identified above.
An examination of the role of the marketing manager, and the factors (largely internal)
that influence their attainment of marketing management roles in organisations, can best
be understood with reference to the changing organisational climate. In this context, it is
recognised that widespread corporate restructuring and economic uncertainty, has had a
profound impact on traditional career structures (Kanter, 1989; Schein, 1996). This
impact is broad in nature and has implications for the career development structure or
pattern for marketing professionals. The pattern of change in organisations has been said
to see the end of traditional career structures for employees, with the attendant upward
progression to management roles, in favour of a ‘new’ career structure. The “new” career
encompasses notions of individual career choices and self-management, which lead to
multidirectional-multiemployer career orientation (Baruch, 2004). In this context,
employment security is sought not in a particular organisation, but in an employee’s own
transferable skills and employability (Mihail, 2008). This change away from the
traditional career, where indicators of success were visible and easily measured by
movements up the corporate ladder, has led to scholars examining internal measures
impacting career success, rather than external measures (Schein, 1990). Hence, the
concept of career orientations or anchors is examined in this study, as a measure of
internal career success.
An individual’s skill set is seen as a significant factor in enabling the development and
implementation of a successful career strategy. The extent to which an individual has
developed the needed skill-set, the more effective will be the implementation of a career
strategy that will enhance the individual’s career success. So, the skills-set needed to
effectively undertake the roles of marketing managers are examined.
In Australia, Higher Education Institutions are the key providers of business programs at
the post-graduate level. The ability of post-graduate marketing programs to enhance or
upgrade the required skill of marketing professionals is examined. In doing so, a range of
perspectives on the desire, or ability, of Higher Education to meet the needs of marketing
professionals is discussed.
27
2.3: CHANGING CAREER STRUCTURES, IMPLICATIONS AND
DRIVERS OF SUCCESS
The focus of this section is a discussion of the impact of the changing career structures
on the individual’s need to manage his or her career. The section starts with a discussion
of changes in career structures and examines the implications for individuals not only in
terms of being responsible for developing their skills, but also in terms of managing their
career. The implications for educators in terms of meeting the changed requirements of
students undertaking post-graduate marketing programs are explored. This discussion is
followed by an examination of career anchors with a view of establishing a link between
career and drivers of success. Studies which have confirmed the motivational and
success links are examined. In investigating these issues, in line with the thesis
objectives, the career of the professional marketing manager is the one under examined
with particularly reference to changes to the traditional career structure.
Traditionally a career was considered an unfolding sequence of a person’s work
experiences over time (Arthur, Hall and Lawrence, 1989; Arthur and Rousseau, 1996;
Stewart and Knowles, 1999). A career was therefore a pattern of work preparation and
experience for people in professional fields (e.g., medicine, law). It also implied that a
career was in fact a race to the top of the field or office. In this traditional schema there
was a reasonable consensus about what the "ideal" career looked like (Reitman and
Schnee, 2008). The nature of a career is now changing, and this change is largely a
consequence of the increasingly competitive business environment.
Today, the business environment is highly turbulent resulting in changes that are neither
predictable nor regular (Hanvanich, Sivakumar and Hult, 2006). In order to survive in
such an environment, companies need to be very responsive to the changing needs of
customers. In fact, organisations have been and are still currently undergoing a
metamorphosis and no one would challenge the fact that profound changes are occurring.
Regardless, whether one thinks of it as “downsizing”, “rightsizing”, “flattening”, or
becoming a “learning organisation”, or simply as “transformation” (Schein, 1996), the
altering of organisations is having an effect on today’s marketing managers. These
changes in the occupational environment are seen to mark the demise of the traditional
28
career, and to have implications for career development in the future. The changes in the
environment and the career development could have a profound on the activities and the
skills that are required for a marketing manager to complete their roles in an
organisation.
In the traditional career schema, employees saw money and hierarchical position as the
most frequently used measures of career effectiveness (Hall, 1996). In the new career
schema, it is considered that an individual’s career progression may not be as easily
externally validated given the reduction in management positions and the tendency
towards horizontal, as distinct from vertical, movements. In this context, it would seem
reasonable to broaden the understanding of career success to incorporate measures
outside the traditional external measures of role title. Indeed, Hall (1996) suggested that
an individual’s personal evaluation of his or her own career can be another important
measure.
A number of researchers have sought to examine internal and external careers with a
view of better understanding the motivations leading to an individual’s perception of
career success. The concept of “internal career” is defined as the subjective sense of
where one is going in one’s work life (Suutari and Taka, 2004). In comparison, the
“external career”, covers the formal stages and roles that are defined by organisational
policies and societal concepts of what an individual can expect in organisational structure
(Schein, 1978, 1990, 1996). In studying careers longitudinally, Schein (1996) found that
most people form a strong self-concept, termed a career anchor, which holds the internal
career together even when dramatic changes in their external career are experienced.
In the following section, the changing nature of career structures is examined for its
influence on career patterns. This discussion is followed by the identification and
discussion of career anchors, an internal factor that influences the individual’s choice of
career paths and perception of success. The intent of this thesis is not to examine success
determinants per se, but to investigate a selection of factors that will influence the
professional marketer’s career development. As such, the thesis will consider the
individual’s career anchor as an indicator of career success. In later parts of this chapter,
the knowledge and skills that are needed by professional marketers for undertaking the
role of a marketing manager are identified and discussed. In addition, the role of Higher
29
Education in the development of competent marketing professionals at later stages of
their career (i.e., marketing managers), will also be examined.
2.3.1: THE TRADITIONAL AND NEW CAREER STRUCTURE
Traditionally, a career was considered a series of experiences which were generally
vertical progressions in a succession of related positions. In this traditional structure,
career success was seen as one’s rate of ascent up the ladder, and was often measured in
terms of one’s salary and job title (Hall, 1976).The traditional contract, was when an
employee entered a firm, worked hard, performed well, was loyal and committed, and
thus received ever greater rewards and job security. This traditional career is
acknowledged as being out dated (Handy, 1994; Bridges, 1995; Arthur and Rousseau
1996).
However, what has been regarded as a traditional career has been replaced by a structure
which places responsibility for career choice, development and success clearly in the
hands of the individual. In this situation, the driver of career success is built upon
ambitions, personal values and expectations (Wood, 1999).Two concepts, the Protean
career (Hall, 1976, 2002) and the Boundaryless career (Arthur, 1994), describe the new
career, where employees have more input into their career, and are outlined below.
A protean career is driven by the individual, not the organisation. The protean career
views the individual having clearly defined career goals, and these goals become, in
some cases, motivations or ambitions to achieve (Hall, 2002). In this schema, an
individual’s career is reinvented by the person from time to time, as the individual and
environment change (Hall, 1996).
The boundaryless career, proposed by Arthur (1994) suggests that individuals will not be
confined to one career. The word boundary is “…something to be crossed over in a
career behaviour” (Arthur and Rousseau, 1996 p.6). In other words, the boundaryless
career differs from the traditional career, principally in terms of career and employer
stability. The traditional career generally involved one single employment setting
(Briscoe and Hall, 2006). The boundaryless career encourages multi-directional and
multi-employer career decisions (DeFillippi and Arthur, 1996; Baruch, 2004).
30
In view of the decline of the traditional career structure, the popular measures of career
success now too become subject to reassessment. In fact, as careers potentially become a
more fragmented set of jobs, one’s sense of where one is going with one’s life becomes
more important (Schein, 1996) to the assessment of success. The idea of an internal
career, as viewed by Schein (1996) provides a sense of internal motivations into one’s
working life. In fact, an individual’s career anchor may be more important than the
sequence of positions a marketer has held (Wood, 1999) in defining career success, and
this aspect is examined in a later section of this chapter.
Regardless of the different perspectives given to the new career structures, researchers do
agree that there are significant consequences for the development of professional careers.
For marketing professionals, the limitations on career development and progression
within an organisational framework may not be as restricting as for other professions
given the boundary spanning nature of the marketing function. As marketing is not
confined to one department or one area of an organisation (Webster, 1992; Shipley,
1994; Song, Weiss, and Schmidt, 1997), the potential for a marketer to change careers by
moving to other functional areas or departments of a firm is highly realistic. The
professional marketing role by virtue of its connectedness to various functional areas of a
firm, as well as with external stakeholders, is a role which places them in a good position
to take up career development opportunities outside the immediate functional area.
In order to progress within a functional area, or to cross boundaries, employees need to
acquire and develop certain skill sets. Among the skills needed to operate effectively in
this environment are communication skills that enable teamwork and collaboration
between departments (Arthur and Rousseau, 1996). Employees who possess these skill
sets would be enabled to seek and obtain career change to achieve career goals. The
attainment of a marketing management role does, as could be expected, require an
individual to also possess management skills. Coincidentally, the development of
management skills was seen to be an area of needed skill development for career
establishment in a marketing professional role (Webster, 1992). A detailed discussion of
marketing skills is developed in the final part of this chapter.
31
The standards by which an individual measures his or her own success may be quite
different from those adopted by another person. Furthermore, they also differ from
society at large. In examining the factors that marketers ascribe to their career success, as
well as examining the skills that have enabled their career establishment, it is considered
appropriate to measure the marketers’ subjective measure of success as reflected in their
career anchor.
In the following section, a discussion of the implications of this changing organisational
environment on marketing management is examined from a range of perspectives.
2.3.2: IMPLICATIONS OF CHANGING ENVIRONMENT FOR EDUCATORS, MARKETERS AND EMPLOYERS
The changing environment and organisational structures have resulted in the
development of the new career orientations, the protean and the boundaryless career.
These new orientations both stress the role of the individual in career planning and
development, but differ in their key focus. The boundaryless career stresses identification
of opportunities, whilst the protean career aligns itself with individualism. In most cases,
the orientations do not extend themselves to a discussion of the tactics that enable an
established career performance.
In line with the move for employees to be more responsible for their career development,
is the recognition that employees must take responsibility for their own skill
development. This need has been encapsulated in the term ‘employability security’
(Opengart and Short, 2002). This term refers to the situation where employers expect
their employees to consider their obligations and responsibilities. This puts the onus on
the employee to continually update their skill-set. Since the environment is constantly
changing, the marketer needs to adapt to these changes. It is in this context, that the key
focus of this thesis is to determine the skills that are relevant of the development of a
successful career in marketing management.
The rapid changes influencing the marketing environment have introduced revolutionary
changes to the practice of marketing (Achrol and Kotler, 1999). These changes have
required the development of new marketing strategies and tactics that are often
technology based. As a result, they also require the development of new knowledge and
32
skills. If a goal of Higher Education is to aid marketing managers in their career, it would
seem important for the programs developed to accommodate these changes in knowledge
and skill requirements.
Marketing managers face many challenges in implementing effective brand strategies.
The issue then becomes for marketers to be adequately prepared for their roles though
formal marketing education. There is no doubt that an important goal of marketing
education to provide students with the skills and knowledge (McCorkle, Alexander,
Reardon and Kling 2003; Rinaldo, Tapp and Lavarie, 2011) that allows them to
understand the techniques to enable a career in marketing. The question then becomes
are marketers with post-graduate marketing qualifications being adequately prepared for
their roles through formal education. This is one of the research questions of this thesis.
In this period of a rapidly changing environment, marketers often find themselves
responsible for meeting ambitious short-term profit targets. These objectives are the
result of financial market pressures and senior management imperatives (Keller, 1998).
As a result, marketing managers may find themselves having the dilemma of having to
make decisions with short-term benefits and but long-term costs (e.g., cutting
promotional expenditures). These pressures may encourage marketing managers to
favour decisions that are “quick fix” solutions, with perhaps adverse long term solutions.
The marketing manager thus needs the capacity to address the new challenges in
marketing management created by a changing marketing environment as well as the
capacity to cope with differential organisational pressures.
As noted previously, companies have a variety of organisational forms for their
marketing function (Webster, 1992). The complexity of the marketing function varies by
firm. Also, the company tailors its operation to the requirements of the industry, as do the
title and status of the marketing professionals. For a marketing manager to be effective
he or she needs a sound knowledge base and key skills that facilitate effective
performance. A core base for effective delivery of the marketing management role is a
relevant, reasonably extensive knowledge base for the particular industry. The
importance of a strong knowledge base is acknowledged by Drucker (1999), who saw the
basic economic resource as not materials, labour, or capital, but knowledge.
33
The actual roles and activities of marketing managers will of course vary by organisation
and industry. Rather than examine a particular industry, this thesis seeks to develop an
appreciation of a segment of the marketing domain. In this case, it is the understanding
of marketing managers who have a post-graduate marketing qualification.
Marketing managers often continue to operate in the one or highly related industries.
Their effectiveness is often linked to having a strong knowledge base of the industry in
which they operate. This knowledge can include knowledge about the industry and its
technology, success factors, market structure and competitive situation, brand strength
and product range, channel relationships and customer behaviour. The survey of
marketing managers by Bennett (2002) suggested that the most common need for
knowledge is marketing communication, consumer behaviour, product and brand
management and strategic marketing. This finding provides some support to the CIM
Professional Standard Framework classification of activities which will be outlined later
in this chapter. In addition to having a knowledge base, which is considered to be the
groundwork on which skills are built, marketing professionals need certain skills to
undertake the various functions of marketing management.
As a consequence, for a marketing manager to advance beyond the level of novice on to
a marketing management role, the marketing professional will need a combination of
knowledge and skills (Floyd and Gordon, 1998). For example, a post-graduate marketing
graduate could have significant knowledge, but without skills they would be unlikely to
become established in their career. On the other hand, a post-graduate marketer who has
the skills without the knowledge is unlikely to understand what needs to be done in their
marketing position. Ultimately, their career would also be less likely to be established.
As both the knowledge and skills of potential marketing professionals can be developed,
and marketers often take a program of study in higher education to progress their careers,
in the following paragraphs the role of higher education in developing marketing
managers is examined.
In considering the role of Higher Education Institutions, it is generally viewed that it is
infeasible for Higher Education programs to provide students with a complete and
comprehensive list of skill outcomes that ensure career advancement and success. At this
point of time, anyway, there is no clear agreement among the various stakeholders as to
34
the most desirable skill set or even the most important skills. However, there is
agreement that the skill set should incorporate a broad range of skills, regardless of the
degree (Binks and Exley, 1992; AGR, 1995, Harvey, Moon, Geall and Bower, 1997;
Dearing, 1997; Nabi and Bagley, 1998; Yorke 2006; DfES, 2002).
In Higher Education Institutions, the marketing programs are designed to provide the
necessary knowledge and skills to enable students to successfully embark on, or develop,
their professional marketing career. In this period of environmental change, Higher
Education Institutions was seen to be struggling to produce graduates who were
competent in their marketing fields and who possessed the knowledge and skills needed
to succeed in their profession (Bowden, Hart, King, Trigwell and Watts, 2000). In fact,
Higher Education Institutions was not seen as enhancing employability of the graduates
(Davies, 2000; Ellis, 2000; Curtis and Lucas, 2001). This position must be seen of great
concern because of the almost universal claims of Higher Education Institutions,
covering both undergraduate and post-graduate programs, of student outcomes that
deliver graduates fit for employment and career success.
In research into MBA programs, Dacko (2006), for example, found that decision making
skills were not emphasised enough for the MBA program structures. The research found
that employers, seeking marketing post-graduates, believed the decision making skill sets
of their MBA candidates were deficient. Furthermore, the research suggested that the
MBA graduates themselves also saw the emphasis on decision making skills in the
program was deficient. This finding of a lack of satisfaction with decision making skills
in the MBA program was consistent with an earlier study by Eberhardt, Moser and
McGee (1997).
Contrary to the findings in the abovementioned study of MBA programs, Duke (2002)
found that novice graduates considered that decision making skills were adequately
covered by the undergraduate marketing curriculum. In this study, Duke (2002) found
that decision making skills were the third most important of nine skills covered in the
undergraduate marketing degree.
It would seem intuitive that the requirements for skill development by marketing
professionals at different stages of their career, whether novice or marketing manager,
35
would be different. This notion is evidenced by the findings of the above studies which
found differences in perceptions of important skills by students at the post-graduate and
undergraduate level. At this stage it is noted that there have been numerous studies into
the perceptions of students of their undergraduate programs in skill development, and
these studies are examined in the last part of this chapter. Whilst there have been a few
studies into the perceptions of students of the effectiveness of MBA programs in skill
development, the researcher is not aware of any studies that have investigated the
perceptions of marketing managers who have a post-graduate marketing qualification.
Consequently, given the perceived gap in the literature in terms of an understanding of
the effectiveness of post-graduate marketing programs in developing needed skills, this
thesis intends to study the perceptions of marketing managers of important skills and the
effectiveness of post-graduate marketing programs in delivering these skills.
2.3.3: IMPLICATIONS OF CHANGING CAREER STRUCTURES FOR EMPLOYERS
The employment of marketing managers was seen to be conducted in a very competitive
marketplace. The competition was no longer centred on what degree or qualification an
applicant held, but rather the skill sets of the potential employees (Harvey et al., 1997).
In other words, the applicants for marketing management positions must be able to
demonstrate the required skills to be considered for the position. There are many studies
which suggest various skills, particularly transferable skills, are desirable by employers
(Stewart and Knowles, 1999; Tomlinson, 2008; Ehiyazaryan and Barraclough, 2009).
The changes in the external environment which require marketing managers to operate in
a fast pace and turbulent environment has consequences for the skills they need to
operate effectively and achieve career success. More immediately, the changing
organisational environment is placing the onus on the marketer to align his or her skill
development to the needs of the employer.
The consequence of the new career, whilst on the one hand decreasing the need for the
organisation to be actively involved and fostering the career development of its
employees, has the unintended consequence of promoting employee mobility. If
occupational mobility is an accepted event and employees will change jobs more often
(Martin (b), 1997), then companies cannot expect to have a stable work force (Lewis,
1993; Pemberton and McBeth, 1995). This may cause a lack of experience and
36
knowledge within the organisation, as employees leave the company. The study by
Marchant (1999), found that only 8% of United Kingdom managers were promoted
within the same company. This finding would be of concern to employees seeking
promotion, and should flag the need to develop retention strategies for key employees.
One potential strategy may be for firms to develop an understanding of the motivations
of their employees with a view to identifying, and satisfying their needs. An
understanding of the career motivations of employees could provide the employer
opportunities to develop an employee retention strategy by providing the appropriate
incentives (Hsu, Jiang, Klein and Tang, 2003).
In summary, there are many changes in the external environment that are impacting on
the professional marketer, and these changes may influence the marketer’s ability to
achieve career success. For example, the move towards making employees more
responsible for their own career development places responsibility on the acquisition of
up-to-date skills with the employee. Later in this chapter, the tasks and skills that are
needed for career development of the professional marketer are discussed. As career
development relies on many factors, one such factor, the motivation of the employee is
examined in the next section.
2.3.4: CAREER ANCHORS AS DRIVERS OF SUCCESS
In developing a career, an individual’s choice may be influenced by their self-perceived
skills, talents, values, interests and other psychological dimensions. A person's beliefs
about his or her basic values, skills, talents, and interests, encourage them to choose an
occupation that was in tune with those views so as to meet their needs (Duff &
Cosgrove, 1981; Cromie, 1994). Schein’s (1975) concept of a career anchor seems to
approximate this notion. The career anchor is seen as a cluster of self-perceived talents,
motives and values that forms the nucleus of a person’s occupational self-concept.
The career anchor functions in the person’s work life as a way of organizing their
experiences. It identifies one’s area of contribution in the long run by generating criteria
for the kinds of work settings in which one wants to function. Generally, an individual
wants and values a career in which he or she does well. Career anchors in a sense aid in
identifying patterns of ambition and criteria for success by which one will measure
oneself (Schein, 1975).
37
The principal architect and researcher into career anchors has been Edgar Schein. In a
series of publications, Schein proposed a construct called “career anchors” (Schein,
1975, 1978, 1987). Schein suggested that through successive trials and challenges
experienced in their first few years out of school, young adults gain a more accurate and
more stable career self-concept. He labelled this stable career concept “career anchor”.
The metaphor of “anchor” was seen as apt, as it referred to the stabilising force in an
individual’s career. The career anchor was seen to be a constraining force on the
decisions an individual makes about which jobs to pursue and how to balance personal
and work-life.
Most research into career development has focussed on external factors and the more
visible elements of career success, such as, income and role title. This thesis is taking an
approach that seeks to identify an internal factor, being an individual’s career orientation,
or career anchor, and its link to the individual’s perspective on success. In doing so, the
study will examine the proposition by Schein (1996) that individuals have long-term and
fairly permanent preferences for their work and work environment.
Schein (1978) coined the term career anchor to describe a constellation of self-perceived
talents, motives and values which develop over time. Once developed, they shape,
constrain and stabilise career choices and directions. The career anchor may be thought
of as a central component of the self-concept that individuals are unwilling to relinquish,
even when forced to make a difficult choice. The career anchor is a significant career
influence and particularly relevant to the aims of this study. It influences career choices,
affects decisions to move from one job to another, shapes what individuals are seeking in
life, determines their views of the future, influences the selection of specific occupations
and work settings, and affects one’s reactions to work experiences (Schein, 1987). In
other words, the career anchor may be seen to have an effect on the motivations and
career choices of marketing managers, among others.
Schein (1993) noted that all people develop some kind of picture of their life work and
their role in it. He postulated that individuals’ career anchors gradually come to be their
own definition of career success (Schein, 1975, 1978). Schein (1990) saw career
anchors as important elements of an individual’s internal career. In this context, the
38
career anchor theory implies that nonmonetary or psychological factors influence
perceptions of career success (Barth, 1993). Schein (2007) noted that as individuals face
a job shift through being promoted, fired, moved geographically or functionally, they
confront their self-image and become aware their career anchors.
Schein (1978) initially identified five career anchors during his research,
Managerial Competence represented the need to be competent in the activities
associated with management such as problem analysis, emotional stability, and
interpersonal competence;
Technical Competence was associated with motivation for a challenge in a
technical field, functional area, or work content;
Security/Stability represented the desire for long-run stability in job or career,
good benefits and job security;
Entrepreneurial Creativity embodied the need to create something, or undertake
new projects; and
Autonomy encompassed an employees need to be free of constraint to pursue
professional or technical competence.
DeLong (1982a, 1982b) attempted to validate the career anchor model empirically.
Beyond the five anchors identified by Schein, Delong investigated an additional three
anchors. These were:
Identity represented by the desire for status and prestige from belonging to certain
companies and organisations;
Sense of Service represented by concern with helping others and seeing changes
that result from efforts; and
Variety embodying the desire for challenge.
Studies by DeLong (1982a, 1982b) validated Schein’s model by clearly identifying the
five initial anchors, and confirmed the additional three anchors under investigation. He
also found that the Security/Stability anchor emerged as two independent anchors. One,
Stability, represented individuals who would accept an organisational definition of their
career. The other, Security, represented individuals who were willing to move from
39
company to company in order to ensure permanence in a geographic area (DeLong,
1982a, 1982b). Schein (1993) subsequently established that the identity anchor could be
viewed as an extension of the Security/Stability anchor. Therefore, there are nine career
anchors within the Schein career anchor theory. The evidence of nine career anchors was
observed within the study by Ramakrishna and Potosky (2003) on information system
personnel.
Further studies (Igbaria, Greenhaus and Parasuaman, 1991; Igbaria and Baroudi, 1993)
identified a type of career anchor defined by the belief that it should be possible to
integrate work, family, and self-concerns into a coherent lifestyle, representing a
Lifestyle anchor. Studies by Igbaria, Greenhaus and Parasuaman (1991), Igbaria and
Baroudi (1993) and also Schein (1993) have also reported that the variety factor is
favoured by individuals who see all work situations as self-tests that are won or lost
against an absolute standard or an actual competitor. Therefore, the label Pure Challenge
was adopted as the essence of the variety anchor.
A study by Suutari and Taka (2004), into the careers of global leaders, identified an
Internationalisation anchor, which represented individuals who were primarily excited
by working in international task environments, and searching for new experiences in
unfamiliar countries and cultures.
In reflecting on the results of the career anchor self-analysis exercises, conducted for the
most part in the 1970's and 1980's, Schein (1990), noted that the studies obtained fairly
consistent results with roughly 25% of respondents anchored in general management
another 25 % in technical/functional competence, 10 % each in autonomy and security
and the rest spread across the remaining anchors. The results provided a broad
distribution of anchors in every occupation even though one might imagine that some
occupations would be highly biased toward a given anchor. Schein (1990) noted further
that even management students who might be expected to have primarily a general
management anchor were found to be spread across the whole spectrum of anchors,
with only about 25% in that category. Interestingly, it was found that even in the case of
middle managers and senior executives, rarely was the percentage having primarily a
general management anchor above 50%.
40
The career anchors identified in the Schein (1978, 1990, 1993), Delong (1982a, 1982b,
and Igbaria and Baroudi, (1993) are listed, together with a brief description in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Typology of Career Anchors
Anchor Description Managerial Employees are more generalists in their career. They appear to be interested in general
management so they can use their power, influencing others and associate their achievements with their own efforts. They tend to measure their success by the amount of responsibility and the size of their professional responsibilities (Schein, 1978). As a general manager, they tend to have strong analytical and problem solving competencies as well as emotional competencies.
Technical Employees prefer the technical career ladder in order to fully utilise their skills and to remain challenged in their specific area. They are also inclined to be in technical positions (Igbaria and Baroudi, 1991) and are inclined not to move into managerial positions beyond their technical paths (Feldman, 1988; Igbaria, Grennhaus and Parasuraman, 1991).
Organisational Stability
These employees tend to have a more predicable career path. This indicates a more of a reliable employee. They are more likely to look for an organisation that provides job security and career stability (Schein 1978, 1996). They will forgo the use of the talents to ensure stability (Barth 1993) and will do what is required by the company to maintain the job security
Autonomy Employees are more concerned about having control over their work activities and freedom from supervision (Schein 1990). They are inclined to work at own pace and time schedule and their work interests are confined to areas that fit their needs. They tend to have high levels of entrepreneurial intentions (Lee and Wong, 2004.)
Creativity and Entrepreneurial
They are similar to the above as well as being a capable manager. They are specifically interested in using their own competencies or talents and their desire to create something new. This often translates into being self –employed, so they have the opportunity to use their own skills and creativity. They tend to be persistent and have constant to drive change and overcome challenges.
Pure Challenge
Employees are primarily concerned with problem solving in order to win and defeat the competition. Their skills set are in overcoming obstacles to achieve personal goals. They tend to be very single minded and do not understand other possible aspirations.
Service and Dedication
Employees try to serve others to make the world a better place (Schein, 1978, 1990). They seek work in a particular field that meets their values, rather than their skill set and will change occupations/careers in pursuit of these opportunities.
Geographic Security
Employees believe that geographic security is important for their career advancement.
Lifestyle Employees would alter employment if it affects their social, personal and requirements of their careers. They consider success as balancing their careers with their total life (including family, career and self-development). As the employees’ emphasis on a dual career (job and family) increases, this anchor’s importance may increase in importance.
Source: Schein (1978,1990); Derr (1986); Delong (1982a)
41
The career anchor theory is well accepted by scholars, but there are some critics, and the
two key concerns are briefly examined. The primary criticism was that the career anchor
framework had been subject to limited empirical investigations; hence some
inconsistency of results had been observed (Feldman and Bolino, 1996; Arnold, 1997;
Yarnall, 1998). External influences and certain demographics, such as age (e.g., Deer,
1986), had been shown to change career anchors over time. These findings were
inconsistent with Schein’s finding. Furthermore, Schein (1990) acknowledged that whilst
the empirical evidence was inconclusive, the weight of evidence was on the side of
stability.
Second, the idea of one anchor had been challenged by Feldman and Bolino (1996). It
was of note that Schein even more strongly in his later works (1987; 1990), than his
earlier works, argued that an individual simply cannot have two or more career anchors.
Schein (1990) argued that if no one anchor emerges clearly, it was because the individual
had not had enough life experiences to develop priorities that determine how to make
choices. The findings of some recent studies suggest that there may be both primary and
secondary anchors. For example, the study by Rasdi, Ismail, Uli and Noah (2009) on
Malaysian Public sector managers, suggested there was evidence of respondents who had
a primary anchor and two or more secondary anchors. Further evidence of secondary
anchors was found in the study by Ramakrishna and Potosky (2003) on information
system personnel and Crepeau, Crook, Goslar and McMurtey (1992) proposed that IT
workers have multiple career anchors. Despite these criticisms of Schein’s career anchor
theory, the basic anchor classifications were still accepted by many scholars. In doing so,
the main attribute that drives Schein’s model, “congruence”, was accepted. Schein
argued and presented supporting evidence that when individuals achieve congruence
between their career anchor and their work environment they are more likely to achieve
positive career outcomes. Once congruence is achieved, positive career outcomes such as
job satisfaction and career stability ensue (Schein, 1975; 1990).
If the role an individual undertakes was not congruent with the individuals career anchor,
then career dissatisfaction could be the end result. Conversely, the relationship between
congruence of career anchor and career outcomes should be stronger for those
individuals whose personal career anchors were consistent with the dominant profile in
the industry (Feldman and Bolino, 1996).
42
Other critics of the career anchor theory included Feldman and Bolino (1996). The
researchers reconceptualised the nature of career anchors, in the light of what they saw as
a theoretically underspecified model and empirical tests that had been far from
conclusive. The re-specification of the career anchor framework presented a series of
propositions about the factors which moderated the relationships between career anchors
and career outcomes. The career anchor theory posited by Schein and his colleagues has
continued, however, to gain acceptance.
The knowledge of one’s career anchor enables the individual to set a career agenda. The
career anchor theory proposes that a career anchor directly aligns itself with career
choices. These links have been substantiated by Nordvik (1996); Igbaria, Kassicieh, and
Silver (1999); and Beck and Lopa (2001). However, an individual’s ability to fulfil a
career agenda requires more than motivation. A strong predictor of career development is
the skills an individual possesses.
Schein (1987) considered that will each occupation, there are a variety of people with
different occupational goals, talents and values. In this light, career anchors do not
determine the occupation or categorise a person as this would link to a personality
(Kniveton 2004). There was ample of evidence of occupations with different career
anchors. For example, Jarlstrom (2000) on Finnish business students; Tan and Quek
(2001) on Singapore educators; Suutari; Lee and Wong (2004) on research scientists;
Taka (2004) on global careers; Chang, Liu, Hwang and Siang (2007) on information
system students and Rasdi, Ismail, Uli and Noah (2009) on Malaysian Public sector
managers. To the researcher’s knowledge there are no studies that have examined the
career anchors of professional marketers.
In summary, the congruency between an individual’s career anchor and work role should
provide insights into his or her perception of career success. The career anchors have
marketing managers do not appear to have been the subject of empirical research,
accordingly this thesis intends to identify the career anchors of marketing managers with
a view to obtaining insights into the person-level factors that predispose a professional
marketer to embark on a management centred career.
43
Research Question: What are the career anchors of established marketing managers
with Post-graduate marketing qualifications?
In using marketing professionals (marketing managers), having a post-graduate
marketing qualification, as respondents to the study it was posed that that these
professionals would have had enough career and life experiences to be aware of, and to
have formed, their career anchors. According to Tan and Quek (2001), the career anchors
emerge after 3-5 years.
Schein (1990) has argued that each individual has only one true, or dominant, anchor.
This research seeks to identify the dominant anchor of the marketing manager who
holds a post-graduate marketing qualification. The determination of the career anchors
of a typical marketing manager should provide insights into their aspirations and
internal motivations and measures of success. It is posited that the extent to which an
individual has a career anchor that matches the profile of their career, the more positive
the career outcome for the individual. Such links between career anchors and
occupations have been found in the study of Norwegian workers by Nordvik (1996) and
research by Beck and La Lopa (2001) also suggested a typical career anchor with hotel
workers.
In considering the dominant career anchor of marketing managers, it was posited that
the dominant anchor would be managerial. Individuals with a managerial anchor were
interested in general management, where they can exercise large amounts of managerial
power and link organisational achievements to their own efforts (Schein, 1978).
Managerially anchored people measure their success by the amount of responsibilities
and the size of their job tasks. Schein (1978) reported that a person with a strong
managerial anchor typically wants a high-level position in the firm in order to exercise
more formal authority, power and influence. They have the analytical competencies to
identify, analyse and solve problems under conditions of incomplete information and
uncertainty. They also have strong interpersonal skills to manage relationships with
people inside and outside the organisation. In addition, they are able to make decisions
under conditions of risk and uncertainty and make tough decisions where no integrative
solution is possible (Schein, 1978). Hence, their need to have a high level position in a
firm and their abilities to manage in the ever-changing marketing landscape. It is
44
therefore conceivable that individuals with a managerial anchor would consider a
marketing management career. Such a career would place the individual at the apex of
the organisation where they could contribute to the firm’s ability to achieve its goals
through the effective development and implementation of the firm’s product strategy.
It is considered that support for the contention the dominant anchor of marketing
managers, with a post-graduate marketing qualification, was managerial was provided
by recent studies. The study by Schleef (2000), found that 93% of the business students,
who attended a business school, were career motivated. An earlier finding by
McDonough (1997), also suggested that business students were career motivated and
saw the need to have credentials to establish a career. The studies suggest that there
were career motivations that impel students to enter post-graduate study. The outcomes
of post-graduate study, which were new or enhanced skills, were the credentials needed
to further their career. This thesis in seeking to identify the career anchors of marketing
managers who hold a post-graduate marketing qualifications, may consider that these
attributes may be indicators that they may have a managerial orientation.
Whilst the discussion on career anchors so far has focussed on the implications for
employees, the identification of career anchors of marketing professionals has benefits
for the firm. Employees, who are established in their career, bring experience and
knowledge into the company, which may result in the achievement of organisational
goals. An understanding of the employees’ career anchors provides the employer with
information that facilitates the development of customised incentives, designed to retain
employees with different motivations (Hsu, Jiang, Klein, and Tang, 2003). However, if
the understanding of the anchors is not part of the career plan of the company, staff
turnover and company anxiety may result (Jiang and Klein, 2000). Therefore, an
understanding of employees career anchor becomes important for both the organisation
(to develop retention strategies) and marketing professional (for career planning). The
findings of studies by Judge, Cable, Bourdreau and Bretz (1995); Barusch, Bell and Gray
(2005), suggested there was a relationship between skills and work experience. So,
whilst one’s career anchor, or motivation, was the key determinant behind the marketers’
ability to set a career agenda, it may also have been indicative of the skills levels of the
marketer.
45
In summary, employees are now feeling the effects of turbulent change in the external
environment on the organisational structure and culture. The traditional career, once an
expectation of professionals, has been replaced by a new contract, based on continuous
learning and identity change (Hall, 1996). In adapting to this change, it is posed that
employees will now look to internal factors as providing measures of success.
Individuals with congruency between their career anchor, and their career profile, will
have more positive career outcomes, and perceptions of success. There is no known
study of the career anchors of marketing managers, and this thesis will examine the
career anchors of marketing managers as a means of will understanding their perceptions
of career success.
In the following part of this chapter, part three, a discussion of the role and activities of
marketing managers was undertaken.
2.4: ROLE OF THE MARKETING MANAGER
Since the Industrial Revolution, management rational about marketing in most western
economies, including Australia, has evolved through development stages, culminating in
managerial philosophies and practices having a marketing orientation (Webster, 1992).
Companies embracing the marketing concept implement co-ordinated marketing
management strategies. Marketing influences the strategic brand focus of the firm and is
responsible for delivering profitability to the organisation. In doing so, the marketing
management function undertakes a role of high level responsibility and is seen to
contribute directly to the profitability of the firm. The marketing managers who
undertake these functions need to have a wide range of skills that enable high-level
performance so as to achieve the stipulated corporate objectives.
In considering how best to describe the role of a marketing manager, the idea of calling a
marketing manager a "mixer of ingredients” is appealing (Culliton, 1948). This idea
reflects the marketing manager as one who is constantly engaged in fashioning creatively
a mix of marketing procedures and policies in his efforts to produce a profitable
enterprise (Borden, 1965). The marketing process as posed is clearly seen as one of
46
complexity, requiring creativity, and good decision-making, in a situation of fluidity or
uncertainty.
In the following section, a brief discussion of changes impacting marketing management
was undertaken as background to the development of a better appreciation of the
complexity of the role of the marketing manager. In addition, the discussion has
identified areas of new skill development needed to cope with the changing marketing
environment.
2.4.1: CHANGES IMPACTING MARKETING MANAGEMENT
Marketing managers face many challenges in adapting to changes driven by a dynamic
and knowledge rich environment (Lehmann and Winer, 2004). It is thought that the
hierarchical organisations of today are disaggregating into a variety of network forms
which may change the role of marketing in profound ways (Achrol and Kotler, 1999).
Marketing will be responsible increasingly for creating and managing new marketing
knowledge, education, real-time market information systems, intra-firm integration and
conflict resolution. In addition, marketing will have accountability for technology
forecasting, risk and investment analysis, transfer pricing, and the coordination of the
network’s economic and social activities (Achrol and Kotler, 1999, p. 146). Some of the
key changes are discussed briefly below. These impacts affect the activities and roles of
the current marketing management by focusing them on activities and roles which are
new to them. The key changes in the marketing environment are listed below.
2.4.1.1: THE WEB From the mid-1990’s, the World Wide Web has revolutionised the way organisations
communicate and deliver value to customers. For example, any company not having a
web site in 1996 was considered hopelessly out of date (Lehmann and Winer, 2004).
Today, the web is a new channel of distribution, a new communication medium, and a
way of building relationships with a brand. These changes make the role of the
marketing professional more complex as the fragmentation of channels and media has
expanded the number of strategies for the organisation. Whether or not the internet has
changed the way the marketing professional actually markets their products is beyond
this thesis. However, the web has introduced change which has required marketing
47
professionals to undertake new activities and develop knowledge and skills to handle
these changes.
2.4.1.2: THE DATA EXPLOSION Effective marketing today requires sophisticated data management (Achrol and Kotler,
1999), and marketing managers must be able to manage and respond to better and timely
information on most marketing metrics. For example, the use of database marketing has
become a key approach to creating better customer relationships and retention.
2.4.1.3: CHANGING COMPANY NETWORKS The marketing management function requires collaboration with other departments in an
organisation, and is crucial to its success (O’Leary, Rao and Perry, 2004). As a
consequence, the marketing literature extensively covers the interpersonal relationships
between various departments in an organization (Murphy and Gorchels, 1996). The term
network was once used to describe the informal ties within a company, now the term is
seen to represent a legitimate form of company hierarchy (Galaskiewicz, 1996). The
information in organisations having a hierarchical structure was often too slow to
respond. With the changing environments, networks have replaced the large vertical
hierarchies. The introduction of networks was seen to maximise organisational learning
and to reduce the cost of information transfer. Networks became a favoured
organisational structure since they were flexible and very adaptable (Achrol and Kotler,
1999). The influence on marketers was then to build networks to allow the transfer of
information. In a sense, the marketing manager of today was acting in some form of
general managerial sense as they facilitated the need for information exchange.
2.4.1.4: NEW BRANDING CHALLENGES Perhaps the most important challenge to brand builders was the proliferation of new
brands and products, in part spurred by the rise in line and brand extensions (Keller,
1998). The proliferation of brands was a key concern of marketing professionals, given
the focus on price placed by the on-line store.
All these changes, unquestionably, have had an impact on the day to day activities of the
marketing manager, and may involve changes in the way tasks were handled.
Furthermore, the changes required marketing managers to have the necessary marketing
knowledge and the skills required to develop and manage the brands under their control
in this changing marketing landscape. So, in looking at the marketing management
48
function, it seems desirable to gain a better understanding of the activities and tasks of
the current marketing manager, prior to investigating the skills that are needed for career
success. In the next section, measures of the performance of the marketing manager are
discussed.
2.4.2: MARKETING MANAGEMENT PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT
Marketers are under increasingly pressure to show their worth to the company. In a sense
they are becoming more accountable (Doyle, 2000). Measuring marketing performance
has been well researched (Donthu, Hersberger and Osmoonbekov, 2005; Lukas,
Whitwell and Doyle, 2005, Zahay and Griffin, 2010). These studies confirm that
effective performance is linked to business accomplishments (generally measured in
terms of profitability). In effect, the marketing manager is under increasing pressure to
show their worthiness in terms of shareholder value (Rust, Ambler, Carpenter, Kumar
and Srivastava, 2004). This situation was a departure from past practice where marketing
performance was often measured in terms of market share and sales (Lehmann and
Winer, 2004). Even though these measures were not necessarily bad, the marketing
manager’s past inability to show how they contributed to the company’s performance
often resulted in their lack of stature within the organisation.
Marketing performance management is defined as the association between the tasks of
marketing and business performance (Clarke and Ambler, 2001 p 13). The definition
clearly articulates that the marketer’s performance is measured in terms of the
achievement of financial metrics, thus requiring the marketing manager to have some
level of financial skills. In these changing times, the critical issue for the marketing
manager is to understand the activities and their output that allow them to be effectively
measure their performance.
In evaluating the marketing manager, it is necessary to have an appreciation of the
activities and tasks that are performed. These activities vary at different stages of career
development. In assessing the performance of marketing, it is common for effectiveness
to be measured in terms of outcomes such as sales, market share and profitability. In
recognising that these outcomes result, in part, from factors outside the marketers’
control, some marketers have called for performance measures that recognise the skill
49
input of the marketer. Bonoma and Crittenden (1988) considered that skills and activities
should be the basis of marketing evaluation, since they are what contribute to the
marketing performance. Marketing scholars have examined inputs (e.g., skill-sets), as a
measure of marketing performance (Brownlie, 1993; Rothe, Harvey and Jackson, 1997;
Morgan, Clark and Gooner, 2002). Generally, these studies considered that marketing
performance should include an assessment of the activities, and associated skills, needed
to perform the activities of the position. This type of assessment was seen as
complimentary to assessment based on contribution to overall corporate marketing
activity, usually measured in financial terms (e.g., meeting budget in terms of sales,
market share and profitability).
Most marketing managers often have general manager type responsibilities as well as the
day-to-day operations of their products (Grönroos, 1994). In addition, marketing
managers are charged with building and maintaining brand equity over a long period of
time (Lehmann and Winer, 2004). Marketing managers, generally, but not always, have
profit and loss responsibility and profit targets they have to meet or exceed. That is, the
performance of marketing management is gauged by the ability to meet financial goals
and deliver a product strategy that drives the long run profitability of the firm (Baker and
Hart, 2007). In addition, the general management duties they perform, though often not
measured, may significantly contribute to their overall performance.
The performance measures on the marketing manager and other senior managers have
made them very accountable of their actions. There is an intense pressure on marketers to
demonstrate their contribution to the company (Morgan, Clark and Gooner, 2002). This
pressure resulted from other members of the company who assess performance, as well
from the individual’s assessment of their own performance. It was found that marketing
managers often question whether or not they are actually undertaking the right activities
or aims of their department (Radford, 1997). In fact, studies have suggested that there
was a conflict between the activities the marketing manager should be attempting and
what they were actually undertaking (Andrews, 1996; Berek, 1998; Johnson, 1999). The
research by Johnson (1999) on product managers and Hooley, Lynch, and Shepherd
(1990) on chief marketing officers, suggested a focus on more tactical based, rather than
strategically focused, activities. This was in contrast with the research by Tyagi and
Sawhney (2010) who claimed that product managers prefer strategic activities. Andrews
50
(1996) suggested that marketing managers should spend more time on creativity. These
conflicting views of the key activities of marketing managers only add to the need to
develop a clearer understanding of the role and activities of marketing manager, and of
the associated skills and knowledge needed to effectively undertake the task. In the next
section, the role of the marketing manager is discussed.
2.4.3: ROLE AND TASKS OF MARKETING MANAGERS
Of recent studies into the roles and tasks of marketing managers, the role receiving most
attention has been that of product manager (Ebert, 2007; Tyagi, and Sawhney, 2010;
Hong, Doll, Revilla and Nahm, 2011). As noted earlier, there are many position titles in
organisations that denote marketing managers, but the marketer’s job title may not
definitively define his or her role and status, given the differences that abound between
companies. Marketing managers are often in charge of a division or strategic business
unit and are responsible for managing portfolios of products (rather than a single
product or product line). In addition, they appear to have responsibility for the long term
strategic direction of their business groups (Lehmann and Winer, 2004). The focus of
this thesis is to better understand influences on marketing manager’s ability to achieve
career development and success, whilst noting that there was little agreement on this
matter (Low and Fullerton, 1994; Berek, 1998: Johnson, 1999; and Gorchels, 2000).
It would be hard for any professional marketer to accurately perform the critical tasks
that determine their effectiveness without a full appreciation of them. Accordingly, the
greater the understanding of what is required to accomplish the tasks, the greater the
potential to effectively complete the tasks. The studies by Davis, Misra and Van Auken
(2002); Dacko (2006); Gray et al. (2007) and Walker, et al. (2009) identified various
important marketing knowledge areas that would aid the marketing manager in
completing these tasks, and these are discussed in the following sections of this chapter.
The lack of clarity of marketing activities and tasks suggests the need for a list of tasks of
marketing manager as a means to clearly the activities they need to accomplish. This
thesis study seeks to address this identified need, and the research question is identified
below.
51
Research question: What are the important tasks of established marketing
managers?
The literature on the functions of marketing within an organisation refers to various
roles. According to Drucker (1954), marketing became an identifiable concept once the
principles of management were applied. In this respect, the function of marketing should
be managerial based or at the very least, linked to it. This definition of marketing thought
initially to be to narrow and was broadened (Kotler, 1972; Webster, 1992). In any event,
the idea of customer orientation and innovation are embedded in the role of marketing
(Webster, 2009). Furthermore, the basic importance of strategic thinking is an attempt to
guide the firm in a changing environment. For the role of strategic thinking to occur, the
role of marketing is to share knowledge and skills (Doherty, 1992; Moorman and Rust,
1999) that contributes to effectiveness, of the organisation. Other scholars suggest that
the use skill of sharing knowledge that crosses domains within an organisation
(Lysonski, Singer and Wileman, 1989; Hooley, Lynch, and Shepherd, 1990; Day, 1994;
Wood and Tandon, 1994; Panigyrakis and Veloutsou, 1999) can increase communication
(Moenaert and Souder, 1996) is the important factor. These studies are concerned with
the role of marketing, but they have ignored how to of marketing. The how to of
marketing is the skills they need to engage the marketing departments, and the tasks
needed to operate a successful marketing division. If the value of marketing is to
contribute to the success of the firm (Moorman and Rust, 1999), then the marketers
performing the activities must have a clear understanding of their tasks. In addition, they
must understand how to perform the tasks using the skills and knowledge at a level that
may enable career progression and company success.
The problem then for the marketer is to develop their skills to a level that enables them to
undertake activities and tasks that enable career progression and success. Information on
the tasks of marketers are often not well understood, or clearly articulated. The tasks of
marketing managers are most often expressed in job descriptions or are sometimes
expressed as short term performance measures (Eastlack and Rao, 1986; Erickson and
Jacobson, 1992) and not expressed in terms of the action required that allows these
performances to be achieved. Consequently, the articulation of the tasks required to
effectively undertake the role of marketing manager may provide some confidence to the
marketer that they are on track and conducting the job effectively.
52
In the marketing curricula in Higher Education Institutions, the primacy of the activity of
developing a marketing plan is highlighted. But, it is usually in the product management
subjects that the role of the marketing professional is more fully developed. The
researcher in considering an appropriate mechanism to identify the activities and tasks of
marketing managers has decided to adopt an extensively researched and tested
framework, the Chartered Institute of Marketing, UK (CIM) Professional standards
Framework (CIM 2010).
In summary, the above discussion points to a lack of understanding or clarity in defining
the role and activities of marketing managers. In the following section, the Chartered
Institute of Marketing (CIM) Professional Standard Framework, which represents a
structure covering the roles of marketing professionals at various levels in an
organisation, is discussed. This discussion will be followed by a discussion of the skills
needed to conduct the activities.
2.4.4: CHARTERED INSTITUTE OF MARKETING FRAMEWORK: IDENTIFYING THE ROLE OF MARKETING MANAGERS:
The Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM) Professional Standard framework represents
an industry occupational standard for the marketing professional. The development of the
CIM Professional Standards Framework was initiated by The UK Government in the
1980’s in order to improve industry standards. The government was concerned that many
organisations did not adequately test the competencies, knowledge and skills that were
required for industry employment. Subsequently, the CIM Professional Standards
Framework was developed using the collaboration of employers and employees to
describe the activities and functions of the marketing positions. The framework included
the required tasks, skills, and knowledge together with a range of situations which
enabled the implementation of the tasks. The collaboration of marketing professionals
and the CIM institute in the formulation of marketing standards was seen as an attempt to
demystify the role of marketing professionals. The resultant standards were seen as a
mechanism for benchmarking the best practices in marketing against a level of
competence and academic achievement.
53
The CIM Professional Standards Framework was developed in a manner that
encompassed both future and current needs of the competent marketing manager. The
standards specified to both the employer and the marketer, the activities expected to be
undertaken. Furthermore, the framework covered various levels of career development.
These levels were associated with academic achievement, such as post-graduate study.
As such, The CIM Professional Standards Framework associated a certain level of
academic achievement with a certain level of business competency. The development of
industry standards allowed the skills and tasks needed for employment to be embedded
in the Higher Education Institution programs in the UK.
The CIM Professional Standards Framework divided the tasks of a marketing manager
into the following areas: research and analysis, strategy and planning, brands,
implementation, measurement and management of people. Table 2.2 outlines the CIM
activity classifications and provides an explanation of the activities performed (CIM
2010).
Table 2.2 CIM Framework for a Marketing Manager
Tasks Scope Research and Analysis Obtaining and analysing information Strategy and Planning Development of strategy and market planning Brands The creation and managing of brands Implementation and Marketing Programs Developing communication.
Developing product and services. Understanding competitors. Developing the marketing mix. Maintaining and improving customer relationships. Planning and managing projects
Measure Effectiveness Measure the effectiveness of marketing activities Managing People Develop teams and individuals to enhance
marketing performance Ethics and Social Responsibility3 Develop and promote ethically and consistent
practices Source: http://www.cim.co.uk/about/mktgstandards.aspx (2010)
In reviewing the roles of the marketing manager, as posed by the CIM classification, the
classification was seen to cover the range of roles expected of a marketing professional,
3 At the time of the survey, this activity was not included in the Chartered Institute of marketing Professional Standards Framework.
It will not be referred to again in this thesis. This thesis will use the standard as proposed in 2004.
54
but with one notable exception. Whilst the model noted that the marketing manager
needed to be able to measure the effectiveness of their marketing activities, there was no
link to the effect of these on the performance (profitability) of the organisation. In these
times of increased accountability, the effectiveness of the marketing manager’s activities
was generally measured in financial terms. The financial achievement was measured in
terms of the delivery of strategies that meet the firm’s income and expenditure, since
profit is often the aim of most organisations. There are various studies (Kelly and Hise,
1979; Rubenstein, 1996; and Luen, 2008) that supports this notion. They all found there
was an increasing reliance on accounting and finance in the derivation of strategy. These
findings provide clear support for the practice of professional marketers of ratifying
decisions in financial terms, as noted in earlier sects on this chapter.
The CIM Professional Standards Framework, by excluding reference to financial
performance requirements, would appear to have subsumed the assessment of these
activities into other activities and tasks of the model. For example, the development of a
marketing plan does require the assessment of market performance, including
profitability and budget development, but these financial-based tasks are not separately
identified. Since there is support for the contention that marketing managers are
becoming more reliant on finance and accounting tasks, it may be appropriate for the
researcher to adapt the CIM Professional Standards Framework to explicitly incorporate
the examination of financial-based tasks. Webster (2009) noted that as the traditional
organisation gives way to a flatter organisation, these more flexible companies push
down the operating responsibilities of the organisation, including more of a reliance on
financial skills. The incorporation of financial activities explicitly in the framework,
supports the examination of all activities of the marketing professional that encompass
total performance measurement (Tangen, 2003), and thus takes account of all the
resources that are used and the financial and brand equity outcomes achieved.
Furthermore, the inclusion of financial tasks supports the ideology of the marketing
concept. The concept claims that customer satisfaction via customer orientation of the
company leads to profit maximisation, which in turn leads to increased value to the
company. The customer satisfaction can lead to increase in financial measures
(Profitability, return on assets and return on investments). The marketing manager would
therefore need to understand these activities, given the negative customer experiences to
55
the company could result in customer satisfaction and ultimately a reduction in
profitability (Gupta and Zeithaml, 2006).
In developing an appreciation of the career establishment of marketing managers in
Australia, a better understanding of the activities they undertake, and the skills that are
needed to perform these tasks is needed. The CIM Professional Standards Framework,
though well tested in companies in the United Kingdom, has not been verified in the
Australian marketing environment. The CIM Professional Standards Framework does
have the potential to be used as a basis for examining the roles and activities of
marketing professionals. Not only may the tasks be identified against the model, but
there is also the potential to develop a better understanding of the role of the marketing
professional by identifying the frequency of the conduct of tasks. This information on
frequency of the tasks will add to the development of a profile of marketing managers,
and may also contribute to an understanding of the key skills that are required to
complete their responsibilities.
The CIM Professional Standards Framework has four principal advantages that support
its application in this research. First, the framework covers the commonly occurring
marketing activities that a typical marketing manager may encounter within their
position. The framework also covers the activities at different levels of career
development thus developing a general picture of the activities of a marketing manager.
Secondly, the model is structured in a way that enables its application to all industries. In
other words, regardless of the industry, the CIM Professional Standards Framework may
be used as a guide to the role and activities of a marketing manager. Third, the CIM
Professional Standards Framework has been developed through extensive collaboration,
and testing in the UK, to become a model of best practice in marketing. Fourth, the
framework is divided by educational level. There are four levels within the CIM
framework. The lowest; was the Introductory certificate, then the Professional certificate,
then the Professional Diploma and the highest education level was the Post-graduate
program. Finally, the Chartered Institute of Marketing has over 42000 members and the
CIM best practice model has been adopted in many developed countries (CIM, 2011).
In summary, the Chartered Institute of Marketing, UK (CIM) Standards Framework has
significant support as a framework to provide guidance on the role and tasks of
56
marketing managers. Moreover, the CIM Professional Standards Framework provides a
link to the educational undertakings needed for the conduct of marketing roles at various
levels. In particular, the framework links the conduct of taks at a marketing management
level to educational levels, and undertaking post-graduate marketing education is seen as
a pre-requisite to undertaking high level marketing management roles. The linking of the
successful conduct of a high level marketing management role, to the attainment of
needed skills through post-graduate education, provides support for this thesis to study
the perceptions of marketing managers of the effectiveness of their post-graduate
education in delivering the needed skills. This notion is examined in the final part of this
chapter.
In the following section, studies into the role of marketing professionals in Australia
were discussed.
2.4.5: RESEARCH INTO THE ROLE OF MARKETING MANAGERS IN AUSTRALIA
The research by Dawes and Patterson (1987) is to the best of the researcher’s knowledge,
was the only empirical study into the roles and task of marketing managers in Australia.
The subjects were product managers in Australia, and 201 completed questionnaires
were received. The study by Dawes and Patterson (1987) revealed that managers
undertook roles and tasks consistent with those identified in the CIM Professional
Standards Framework (CIM 2004). The results by Dawes and Patterson (1987) detailed
in Table 2.3, outlined the roles and task importance of product managers and appear to
be incorporated into the CIM Professional Standards Framework (CIM 2004). The
results indicated that all the tasks covered in the CIM Professional Standards Framework,
with the exception of two, were undertaken by product managers (Dawes and Patterson,
1987). The two CIM tasks not identified as being undertaken were management and
branding activities. Both these tasks were universally seen as central components of a
product manager’s role, but which would seem to have been excluded as they were
subsumed in other activities. For example, the development and implementation of the
marketing plan covers branding strategy, and also involves the co-ordination and
management of people both within and outside the functional marketing area. The other
difference was that the product manager study separately categorised financial-related
activities; these financial activities were not explicitly identified in the CIM Professional
57
Standards Framework. Again, this finding does provide support for the researcher to
extend the CIM Professional Standards Framework to specifically incorporate financial-
based activities in this thesis.
Research question: What tasks of the CIM Professional Standard Framework do post-
graduate marketing managers who are established undertake?
The key finding of the Dawes and Patterson (1987) study was that the most important
tasks of the product manager would appear to be implementation, with these tasks all
consistently ranked as most important. This finding is confirmed by results which
suggest that the respondents do not view long term strategic roles as being important for
the position as compared to other roles (mean score = 3.42). This was less important than
the other roles (Product Development, mean = 4.30, Short term Coordination and
implementation (mean = 4.27), and Analysis/Forecasting (mean = 4.18). Furthermore,
product managers ranked their tasks in terms of importance, with coordination and
implementation related tasks identified as 4 out of the top 10. The results by Dawes and
Patterson (1987) also suggest that none of the top 10 tasks were actually involved with
long term strategic tasks. Their study proposes that respondents in their sample did not
have a strategic role, and as their role was more tactical, the respondents may have been
at a lower level than product manager (for example, as a coordinator or analyst).
Although no studies of the perceptions of marketing managers have been identified as
following the study by Dawes and Patterson (1987). The study by Gray et al. (2007)
covering marketing professionals in New Zealand, was seen as potentially most the
comparable of the limited research that was available on the skills and the tasks of a
marketing manager. The results by Gray et al. (2007) suggested that marketing
communication, market research and analysis, consumer behaviour and product and
brand management were the most important tasks that a marketing manager may
undertake. The high rating of marketing research, and by comparison the low rating of
analysis, reflected the idea that marketers wanted to understand marketing research,
rather than conduct it. However, the study by Gray et al., (2007) did not include
managerial tasks and financial tasks which could be seen as important to their role.
58
The limited research in this area, and the conflicting findings, suggest the need to
develop an up-to-date appreciation of the tasks of a marketing manager, and the
frequency of conduct of the tasks, as a prerequisite for understanding the skills needed to
undertake the needed tasks. This leads to the following research question.
Research question: What is the frequency of the tasks of an established post-graduate
marketing manager undertake in the CIM Professional Standard Framework?
The next section of this chapter provides an overview of studies that have been
undertaken, outside Australia, into the role of marketing managers. These studies have
generally investigated the roles and tasks of marketing managers by analysing the
content of marketing job advertisements.
59
Table 2.3 Tasks of Product Managers (Dawes and Patterson, 1987) as they relate to the CIM
Professional Standards Framework
CIM classification TASKS
Tasks Dawes and Patterson (1987)
Tasks Dawes and Patterson 45 Mean Values
Ranking Dawes and Patterson
Research and Analysis Recommend market research projects
YES 4.3 7
Assess company performance and competitor analysis
YES 4.27
8
Strategy and Planning
Determine the strategic direction of marketing portfolio (department)
YES
Develop a marketing plan YES 4.44 5 Brands Develop branding strategy
Promote development of brands across the organisational portfolios
YES 4.48 3
Implementation of Marketing Programmes
Implement communication mix for portfolio or company
YES 4.65 1
Initiate new product development programs YES 4.21 10
Maintain a competitive product portfolio YES 4.39 6
Develop pricing strategy YES 4.65 1
Implement pricing strategy consistent with corporate objectives
YES 4.65 1
Develop effective channels to meet organisations objectives
YES 4.65 1
Direct and support for marketing intermediaries YES 4.65 1 Instigate a customer relationship strategy YES 4.65 1
Manage customer analysis YES 4.65 1
Establish the project management hierarchy in line with company’s objectives
YES 4.65 1
Manage the running of projects YES 4.65 1
Measuring Effectiveness Monitor actual results against planned performance
YES
Market reports to senior management YES 4.65 1
Managing People Management of staff
Co-ordinate marketing activities among sales and marketing divisions
YES 4.46 4
Contribute to the company's ability to manage change
Finance (Not included in CIM Professional Standards Framework)
Develop, monitor and control marketing budgets YES 4.25 9
Source: Dawes and Patterson (1987), CIM (2004)
4 The mean scores are for the top 10 important tasks, with Number 1 being the most important.
5 The mean score was calculated by 5 point Likert Scale on 201 usable questionnaires. All of the tasks had a mean score greater
than 2.5. The lowest mean scores were the roles of the long term strategic items which still had a mean value of 2.7. In addition,
the estimate the value of net present value had a mean score of 2.7.
60
2.4.6: MAJOR TASKS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF MARKETING MANAGERS
A popular methodology used by researchers to determine the roles and responsibilities of
positions is the analysis of job requirements contained in job advertisements. Recent
studies of marketing jobs were undertaken by Bennett (2002); Melaia, Abratt and Bick
(2008) and Schlee and Harich (2010).
The study by Melaia, Abratt and Bick (2008), found that a marketing manager’s ability
to plan is seen as important for their managerial functions. This finding was not
consistent with the findings by Dawes and Patterson (1987), but as noted, a different
methodology and timeframe was involved which may have accounted for the different
findings. The study by Melaia, Abratt and Bick (2008), involved content analysis of 54
job specifications for advertised marketing management roles. The study findings
suggested that strategic marketing planning and implementation was the most important
measure of a marketing manager’s performance. The level of seniority of the advertised
roles may have explained the emphasis on planning as a key role. Other studies (Cowell,
1987; Middleton and Long, 1990) had similar findings.
There are many problems associated with the use of job advertisements as an indication
of the tasks, and associated skills of a marketing manager. First, the advertisement seeks
to appeal to the potential applicant, and like all advertisements, may provide a rosy
picture of the advertised role. Second, job advertisements often highlight personal
attributes, rather than experience or education, as a way of attracting the right applicants
for the position (Mathews and Redman, 1994). Finally, the contents of advertisements
generally just provide lists of potentially the most appealing tasks of the advertised role.
The role may, however, differ markedly from the actual tasks of the advertised role. In
all, the use of advertisements as a means to identify the roles and tasks of marketing
managers has a number of serious limitations. As a consequence, a direct approach to the
marketing manager to ascertain the role requirements would be a preferred approach.
Despite the limitations of these content studies, it is acknowledged that they do make
some contribution to an understanding of the roles, activities and skills required of
marketing professionals. The following paragraphs cover a number of the most recent
job content studies.
61
The findings of the job advertisement study by Schlee and Harich (2010) suggested the
need for continued marketing training in areas of marketing knowledge in order to keep
pace with these changes in the marketing landscape. Schlee and Harich (2010) noted that
employers were looking for potential applicants with advanced technological skills and
who had internet marketing experience. As the internet was developed in the mid 1990’s,
the requirement for marketers with skills to handle this new medium, is representative of
an activity area requiring new skills. The findings of Schlee and Harich (2010) more
importantly point to the need to develop an up-to-date appreciation of the roles, and
associated skill needs of marketing managers. In addition, the findings have implications
for Higher Education in pointing to the need to continually update their program
curriculum to keep pace with the changing needs of marketing knowledge and practice.
So, in line with this need, this thesis study will examine the skills that marketing
managers need to undertake the tasks required for their career establishment. The
research question thus follows, and the important skills will be discussed in the next part
of this chapter.
Research question: What are the important skills marketing managers need to
undertake to enable career establishment?
Lehmann and Winer (2004) noted that the tasks undertaken by marketing managers are
highly dependent on the organisational structure of the company in which they operate.
In support of this line of thinking, the study of chief marketing officers by Hooley,
Lynch, and Shepherd (1990) suggested that the responsibilities of the marketing manager
varied according to the company’s marketing orientation. The results by Hooley, Lynch,
and Shepherd (1990) suggested that advertising, (74.9%) marketing research (71.2%)
and promotions (68.9%) were the tasks marketers have full responsibility for. These
tasks were the most important regardless of marketing orientation of the company. The
results also suggested that these are the major activities that marketers should actually be
attempting within their position. Furthermore, the research by Hooley, Lynch, and
Shepherd (1990) demonstrated that there are a set of roles and tasks that possibly all
marketers have undertaken to achieve their career status as marketing managers.
On the contrary, some of the marketer’s activities identified by Hooley, Lynch, and
Shepherd (1990) varied considerably. For example, 12% of respondents undertook trade
62
marketing, 18% conducted pricing and product design, and 29% conducted research and
development. These findings suggest that the focus, or importance, of marketing tasks
will vary from company to company. The study by Hooley, Lynch, and Shepherd (1990)
supports the contention that there are some specialist marketing tasks that are not
undertaken in all companies.
.
Recently, Schlee and Harich (2010) examined the skills and conceptual knowledge that
employers require for marketing positions in different levels. The study covered
marketers from entry level to middle and senior level conditions. In developing their
research agenda they noted the technological developments that had transformed the way
U.S. business organisations conducted their tasks over the past 10 years. So, the study
specifically sought to establish if technical skills were being sought in marketing roles, as
these changes had been identified in other professions. Their results on 500 marketing
positions listed in Monster.com suggested that there were significant differences in skills
sought for marketers with between five or more years’ experience compared to those
with less experience. The differences were in the development of marketing plans,
management of marketing functions, product and brand management, supply chain
management, segmentation and positioning strategy. In addition, there were further
discrepancies in pricing, forecasting and budgeting, global behaviour, customer
behaviour, sales management, direct marketing and industry specific knowledge. These
results suggested that there are significant differences between the marketing knowledge
required for experienced marketers and those who are entering the industry.
Whilst the findings of the above mentioned studies are of interest, there appears to be no
clear agreement on the range of activities or tasks, or the frequency with which these
tasks are attempted, particularly in the case of marketing professionals (as distinct from
novice marketers). Whilst the study undertaken by Dawes and Patterson (1987) is more
relevant to the thesis since it focuses on product managers in Australia, it is somewhat
out of date. It is thought that many changes in both the marketing landscape and
organisational structures have impacted the role of marketing managers (Achrol and
Kotler, 1999). The need then is to undertake further studies into the activities of the
modern marketing manager in order to determine the nature of their roles.
63
In all, the discussion of studies covering the roles of marketers have not provided
consistent insights, or been undertaken using somewhat comparable approaches. Many of
the studies reviewed in this thesis are out-dated. In addition, there are only a few that
relate to the Australian business environment. This finding supports the intent of this
thesis to investigate the activities and tasks of marketing managers. It is noted here that
an appreciation of the activities and tasks of a marketer, does not of itself translate into
successful performance of a marketing role. Often, it is the skill that allows the tasks to
be completed (Cohen and Levinthal, 1990).
In the next section of this chapter, the nature of the skill-set of the marketing manager is
examined. In this context, it is thought that the insights into the role requirements, and
frequency of task performance, of marketing managers, would provide a sound basis to
better understand the needed skill-set. As noted in the preceding discussion, the CIM
Professional Standards Framework has been found to be a suitable structure against
which to examine the activities and tasks of marketing managers, and will be adopted in
this thesis.
2.5: SKILL REQUIREMENTS FOR ESTABLISHED MARKETING
MANAGERS
The objectives of this final part of the chapter were twofold. First, to identify the skills
and conceptual knowledge that enables the professional marketer to successfully
undertake the role of a marketing manager. Secondly, to evaluate the role of Higher
Education Institutions in the development of the skills that are seen as required for career
establishment. So, the approach taken in the following discussion was to examine a range
of skills that have been identified in the literature as potentially important for
undertaking the tasks of marketing manager. In addition to marketing knowledge, which
is obviously seen as important, the following skills are discussed: Analytical, Creative,
Critical thinking, Decision making, Interpersonal, Leadership, Negotiation with staff,
Negotiation with suppliers, People management, Problem solving, Verbal
communication, Written communication and Financial knowledge.
64
A skill, as defined in this research, is an observed behaviour that is an expression of the
individual’s ability to undertake specific activities. This definition is broadly consistent
with the views of leading scholars in the field scholars. According to Middleton and
Long (1990 p 327), “a skill is a capacity for voluntary, intentional and objective-related
behaviour of an observable level of effectiveness that could not be expected in an
untrained individual. Shipp, Lamb and Mokowa (1993, p 2) defined a skill as “an
underlying ability that can be refined through practice”. Sanchez, Heene and Thomas
(1996) defined a skill as a special form of capabilities used in a specialised situation or
related to the use of a specialised asset. The idea of a skill used for a specific situation is
similar to Kunango and Misra (1992) and Boyatzis (1982) who both claimed that a skill
is the ability to demonstrate a response to a particular behaviour.
Skills, such as discipline specific skills, are thus seen as the ability to use particular
business concepts to undertake a set of work tasks. In this thesis, discipline skills cover
marketing knowledge and other skills needed to undertake marketing tasks (e.g.,
financial and management skills). In fact, there are many classification systems used to
categorise skills and transferrable skills, and technical skills, are commonly cited
classifications. Discipline specific skills are also referred to as technical skills and not as
functional skills (Bennett, Dunn and Carre, 1999).
Support skills are those skills that can be transferable across many different careers. In
this thesis, this would refer to creativity, decision making, oral and verbal
communication, analytical skills, creative thinking, interpersonal skills, negotiation with
staff and suppliers, and problem solving skills. These skills are often referred to in the
literature as transferable skills (Binks and Exley, 1992, AGR, 1995, Harvey, et al., 1997
and Nabi and Bagley, 1998) or generic employable skills (Bridgstock, 2009).
The transferable skills can be further divided into three groups: Personal attributes
(leadership, creative, managerial and negotiation skills), communication (oral and written
communication skills, interpersonal skills), and problem-solving attributes (analytical,
critical thinking, decision making, problem solving). This division is consistent with the
research by Nabi and Bagley (1998) and the initial development of the skills
classification by Binks and Exley (1992). The skills under discussion in the following
65
sections of this chapter have been addressed according to the groupings in this
classification structure, rather than explored in an ad hoc manner.
An objective of Higher Education Institutions marketing programs is the preparation of
marketing students to be productive performers in organisations. Indeed, the more able
are the postgraduate programs able to develop students with conceptual knowledge and
skills, the more able are the students to apply sound marketing principles in the field. In
the following sections of this chapter, the skills and conceptual knowledge that are
necessary for marketing managers were identified and their importance to their role
effectiveness was discussed. The implications of changes in the marketing environment
and the consequential skill changes for marketing professionals, educators and industry
were also discussed.
2.5.1: MARKETING SKILL REQUIREMENTS IDENTIFIED IN RECENT STUDIES
Given the importance of the marketing function to the development and implementation
of strategy in organisations, one would expect that a full appreciation of the skills and
knowledge needs of the marketing manager had been developed. However, scholars
seem to agree that there is no general agreement on the needed skills (Melaia, Abratt and
Black, 2008). Various studies sought to identify the skills that are seen as important for
marketers (e.g., Thomas, 1984; Constable and McCormick, 1987; Boatwright and
Stamps, 1988; Porter and McKibben, 1988; Middleton and Long, 1990 and Gray et al.,
2007). The studies have identified many different skills, but have not achieved a
consensus as to the key skills that are important for marketing success. Often the studies
cover the perceptions of students or novice marketers and the study findings have limited
application marketing management (Middleton and Long, 1990; Hill, McGowan, and
Maclaran, 1998). Furthermore, it is unlikely that any marketer would have all of these
skills and their identification of them is only one variable that contributes to the
establishment of the marketer. It is the ability of the marketing manager to use these
skills in the correct situation that quite obviously contributes to their career development
and success.
A discussion of individual skills identified as important to the development of a
marketing manager follows. The skills are discussed in the following sections in the
66
sequences as follows: knowledge or discipline skills (marketing and finance); personal
attributes (leadership, creative, managerial and negotiation skills), communication (oral
and written communication skills, interpersonal skills) and problem-solving attributes
(analytical, critical thinking, decision making, problem solving). This division is
consistent with the research by Nabi and Bagley (1998). The discussion of these
individual skills was undertaken with a view to identify if they may be seen as important,
and thereby suitable for inclusion in the thesis study. First, the knowledge or discipline
skills of marketing and finance are examined.
2.5.2: MARKETING KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge was defined as the theory based characteristic of marketing (Davis, Miscra
and Van Auken, 2002). Through the understanding of marketing knowledge, the
marketing manager was able to derive new solutions to problems. In contrast, skills are
the capacity for voluntary, intentional and objective related behaviour of an observable
level of effectiveness which could not be expected in an untrained individual (Middleton
and Long, 1990). In essence, skills are acquired via a process and refined via practice
(Shipp, Lamb and Mokwa, 1993).
Discipline related knowledge is seen as the outcome of educational, largely Higher
Education Institution programs. This type of knowledge is referred to as conceptual
knowledge and focuses on the theoretical basis of the discipline of marketing. Within this
thesis, conceptual knowledge refers to marketing and financial knowledge. The study by
Ferrell and Gonzales (2004) suggested the importance of this knowledge. Their research
found that 49.9% of students would benefit from a program by studying the conceptual
knowledge of marketing. They also found that regardless of student majors, the most
common benefit sought was an understanding of conceptual knowledge. The study by
Dailey and Kim (2001) also found that the acquisition of conceptual knowledge was
fundamental for students’ success in a marketing career.
In summary, a comprehensive theoretical foundation with practical insights was seen as
critical to the design and implementation of marketing programs and activities. The
understanding of the knowledge for example, would enable the marketer to measure and
monitor brand equity. The Higher Education sector sees its role as providing a
67
conceptual framework for the study of marketing. This entails coverage of those topics
that are considered important to practicing marketing manager, as well as tactical
guidelines on strategic brand management. As marketing skills are seen to be learned
behaviours, they seem to meet the definition of a skill used in this thesis.
Marketing knowledge is defined as the set of processes that generate, disseminate and
enable storage of marketing related information (Tsai and Shih, 2004). Marketing
knowledge may improve the individual’s marketing capabilities and aid in solving
marketing problems (Slater and Narver, 1994) and enhancing business relationships
(Glazer, 1991). Besides, the knowledge of marketing may also be seen as a strategic
asset to the company (Glazer, 1991). In all, these studies provide support for the value of
knowledge in aiding the performance of marketers. This idea is consistent with the view
of Middleton and Long (1990), who suggested that theory, or in this case the knowledge
of it, allows skills to develop.
Many scholars (Kelley and Gaedeke, 1990; Lundstrom and White; 1997; Lamont and
Friedman, 1997; Floyd and Gordon, 1998; Sneed and Morgan, 1999; Smart, Kelley and
Conant, 1999; Lamb, Shipp, and Moncrief, 1995; Gray, Whiten and Knightbridge, 2002;
Treleaven and Voola, 2008) have recognised the gap between theory and practice. These
gaps revolved around the claim that marketing knowledge was over or under emphasised
within the programs at the expense of practical skill development. The study by Davis,
Misra and Van Auken (2002) on 298 alumni who graduated 3-5 years after their studies
suggested that understanding marketing concepts was over emphasised within the
programs. On the contrary, studies by, Bradsheet (1996), Lundstrum and White (1997)
and Bruce and Schoenfeld (2006) found that the emphasis in post-graduate studies was
deficient in some of the elements that enabled the understanding of marketing
comprehension.
The study by Lundstrum and White (1997) examined the perceptions of academics and
practitioner’s on program content of 62 skills and research areas for international
marketing education. The respondents in their study included 250 marketing practitioners
and 95 academics from the American Marketing Industry. Lundstrum White’s (1997)
research found a high degree of divergence between what the academics and the
practitioners believe as being important in 43.5% of the 62 items measured in their
68
research. Moreover, they found that 13 knowledge areas and 14 research items differed
significantly. This finding points to significant differences between the perceptions of
practitioners and academics as to the importance of knowledge areas in the Higher
Education program content for international marketers. The knowledge areas for which
practitioners and academics differed significantly were; Assessing marketing potential,
General Accounting Competence, General Finance Knowledge, General World Business
Knowledge, HR management skills, Human Relation/People Skills, International
Marketing skills and Strategic Planning.
The results from the study by Ellen and Pilling (2002) suggested that the three least
important topics that employers required for undergraduates were: marketing models,
international marketing, and channels and logistics. Other research (Lundstrom and
White, 1997; Davis, Misra and Van Auken, 2002; Lincoln, 2010) suggested that the
emphasis for advanced level marketing professionals in post-graduate programs should
be sales management, promotion/advertising and internet marketing. These studies allude
to discrepancies in the content of marketing knowledge that a marketing post-graduate
could attain from their qualification. These findings are of concern given the strong focus
of higher education on delivering conceptual knowledge, often at the expense of other
needed skills. In all, there appears to be as many opinions about the most appropriate
program content for undergraduate and for post-graduate marketing programs, as there
are stakeholders. What is needed, therefore, is further research into the knowledge the
professional marketer needs for them to become established in their career.
As well as differences in perceptions of important topic in marketing programs, there are
also differences in opinion about the importance of theoretical as against practical
knowledge (Phillips and Zuber-Skerritt, 1993; Neelankavil, 1994; O’Brien and Deans,
1995; Gray et al., 2007). Studies by these scholars have examined this issue using
undergraduates, who may or may not have had sufficient marketing experience to be able
to correctly identify their needs in industry. As such, these findings may not be extended
to professional marketers who have undertaken post-graduate programs. There is clearly
a need to identify the perceptions of the adequacy of post-graduate marketing programs
by professional marketers who have undertaken these programs. The research in this
thesis, by considering post-graduates who are in marketing management roles, expects to
provide a different perspective on the requirements for marketing comprehension, and
69
potentially other important skills. This intent has led to the development of the following
research questions.
Research question: What are the perceptions of marketing managers, who have
undertaken postgraduate education, of the effectiveness of the programs in covering
important skills for their career establishment?
2.5.3: FINANCIAL SKILLS
A job description typically outlines the duties, education and necessary skills that
required for the potential employee. This document essentially explains the duties and
responsibilities of the position. A review of 87 job descriptions for marketing managers
in South Africa by Melaia, Abratt and Bick (2008) suggested that financial and
numerical skills were ranked 12th out of 49 important competences. The drivers of this,
according to Melaia, Abratt and Bick (2008), were the new financial technologies and
even IT in general.
The marketing manager has potentially many interactions with other functional areas of
the company, such as finance and accounting. Knowledge of financial concepts and basic
accounting would aid the marketing professional in their ability to interact effectively
with professionals from other disciplines and negotiate sought-after outcomes. The
research question of this thesis is the determination of the extent to which financial
knowledge is seen as important skill to career development of marketing managers.
Studies into the role of brand managers (Rubinstein, 1996; Panigyrakis and Veloutsou
1999) found that the impact of accounting and finance on the brand topped the amount of
internal company resources invested in the brand. Both of these studies appear to base
their findings on the amount of time spent in contact with the various internal
departments. The importance of accounting and finance knowledge would increase as
does the level of marketing professional, for example, marketing managers would have
more financial responsibilities than the brand managers who report to them. There is
scant evidence that connects the need for financial skills and marketer’s success. Mintz
and Currium (2013) proposed the development of marketing metrics and linked these to
70
financial activities and this information influences profits (Abramson, Currim, and Sarin,
2005). It is possible that marketers do not believe that financial skills are needed for their
establishment and rely on accountants for any needed financial activity. This may be a
misconception of the present day role of a marketing manager.
Research by Wong (2008) identified gaps between the perceptions of students and
alumni and lecturers of program content in various business degrees in Malaysia. The
study results found that alumni regarded finance and accounting far more important than
the lecturers. The alumni ranked accounting as the most important, while the lecturers
considered it the least important. The results also showed that students who were
currently enrolled in the business program had similar perceptions to those of the alumni.
Though the results by Wong (2008) revealed the importance of financial knowledge, the
research findings may not be generalisable to the marketing discipline, given the small
sample (36) and that the research considered other disciplines apart from marketing. As
such, the input from other disciplines, especially accounting and finance students, may
have inflated the importance of these subjects.
Previous research by Lundstrum and White (1997) found differences between the
perceptions of practitioners and academics concerning the importance of finance and
accounting skills. In Lundstrum and White’s (1997) research, the academics considered
accounting skills more important than the practitioners. The explanation of these results
may lie in the nature of the sample which included many CEO, presidents and vice
presidents whose level of corporate status may incline them to think more broadly in
terms of financials, rather than the more detailed level of accounting which may not even
be needed by a marketing manager.
Whilst the above studies provide support for the importance of finance and accounting
knowledge to the career development of today’s business professional, other studies have
not provided support for this contention. The research by Walker et al. (2009) alluded to
finance and accounting skills in their competencies inventory, but made no mention of
them in their research findings. Studies by Floyd and Gordon (1998), Gray et al. (2002),
Dacko (2006) and Gray et al. (2007) did not include finance or accounting skills in their
review of marketing skills. These findings support a lack of consensus on the need for
the development of financial knowledge by professional marketers. However, an
71
examination of the functions and performance measurement of effectiveness of
marketing managers would suggest that a capability in financial matters would be an
important skill.
In summary, the use of financial and accounting skills would seem to be an important
component of the skill-set for the establishment of a successful marketing career.
Accordingly, financial skills were included in the list of skills to be examined in this
thesis study. In the following sections, negotiation, leadership, creative, and managerial
skills are discussed.
2.5.4: NEGOTIATION
Negotiation is defined as the resolving of differences between two or more parties whose
objectives and values are based on their different ideas (Rackham and Carlisle, 1978). In
other words, negotiation can be considered a process of getting what you want from
others in the course of making a decision. Lewicki (1997) extended this definition by
adding that negotiation skills are a combination of skills that produce a single skill.
Negotiation skills allow the marketing manager to develop strategies, encourage,
communicate, persuade, learn and disseminate information (Lewicki, 1997). In order to
do this, the marketing manager would need to use interpersonal skills, critically evaluate
the situation (critical thinking skills), make a decision (decision making), show
leadership skills, analytical skills and, of course, communicate a final solution.
Often scholars consider negotiation skills in a similar thought to any other skill (Maes,
Weldy and Icenogle, 1997). This may mislead potential marketers since it does not
provide a true indication of the complex nature of skills. For example, the study by Maes,
Weldy and Icenogle (1997) examined which communication skills were considered
important and how often they were used. Their study on 150 managers suggested that
negotiation skills had a skill frequency of 3.18, measured on a five point Likert scale.
However, the components of negotiation, such as listening (4.74), conversational (4.53),
communicating (3.91), and conflict resolution (3.43) all had higher frequency of use.
Other research (Athiyaman, 2001; Ulinski and O’Callaghan, 2002; Dacko, 2006 and
Gray et al., 2007) that examined the frequency of use of negotiation skills, and its
components, found that negotiation skills were used less than its component parts. In
72
other words, the components of negotiation were deemed more valuable than the entire
skill. The above mentioned studies, therefore, found negotiation skills an important skill,
but not as important as other communication skills.
Hyman and Hu (2005) published the results of a longitudinal study of skills that
compared the importance of skills in 1995 and 2002, based on surveys of 400 business
students and 216 faculty marketing members. The results found that while negotiation
skills were seen as important, they were not the most important skills identified.
Moreover, over the time period examined no discernible difference between the
importance’s of negotiation skills was established. The study by Maes, Weldy and
Icenogle (1997) also found negotiation to be an important skill, ranking it 9th out of 13
communication skills investigated.
The research on the importance of negotiation skills has largely been investigated in the
context of the perceptions of undergraduates, recruiters or MBA’s. The research has not
examined if negotiation skills are experience or position dependent. In other words,
marketing managers who are established may have more of a dependence on negotiation
skills. There is evidence in the research by Ulinski and O’Callaghan (2002) which
covered 79 MBA students who had various levels of work experience. Their results
found that negotiation skills became more important as the amount of work experience
increased. In other words, the importance pf negotiation skills are dependent on the
seniority of the marketing manager.
The study by Cunningham (1999) found that negotiation skills were considered
important by 86% of employers. However, only 35% of employers surveyed considered
that graduates had a satisfactory level of negotiation skills. Similarly, in a study by
Dacko (2006), marketing employers ratings of 22 skills, found that negotiation was the
7th lowest (mean of 6.59, using a 10 point Likert scale) of the skills surveyed.
The above studies confirm that negotiation skills are seen as important, and also seem to
suggest that negotiation skills may become more important to the effective undertaking
of marketing management activities, as the professional marketer moves from novice to a
more established role.
73
The marketing manager interfaces with a wide range of both internal (e.g., sales,
purchasing, finance, legal, promotional services, and subordinates), and external
interfaces (e.g., suppliers, trade, advertising agencies), in conducting his or her role. In
managing these interfaces, it is most likely that the marketing manager will require skills
that enable some type of negotiation, persuasion, or influence management. Both
suppliers and staff relationships are seen as key interfaces and are seen to have an
influence on a marketing manager’s performance. Given the potential influence of
effective negotiation skills on a marketing managers’ performance, and the evidence of
potentially low level of importance of this skill from a range of studies, the researcher
has decided to examine the perceived importance of negotiation skills to the success of
the professional marketer. In doing so, negotiation skills are examined in relation to the
two key functions: negotiation with staff and negotiation with suppliers.
Moreover, as negotiation skills are considered to be composite skills, covering a number
of other individual skills (such as, communication, interpersonal, critical thinking skills,
and decision making), the relationship between negotiation skills, and the other skills
under study, warrants examination. This leads to the development of another research
question, which seeks to expand on the understanding of the important skills, by seeking
to identify the relationship between skills and establish the composite, or layered, nature
of some of the skills.
Research question: What is the relationship between skills? Do these relationships
support the identification of composite or layered skills?
In summary, negotiation skills would seem to be an important component of the skill-set
for the establishment of a successful marketing career. Accordingly, negotiation skills
were included in the list of skills to be examined in this thesis study.
2.5.5: LEADERSHIP
Leadership is a special case of interpersonal influence that gets an individual or group to
do what the leader wants done (Kunnanatt, 2004). The definition of leadership is based
on the definitions by Yammarino (1995) and Barker (1997). Leadership skills were listed
as important by many scholars in management and marketing (e.g., Solomon, 1992;
74
Jennings, 2000; McLarty, 2000; Athiyaman, 2001; Hobson, Strupeck, Griffin, Szostek,
and Rominger, 2014). Leadership skills enable marketers to lead departments to a
decision (Kohli and Jaworski, 1990; OBrien and Deans, 1999); to overcome conflict by
getting departments to work together (Ruekert and Walker, 1987); and to resolve conflict
(Gupta and Wileman, 1990).
The study by Dacko (2006) included recruiters of MBA graduates in order to determine
the skills industry consider important in their career. Leadership was ranked as the 6th
most important skill of the 22 skills investigated. Other research by Bruce and
Schoenfeld (2006) found that 67% of recruiters, considered that leadership skills were an
attractive attribute for applicants for marketing positions to possess. In addition, the
research determined that 63% of the marketing professionals used leadership skills a
great deal. The research by Maes, Weldy and Icenogle (1997), on 221 business students,
found leadership was ranked the 6th (out of the 16 tested) most important skill for hiring.
Research by Dacko (2006), on current and recent MBA graduates, found that leadership
skills should be emphasised more. The respondents in Dacko’s (2006) study identified
leadership skill as the fourth most deficient skill out of the eight within the MBA
program. Other evidence by Nabi and Bagley (1998), on graduate perceptions of the
importance of transferable skills, suggested that the importance of leadership skills were
seen as higher than the quality of skills. In other words, the respondents acknowledged
the importance of these skills, but believed their own leadership skills were not at an
acceptable standard. This finding should be of concern not just to the individual
marketer, but also to industry which seeks well educated and skill full employees. In a
marketing context, the importance of high-level marketing management to the success of
individual firms and the industry as a whole makes it even more important that Higher
Education Institutions produces graduates with appropriate skills and knowledge.
The research by Bruce and Schoenfeld (2006) provided an alternative view. The findings
suggested that leadership skills were not deficient in post-graduate degrees. They
claimed that their research provided evidence that leadership skills were present in the
Higher Education programs. Their research covered 1033 post-graduate students, who
were seeking work in marketing positions. At the time of survey, 45 % had received or
accepted a job offer. Of the 15 skills examined in the study, the respondents believed
75
eight of the skills had improved during the program of their study. Leadership was one of
the skills that had improved.
Although the study by Bruce and Schoenfeld (2006) provided support for the
contribution of Higher Education Institutions to the development of leadership skills,
other studies have contrary finding. In all, these studies provide evidence of the existence
of leadership skill development in the Higher Education curriculum, but the studies have
not established if this coverage in the curriculum is seen as adequate.
In summary, leadership skills would seem to be an important component of the skill-set
of marketing managers. Accordingly, leadership skills were included in the list of skills
to be examined in this thesis study. As leadership skills were considered to be a special
case of interpersonal influence, the relationship between leadership skills and
interpersonal influence would be examined.
2.5.6: CREATIVITY
Creativity is the cognitive process of developing an idea, concept, commodity or
discovery viewed as novel by its creator or a target audience (Bazerman, 1986).
Creativity in decision making involves the development of unique and novel responses to
problems and opportunities (Amabile, 1983) and is crucial to solving problems in ways
which result in marketing innovativeness. In a complex and dynamic marketing
environment, creativity in making considered decisions often determines how well the
marketer responds to important challenges. It would seem that as global competition
increases, more focus may be placed on creativity. In this light, creativity skills can be
seen as enabling the company (including the marketing department), to enjoy a higher
level of success (Miller, 2000; Driver, 2001).
Contrary to expectations, it would appear that many scholars did not see creativity as a
skill worthy of inclusion in their research. For example, studies by Kelley and Gaedeke
(1990); Arora and Stoner (1992); O’Brien and Deans (1995), Floyd and Gordon (1998);
Cunningham (1999); Dacko (2001) and Kelley and Bridges (2005) did not include
creativity in their research on marketing skills. A possible explanation of why many of
the studies did not include creativity in their research was the lack of creativity-relevant
76
skill development in the typical marketing program. Alternatively, it could simply be that
scholars do not believe creativity can be taught within the confines of Higher Education
Institutions. This would appear implausible as there are now many techniques that have
been developed to enhance creativity. For example, brainstorming is a common creative
approach in organisations to problem solving in new product development.
The study by Gray et al., (2002) investigated the need for creative skills. The study
covered 141 marketing managers from New Zealand, and only 9% suggested that
creative skills were an important skill. The studies by Gray et al,. (2002) differentiated
between creative and problem solving skills. It is difficult to be sure of which of these
interpretations of creative skills the respondents had understood. A more recent study
(Finsch, Nadeau and O’Reily, 2013) also concluded the importance of creative skills and
its further inclusion into marketing curriculum as a high priority in an attempt to improve
marketing education.
The study by Ackerman, Gross and Perner (2003), on 55 undergraduate marketing
students, found that the students perceived there was no provision for them to be creative
within their program of study. With this in mind, there was little chance for students to
practice being creative, thus establishing their skills. In contrast, studies by Purcell and
Pitcher (1996) and Murray and Robinson (2001), examined students’ perceptions of the
development of creative thinking skills, found that around one third of students thought
that their creative skills were well developed by the programs of study. The nature of
these studies has inferences for graduate outcomes, but no studies have looked at the
position of post-graduate marketing program outcomes in relation to creativity
development. Of concern is that the lack of creative skills in Higher Education
Institutions programs may ultimately result in today’s professional marketer not having
sufficient knowledge and experience in this skill for the demands of a turbulent
marketing environment.
There appears little formal research into the area of how to manage creativity (Skaggs,
Dickinson and O’Connor, 1992) and where it is used within the marketing process.
Andrews and Smith (1996) investigated the views of product managers on the factors
that affect creativity of products; 193 product managers participated in the study. The
product managers had an average of 5.2 years’ experience. The study findings suggested
77
that those product managers who interacted with other staff, and who were aware of the
macro-environment, were potentially more creative. This finding is consistent with the
nature of creativity as requiring domain-relevant skills that come from expertise in a
relevant field (Amabile, 1983).
Given the need for continuous innovation in a company’s product portfolio (Hughes and
Chafin, 1996), it could be expected that creative skills may play some role in enabling
the effective performance of a marketing manager. However, the studies undertaken to
date provide no clear support for the importance of the skill. Despite the weak evidence
of importance from the studies, the researcher considers that this skill may still be
viewed as important, and has included creative thinking skills in this study.
2.5.7: PEOPLE MANAGEMENT
The conceptualisation of People management in this thesis is based on management in
the broadest sense. In other words, people management is not seen as restricted to those
employees that carry the title of manager. Managing people is defined as the ability to
direct, plan, organise and co-ordinate work done by others (Evers and Rush, 1996). As
such, people management skills are a collection of components, including decision
making, managing conflict, and leadership, among others. The changes in the marketing
landscape have been seen to push management skills to lower levels of the organisation
(Webster, 2009) As traditional organisational hierarchies give way to networks, all
employees may be required to manage not only themselves, but also to manage others
(Evers and Rush, 1996).
In considering the marketing management function, there is a strong dependency by the
marketer on the getting other functional areas to co-operate and work towards joint
objectives. For example, effective marketing may depend on the tasks performed by
other departments (for example, sales, advertising and production).The use of managerial
skills may be seen as a tool which aids marketers to obtain agreement and facilitate
marketing operations, given the cross-functional nature of their role. If this is the case,
then the use of management skills should be used often and throughout most activities of
a marketing manager. In this case, management skills may be considered very important
78
compared to other transferable skills for the success of the modern day marketing
manager.
As such, the nature of the role of a marketing manager involves managing people at
various levels of the organisation, both downward, horizontally and upward. The
marketing manager often needs the approval of senior management for strategies and the
co-operation of others at a lower or horizontal level for the implementation of these
strategies. In addition, the marketing manager is often required to coach and train
employees to enable the employees to effectively undertake their roles (Shipper and
Dillard, 2000). Effective management creates opportunities for individuals and groups to
make high performance contributions to organisations, and experience job satisfaction
(Wood, Chapman, Fromholtz, Morrison, Wallace, Zeffane, Schermerhorn, Hunt and
Osborn, 2004).
The role of generic managerial skills appears to have been well researched (Katz, 1974;
Whetten and Cameron, 2002; Yukl, 2002; Carmeli and Tishler, 2006). However, there
appears little research into the managerial skills of marketing managers. The research
conducted concerning the management skills of marketing managers is fragmented and
limited in scope (for example, studies by Kelley and Gaedeke, 1990; Maes, Weldy and
Icenogle, 1997; Nabi and Bagley, 1998; Floyd and Gordon, 1998, Murray and Robinson,
2001; Duke, 2002; Gray et al., 2002; Bruce and Schoenfeld, 2006 and Dacko, 2006).
The contribution of Higher Education Institutions to professional marketers’ skill
development will be examined more fully in a later part of this chapter. It is of interest
that the focus of the marketing programs, perhaps to the student’s detriment, may
provide the marketing manager with an unclear view of the role of management. Often,
management is not included as a subject in post-graduate marketing programs in
Australia. Ferrell and Gonzalez (2004) research on 319 marketing students in an
undergraduate degree, found that only a small percentage could relate marketing to other
business functions such as management. Furthermore, the study by Pappu (2004), on 170
university students, sought to identify what they saw as a good second major in their
undergraduate degrees. The students did not view management as a good second major,
as indeed 7.4 % viewed it as good second choice. Research by O’Brien and Deans (1995)
79
provided further evidence that marketing programs do not focus on management within
their curriculum. O’Brien and Deans (1995), studied 274 students and 35 employers, and
the findings suggested that management was under emphasised in the curriculum.
The results of the studies coverings management skills provide no support for people
management as a key skill for the marketing manager. Given the nature of the role of a
marketing manager, with its co-ordination with other functional areas of the organisation,
and often the requirement to work with and through people, it would seem that
management skills are an important, and possibly a key skill, of marketing managers. So,
managerial skills have been included in the skill-set for study. Additionally, the issue of
the coverage of management skills in postgraduate marketing programs is discussed
further in a later part of this chapter.
The following skills that are discussed are communication skills, which cover oral and
written communication skills, and interpersonal skills.
2.5.8: VERBAL AND ORAL COMMUNICATION SKILLS
The term communication is viewed as the exchange of messages to achieve a mutual
understanding (Baskin and Aronoff, 1980). It involves the transfer of messages from an
information source to an information receiver so that both parties understand the
meaning and context of the message.
A large part of the role of any marketing manager is communicating the successes and
challenges of the product or brand to upper management and the organisation as a whole
(Lehmann and Winer, 2004). In addition the marketing manager often has a role that
involves communication with individuals or organisations outside the firm. These tasks
require the marketing manager to be an excellent communicator in both oral and written
form (Lehmann and Winer, 2004). Essentially, written communication has the capacity
to be more precise and capable of conveying more information, and these
communications may be stored. Verbal communications, on the other hand, allow the
marketer to include interpersonal dimensions of immediacy and include visual
expressions to aid in information transfer, and relationship building.
80
The literature has provided considerable evidence that supports the importance of
communication skills for marketers (e.g., Porter and McKibbin, 1988; Middleton and
Long, 1990; Arora and Stoner, 1992; Maes, Weldy and Icenogle, 1997; Floyd and
Gordon, 1998; Davis; Misra and Van Auken, 2002; McCorkle, Alexander, Reardon, &
Kling, 2003; Mitchell and Allen, 2014). It would seem intuitive that there would be a
difference between the skill requirements of novice and established marketing
professionals, or for that matter between marketers with undergraduate or post-graduate
qualifications. The lack of evidence on the communication skills of post-graduates, as for
other skills, suggests that there may be an underlying assumption that there is no
perceived difference between the skill development needs. This matter will be examined
in more detail in a later section of this chapter.
Where there has been an opportunity to distinguish between written and verbal skills, the
latter has been preferred for entry level marketing (Gaedeke, Tootelian and Schaffer,
1983; Kelley and Gaedeke, 1990; Scott and Frontczak, 1996; Harvey et al., 1997; Davis,
Misra and Van Auken, 2002). For example, the study by Kelley and Gaedeke (1990)
concluded that employers, seeking graduate marketers, were more concerned with oral
communication skills, being the most preferred skill (20%), with interpersonal skills
(17%) and written communication skills (12%) ranked at a lower level.
The study by Maes, Weldy and Icenogle (1997) similarly found that oral communication
skills were the most important skill. This study was based on managers’ criteria for
evaluating applicants for a position, and 376 managers took part in the study. The
managers were asked which of the 16 skills is the most important when appointing new
staff is. The respondents were not marketers, and the positions varied, however, the
importance and difference between oral and written communication skills was
demonstrated. On the contrary, other studies (Hafer and Hoth, 1981; Gray et al., 2007)
suggested that written skills were more important than oral, regardless of the level of
marketing career.
Despite the acknowledged importance of communication skills, there is evidence that
Higher Education programs do not adequately train students in communication skills
(NBEET, 1992; O’Brien and Deans, 1995; Athiyaman 2001; Davis, Misra and Van
Auken, 2002; Hogarth, Shury, Vivian, Wilson and Winterbottom, 2004 and Bruce and
81
Schoenfeld, 2006). These studies sought the perceptions of either under-graduates or
post-graduates, will little or no marketing experience.
The study by Davis, Misra and Van Auken (2002) on 298 alumni conducted with
graduates, who had graduated in the previous 3-5 years, showed that marketing alumni
believed they were under-prepared in terms of, both written and oral communication
skills. This finding is of great concern as Floyd and Gordon (1998) noted that for a
graduate to compete in the job market they must be equipped with the skills and
knowledge required by employers.
The importance of the above mentioned studies is that they have highlighted the need for
marketers to have very good communication skills, particularly oral communication
skills. If a potential applicant for a marketing role does not possess these skills, they may
not even get the opportunity to take-up a marketing role. In part this situation is possible,
because communication skills, particularly oral communication skills, are very easy to
evaluate in a very short period of time. For example, in a job-search situation, a potential
employee’s performance at interview may provide a potential employer with adequate
time to assess an applicant’s communication skills.
Despite these conclusive studies, communication skills are without question important,
they will still be examined in this study. This study will also examine the relationship
between the skills that are seen as important, with a view to identifying if some skills are
seen as building blocks for others. It could be expected that communication skills would
be found to be a building block for other skills.
2.5.9: INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
Bigelow (1995) suggested that interpersonal skills are essentially action skills.
Interpersonal skills include communication, delegation, influence, conflict resolution,
group management and motivation of others. Interpersonal skills would be utilised on a
daily basis in developing and maintaining positive relationships with others. It would
make sense that interpersonal skills are important in any given business, but particularly
in a marketing management area, given the extensive array of external and internal
contacts that the marketer needs to manage on a daily basis. This view is consistent with
82
perceptions of the role of the product manager as requiring many functional interfaces
within the organisation, and, thus, being seen as the ‘hub of the wheel’, co-ordinating
activities with other areas of the firm (Lehmann and Winer, 2004). These functional
interfaces are perhaps the most numerous and challenging of any in middle management
(Luck, 1969), because power in an organisation typically resides outside the product
management organisation (Tyagi and Sawhney, 2010).
In noting that marketing managers interact or deal with other people, both internally and
externally to the organisation, the marketing manager is actually working through others
to implement ideas or strategies. For this reason, interpersonal skills would be seen as
highly important to enable the implementation of plans. It would be an important factor
in determining the marketers’ success (Ronchetto and Buckles, 1994). According to
Ronchetto and Buckles (1994), effective implementation requires the ability to influence
and collaborate with others. If a graduate does not possess high level interpersonal skills,
then the possibility of the post- graduate being successful is diminished (White, 1992). In
fact, the importance of interpersonal skills is well acknowledged by scholars (Kelley and
Gaedeke , 1990; Ronchetto and Buckles, 1994; Floyd and Gordon, 1998; McCorkle et
al., 2003; Bruce and Schoenfeld, 2006; Gray et al., 2007; Loughry, Ohland, and Woehr,
2014).
It is not uncommon to see interpersonal skills listed in an advertisement for a marketing
management position. The frequency of this term in job advertisements for marketing
managers only adds to the importance of this skill set, as seen by employers. Bennett
(2002) reviewed 1000 job advertisements in the following categories: marketing, general
management, finance, and human resource management. The study found that
interpersonal skills were cited in 24% of the advertisements, confirming that it was an
important skill, but a skill that was not in the advertisement which is limited by
employers as important. The research presents aggregate data covering all respondents to
the study, and has not provided results in relation to marketing categories separately.
Research by Bruce and Schoenfeld (2006) covered 658 MBA Alumni who were in
marketing and sales positions. Their survey asked whether 15 skills were used a “great
deal” or a ‘good amount” of time. A very high proportion of respondents (91%) claimed
they used interpersonal skills a “great deal of time”. This was the highest percentage of
83
the skills surveyed in their research. Whilst, the research by Bruce and Schoenfeld
(2006) may provide evidence of the importance of interpersonal skills, it must be noted
that their sample include sales positions. This may confuse the real importance that
marketers place on this skill set, by incorporating other disciplines, such as sales which is
known for its reliance on high level interpersonal skills.
Just as negotiating skills have many facets, or components, so do interpersonal skills
which are seen as multiple component skills. Hence, interpersonal skills may also be
more difficult to develop than single component skills (e.g., critical thinking). The
difficulty in teaching this skill may lead to its neglect in the Higher Education curricula.
Evidence of this can be seen from the research by Winer (1990) who suggested that
learning skills and interpersonal skills are not adequately developed in business schools.
His suggestions may be consistent with the study by DETYA (2000) which concluded
that the areas where new graduates were least proficient were problem solving, oral
communication and interpersonal skills. Studies by Carnevale, Gainer and Meltzer,
(1988); Porter and McKibbin, (1988); Louis, (1990) and O’Reilly and Chatman, (1994),
had similar observations. These studies all related to the development of interpersonal
skills in Higher Education Institutions, but none of these studies specifically covered
marketing post-graduates.
As post-graduates normally have had a number of years of work experience related to
their profession, their skill-sets needs may differ from that of an under-graduate. The
above studies suggest that interpersonal skills are not adequately covered in Higher
Education Institution programs. This study considers important to be include an
examination of interpersonal skills in any study of marketing professionals, and has
included this skill in the list of skills under examination.
The following skills that are discussed are problem-solving skills which are seen to
cover analytical, critical thinking, decision making, and problem solving skills.
2.5.10: ANALYTICAL SKILLS
The term analytical skills refer to the respondent’s ability to use good reasoning in
analysing the problem and developing a solution to solve it. Analytical skills, when
84
viewed in this light, may be considered statistical in nature (Arora and Stoner, 1992).
The term good reasoning refers to the ability to break down the problem in order to
identify cause and affect patterns. In this respect, it is actually the skill that allows the
marketing manager to understand both sides of an argument then analyse it on merit and
finally provide a solution that is important.
Analytical skills are seen as important skills for the marketing managers as they provide
the ability to identify opportunities, to develop effective strategies, and respond to
changing circumstances. The research that supports the importance of analytical skills to
a marketer is extensive (Kelley and Gaedeke, 1990; Arora and Stoner, 1992; O’Brien and
Deans, 1995; Hyman and Hu, 2005; Bruce and Schonfeld, 2006 and Gray et al., 2007).
Even though many studies on the importance of analytical skills have been undertaken,
there is no research on marketing managers, having a post-graduate qualification.
The research by Duke (2002) found that university graduates ranked analytical skills as
least important compared to the other skills. In addition, the university graduates
considered analytical skills not important to their future jobs, though they believed
analytical skills were covered highly within their university programs. The findings by
Duke (2002) are at odds with the earlier cited research, and may be considered as
unrepresentative of the views of graduate students. Even so, although the importance of
analytical skills has been identified in many studies, it is unclear as to the importance of
this skill for marketing managers.
The research by O’Brien and Deans (1995) suggested a weakness in the level of
analytical skills of graduates. The study claims the levels of analytical skills that are
taught in Higher Education Institutions are lower than what is expected by the 35
employers who participated in their survey. Furthermore, O’Brien and Deans (1995)
suggested weaknesses in the analytical skills of the graduates. These findings are
supported by Dacko (2006), in his study of 194 MBA graduates. Dacko’s research found
that whilst analytical skills were to have been considered important, they were
considered under emphasised in terms of skill development within the MBA programs.
85
The above studies provide support for the inclusion of analytical skills in the list of skills
to be investigated, with a view to establishing their importance to the career development
and success of marketing managers.
2.5.11: CRITICAL THINKING
There are many definitions of critical thinking. These largely revolve around the notion
of good thinking. The term good thinking refers to reasonable reflective thinking which
is ultimately tasks orientated (Ennis, 1993). Critical thinking involves interpretation,
analysis, evaluation, inference and explanation (Facione, 2009). As such, critical
thinking is a process of understanding arguments, evaluating them and acting on them,
based on attitudes and abilities that guide thoughtful beliefs and actions. The difference
between critical thinking and other skills is seen as the ability to consider and actively
evaluate ideas.
There was ample evidence confirming the importance of critical thinking (for example,
studies by Guthrie, 1994; Dearing, 1997; Murray and Robinson, 2001; Catterall,
Maclaren and Stevens, 2002; Bath, Smith, Stein and Swann, 2004). However, many
studies do not actually include critical thinking within the skill sets under examination
(for example, studies by Kelley and Gaedeke, 1990; Nabi and Bagley, 1998; Gray et al.,
2002; Bennett, 2002; Dacko, 1996). A possible explanation is that the researchers
believed that critical thinking skills were the building blocks for other skills. The idea of
building blocks was consistent with the studies by Walker and Finney (1999); Fagin,
Harper, Baird, Hadfield, and Sward (2006) and Facione (2009). Alternatively, critical
thinking skills may be considered too hard to teach (van Gelder, 2001), and therefore not
considered in many research studies. This proposition would seem unlikely as there is
ample evidence describing the use and input of critical thinking skills within the Higher
Education curriculum (Cooper and Loe, 2000; Catterall, Maclaran, and Stevens, 2002;
Wee, Kek, and Kelley, 2003; Roy and Macchiette, 2005; and Klebba and Hamilton,
2007).
In all, these studies support the importance of critical thinking skills to an individual’s
academic and professional development. Accordingly, critical thinking skills have been
included in the list of skills to be examined in this study.
86
2.5.12: DECISION MAKING SKILLS
Decision making is the process of choosing a course of action for solving a problem or
seizing an opportunity (Parker, Bruine de Brui and Fischoff 2007). Essentially, this skill
allows a choice from two or more possible alternatives that was good enough given the
situation. In this context, Lopes (1987) suggested that decision making skills allowed the
marketer to develop the alternative that was best suited to the situation.
In today’s global and highly competitive markets, organisations live and die on the
choices made by their marketing managers (and others). Furthermore the extent to which
these managers can effectively learn to define and make better choices has an effect on
the company’s performance. It may be said that effective decision making really does lie
at the heart of a successful organisation. When making decisions, marketing managers
often confront decision environments where information is insufficient to accurately
predict the results, or assign probabilities, to the results of each alternative in advance of
implementation. This is consistent with the common view of marketing as an art rather
than a science. For example, in developing new products any forecasts of consumer
reactions, or competitor responses, to the product are seen as influenced by subjective
assessments, and potentially highly unreliable. Similarly, forecasts of product
performance even over a twelve month period may be ineffective, given the volatile
marketing landscape. As such, uncertainty and risk is a fairly common decision
environment faced by marketing managers.
The importance of decision making skills to the marketing professional is well
researched and supported (Maes, Weldy and Icenogle, 1997; Duke, 2002; Bruce and
Schoenfeld, 2006; Dacko, 2006; and Chansa-ngavej, 2008). In addition, studies of the
perceptions of recruiter and employers also found support for the importance of
management skills (Gifford and Maggard, 1975; Middleton and Long, 1990; McCorkle
et al., 2003; Young and Murphy, 2003; Bruce and Schoenfeld, 2006).
The study by Bruce and Schoenfeld (2006), for example, recognised the importance of
decision making skills. Their study covered MBA graduates, MBA alumni and corporate
recruiters, to determine the needed skills for marketing managers. The results suggested
that 45% of recruiters viewed decision making skills as important. Moreover, research by
87
Dacko (2006) saw decision making skills rated by MBA graduate employers as the 4th
most important skill of the 22 skills under investigation. Whilst there were many factors
that would prevent a direct comparison of the findings of the two studies, on the surface,
the results suggested that, for marketing employees, decision making skills were very
important.
Bennett (2002) took a different approach in trying to establish the importance of decision
making skills to the performance of a marketing management role. In doing so, he
conducted a content analysis of 1000 job advertisements. He did not find decision
making skills listed in the 1000 advertisements reviewed. This finding suggests that
either potential employers do not find these skills to be important, or more likely that
effective decision making skills are subsumed within other skills (for example, the
development and implementation a communication strategy for a new brand).
In all, the evidence provided in the above-mentioned studies of the importance of
decision making skills to marketing managers (as seen by both marketing professionals
and employers), is inconclusive. However, the nature of the marketing management
function which is responsible for strategic brand management and new product
development, infers that good decision making skills are an essential component of the
marketers toolkit. As such, the researcher has included decision-making skills in the
skillset under examination.
2.5.13: PROBLEM SOLVING
Marketing managers’ overcome problems by making decisions that will ultimately have
an impact on their organisation. The first step in decision making is then to identify the
problem, followed by generating alterative solutions, and finally evaluating and choosing
an alternative. So, problem solving skills involve forming solutions to obstacles that
prevent the marketer from achieving their desired goals (Amabile, Coon, Lazenby, and
Herron, 1996).
There are some researchers who propose that problem solving skills are the most
important skills for marketing professionals. If one considers the basic elements of the
role of marketing managers as one that involves constant development and revision of
88
responses in the company’s marketing strategy to change, this statement is very
plausible. The study by Floyd and Gordon (1998) suggested that problem solving skills
were the most important skill, in all but two industries under review. Floyd and Gordon’s
(1998) study used a series of trade-offs of four skills to determine which skill was the
most desirable. The four skills (communication skills, problem solving, work experience
and interpersonal skills) were determined by asking employers which were the most
important skills they were concerned with when employing marketing graduates.
However, these results are not supported by other studies (Gaedeke, Tootelian and
Schaffer, 1983; Kelley and Gaedeke, 1990; Hyman and Hu, 2005 and Gray et al., 2007).
The research by Gray et al., (2007), for example, suggested that communication and
critical thinking were more important than problem solving skills. The study found that
written and oral communication, interpersonal skills were more important for marketing
managers than problem solving skills. However, the study had a preponderance of early
career marketing professionals (68% of respondents had less than 5 years’ work
experience) and its finding may not translate to established marketing professionals. It is
also noted that the studies by Gray et al., (2007) and Floyd and Gordon (1998) used
different research methodologies and the results may not be comparable.
The ability to solve the problem may in fact be related to the ability of the marketer to
communicate the problem to their peers and/or subordinates. For this scenario to be
considered there should be evidence that communication and problem solving skills are
at least seen as equally important and potentially related skills. The study by DETYA
(2000) examined 25 skills required for business success, and the findings revealed that
problem solving skills and communication skills were equally ranked as very important,
both skills having a mean rating of 4.3 out of 5.0. The study findings do not investigate
any potential relationship between communication and problem solving skills, and the
relationship between these layered or complex skills is an area to be examined in this
study.
As noted previously, many factors encourage the marketing manager to think of short
term gains for the firm, rather than long term achievements. Consequently, marketing
managers may have a predisposition to use skills that benefit short term solutions which
are content based (Koch, 1997, Moon, Mentzer, Reizenstein and Woodruff, 1998).
89
Problem solving skills were seen as more process based skills that are more valuable for
long term solutions (Chonko and Caballero, 1991). The implications of the turbulent
marketing environment that most marketing managers face may, therefore, be using
problem solving less than in the past, or in other facets of it in their job function.
In examining the importance of skills in this research, problem solving skills will be
included in the study as they are seen to be potentially important skill. Additionally, the
study in examining the potential relationship between skills, will examine the
relationship between communication and problem solving skills.
In summary, the preceding part of this chapter has identified a number of skills that may,
potentially, be important for marketing managers to effectively undertake the required
tasks and activities. The skills, fourteen in all, had all been identified in previous research
as somewhat important, but the available evidence had not provided clear and consistent
findings on the importance of the skills. Moreover, the research available had not
examined the perceptions of marketing managers in Australia concerning the perceived
importance of the skills. Nor, had past research identified the perceptions of marketing
managers of the effectiveness of the post graduate marketing programs they had
undertaken in developing these skills.
Many marketers undertake professional education, notably post-graduate programs
delivered by Higher Education Institutions, as a means to enhance their career prospects
by delivering new and enhanced skills. As noted previously, the CIM Professional
Standard framework specifies levels of skills that are needed for the conduct of
marketing tasks and activities at different levels. Many of the skills identified in the CIM
Professional Standard framework as being important to marketing managers are
considered as skills that may be learned in a classroom. Accordingly, in the following
section, the role of Higher Education Institutions, in developing the skills required for
career establishment, are discussed.
90
2.6: THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN PREPARATION OF
STUDENTS FOR SUCCESSFUL CAREERS
The often stated objective of graduate and post-graduate marketing programs is to deliver
outcomes that ensure that graduate students are well-prepared to achieve their career and
personal goals. In adequately preparing students for working life, the Higher Education
Institutions sector is ensuring the development of competent future managers capable of
dealing with the opportunities and threats that abound in the marketing landscape.
Employability, is defined as “a set of skills, knowledge and personal attributes that allow
the marketer a higher chance of securing and ultimately becoming successful in their
career” (Yorke, 2006 p. 8). When Higher Education Institutions have a sound
appreciation of the skills and knowledge that graduates need, and can address those
needs in program delivery, the better the potential employability and career prospects of
students will be examined (Holmes, 2001: Tomlinson, 2008).
In Australia, the Higher Education program requirements and quality frameworks are
provided under the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF), also known as TESQA.
The framework supports national standards in education and training. A key benefit of
the TESQA is to provide qualifications that allow students to start at the level that suits
them and then build up their qualifications as their needs and interests develop and
change over time. The qualification framework assumes that skill levels and knowledge
are developed as one progress through successfully higher levels of education.
The focus of this thesis is not to understand the skills of new graduates, but to examine
the skill needs of marketing managers and how they see their post-graduate marketing
studies to have enhanced or developed these skills. It could be expected that these
managers would have developed their generic and marketing skills to the level of
employability through their undergraduate studies. Now, in the role of an established
marketing professional, they would be looking to add to these skills, in particular, the
skills relating to the role of a marketing manager. As identified earlier, the role of a
marketing manager requires accountability for personal outputs and team outputs within
broad parameters. Instead, higher level qualifications delivered principally through the
91
higher education sector do not specify the development of managerial skills, and instead
appear to focus on the attributes of personal autonomy and responsibility (Buchanan, Yu,
Wheelan, Keating and Marginson, 2010). The authors note further that there is no
reference to the accountability for others, a key task of managers, in higher education
curriculum. Indeed, the apparent lack of teaching of a key set of skills that are required
by established marketers, in post-graduate marketing programs, is an issue under
investigation in this thesis. This finding leads to the development of the study research
question, as follows:
Research question: What are the perceptions of marketing managers, who have
undertaken postgraduate education, of the effectiveness of the programs
emphasising important skills for their career establishment?
Most Higher Education marketing programs appear to focus on conceptual knowledge,
as this knowledge is considered to be more important for marketing management
positions (Shipp, Lamb and Mokwa, 1993; Lamb, Shipp and Moncrief, 1995). Discipline
related knowledge (also known as conceptual knowledge) focuses on the theoretical
basis of the discipline of marketing. This knowledge tends to be long lasting and become
the foundation for further study (Ferrell and Gonzalez, 2004). Schlee and Harich (2010),
for example, acknowledged that conceptual knowledge which focuses on the theoretical
background of the discipline of marketing has a relatively long life cycle, when
compared to some technical skills which are seen to change rapidly. For example, the
techniques available for Customer Relationship Management (CRM) have changed
rapidly in the last five years, and are expected to continue to change rapidly going
forward. These technical, or practical skills, are generally viewed as being more useful in
entry level positions in marketing (Davis, Miscra and Auken, 2002).
The longevity of the applicability of conceptual knowledge may provide support for the
focus of marketing educators on this type of skill as it leads to further education. Another
view for the focus of educators on marketing discipline skills, rather than transferable
skills, was proposed by Lamb Shipp and Moncrieff (1995). The researchers suggested
the inability of teachers to impart skills is a result of the time constraints imposed on
program delivery. An alternate view is that academics are not trained in the delivery of
the require skills, and the programs do not seek to deliver the skills, especially given the
92
lack of clarity as to which skills to develop. The end result is Higher Education
Institutions has not been able to focus on transferable skills. There is evidence, however,
that employees are now seeking a broader skill-set (Richman, 1994; Martin, 1997), with
more reliance on transferable skills (Whitworth, 1995).
As the career demands on marketing managers continue to evolve rapidly in line with
turbulent changes in the macro environment and the consequent complexity and demands
on employment performance, higher education marketing programs need to be
increasingly attuned to the needs of their students. These demands for higher education
to provide students with the critical skills and knowledge come at a time when there has
been extensive debate over how or whether marketing should be taught in universities
(Catterall, Maclaran and Stevens, 1999; Schlee and Harich, 2002).
In considering how best to provide marketing professionals with an appropriate skill-set
that would enable career progression, it was felt that programs, delivering a suitable
blend between conceptual knowledge and skills, are needed (Schibrowsky, Peltier and
Boyt, 2002). It would appear that parties interested in skill development (students,
Higher Education, and employers), all may have different perceptions as to what is
appropriate. The literature provides support for the perspective that Higher Education
marketing programs do concentrate on marketing knowledge rather than transferable
skills. Most of these studies investigated the perceived effectiveness of Higher Education
Institutions in skill development from the perspective of novice professionals or
employers (e.g., Davis, Misra and Van Auken, 2002; Taylor, 2003; Raymond Carlson
and Hopkins, 2006). These studies suggested communication and critical thinking skills
were very important to the establishment of marketing careers. These studies generally
did not distinguish between different stages of a marketer’s career, and so the
implications for marketing managers have not been specifically examined.
The findings of these, and other past studies, point to a concern among students and
employers that universities are focussing too much attention on the development of
discipline specific knowledge and not placing enough emphasis on the development of
communication, decision making, and other skills that are at least as important to career
development and success (Lamb, Shipp and Moncrief, 1995). There also appears to be a
concern among employers, that universities are neglecting the development of more
93
technical or practical skills, and, thus, are not meeting their stated objectives of preparing
marketers for career success. The universities, in moving away from their traditional
expertise in conceptual knowledge, are moving to incorporate studies in subjects that
have traditionally emphasised a practical learning approach (e.g. negotiation, decision-
making and people skills).
In developing the curriculum framework for post-graduate marketing programs, there are
many skills and potential graduate outcomes that programs could cover. Even so it was
considered infeasible (Kelley and Bridges, 2005) for Higher Education Institutions to
develop a comprehensive list of skills to enable development in later stages of one’s
career. However, given the massive growth in the popularity of postgraduate education,
especially in western developed economies (Ng, Koo and Ho, 2009), it becomes
important to understand the contribution that these programs are making to the skill
development of the students undertaking the programs.
This thesis, in examining the efficacy of higher education post-graduate marketing
programs, is seeking to identify the perceptions of marketing managers concerning the
adequacy (inadequacy) of the post-graduate programs in developing the required skills.
In doing so, this study will identify areas of potential deficiency in the delivery of skill
outcomes to students. The literature has not identified important or core skills for
marketing managers, but has clearly noted that post graduate marketing programs focus
on conceptual knowledge and individual accountabilities, without paying due attention to
the development of management skills.
2.7: SUMMARY
The changing global work environment, organisational structure and professional
industry practices have influenced the development of new career structures. These new
careers are strongly based on the notion that the individual has ownership and
responsibility for his or her career. The idea of staying with one company for a long
period of time and the likelihood of staying in one position for a substantial length of
time have also diminished is rare. The ultimate result is a group or generation of
94
marketing managers who are influenced by their own abilities, career aspirations, values
and changing beliefs (Adamson, Doherty and Viney, 1998).
There has long been considerable speculation concerning the determinants of managerial
success (Ellis and Heneman, 1990). In the current environment, where, now more than
ever, individuals are seen as being responsible for their career development and
establishment it behoves researchers to again look at factors seen to influence an
individual’s career. The literature examined in this area was restricted to the
identification of selective internal (career anchors) and external factors (skills) that
influence an individual’s career establishment. Whilst other factors influence an
individual’s attainment of what is seen as a successful marketing management career,
these factors (including labour market situation and personal drive) are delimited from
this study.
The literature examined provides support for utilising career anchors as a way to explain
career choice and to identify internal perceptions of career success. Moreover, the
literature points to a link between the individual’s perception of career establishment,
and the predominant anchor of the career or industry. Individuals, where there is a
matching of their career to the predominant anchor in that career, see themselves as more
successful, and satisfied in their role. However, the career anchors of established post-
graduate marketing managers within Australia have not been examined in past studies,
and this thesis seeks to bridge this.
In order to gain a fuller appreciation of skill needs, an examination of the literature on
the roles and tasks of marketing managers was undertaken. In the Australian context,
there was no up-to date study, and other studies provide piecemeal or questionable
findings, on the tasks of marketing managers. The researcher considered that the
identification of current marketing tasks could be undertaken, using an established and
globally recognised, framework. Consequently, the CIM Professional Standard
Framework was posited as providing a suitable basis for examining the activities and
tasks of marketing managers with a post-graduate marketing qualification.
There have been limited recent studies into the skill needs of marketing managers, but
none that have specifically sought to examine marketing managers having post-graduate
95
marketing qualifications. The most recent studies seeking to better understand the role of
marketing professionals have largely relied on job content analysis, a methodology with
significant limitations.
The research that has been undertaken does identify a wide range of skills that may be
potentially important for marketing professionals in establishing their career, but no clear
consensus of a key skill set has emerged. This thesis seeks to identify the current tasks of
marketing managers with a view to gaining a fuller appreciation of the skills required to
effectively undertake the marketing management role. Fourteen skills were identified as
being potentially important to the development of a professional marketing career. In
addition, insights into not only the importance of these skills, the relationships between
these skills and the frequency of use of these skills were identified as questions to be
answered in this thesis.
The role of Higher Education Institutions as a key provider of post-graduate education, in
delivering programs that enable students to acquire, or develop the required skills, was
also discussed. The literature provided support for the contention that Higher Education
Institutions may not be providing all the needed skills that marketing students need for
career development and success in graduation. Given the increased complexity and
globalised nature of industry, it seems evident that a well-developed postgraduate
marketing program is necessary to deliver the skills needed by marketing managers to
perform in this turbulent environment.
It is believed that Higher Education Institutions does play a key role in the development
of human capital, in this case, future marketing managers through its postgraduate
marketing programs. In view of the changing environment in which marketing managers
operate, it is considered important to identify the perceptions of the marketing managers
of their post-graduate programs, as the managers are the best source of opinions on the
effectiveness of the programs. This thesis study, therefore, seeks to identify marketing
managers’ perceptions of the coverage and emphasis of post-graduate marketing
programs on the skills they saw as most important for career establishment.
96
In summary, the review of the literature identified a number of gaps, or contrary
findings, in the research undertaken into roles, skills and motivations of marketing
managers, which lead to the formulation of the research questions of this thesis.
The research design and methodology designed to answer the research questions
developed in this chapter, is outlined in the following chapter, Chapter 3.
The research questions Chapter Two the literature revealed are below;
What are the important skills marketing managers need to undertake the tasks
required for career establishment?
What is the relationship between skills? Do these relationships support the
identification of composite or layered skills?
What are the perceptions of marketing managers, who have undertaken
postgraduate education, of the effectiveness of these programs in covering
important skills for their career establishment?
What are the perceptions of marketing managers, who have undertaken
postgraduate education, of the effectiveness of the programs they undertook in
emphasising important skills for their career establishment?
What are the important tasks required of established marketing managers?
What tasks of the CIM Professional Standard Framework do established post-
graduate marketing managers undertake?
What is the frequency of the tasks an established post-graduate marketing
manager undertakes relative to the CIM Professional Standard Framework?
What are the important skills marketing managers use to confirm with the CIM
Professional Standard Framework?
What are the career anchors of established marketing managers who hold Post-
graduate marketing qualifications?
97
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN & METHODOLOGY
3.1: INTRODUCTION
Within this thesis, there is a focus on the specific professional skills that marketers need
in order to achieve a stage of career development which in this thesis is termed career
establishment. Of particular relevance is the identification of the critical skill needs of
marketing professionals who are considered to be established in their careers. Schlee
and Harich (2010) noted that there are specific skills requirements for various levels of
professional attainment. This thesis focuses on professionals who, according to the
model presented by Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1985), are described as competent marketers
who have at least three years’ experience as a marketing manager. The skills they have
used to achieve their level of establishment will be deemed to be important in building
their careers. In other words, the researcher sought to recruit respondents who have been
employed as marketing managers for at least 3 years and is able to reflect on the skills
they have used to obtain their level of marketing career achievement.
It was felt that in order to ensure that respondents who had at least three years’
experience in marketing and had a post-graduate degree in marketing, and keeping with
the Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1985) model, have an understanding of the nature and
frequency of tasks undertaken by marketing managers. To further aid the research
design, the Chartered Institute of Marketing Professional Framework (CIM) which
represents an industry occupational standard for the marketing professional was used to
guide the research. The CIM Professional Standard Framework, though well tested in
companies in the United Kingdom, has not been verified in the Australian marketing
environment. However, in reviewing the roles of marketing managers presented within
the CIM classification, it was noted that there are no financial tasks or goals included
within the framework. Marketers, like most other industry professionals, are
experiencing increased accountability and their actions are often measured in financial
terms. Furthermore, there is little understanding of the career success determinants of
Australian marketing managers in the literature . In order to examine the determinants of
98
career success, the theory developed by Schein (1975) on career anchors was adopted. A
self-completing survey was mailed to the respondents. The questionnaire design was
divided into the research questions that were developed from the literature review, the
content analysis of the job descriptions, job advertisements and program content, as well
as the results of the in-depth interviews and the key issues identified from it. Within the
preceding chapter, the literature relevant to this thesis was critically reviewed and
discussed. Furthermore, the key issues and research questions were also identified.
The objectives of this chapter are twofold:
The first is to outline and provide support for the research design employed to further
develop and answer the research questions identified in Chapter Two. The second is to
present insights into the research philosophy, approach and methodology that were
selected for the study and to outline the procedures employed to conduct the research.
The chapter also presents an explanation as to why both qualitative and quantitative
research phases were appropriate.
This chapter consists of three main sections. These are; research design and
methodology, the qualitative study and the quantitative study. The research design
section focuses on the justification of the mixed methods approach. The sections
covering the qualitative and quantitative phases of the research explain the rationale for
the choice of research methodology together with the research procedures and techniques
employed and the process used to select participants and conduct the research. In the
quantitative section data collection; data screening, sampling and analytical techniques
are discussed.
The organisation of this chapter is as follows. First, the research design is outlined and
supported. Second, the research hypotheses are stipulated. Third, the procedures involved
in the Four phases of the research are presented, described and justified.
99
3.2: RESEARCH DESIGN: A MIXED METHODS APPROACH
The research design is the framework for conducting research and helps the researcher
to ensure that the study is carried out systematically and successfully (Churchill and
Lacobucci, 2010). The choice of research design and methods for this study was heavily
influenced by the purpose of the research and existing knowledge in the area of the skill
and knowledge requirements of marketing managers determined through a review of
appropriate literature (Chapter 2). A research design was selected to identify the
perceived skills, activities, and career motivations (referred to as career anchors) that
were seen as important in enabling marketing managers to operate successfully in the
contemporary business environment. The research also sought to solicit the perceptions
of marketing managers of the effectiveness of their post graduate marketing studies in
preparing them for a marketing management role. Given conflicting reports on these
issues and an identified lack of information within the literature, some exploratory
research was deemed appropriate and therefore, a mixed methods research approach
was adopted.
A mixed method approach uses both qualitative and quantitative methodologies in a
sequenced research process (Johnson and Onwuegbusie, 2004). The basis of mixed
methods is to consider a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches in order
to further explore and understand the research phenomenon in more depth than could be
provided by either method alone (Cresswell, 1998) . For a research design to be truly
considered a mixed method design, the findings of the research must be combined
(Johnson and Turner, 2003). In this case for example, the qualitative results allowed the
researcher to determine which of the skills respondents believed were important for them
to become established in their careers. Once these were determined, the next step was to
test the veracity of these findings and the identified skills in a larger quantitative research
phase. This method was proposed by Miles and Huberman (1994) who suggested that the
extra step of qualitative research provides more depth and greater clarity of the results.
The methodology in this thesis is divided into Four phases. The first phase is a
qualitative phase which builds on the literature review. It includes a content analysis of
job descriptions, the content of post-graduate marketing programs via Higher Education
100
web-sites and a review of the skills identified in job advertisements for marketing
positions. The second stage of the research included in-depth interviews with industry
professionals, academics engaged in post-graduate marketing education and management
recruitment consultants. This approach had the principal benefit of allowing information
from a range of sources in the qualitative phase to interact and inform the research as it
developed. For example, the initial content analysis of job advertisements provided the
researcher with a knowledge base which facilitated the researcher’s ability to probe
respondents in the in-depth interviews. The third phase (Phase Three) was the
quantitative stage of this research. This involved using a self-completed survey to more
fully answer the research questions developed for this thesis. The final stage, Phase Four
was conducted to verify the results of the overall study back and involved presenting the
results of the quantitative study to the respondents recruited for the in-depth interviews to
seek their views on the veracity of the findings. In this way, each research phase was
conducted in an integrated, sequenced manner where all stakeholders’ views were
incorporated.
3.3: THE CHOICE OF RESEARCH METHODS
Mixed method approaches provide greater opportunities to fully answer research
questions, than the use of a single approach alone (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2010). The
mixed method approach used in this study, offered the benefit of incorporating a greater
diversity of views or interpretations of the skills required by marketing managers and to
ascertain whether some or all of these skills were acquired through post graduate
marketing programs. Furthermore, within the mixed methods approach, if the findings
are substantiated across the different methods, then the researcher can be more
confident in the results. In this study for example, employing in-depth interviews alone
would not have enabled comprehensive, descriptive information to be obtained.
Whereas testing the findings of the qualitative research with a larger sample of different
respondents in a quantitative survey improved the scope and quality of the research. In
other words, the use of a mixed methods approach can be seen to complement the study
101
and address or ameliorate any weaknesses between both methods6 (Johnson and Turner,
2003). Indeed, the use of a mixed method approach, such as that which has been used in
this thesis, not only considers the substantiation of results, but rather the expansion of
the understanding of the skills which allow marketing managers to become established
in their careers (Onwuegbusie and Leech, 2004).
A mixed methods approach has also been presented as a form of triangulation (Denzin,
1978; Patton, 1990; Miles and Huberman, 1994). That is, using more than one method
to study a problem (Bergman, 2010) is one way of bringing different angles or lenses to
bear on the research questions. The methods can overlap, but are still complementary in
terms of their findings (Sieber, 1973). The idea is that by drawing data from different
sources, which have had various threats to validity, it is possible to reach more accurate
conclusions. Researchers have suggested that triangulation has been used to increase
concurrent validity (Goodwin and Goodwin, 1984), convergent validity (Jick, 1979) and
construct validity (Waege 1997). The mixed methods approach also reduces bias of one
method over another (Perlesz and Lindsay, 2003). However, according to some
researchers (Perlesz and Lindsay, 2003; Bergman, 2010), if the data is divergent, then
the use of triangulation will not be appropriate as the data will be deemed dissonant.
The probability of this occurring in this thesis is reduced by using similar respondents
(marketing professionals) in the same field (marketing), who all have an interest in the
outcome of the thesis.
Within the marketing industry, studies have used a combination of qualitative and
quantitative data (Stavros and Westberg, 2009; Dahlstrom, Nygaard, and Crosno, 2008;
Freling and Forbes 2005). Even more relevant is the use of triangulation studies in the
field of marketing education (Telford and Masson, 2005; Treleaven and Voola, 2008;
Walker et al., 2009) confirming the methodology used in this thesis is appropriate to
answer the research questions. As there are several strategies for implementing
qualitative and quantitative methods in one research design, it is important to ensure that
the selected strategy matches the research questions (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011).
For this reason, each stage in the research process is fully discussed in the next section
6 For a review of the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative and quantitative research methods, please refer to Johnson and
Onwuegbuzie (2004, p,19)
102
of this Chapter. Prior to this discussion, however, a schematic has been included to
represent the research framework (See Figure 3.1) and the steps involved in the research
process.
103
-
-
PHASE 1
Content Analysis of
Marketing Position
Descriptions
PHASE 4
LITERATURE REVIEW
Presentation of Results to:1.Industry Marketing Professionals
2. Academics 3. Marketing Management Recruitment Consultants
QUANTITATIVE SURVEYn = 419
PHASE 2
PHASE 3
In depth Interviews with:1. Industry Marketing Professionals
2. Academics3. Marketing Management Recruitment Consultants
Content Analysis of websites for
Post Graduate Program
Content Analysis of
Marketing Position Advertisements
PHASE 2
FIGURE 3.1 Mixed Methods Research Design
104
3.4: OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN
As noted earlier, the research design included Four phases. Phase One was the
exploratory qualitative stage, which builds on the review of the literature. The literature
review unearthed a set of skills and activities which were considered important for
marketing managers. (See Appendix 3 for the list of skills found in the literature). In
Phase One a content analysis of job advertisements, marketing manager position
descriptions and marketing program curricula was conducted (Please see Appendix 6 for
the list of skills found within the job advertisements). The job advertisements were
important as they provided an indication of what companies believe are important when
they engage current professional marketers. The content analysis of job descriptions
provided further support to the industry focus on marketing managers in terms of the
activities and skills they required to establish their careers. (Please see Appendix 7 for a
list of the roles found in job descriptions). The content analysis of the program curricula
provided evidence of what graduate outcomes and skills Post-Graduate degrees were
designed to provide (Please see Appendix 2 for a summary of post-graduate marketing
programs in Australia). The analysis allowed the researcher to determine the emphasis
within Higher Education Institution programs on certain activities and skills within their
program curricula.
Phase One, the content analysis, suggested that the CIM did not provide an accurate
reflection of the tasks required of the present marketing professional in an Australian
context. As a result, further tasks were added to the Chartered Institute of Marketing
Professional Framework such as Finance. These skills and tasks were discussed with
stakeholders in Phase Two of the research design and in these discussions respondents
were reminded that marketing management roles were the focus of the research.
Phase Two involved semi-structured interviews with key industry stakeholders who
included Marketing Managers, Marketing Management Recruitment Consultants and
Academics. This stage used in-depth interview techniques to gain a broad yet
comprehensive understanding of current trends in the practice of marketing and the skills
required in marketing management roles. This qualitative approach using semi-
105
structured, in-depth interviews, was useful to provide detailed information through
exploration, probing and interpretation (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2010) as well as a
rounded understanding of the basis of the skills proposed by the three groups of
respondents (Mason, 1998).
Since the researcher wanted to consider the views of marketing professionals’ skills and
activities from a wider perspective, respondents were chosen on the basis of their recent
and extensive experience in marketing roles within the industry. This criterion was
particularly important for the marketing management recruitment consultants who
represented clients who were employee marketing professionals.
Phase One and Phase Two (content analysis of position descriptions, program curricula
and in-depth interviews) covered the identification of the tasks and skills perceived to be
necessary to perform the tasks of a marketing manager in a contemporary Australian
context. Furthermore, these two Phases identified common skills viewed by respondents
as relevant for inclusion in post-graduate marketing programs. The findings in this stage
of the research informed and provided a basis for the development of a comprehensive
research instrument employed in Phase Three, the quantitative phase, of this study.
Phase Three, the quantitative stage of this research, involved identifying the perceptions
of marketing managers of their tasks, required skills and career anchors, together with
their perceptions of the level of skill development obtained and relevance in their post-
graduate marketing studies. This stage involved the collection of data via a mail survey.
The respondent’s names were generated via the List Bank database which specialises in
lists of marketing professionals. A search of the database generated 2519 marketers who
had at least three years’ experience and resided in Australia. The profiles of the
respondents through a series of questions in the questionnaire confirmed that all had
post-graduate qualifications, which was a key selection criterion. The amount of
experience was considered sufficient based on the premise that some longevity in their
career allowed them to adequately answer the questionnaire. There were 419 usable
questionnaires obtained in this phase of the research.
Phase Four, the last phase of the research design sought verification of the research
results with a group of the initial respondents to Phase Two (the qualitative phases
106
including content analysis and in-depth interviews). This research design allowed the
researcher to validate the results of the earlier in-depth interviews and the subsequent
quantitative research. The survey was designed further elaborate respondent’s views on
the appropriate balance of skills required by marketing managers. This approach is
consistent with a mixed method research design as it provided for triangulation which
allowed elaboration and clarification of the results. To demonstrate its suitability,
researchers (Greene, Caracell and Graham, 1989; Onwuegbusie, 2003) suggested mixed
methods approaches such as triangulation, complementarity, initiation, development and
expansion. This research employed triangulation and complementarity methods by
seeking elaboration and clarification of the results of Phase One in a sequence of further
research phases. The outline, justification and implementation procedures of these four
phases of the study are discussed in the following sections of the chapter.
3.5: JUSTIFICATION OF RESEARCH DESIGN
The key research question for this thesis is:
“What are the skills and motivations that enable marketing managers, who have a post-
graduate marketing qualification, to become established in their career?”
In order to answer this research question, the research design was divided into four
phases. Further information on how these phases were executed is provided below.
3.6: PHASE ONE: CONTENT ANALYSIS
The section discusses the content analysis of job advertisements, post-graduate
marketing programs and marketing position descriptions. The objectives of this phase of
the research were three fold:
1. To identify the tasks, activities and skills required by marketing managers
through a content analysis of job advertisements and job descriptions.
107
2. To identify the subjects delivered in post graduate marketing programs, and the
claims of student outcomes from these programs, through a content analysis of
higher education post graduate marketing programs in Australian universities.
3. To explore the possibility that activities and tasks of marketing managers in
Australia are in line with CIM Professional Standard Framework, and to identify
the associated skill level.
3.6.1: CONTENT OF ANALYSIS OF JOB ADVERTISEMENTS
The job advertisements were important as they are an indication of what companies
believe are important for marketing roles for professional marketers. The focus of this
phase of the research was on three states in Australia, New South Wales, Queensland and
Victoria. The capital cities of these states are Sydney, Brisbane and Melbourne. These
three states were chosen because 80% of Australian businesses are located in these three
states, with the majority of industries that employ marketing post-graduates located in
these three jurisdictions (Mantra, 2013). The content analysis was conducted using the
Saturday morning papers in all three states, as well as job placement advertisements on
career web-sites. Traditionally in Australia, it is the Saturday newspaper that carries job
vacancies and the major newspapers publish a separate recruitment section in the
Saturday editions. The career web-sites included in the studywere
www.mycareer.com.au, www.careerone.com.au and www.jobs.ozfreeonline.com. These
sites were selected as they were identified by marketing management recruitment
consultants as the most prominent in the industry and therefore would provide the largest
selection of job placements. The content analysis was undertaken over a three month
period. The three month period was seen as reasonable and consistent with published
research practice (Harper, 2012). All content analysis activities covering job
applications, job descriptions and program curricula were undertaken concurrently.
Hence, the data is a consistent snapshot of the situation at a particular point in time.
The notion of analysing job advertisements is attractive because they are easily
accessible (Vieira da Cuhna, 2008; Schlee and Harich, 2010) and the results are current.
However, content analysis of job advertisements can sometimes be seen as indicative of
the desired state, rather than current realistic expectations (Davies, 2008; Harper, 2012)
and hence there is scepticism as to whether they are an actual reflection of the needs of
108
the market place. Furthermore, job advertisements could be affected by environmental
pressure (Harper 2012) and other uncontrollable factors (legislation on what can be
actually included in the advertisement). This means that the results should be further
explored to validate the findings of the content analysis. As a consequence, job
advertisements can also be resistant to comparative analysis (Harper, 2012) and may not
indicate the skills which previous applicants have deployed in their jobs. However, the
content analysis of job descriptions supports the industry demands of marketing
managers in terms of the activities and skills they require to establish their career. The
content analysis of the program curricula allowed the researcher to gauge which of the
Post-graduate programs within the Higher Educational Institutions were focusing on
certain subjects. The analysis allowed the researcher to determine the emphasis of Higher
Educational Institution programs on certain activities and skills as presented within their
program curricula. The content analysis uncovered further activities which were added to
the Chartered Institute of Marketing Professional Framework. These skills and activities
were compiled and introduced to stakeholders in Phase Two of the research design.
This research step was conducted because Shi and Bennett (2000) contended that further
research is required to identify the gaps between the job descriptions in job
advertisements and the actual jobs performed. In order to overcome the limitations
reported by Shi and Bennett (2000) and other researchers, (Davis, 2008; Harper, 2012)
the content analysis of job advertisements was combined with other methods, to allow
the researcher to bridge any gaps between the job advertisements and actual jobs. This
approach was referred to as ‘complementary methods’ by Harper (2012) who suggested a
form of triangulation through the use of other forms of content analysis. For example,
complementary methods have used management program analysis (Kinkus 2007;
Ferguson, Hidler and Lloyd, 2008), while others (Willard and Mychalyn, 1998) included
a survey of candidates as a method to further clarify the content analysis of job
advertisements.
3.6.2: CONTENT ANALYSIS OF POST-GRADUATE MARKETING PROGRAMS
Phase One included a content analysis of the Post-graduate marketing programs at
Australian Universities, to identify the program coverage. These programs covered post-
graduate marketing qualifications in marketing at the certificate, diploma and masters
109
level. The program descriptions were found via the internet. This thesis has limited the
scope of this study to programs both taught and delivered in Australia since the thesis is
seeking the perceptions of marketing managers in that region. Furthermore, it was
considered most likely that an employee in Australia would study at an Australian
university. Therefore, Institutions, other than Australian universities, that offered post-
graduate marketing programs were excluded from the study.
The second stage in this research phase was the content analysis of program curricula.
This allowed the researcher to gauge which of the Post-graduate programs within the
Higher Education Institutions focused on certain subjects. As a result, the analysis
allowed the researcher to determine the emphasis of Higher Institution programs on
certain activities and skills within their program curricula. The content analysis
uncovered further activities which were added to the Chartered Institute of Marketing
Professional Framework in order to develop a comprehensive list to explore in the next
phase. Thus, skills and activities were compiled and discussed with stakeholders in Phase
Two of the research design
All post-graduate marketing programs, which met the above criteria, were identified, and
the subject content of the programs was reviewed. The review was achieved by
downloading the program content of Australian university programs deemed suitable via
the internet. The information for the programs was readily available and generally
contained information only on the subjects that the student may acquire from the
program. The results of this phase of the research was used to inform and prepare the
researcher for the next phase of the study and assist in the development of probing
questions to be used in the in-depth interviews that were conducted in that phase.
3.6.3: PHASE TWO - IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS WITH STAKEHOLDERS
The first phase of the research, through secondary research, had identified the skills and
roles of marketing managers as seen through job advertisement and job descriptions.
Phase Two of the research sought to explore the roles and associated skills of marketing
managers. Key stakeholders in this research process were marketing managers,
academics who deliver post-graduate marketing programs and marketing management
recruitment consultants. As a group these stakeholders play an important role in the
110
career development process and thus can provide valuable insights to answer the research
questions of this thesis. Accordingly, these three groups (marketing managers, academics
and marketing management recruitment consultants) were identified as key respondents
in this phase of the research.
In-depth interviews were considered to be the most appropriate technique for this
research phase. In-depth interviews are direct, personal interviews in which a single
respondent is probed by an interviewer to uncover underlying motivations, beliefs,
attitudes and feelings on a topic (Beaver and Harris, 1996). They can be structured, semi-
structured or un-structured interviews (Minichello, Aromi, Timewell and Alexander,
1995).
In all, 20 respondents were selected to participate in this phase of the research. There
were 10 marketing professionals, five academics and five marketing management
recruitments consultants. They were selected using a non-probability expert sampling
method. This method was preferred as it enabled the researcher to obtain a preliminary
understanding of the skills needed by the respondents in their current positions.
Furthermore, the non-probability sampling method allowed the researcher to make
judgements on which respondents will offer the most appropriate input to allow the
important issues to be explored. All respondents had substantial experience in their own
right as marketing managers even if they were now employed in management consulting
or in higher education roles. A detailed profile of the respondents is provided in
Appendix 4. There was no offer of reward or inducement made to the participating
subjects. The sample size of 20 was considered acceptable, as it was within the range that
Cresswell (1998) recommended should be interviewed in order to achieve ‘data in
theory’.
All respondents were actively engaged in marketing, recruiting marketing personnel or
post-graduate teaching. As such, all were considered to have expert knowledge of the
tasks and required skills of marketing managers. In addition, their role or experience had
given them a sound basis on which to review the effectiveness of post graduate
marketing qualifications in preparing graduates for marketing management roles. All
marketing management recruitment consultants and marketing professionals had at least
10 years’ experience (mean = 16.4 years’ experience) in their respective fields. The
111
respondents recruited from academia had also worked in marketing management roles in
industry and were currently teaching in post-graduate marketing programs at an
Australian university.
All participants had a vested interest in the results of this thesis. For example, the
academics interest was in the development of a curriculum that incorporates the current
skills required by students to enable them to establish and develop a marketing career. It
is obviously in the interest of Higher Education institutions to produce graduates who are
professionally competent and will contribute to the university brand and industry
recognition. Marketing management recruitment consultants were considered to benefit
by having candidates more prepared for the rigors of professional life. Consequently, the
respondents were more than willing to participate in the in-depth interviews. Please see
Appendix 4 for a list of questions and topics that were included in each of the in-depth
interviews.
The in-depth interviews were conducted to better understand, at a deeper level, what
potential employers are looking for in terms of skills for marketing managers. The job
and skill requirements under which marketing recruiters select job applicants are dictated
by the needs of the industry client. This constant task requirement directly informs
recruiters of current industry demands for marketing managers. Moreover, the use of
employers to learn about critical skills for marketing practitioners is consistent with
previous studies (Hafer and Hoth, 1981; Kelley and Geadeke, 1990; Dacko, 2006).
The objectives of the interviews were to identify respondent’s perceptions of needed
skills, the intent of university education in skills development, and to potentially identify
any skill gaps between what they had observed within their university curriculum and
their industry experience. The marketing educators were chosen not only on the basis of
their industry experience at a senior level, but also on the basis that they were currently
teaching post-graduates subjects and were still working in some capacity with industry.
3.6.3.1: THE SETTING All of the interviews were held at a venue of the respondent’s choosing. Typically, the
venue chosen was the respondent’s office or a nearby cafe. It was hoped that the choice
of a pleasant environment would encourage respondents to relax and to discuss openly
112
their perceptions and experiences as a marketer/educator/recruiter. The study adopted a
semi-structured approach to interviewing, where the interviews were rigorous enough to
ensure validity while also facilitating flexibility and encouraging respondent interaction
(Patton, 2002). An interview schedule was developed prior to the interview to guide the
interviewer and incorporate issues uncovered in the review of literature and the tasks and
skills contained within the CIM Professional Standard Framework. The objective was to
let the interview flow. It was anticipated that a semi-structured approach to the interview
would elicit more meaningful information and potentially identify new information or
insights which were not known to the researcher. The open-ended questions allowed
respondents to answer on the basis of their knowledge and experiences (Flick, 2009).
According to Hollan and Stornetta (1992), interactions which allow for positive
immediate responses are those which occur face to face. Keeping this in mind, the
researcher determined that all of the interviews would be conducted face-to-face. This
also had the benefit of minimising the potential for interview error, which according to
Cannell (1985) can be a major source of sampling error. Additionally, this approach
allowed for a deeper interpretation of the data through the observation and recording of
verbal and non-verbal communication cues. The researcher has had substantial
experience in conducting in-depth interviews as his career had encompassed some years
in a marketing research role. It was considered that the researcher’s experience later
added to his ability to adopt a consistent approach to the conduct of the interviews and
the interpretation of the interview content.
At the end of each interview, the interviewee was given a list to document the skills that
they thought were important to the establishment of a career as a marketing manager.
This process was undertaken to enable a check for consistency between the skills list and
what they had said during the interview. The interviews were designed to take
approximately 20 to 40 minutes for each interview, since many of the respondents were
very busy with work commitments. The analysis and results of the interviews are
presented in Chapter 4. A summary of the respondent’s profiles are listed in the
following Tables.
113
3.7: SUMMARY OF PROFILES OF PARTICIPANTS IN
QUALITATIVE STUDY
Table 3.2.1: Profile of Marketing Managers in Industry
INTERVIEW
No.
INDUSTRY POSITION EXPERIENCE HIGHEST
QUAL’N
1 Fruit and Vegetables Marketing Director 20 years Masters
2 Confectionary Marketing Director 20 years Masters
3 Children’s Toys Marketing Manager 17 years Masters
4 Computers Senior Product Manager 18 years Masters
5 Packaging Director of Marketing 20 years Masters
6 Retail Marketing Manager 15 years Grad. Dip
Marketing
7 Pharmaceutical Group Marketing
Manager
15 years Grad. Dip
Marketing
8 Electrical Wholesaling Marketing Director 20 years MBA
9 Packaging Sales and Marketing
Manager
15 years MBA
10 Medical Diagnostics Marketing Director 15 years Grad. Dip
Marketing
Table 3.2.2: Profile of Academics
INTERVIE
W No.
INDUSTRY POSITION EXPERIENCE
11 Higher Education Lecturer in Business Yes in industry
12 Higher Education Lecturer in Business Yes in industry
13 Higher Education Lecturer in Business Yes in industry
14 Higher Education Lecturer in Business Yes in industry
15 Higher Education Lecturer in Business Yes in industry
114
Table 3.2.3: Profile of Marketing Management Recruitment Consultants
INTERVIEW
No.
INDUSTRY POSITION EXPERIENCE DEGREE
16 (a) Consultant Management
Consultant - Director
15 years Masters of Marketing
17 Consultant Management
Consultant
16 years Management Degree
18 Consultant Management
Consultant
15 years Business Degree
19 Consultant Management
Consultant
15 years Business Degree
20 Consultant Management
Consultant
10 years MBA
In summary, it was considered that the views of marketing professionals, marketing
educators and marketing management recruitment consultants would yield valuable
insights as well as providing a suitable basis for the development of the survey
instrument to be used to gain views of a large sample of marketing managers in the next
phase of the research (Phase Three).
The following section details how this instrument was developed and implemented for
the quantitative phase of the research.
3.8: RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
The research design ensured that collectively, the research phases were sequential and
appropriate to answer the identified research questions established in this study. The
CIM Professional Framework, along with important skills identified within the literature
review and the data from the qualitative research phase, had unearthed a series of
important questions. These included the addition of finance skills as well as an increased
emphasis on the people management component of the framework. Each of these topics
was explored and the results were integrated into the quantitative research design. This
included a list of 14 skills that were deemed to be important for marketing managers and
considered to be inter-related. Full details of the findings of the interviews are presented
115
in Chapter four. The research questions generated from the literature review were
reformulated into research hypotheses and are listed below:
H1. The fourteen skills under study are all seen as important by marketing managers.
H2. A number of the most important skills are related or dependent on other skills.
H3: All fourteen important skills are adequately covered in post-graduate marketing
programs.
H4: All fourteen important skills are perceived to be adequately emphasised in post-
graduate marketing programs.
H5: The 23 tasks of the CIM Professional Standard Framework were seen as important
for established marketing professionals who have a post-graduate degree
H6: The dominant career motivations or anchor of marketing managers with post-
graduate marketing qualifications was a managerial orientation.
H7: The skills which are important to a marketer’s career establishment are dependent on
their career anchors.
The following sections outline and justify the research design and methodology used to
obtain the data needed to test the research hypotheses.
3.9: PHASE THREE: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
The objective of this phase of the research was to capture the perceptions of marketing
managers; who held post-graduate marketing qualifications; of their work-related tasks,
required skill sets, motivations, and the effectiveness of their postgraduate marketing
programs in providing or developing these required skills. It was determined that a mail
survey to marketing managers was the appropriate method to engage this group. Mail
surveys have benefits in terms of cost constraints, geographic scope and efficiency
(Jobber, 1985). The use of the mail survey is also acceptable in research for the
marketing educational field (O’Brien and Deans, 1995; Floyd and Gordon, 1998; Gray
et al., 2007). Research in the educational field which have used mail surveys, includes
studies by Payne, Campbell, Bal and Piercy, (2011); Brown McCabe and Meuter,
(2011); Wiese and Sherman, (2011); Taylor, Hunter, Melton and Goodwin, (2011). The
116
popularity of such a method and its use in recent studies, further confirms its acceptance
and suitability for this thesis.
Given this phase of the research was quantitative in nature the study is heavily dependent
on the research instrument in terms of measurement and observation (Borg and Galt,
1989). As previously discussed, Phase One and Phase Two of the research had adopted a
number of methods. This allowed a more extensive understanding of the skills and roles
of the marketing manager and provided the researcher with valuable contextual
information to develop an appropriate research instrument for Phase Three of the study.
3.10: MAIL SURVEY
As noted above a mail survey was selected as the most appropriate and cost-effective
method to collect the survey data. As noted by Fogelman (2002), the most important
criteria for selecting a data gathering method is the suitability of the method to provide
answers to the research questions. In this case, the research questions were many, often
lengthy in wording, and required reflection on the part of the respondent. As the
respondents were established in their professional careers, it may be assumed that they
would have been time-poor. Consequently, a research approach accommodating this
factor was needed. It was considered that a self-completed mail survey would be most
suitable as it would allow respondents to complete the survey at their leisure. The
respondents had all given permission to have their name on the List Bank database, and
so would expect to receive correspondence from that source. Since the respondents were
all marketing managers, it was considered most likely that they would have had time to
reflect and consider the level of skills that they had developed and thus would be able to
answer the research questions.
The mail survey also had the benefit of avoiding response bias potentially introduced by
an interviewer, and was also was a relatively low cost and easy to implement option. A
telephone interview had been considered but this data collection mechanism had the
principal disadvantage that it could not adequately cope with the relatively large number
of questions in the survey instrument, or the need for reflection on some of the questions
prior to providing a response (Malhotra, Hall, Shaw and Oppenheim, 2004). The use of
an on-line survey was also considered, but was rejected on the basis that the method
117
would add significantly to the survey implementation cost. In addition, it was thought
that this approach would not stand out, or be as immediately identifiable, as academic
research.
3.10.1: SUPPLIER OF THE MAILING LIST
A commercial database, List Bank, was used to identify respondents for the mail survey.
The List Bank is a database marketing company specialising in mailing lists and was
chosen on the basis of its quality database management processes and large database of
marketing professionals. The List Bank had a membership covering over 65,000
companies in Australia, with over 200,000 senior executives in their database. The use of
samples derived from recognised databases was consistent with research by Arora and
Stoner, (1992), Kress and Wedell, (1993), and Gray et al., (2007).
A search of the List Bank database generated 2519 individuals that met the researcher’s
criteria. The marketing managers were spread across all six Australian states as follows:
Victoria 812, New South Wales/Australian Capital Territory 1032, Queensland/Northern
Territory 263, Western Australia 191, South Australia 171 and Tasmania 30. The mailing
list that was generated was examined by the researcher to ensure that the survey
restrictions had been effectively incorporated in the filtering of the List Bank database.
The researcher’s examination of the profiles of the subjects included on the mailing list
confirmed all respondents met the research criteria. The number of respondents identified
on the mailing list, and selected for participation, was thought to be sufficient to obtain a
large enough response rate to meet the stipulated sample size needed for data analysis
purposes.
The response rate to the survey also needed to be considered in the determination of
sample size. Mail surveys generally have a poor response rate, typically less than 15%
(Malhotra, et al., 2004). In order to overcome this relatively low response rates, it was
decided to undertake a census of the marketing managers who have had 3 years’
experience and were post-graduates at the List Bank.
118
3.10.2: SAMPLE SIZE
In determining the necessary sample size for this study, a number of factors were taken
into account. These included data analysis procedures, response rate, and ability to
identify differences should they exist. ANOVA is the principal method of analysis in this
thesis. It was used to determine the differences identified between the skills identified as
important in this research and various demographics to establish if the variances are
statistically significant. ANOVA examines the variance within and between the groups.
It determines if the variances are due to error or if the differences between the
populations are factual (Malhotra, et al., 2004). The assumptions underpinning ANOVA
are that the population is normal. A sample size of 200 would be adequate to undertake
the data analysis with sufficient reliability for this study (Olejnik, 1984). The sample size
could be smaller should the results appear to be a best fit scenario (Olejnik, 1984).
Alternatively, the sample size could be larger, if the survey data is not normal and more
complicated statistical analysis is applicable. The convention in marketing research
(Zikmund, Babin, Carr and Griffin, 2010) and the social sciences (Olejnik, 1984) is to
use the 0.05 level of significance. A high level of significance is conventionally held to
mean the lower the likelihood of a Type 1 error. A Type 1 error is when the null
hypothesis is incorrectly rejected.
A sample size of 200 would be sufficient to detect moderate effects and have statistical
power of 0.95 at the 0.05 level of significance. Statistical power measures the likelihood
of a Type II error occurring. A Type II error is when the null hypothesis is accepted
when in fact it should be rejected (Kenkel, 1989). That is, a relationship may actually
exist but is not observed. The level of statistical power to be achieved with a sample size
of 200 meets the base requirement that the statistical power should be no less than 0.07
(Olejnik, 1984), and this study meets this requirement. The response rate to the survey
also needs be considered in the determination of sample size since mail surveys generally
have a poor response rate, adjustments had to be made to the data collection process to
ensure that the minimum sample size of 200 was achieved.
The potential for response error was minimised by extensive testing of the survey
instrument prior to implementation. In addition, the survey was self-completed and this
also eliminated the potential for interviewer bias in completing the questionnaire. The
119
selection of the List Bank as the sampling frame from which to draw the sample was
one of judgment by the researcher. The mailing list was deemed to be representative of
the population of interest (marketing managers with a post-graduate marketing
qualification). This sampling methodology is termed judgment sampling, and is a form
of convenience sampling, in which the population elements are selected based on the
researcher’s judgment (Malhotra et al, 2004). In this study, cost constraints and the
inability to identify all members of the target population were factors in adopting a non-
probability approach to sampling. As such, the findings of this study may be treated as
preliminary, and the sampling approach is appropriate in this case.
3.10.3: DATA COLLECTION
Members of the List Bank, who met the survey requirements, were invited to participate
in the survey. A search of the List Bank database identified 2519 members who were in
marketing management roles, and had at least three years’ experience and a post-
graduate marketing qualification. An invitation to participate in the study, together with
the survey instrument, was sent to all 2519 subjects identified by the List bank search as
the researcher had identified the possibility of a high level of non-response and still
sought to achieve a sample size of 200. The envelope, request to participate, and return
envelope, all incorporated the university letterhead, because according to Faria and
Dickinson (1992), the use of university letterhead can improve the response rate. The
letter provided information about the aims of the survey, privacy protection and
researcher contact information, as stipulated by the Swinburne University of Technology
Ethics Committee. There was no incentive included to complete the survey, as the
researcher considered that the subject matter of the survey would be of interest to the
respondents. The lack of funding available for incentives was also a consideration.
As invitations to participate in the survey did not contain any identifying information
from the respondents, and as an assurance of privacy had been provided, no follow-up
requests to non-respondents could be undertaken. The first survey response was received
within 72 hours, thereby indicating the effectiveness of the mail survey. In the first four
weeks following the despatch of the invitation to participate, 450 responses were
received. Although it was anticipated that more responses would be received after this
time, no more responses were received.
120
Of the 450 returned surveys, only 419 were considered usable. A usable returned
questionnaire was deemed in this research as one that had all of the questions completed
according to the questionnaire requirements (Baruch, 1997).
3.10.4: RESPONDENTS
All 419 respondents had a role title that incorporated the term ‘manager’, had a post-
graduate marketing qualification, and at least three years’ experience in a marketing role.
There are various titles that apply to marketing professionals in industry, but no common
nomenclature is in operation. Therefore, the researcher determined that three years in
industry, post-graduation, was a more appropriate filter, and more likely to obtain
respondents that had progressed to more senior levels (including to marketing manager),
than just the use of a title. Thus, the study covered marketing professionals having a
range of titles including Marketing Director, Marketing Manager, Product Manager or
similar. There was no restriction on industries in which the marketing professional was
employed, as it was not the purpose of this study to understand the issues covered in the
context of a particular industry.
3.10.5: SURVEY INSTRUMENT
The survey instrument was divided into three sections, and was accompanied by a one-
page information sheet. Section One of the research instrument collected respondent’s
perceptions of their skills and the contribution of their post-graduate studies to their
skills. These skills were considered important for the career of the post-graduate
marketer. Section Two collected respondents’ perceptions of the roles and activities that
they undertook as a marketing manager. Finally the last section, (Section Three),
collected respondents’ perceptions of their career anchors. A copy of the covering letter
is attached in Appendix 8 and the survey instrument is in Appendix 9.
Two separate versions of the survey were developed, each providing the same set of
questions, but for the reverse ordering of the skills in Questions Four, Six and Seven.
The reverse ordering was intended to avoid biases based on order-set, and the data from
these two surveys was amalgamated for statistical analysis.
121
A number of issues were considered in the outline of the survey instrument. The first
concern was the structure, length and nature of the questionnaire. The structure of the
survey instrument placed the demographic questions at the start of the survey. These
questions did not elicit any information from the respondents they would construe as
difficult or would give them cause not to precede with the survey. The survey
instrument was designed in a manner that gave consideration to enabling completion in
a reasonable amount of time, to avoid respondent fatigue. The survey was timed at
being completed in a conservatively assessed time of 12 minutes, which was considered
most reasonable by the test respondents. Moreover, as there is always the possibility
that subjects can misinterpret questions (Isaac & Michael, 1997), the survey instrument
was thoroughly pilot tested prior to implementation to ensure that all questions were
clear and easy to complete.
Second, there are many individuals from various organisations who have views on the
important skills needed by professional marketers to establish their career. It was
considered that response bias would be affected by the extent to which the respondents
had actual experience of a current nature in undertaking the activities and tasks of a
marketing manager. On this basis, the use of marketing managers as respondents for the
thesis survey was intended to lower response bias. Similarly, Yaveroglu, Donthu and
Garcia (2003) found in a business-to-business context, that response bias was influenced
by the extent of the relationship with the client company.
Third, the mail survey was chosen as it had the potential to avoid social desirability bias.
Social desirability is the tendency of the respondent to give answers that may not be
accurate but may be desirable from a social stand point (Yaveroglu, etal., 2003). As mail
surveys do not involve any social interaction between the respondent and the interviewer,
they are least susceptible to social desirability (Malhotra et al., 2004). Additionally, it is
thought that the anonymity of the survey responses may have provided respondents with
the sense of security to correctly complete the questionnaire.
Fourth, consideration was given to taking measures designed to endure that response bias
would not occur. As the response scale is vulnerable to biasing the response set (Isaac
and Michael, 1997, p 148), it was decided to use Likert scales. The Likert scale is
122
conventionally used in marketing research. As the respondents to the survey were
professional marketers who could be assumed to be familiar with questionnaires, it is
considered that bias induced by the scale would be minimised.
Finally, whilst there was no assurance the addressee actually was the one who completed
the questionnaire, it was considered unlikely that another individual would have
completed the survey. The survey was sent to the subjects’ work addresses, and as the
subjects were marketing managers, it was unlikely that other people in the organisation
would open their mail. Moreover, as the survey envelopes all had the university logo, it
was likely that the respondent would have at least received the questionnaire.
3.10.5.1: PILOT TESTING OF SURVEY INSTRUMENT Pilot testing refers to the testing of the survey instrument on a small number of
respondents, prior to fieldwork, to identify and eliminate potential problems (Martin and
Polivka, 1995). Prior to collecting information in the field, a pilot test of the survey
instrument and mail survey procedures was conducted by having five academic staff
members at selected universities as well as 20 post-graduate marketing students take the
survey and provide feedback on it. The principal objective was to establish the survey
instrument was easy to understand and to complete. Further input was also sought on the
wording, difficulty and layout of the questionnaire in an attempt to prevent any
ambiguity. Some minor changes to wording and layout of the survey instrument were
suggested and these were incorporated in the final questionnaire. In all, the final
questionnaire was seen as appropriate to investigate the research questions of this thesis
(Churchill, 1979).
3.10.5.2: SECTION 1: SKILLS OF A MARKETING MANAGER The research instrument sought to test a generic set of skills that are relevant to
marketing manager regardless of industry of employment. These skills were identified in
the literature review and confirmed in the exploratory research in Phase One and Phase
Two (See Chapter 4). This section also seeks to identify the marketing managers’
perceptions of their post-graduate marketing education in covering and developing these
skills. The skills that allow the marketing manager to become established, and are
investigated, are listed in Table 3.4.
123
Table 3.4: The Skills under Investigation
Skill
Analytical
Marketing Comprehension
Creative thinking
Critical thinking
Decision making
Financial
Interpersonal
Leadership
Negotiation with staff
Negotiation with suppliers
People management
Problem solving
Verbal communication
Written communication
In Section One of the survey instrument, respondents were asked the questions contained
in Table 3.5 to establish the importance of these skills. A five point Likert scale (ranging
from 1 = very unimportant to 5 extremely important) was used to assess skill importance.
The use of Likert scales is consistent with other studies in this field on marketing
education (Lundstrom, White and Schuster; 1996; Louw, van Eden, Bosch and Venter,
2003; Pappu, 2004; Raymond, Carlson and Hopkins, 2006; Gray et al., 2007).
Table 3.5: The Skills of a Marketing Manager
Question Number Survey Question 4 Which of these skills have been important for your success in your
marketing career? 6 How would you rate the coverage of these skills in your post-graduate
marketing program? 7 How much importance has been given to the following skill sets in your
post-graduate marketing program?
3.10.5.3: SECTION 2: TASKS OF A MARKETING MANAGER The tasks and activities of the marketing manager were seamed with the CIM
Professional Standard Framework relating to the marketing manager’s post-graduate
qualification
124
The CIM Professional Standard Framework took account of the respondent’s level of
academic accomplishment in establishing the activities to be under taken. The tasks of
the CIM Professional Standard Framework were modified to include financial
knowledge, for investigation in this phase of the study, as noted in Table 3.6. The
importance of financial skills to a marketing manager were identified in the literature
review and confirmed in the exploratory research conducted in Phases One and Two of
the study. The survey instrument also asked respondents to rank their performance of
various tasks and then rate their own performance (in this thesis, how often the tasks are
performed). This type of analysis is called “importance-performance analysis” (Dawes
and Patterson, 1987, p. 243). Previous research by Myers and Alpert (1968) and Martilla
and James (1977) suggested that this type of methodology is practical for evaluating the
components of the marketing tasks.
Table 3.6: The Tasks and Skills of a Marketing Manager
Question Number Survey Question 15 Which of the following tasks7 do you perform in your current position? 16 Which of these tasks do you consider most important to your success? 17 Which of these skills allowed you to accomplish these tasks?
The tasks of the CIM Professional Standard Framework are listed in Appendix 11
3.10.5.4: SECTION 3 CAREER ANCHORS OF A MARKETING MANAGER This section of the questionnaire was designed to determine the career anchors of
marketing managers. The scale developed by Delong (1982a) in collaboration with
Schein was used in this study and validated by the following studies, Burke (1983);
Wood, Winston and Polkosnik (1985). The Career Orientation Inventory scale was
chosen as it has demonstrated a high degree of reliability and internal validity. In
addition, it is very easy to complete and understand. The scale contained 41 items that
measure nine career anchors. The career anchors were validated by Igbaria and Baroudi
(1993) and Hsu, Jiang and Klein (2003) for information system (IS) employees, but
appear not to have been utilised in studies of marketing managers.
7 The tasks were listed in Table 3.1
125
The questions in Section Three of the survey instrument are drawn from the Career
Orientation Inventory scale, as set out in Table 3.7. The responses to the items were
measured on a five point Likert scale.
Table 3.7: Career Anchors of Marketing Managers
Question No. Survey Question 20 Managerial Importance a The process of supervising, influencing, leading, and
controlling people at all levels. b To be in a position of leadership and influence. c To rise to a position of leadership and influence. d I would like to reach a level of responsibility in an
organization where my decisions really make a difference.
e I want to achieve a position which gives me the opportunity to combine analytical competence with supervision of people.
21 Technical and Functional Competence
a To build my career around some specific functional or technical area.
b Remaining in my specialized area as opposed to being promoted out of my area of expertise.
c Remaining in my area of expertise rather than being promoted into general management.
d I will accept a management position only if it is in my area of expertise.
e I would leave my organization rather than be promoted out of my area of expertise.
22 Autonomy a The chance to pursue my own lifestyle and not be
constrained by the rule of an organization. b A career which is free from organization restrictions. c A career which permits a maximum freedom and
autonomy to choose my own work hours. d During my career I have been mainly concerned with
my own sense of freedom and autonomy. e I do not want to be constrained by either an
organization or the business world. 23 Organizational Stability a An organization which will provide security through
guaranteed work, benefits, and good retirement program.
b An organization which will give me long run stability. c I prefer to work for an organization which provides
lifetime employment. 24 Geographic Security a Remaining in one geographic area rather than being
prompted into moving because of a promotion. b It is important for me to remain in my present
geographical location rather than to move because of promotion or new job assignment.
126
Question No. Survey Question c I prefer to work for an organization that will permit me
to remain in one geographical area. 25 Sense of Service a The use of my interpersonal and helping skills in the
service of others. b The process of seeing others changes because of my
effort. c Being able to use my skills and talents in the service of
an important cause. d I have always sought a career in which I could be of
service to others. e I want a career in which l can be committed and
devoted to an important cause. 26 Lifestyle Integration a Developing a life cycle that balances my career and
family needs. b Developing a career that permits me to continue to
pursue my own lifestyle. c I have always tried to give equal weight to my family
and to my career. d A career is worthwhile only if it enables me to lead my
life in my own way. e Choosing and maintaining a certain lifestyle is more
important than is career success. 27 Entrepreneurial
Creativity
a To be able to create or build something that is entirely my own product or idea.
b The use of my skills in building a new business enterprise
c I have been motivated throughout my career by the number of ideas or products which I have been directly involved in creating.
d Entrepreneurial activities are an important part of my career.
e I have always wanted to start and build up a business of my own.
28 Pure Challenge a Working on problems that are almost insoluble. b Competing with and winning out over others. c The real challenge in my career has been confronting
and solving tough problems, no matter what area they were in.
d Competing and winning are the most exciting parts of my career.
e I feel established only if l am constantly challenged by a tough problems or a competitive situation.
127
3.10.5.5: DEMOGRAPHICS A number of demographic questions relating to the respondents’ education and work-life
were included in the survey instrument. These questions were open in nature as it was
considered this response format was most appropriate given the individual nature of
these questions. The demographic questions in the survey instrument are set out below in
Table 3.8.
Table 3.8: Profile of Survey Respondents
Question Number
Survey Question
2 What is your current position? 3 How many years have you been employed in a marketing role? 5a What is the highest education level you have completed or are now completing? 5b How many years since you have graduated from your highest graduate degree? 8 Have you ever had your generic skills level evaluated?
3.11: ETHICS APPROVAL
The Swinburne University Ethics Committee granted approval for the research study of
this thesis, and a copy of the approval is at Appendix 10. The guidelines and procedures
pertaining to this ethics approval are detailed on the university’s web site:
www.research.swinburne.edu.au/researchers/ethics .
3.12: CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter presented and justified the mixed methods research strategy and
methodology for the investigation of the research questions developed for this thesis. The
Four phases of the research covering the initial exploratory qualitative research including
a content analysis of program descriptions, job advertisements and job descriptions
which are deemed as Phase One were explained. Phase Two describes the in-depth
interviews of marketing managers, academics and marketing management recruitment
consultants. The results of the studies involved in Phase One and Two of the research are
detailed and discussed in the following chapter, Chapter 4. The nature of the quantitative
phase of the research, Phase Three, was outlined and justified including subjects, study
scale and procedures. The analysis of the quantitative phase of the research is contained
in Chapter 5.
128
CHAPTER 4: THE QUALITATIVE STUDY
4.1: INTRODUCTION
As noted in Chapter Three, this study followed a mixed method approach to examine
the skill requirements for established post-graduate marketing managers and to explore
how their postgraduate marketing programs contributed to their career anchor
development. As was noted in Chapter 3, data were collected in a number of phases
using a variety of research methods. This chapter presents the results of the first,
qualitative phase of this study. The various qualitative methodologies used in this thesis
are also explained. These were; a content analysis of marketing manager’s job
descriptions, job advertisements and the content of curricula in post-graduate degrees in
marketing. In addition, the results of the 22 in-depth interviews conducted with
experienced marketing managers, academics and marketing management recruitment
consultants were used to further define the skills required from the research questions.
This two-phase approach had the principal benefit of allowing information from a range
of sources in the qualitative phase to interact and inform the research program as it
developed. Bernard and Ryan (2010) suggested there are four main objectives in
qualitative research. Exploration research such as content analysis of job descriptions,
job advertisements and curricula was conducted at the beginning of the research design,
where the aim was to discover themes and patterns. In this case, the content analysis
was used to determine which skills and tasks are used within the CIM Professional
Standard Framework were evident in the job descriptions, job advertisements and
curricula. The CIM framework acted as a benchmark for best practices in marketing by
highlighting the tasks that established post-graduate marketers actually perform and the
skills they use to complete these tasks. Comparisons of qualitative data are another
research technique suggested by Bernard and Ryan (2010), which was used in this
study. The content analysis of, job advertisements, job descriptions and university
program descriptions was compared with the views expressed by the three categories of
respondents (Marketing Managers, Marketing Management Recruitment Consultants
129
and Academics) who were interviewed. The qualitative research adopted an inductive
approach, which is an approach that can use multiple qualitative methodologies with the
intent of further describing and answering the research question (Schram, 2006). In
addition, the use of various methods, referred to as triangulation (Denzin, 1978), can
assist the researcher to answer the research question of this thesis comprehensively. In
this study, Phase One was used to gather information from a range of sources in order to
develop a comprehensive list of skills that could be investigated in the next stage of the
study. For example, the initial content analysis of marketing job advertisements, post-
graduate program curricula and marketing job descriptions provided the researcher with
a knowledge base of skills to explore in some depth during the interviews. Thus, this
stage of the qualitative research was considered important to collect a list of skills that
enabled the researcher to further test these in the second phase of the research design.
In Phase Two, in-depth interviews were conducted with industry stakeholders in order
to obtain a comprehensive understanding of current marketing practice and the skills
required in this contemporary environment. The depth obtained from these interviews
also provided further context to the study as well as insights into the rationale for the
skills respondents selected as most important. Respondents included marketing
managers, marketing management recruitment consultants and academics. In this phase,
the respondents were asked to detail what skills they had used to achieve career success
(i.e. Progression to positions as marketing managers) or to explain what skills marketing
management recruitment consultants believe industry employers are now seeking. Input
from academics was also considered important because they could further explain what
skills they perceived were taught within Higher Education Institutions. However all of
the academics also had industry experience, be it as a consultant or as a marketing
practitioner, which provided further depth to the study.
The objectives of this chapter are;
1. To present the results of the desktop research of secondary data obtained through
the content analysis of job advertisements and associated job descriptions in
relation to the marketing managers’ skills, activities and tasks presented within
those documents. The results also report on the content analysis of marketing
post-graduate programs focusing on the skills and knowledge covered within
130
these post-graduate degrees. That is, the expected learning outcomes of those
programs.
2. To present, the results of the in-depth interviews conducted with marketing
managers, marketing management recruitment consultants and academics. The
information gained from the content analyses of marketing job descriptions and
advertisements, as well as and post graduate program information related to the
tasks, activities and perceived skills of marketing managers, was used to inform
the in-depth interviews.
4.2: DATA COLLECTION AND PREPARATION FOR
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
As noted earlier, as a subsequent content analysis of post-graduate marketing
management programs was an indication of which skills developed, together with the
analysis of job advertisements and job descriptions provided a list of identifiable skills.
The researcher amalgamated these findings from these various content analysis studies
to prepare a list of skills to be used in the following qualitative phase. At this point, a
short explanation of the use of the content analysis of the job advertisements, post
graduate curricula and job descriptions of marketing managers is appropriate in order to
explain how the analysis was approached and completed. The analysis identified a range
of skills that were seen as important for the marketing manager’s roles. The content
analysis of the job advertisements was taken from newspapers over a three month
period. The marketing positions were suitable for senior roles or marketers who had at
least three years’ experience. These positions were consistent with the Dreyfus and
Dreyfus (1985) model (see discussion in Chapter 3) and the skills and knowledge
required for these positions would be consistent with the intended respondents of this
research. The next step was to review the curricula of all post-graduate programs in
marketing in Australia. By accessing and examining the web-sites of all of the Higher
Education Institutions in Australia, a list of the core subjects was compiled in order to
determine which tasks and skills were emphasised within these programs. The core or
mandatory subjects were chosen as this ensures that all of the students enrolled within
these programs at Higher Education Institutions at least had been assessed as having
that knowledge when they graduated with their post-graduate degree. A further content
131
analysis on marketing position descriptions provided evidence of the tasks and skills
marketers are required to undertake within their current employment. Even though there
are many Australian companies who have head offices overseas, the researcher only
considered job descriptions from web-sites within Australia. This ensured some level of
consistency in that the marketing job descriptions related to local employment positions
and later in the qualitative interviews, the respondents were also questioned about their
knowledge of the local work environment.
In order to further describe the results of the qualitative research, the interactive model
proposed by Miles and Huberman (1994) was used to inform the analysis of the
qualitative data. They proposed a three step model with the first step being data
reduction, followed by data display and finally, conclusion and verification. These steps
will now be explained in relation to the data collected for this study.
4.3: STEP 1 DATA REDUCTION
As noted in the review of literature, there is a considerable body of relevant literature on
marketer’s skills. Before conducting interviews with major stakeholders, it was decided
to add to the list found within the literature by analysing the content analysis of job
advertisements, job descriptions and post-graduate programs. The most common skills
were identified by documenting the skills which were considered mandatory or essential
to the position. The same approach was used for the content analysis of job descriptions.
The most common skills identified from the content analysis of job advertisements and
job descriptions were motivation, negotiation, people management, creativity, written
communication, verbal communications, marketing comprehension skills, decisions
making skills, financial skills, leadership, analytical skills, team related skills, IT and
relationship building skills.
These skills were then compared with those found within the review of literature. Any
additional skills that were found and considered important to the establishment of the
professional marketer’s career were included in the final list.
132
4.4: RESULTS
4.4.1: THE CONTENT ANALYSIS OF ROLES IN MARKETING JOB APPLICATIONS
A total of 500 advertisements were collected over a four month period (See Appendix
5). All of the advertisements were seeking senior roles or positions requiring a
substantial amount of experience. The results revealed that common roles found in
Marketing Job Applications were implementation activities. In addition, the results from
both the literature review and the content analysis of the job descriptions and job
advertisements for marketers were found to be similar in that they suggested a similar
skill sets. In order to analyse these in a consistent manner they were categorised in terms
of the 23 tasks provided in the CIM Professional Framework. Sales experience, internet
experience and industry specific knowledge emerged as important, however, these
would appear to be specific attributes, rather than activities a marketing manager
actually performs. The results revealed a strong focus on finance related tasks. Indeed,
financial literacy was considered important enough by the marketing management
recruitment consultants to be included in two areas (Budget Focused and Financials).
The roles found in the Marketing Job Applications did not show any research or
analysis tasks. This was the only CIM Professional Standard Framework classification
not included in the content analysis of the 500 Advertisements reviewed. Within the
subsequent in-depth interviews, all of the respondents were asked about the importance
of financial tasks and skills. The literature review had uncovered the importance of
financial skills and this was supported by the content analysis of the marketing manager
job descriptions which indicated this skill is important for the career establishment of
marketing managers. How important, was considered to be a question the in-depth
interviews could clarify.
4.4.2: THE CONTENT ANALYSIS OF SKILLS IN MARKETING EMPLOYMENT APPLICATIONS
The results suggest that verbal communication skills are the most important skill for
marketing professionals who have had a substantial degree of experience or are in
senior in roles. The focus of the advertisements was on marketing comprehension as
well as management skills. Teamwork was considered an important skill in a small
number of the advertisements. Stevens and Chapman (1994) explained that teamwork is
as an outcome of various skills including interpersonal, problem solving and decision-
133
making skills which interact. However, leadership was also included in the list as the
literature appeared to support its inclusion (Dacko, 2006).
The content analysis of employment applications confirmed the importance of most of
the skills that were identified within the literature review. The content analysis
suggested that the focus of the interview should be on communication, marketing,
comprehension and management skills. The content analysis of the job applications
suggested communication skills should be divided into two parts; verbal and written. It
was also clear from the content analysis that negotiation skills should be divided into
both internal (within the organisation) and external negotiation skills. The importance of
these skills was assessed in the interviews held in the next research phase.
4.4.3: THE CONTENT ANALYSIS OF POST-GRADUATE MARKETING PROGRAMS.
The content analysis of post graduate programs in marketing in Australia concentrated
on the core subjects or units of the post-graduate program. The core subjects are
subjects that all students must complete within the program and therefore analysing
these subjects allowed the researcher to conduct a comparison between the various post
graduate marketing programs that were reviewed. Furthermore, the core subjects are an
indication of the emphasis of the post-graduate degree based on the concentration of a
number of subjects in a particular category.
The content analysis of the programs suggested a level of variability in emphasis in
certain subjects which was dependent on the programs level of post-graduate
attainment. Many of the post-graduate programs in marketing had various marketing
subjects as their core (marketing comprehension, consumer behaviour, promotions,
marketing research and strategy), while others appeared to be finance orientated. The
content analysis of post-graduate curricula in marketing revealed that there are a
considerable number of post-graduate marketing programs that do not offer a core
management subject. Those that did presented the subject at a basic introductory level
and not at the advanced level which would be more suited to experienced marketing
professionals. Finance and management were found to be combined in a variety of
programs, with marketing knowledge being communicated over two or three units.
These skills together with the other skills found within the content analysis were used
134
by the researcher to develop a list of skills and tasks that could be discussed and
validated in subsequent stages of the research.
4.5: RESULTS OF EXPERT INTERVIEWS
A total of 22 personal interviews were conducted with respondents which allowed the
researcher to draw upon their knowledge and expertise as well as insights into
respondents’ careers. The importance of semi-structured interviews was apparent as it
allowed the respondents to probe at a deeper level their perceptions of the respondent’s
skills and the tasks they considered were important for the development of their career
and to explore issues related to their career. The interview data also provided context
and meaning to the research results.
In order to reduce the number of categories, the data was coded into various topics,
which were related to the research questions of the thesis. According to Thomas (2006),
this aids in providing a clear link between the objectives and the qualitative research
data. Coding was achieved by examining the frequency and intensity of the comments
on particular skills referred to by the respondents (Schram, 2006). The skills were then
collapsed into various categories according to the studies by Nabi and Bagley (1998)
and Binks and Exley (1992). This allowed the researcher to identify any emerging
trends that could be further tested in the next phase of this study. Hair, Lukas and Miller
(2012) refer to this as selective coding as all the categories (skills) are related to
providing some level of career success.
Within this analysis stage, comparisons were also made between respondent categories
or groups. That is marketing managers, academics and marketing management
recruitment consultants. The comparison of various opinions is an important dimension
of the qualitative research process. These results will be further discussed in the next
section.
135
4.6: STEP 2 – DATA DISPLAY
Though there are many ways to present qualitative data, in order to focus on answering
the research questions, data in this chapter are presented according to the research
questions developed to support the thesis. This further emphasises the aims of the
research and ensures that the researcher concentrates on ensuring that the aims of the
study are accomplished.
4.6.1: THE IMPORTANT SKILLS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS.
The analysis of the interviews revealed the importance of people management skills
across all respondent’s groups. This is followed by financial skills which were identified
as the next most important by the marketing managers and marketing management
recruitment consultants. However, academics reported that marketing comprehension
skills were of prime importance.
4.6.1.1: PEOPLE MANAGEMENT SKILLS The most important issue according to all respondents was management skills. The
definition of management skills used in this research is the ability to direct, plan,
organise and co-ordinate work done by others (Evers and Rush, 1996). The following
observation captures the importance of this theme; “There is so much management in
marketing. It is often over looked. Without people managing skills the marketing
manager will not be able to implement anything. Essentially, they are unemployable.”
(Mr G., Group Marketing Manager). Other examples that supported this contention
were provided by Mr P (Director of Marketing) who stated: “If marketing managers do
not manage other people, then they cannot do their job. The essence of marketing is in
fact managing people, both inside and outside the organisation.” Their views were
shared by a business lecturer who noted that: “…it is marketing management.
Management is of course managing people and process.” (Mr S., Lecturer in Business).
A marketing management recruitment consultant agreed, advising that;
“People management skills are critical for all senior managers. Essentially, if you do not have it, your promotion and your career aspirations will be hindered.” (Ms C., Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant).
136
Further evidence from other marketing management recruitment consultants supported
this. To demonstrate, Mrs K (Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant) stated,
“All managers, especially at a senior level must show people management skills. This is
particularly relevant where customer relationships such as marketing are involved.”
This emphasis is confirmed by Wood, Stride, Wall and Clegg, (2004) who among other
scholars (for example, Shipper and Dillard, 2000), suggest that managerial skills could
actually contribute to the performance of the organisation both internally (managing
staff) and externally (developing customer relationships). In other words, people
management skills are needed to facilitate the cross functional activities inherent in the
role of a marketing manager as well as those that relate to customer communication.
The agreement by nearly all of the stakeholders of the importance of people
management skills has led to the inclusion of this skill for further investigation in the
quantitative stage of this thesis.
4.6.1.2: FINANCIAL SKILLS Financial skills were identified as a key skill by marketing managers and marketing
management recruitment consultants but not by academics. A plausible explanation for
this could be that financial performance features in the performance reviews that
confront most executives in today’s corporate environment. This is consistent with the
literature that shows that marketing managers are often under increasing pressure to
show their contribution to the company (Doyle, 2000). Previously, they were measured
in terms of market share and sales (Lehmann and Winer, 2004), but more recently it
appears that they are required to demonstrate their worthiness to the company in terms
of profitability (Morgan, et al., 2002). For example;
“I am graded not by how good my interpersonal skills are, though they probably contribute to it, but how much money I make for the company. In order to understand budgets, costs and return on investment, I must have financial skill to understand my business portfolio.” (Mr C., Marketing Director).
This opinion was also shared by Dr A., (Lecturer in Business) who asserted that
“Marketing is more like a business and we have to teach them to run a business. How
can a business survive without the financial knowledge?” Mr. G., (Lecturer in Business)
presented a similar view point:
137
“The good old days of spending money are gone, unless you can justify it [he opined]. How marketers do this is often on the balance sheet and the budget, before their implementation. The understanding of financials therefore becomes imperative to achieve marketing success”. Ms O., (Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant) agreed states, “I am constantly asked to make sure the applicant has a good idea of the costs and the financial objectives to run a business.”
The analysis of the interviews revealed, however, that marketing managers and
consistency the marketing management recruitment consultants believe that financial
skills are more important than the academics. Indeed, marketing managers and
marketing management recruitment consultants cited them seven and four times while
lecturers appeared to view financial skills as not as important (cited twice). These
results are consistent with Wong’s (2008) research which found a gap between the
perceptions of alumni and academics regarding finance and accounting concerning the
need for financial skills.
4.6.1.3: MARKETING COMPREHENSION SKILLS Marketing comprehension was rated as an important skill by the all three groups of
respondents. However, academics placed more emphasis on marketing comprehension
skills than other respondents which may be because they have a vested interest in
promoting the importance of the graduate programs that deliver these skills. However,
these respondent’s views clearly highlight the importance that marketing
comprehension skills were important for a variety of reasons, some of which are
captured in the following respondent’s quotes:
“How can you understand and practice marketing if you do not comprehend it.” (Ms. J.,
Marketing Manager) and “As an aspiring marketer, I had to learn it, before I practice it”
(Mr. L., Marketing Manager). Academics had a similar view, for example;
“We are teaching marketing at a post-graduate level. I would hope that all of my
students know and can apply the theory and practice in their career.” (Mr. G.,
Academic). Marketing management recruitment consultants had a different view,
suggesting theory is only one of the characteristics which create a good marketer. For
example:
138
“How can I recommend candidates to my clients for senior positions if they do not
understand marketing both from a functional and theoretical perspective?” (Ms. A.,
Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant). Other, marketing management
recruitment consultants held a similar view. For example, Mrs K (Marketing
Management Recruitment Consultant) stated, “If it is only theory they have, then I am
not interested. That is for junior positions. Show me how they apply theory”
These perspectives are not surprising as the respondents in this thesis were all highly
qualified and experienced. Their understanding of the aspects of marketing are therefore
expected to be highly advanced but this depth is important for the future development of
the marketing workforce.
4.6.1.4: INTERPERSONAL SKILLS Interpersonal skills in this thesis are action skills as suggested by Bigelow (1995). They
include communication, delegation, influence, conflict resolution, group management
and the motivation of others. Interpersonal skills would be utilised on a daily basis in
developing and maintaining positive relationships with others. In the 14 skills
investigated with these respondents, interpersonal skills were considered highly by the
marketing professionals, but were not considered as important by the other respondents.
The comments below from marketing professionals demonstrate this;
“Interpersonal skills are essential to all marketers. If you cannot listen, talk and network
within the organisation, then your career in this field will be very short.” (Mr. G. Senior
Product Manager). This comment is supported by Mr. P., (Director of Marketing); who
asks “How can any manager not have interpersonal skills today? In a sense, it is
ridiculous that any candidate would be employed, let alone be a senior manager without
them.”
Interpersonal skills are not taught in post graduate programs because they are
considered to be implicit within the program structure. They are not in any one subject
but are expected to be embedded within all of the subjects undertaken by those students
completing a postgraduate degree. This view was presented by academic respondents
and what follows is a summary of what many of these academics claimed:
139
“Interpersonal skills are not taught within the post graduate programs that I supervise. These are post graduate programs, with many of the student’s working. If they do not have them, then they are unlikely to be enrolled in this program or any post-graduate program for that matter.” (Mr. S., Lecturer in Business).
Other academics supported this view, for example Mr J., (Lecturer in Business), “I think
it would be insulting to the post-graduate students to have a subject at post graduate
level that specifically deals with interpersonal skills.” Nevertheless, their importance is
duly noted by Ms. O., (Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant), “I do not ask
for interpersonal skills in my advertisements as if they are not present, they will not be
successful in this environment. They are a given.” Her opinion is also supported by Mr
B (Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant) who states, “In my 15 years in this
industry, if an applicant does not have interpersonal skills, they are nearly unemployable
in this profession.”
The importance of interpersonal skills is well documented (McCorke et al., 2003; Gray
et al., 2007) and according to the research by Bruce and Schoenfeld (2006), these skills
are used nearly all of the time. Although the academic respondents suggested that
interpersonal skills are developed at some point within the programs they deliver. There
was no evidence of this within the content analysis conducted in phase one. Neither was
it clear whether students within post-graduate programs are currently assessed to
ascertain whether they have interpersonal skills on entry or whether they developed
them during their studies in post graduate programs. The inclusion of interpersonal
skills in the next stage of the research will therefore aid in establishing how important
interpersonal skills are compared to other skills investigated in this research.
Furthermore, given that interpersonal skills were seen as significant by all respondents,
it is essential to determine how important interpersonal skills are so that programs can
further incorporate them into their curriculum, if necessary.
The in-depth interviews provided evidence that decision making, negotiation with staff
and interpersonal skills are of high value to marketing managers. However, other skills
were also identified as important for specific activities required of marketing managers.
For example, technical and project management skills although not seen as of prime
importance were necessary to undertake a marketing manager’s role. Accordingly, it
140
was decided to include the 14 skills for examination in the quantitative stage of the
research.
4 6.2: THE COVERAGE OF SKILLS IN POST-GRADUATE MARKETING PROGRAMS
Academics and the professional marketers agreed on the three key skills that are
generally covered or developed in post-graduate programs. These are; marketing
comprehension, written communication and analytical skills. According to Middleton
and Long (1990) and Hill, et al., (1998) the more a skill is continually practised, the
greater the understanding of the use of that skill. However, there were skills identified in
this research that marketing professionals believe should be used more but were not
included within their post-graduate programs. For example, one respondent explained:
“I actually had to go and undertake a management degree once I finished my masters of
marketing.” (Mr. S., Marketing Director). Others marketing professionals had a similar
views including:
“I have had little sales experience, and the ability to negotiate with staff I find hard. There was little use of this skill within the post graduate degree I completed.” (Ms. J., Marketing Manager)
Other respondents prioritised other aspects of the skills required of a marketing
manager. For example;
“We had one subject in basic accounting. I know they cannot teach us everything, but they should know what is important and what is not. I would assume the understandings of the company financials are important for all companies.” (Mr. P., Director of Marketing).
In some cases respondents views differed, however. For instance Mr. L., (Marketing
Manager) opined that creative thinking skills should be emphasised more stating that;
“creative thinking in my experiences was probably frowned upon. We were given
assignments that had strict guidelines. If we wavered outside these, our marks could
suffer.” However, marketing practitioners presented an alternative view to the
academics. For example;
“Students often forget that the interaction with other students, from different levels of
industry and areas that are foreign, actually increase the students ability to interact.”
(Mr. A., Lecturer in Business). Other academics had a similar view, “Many skills the
141
student’s do not know they are actually using. For example, research uses many skills,
not just the ability to undertake research.” (Dr. A., Lecturer in Business). This is also
consistent with the statement by Mr. J., (Lecturer in Business) who advised;
“We see the students actually using people skills, interpersonal skills, forming teams and leading their groups. It is a pity they do not understand what is actually happening.”
The comments provided by the academics suggest that some important skills can form
part of the hidden curriculum. In other words some skills may be developed outside of
the overt objectives of the program.
The marketing professionals and the academics that were interviewed agreed on the
importance of marketing skills within all post-graduate programs. This emphasis on
marketing skill sets and conceptual knowledge is also consistent with the studies by
Shipp et al., (1993) and Lamb et al., (1995) whose focus on developing conceptual
knowledge equates to the theoretical basis of marketing theory. This knowledge tends to
be long lasting, which can be the foundation for the establishment of a career in
marketing. The study by Schlee and Harich (2004) also noted that the conceptual
knowledge of the discipline of marketing has a relatively long life cycle, when
compared with various technical skills. The distinction between what skills should be
emphasised is also dependent on the level of education attained. Technical or practical
skills, for example, are more useful for lower level or entry level positions. The
respondents, however, in this research already had at least three years’ experience in a
marketing position and would, therefore have developed various levels of technical or
practical skills during that time. Their intention in enrolling into post-graduate degrees
in marketing could, therefore, be to acquire new skills or advanced skills or to improve
on their existing skill base. Ultimately, it would seem from these interviews, that some
respondents believe that there is no way to develop all of the skills within a single post
graduate program. What is included in these programs, however, may not be a strategic
decision on the part of higher education providers but, according to Lamb, et al., (1995)
could simply be based on time constraints within a crowded curriculum.
142
4 6.3: THE EMPHASIS OF SKILLS IN POST-GRADUATE MARKETING PROGRAMS
The previous research question considered how much coverage Higher Education
Institutions placed on important skills. The results in this section consider how much
emphasis or importance is placed on the skills in post-graduate programs. In this
research, it refers to the importance that Higher Education Institutions place on skills
within post-graduate marketing programs.
The results indicate a high level of agreement among marketing managers and lecturers
that: marketing comprehension, analytical and written communication skills are of
primary importance. The marketing management recruitment consultants that were
interviewed had an alternative view, however, placing a higher value on people
management, leadership interpersonal, financial and creative thinking skills. The views
of the respondents are identified in the following statements;
“People management, negotiation and creative skills are what I have come to learn from my post-graduate degree. They were not emphasised enough for my needs. These are skills I need to aid my career progress.” (Mr. G., Senior Product Manager).
“Marketing managers had a similar view; advising that the ability to get it done is paramount in any organisation. In order for this to happen, then I need to have advanced negotiation skills. These were not practised within the post-graduate degree that I undertook.” (Mr. B., Sales and Marketing Manager).
“Leadership skills, in that how to lead, the process of leadership was surely lacking in my post-graduate program.” (Mr. G., Marketing Director).
“I had to do a management degree after completing my masters of marketing management. Why not just do a Bachelor of Management? It would have been a lot easier and more applicable to my career aspirations.” (Mr. S., Marketing Director).
“Stats, stats and stats. I still have a phobia of them, but given the amount of time we were going through them, I understand them now. Perhaps, I am less intimidated by them now.”(Mr. C., Marketing Director).
143
Marketing management recruitment consultants appear to have similar beliefs as
describe above. For example, the following statements all align to the views of the
marketing managers as described before.
“I have many Masters applicants for senior positions who have no experience in management, but they seek senior positions because they feel their degrees have taught them what they know. There has to be managerial subjects in a marketing degree.” (Ms. O., Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant).
Mrs. K., (Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant) also supports Ms O by
stating, “Having a Masters in Marketing will not aid your career, unless you can manage
people.”
The results indicate some disagreement between what is taught by academics in post
graduate marketing programs and what the marketing professionals believe is most
important namely, creative thinking and leadership skills. The marketing professionals
that responded to this research believe that these skills were developed within the post-
graduate programs that they had undertaken. Consequently, there appear to be gaps in
the curricula of post-graduate marketing programs in relation to the skills that are
developed in the academic realm and the skills that are required within the workplace.
The academics interviewed in this study disagreed, however, suggesting that many of
the skills are embedded in the program structure. For example;
“Yes we teach creative skills. It is up to the student to come up with their own idea to solve problems. This is a post-graduate degree, so we give students more opportunities and scope to solve problems.” (Dr. A., Lecturer in Business).
This is furthered by Mr. G., (Lecturer in Business) who states,
“We get students to use leadership and management skills. They have to form groups, interact with other students of various cultures. This teaches the students life learning skills.”
What is clear is there is a difference of opinion on managerial skills. The respondents all
agree that are important, if not imperative to possess, but the research question of this
144
thesis considers if they are emphasised enough given their importance as shown
previously in this chapter.
4.7: THE TASKS OF MARKETING MANAGERS
This next phase of the interviews moved to consider the CIM Professional Standard
Framework and specifically whether the skills presented in that framework might be
suited to the Australian marketing environment. As such, respondents were asked
whether or not they felt the CIM Professional Standard Framework was applicable for
Australian marketing managers. The overall response was positive with comments like;
“Yes it is. [but] I would also add financial tasks since this is what I am evaluated on”
(Mr. S., Marketing Director). Mr. G., (Senior Product Manager) also had a similar
opinion, “I have to show a budget. Essentially it is a mini profit and loss statement”. He
went on to ask “Where is the financials in this model?” Their opinion was also similar
to Mr. S., (Director of Marketing) who stated, “As a marketing director, I have to show
the board how much money we make and spend. I have to be responsible for out goings
of my department. Financials are where in this model?”
The comments above illustrate the need for financial skills to be added to the CIM
model. Financial skills appear to influence many areas of the marketing function. In
other words, the performance of a marketing manager is assessed on the basis of their
ability to meet financial targets. These responses suggest that there is a need to include
financial tasks in the CIM Professional Standard Framework. The inclusion of financial
tasks was not just based on the remarks of the marketing professionals interviewed in
this thesis. Lecturers and management recruitment consultants also held this view. For
example: “Marketing is not just spending money on promotions. They have to be
accountable. This is why we include accounting in the program curricula.”(Mr. A.,
Lecturer in Business). This view was shared by marketing management recruitment
consultants such as Mr. B., who stated that, “I am often asked by my clients about the
need to understand advanced accounting principles by prospective applicants.” Mrs. K.,
(Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant) also remarked that “If marketers see
themselves as the next General Manager, then they better understand the financials of an
organisation.”
145
Responses to questions on the CIM framework were not confined to financial skills,
however. Numerous respondents also reported a need to include creativity within the
CIM Professional Framework model. For example, Ms. J., (Marketing Manager) stated
that; “being creative is not about finding something new, but rather looking at a problem
in a different way. There appears no provision for creativity within the CIM
framework.” This view was supported by Ms. C., (Marketing Management Recruitment
Consultant) who states that, “I am asked for evidence of creative tasks by my clients.
They often want more than skills.”
It is worth noting that even though there was an apparent need to include creative tasks
in the CIM framework, some respondents believed creativity is not a task, but rather a
combination of skills that could be applied to virtually all of the tasks listed in the CIM
Professional Framework.
4.7.1: CIM PROFESSIONAL FRAMEWORK
The CIM Professional Framework is divided into seven activities with various tasks in
each. The first section to be discussed is Research and Analysis.
4.7.1.1: RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS There was some agreement among the respondents that data analysis is an
important task For example; “The ability to analyse company information and
competitor information is mandatory in most if not all business positions” (Mr. C.,
Marketing Director). Another respondent, Mr. A., (Marketing Manager) stated
that, “Analysing data, looking for opportunities, reviewing our plans, understand
the marketing process, this is our job.” However, these opinions were not always
supported by other marketing managers, who offered an alternative view,
“If you say, reviewing sales reports and marketing data from our suppliers, representatives as looking at competitors, then yes. However, formalised marketing analysis, I am not sure where we can get that information from. I put it down to the information I like to have and must have.” (Mr. L., Marketing Manager).
It could be that the marketers understand the industry and its dynamics. For example;
146
“Many of the marketing professionals in this company were sales representatives. They understand the industry and their competitors. Formalised competitor analysis is really not done, though I can see the need for it. Basically, we do not have time.” (Mr. B., Marketing Manager
These comments are not consistent with research by Gray et al., (2007) whose results
suggest that market research and analysis are the most important tasks a marketing
manager undertakes. However, there appeared to be a difference between the analysis of
information and formalised analysis of marketing research as noted in the following
quote:
“At my role as a senior marketing director, I am not involved in this. In reality, the amount of information that is available via the internet means that I am often loath to spend money on formalised marketing research projects. Yes we undertake them, but they are mostly in house and really not often.” (Mr. S., Marketing Director).
Other marketing professionals did commission research and placed a high value on it:
“I actually commission many marketing research consultants. I use focus groups with prospective customers as I want to watch them with our new products. I do not use much quantitative research, though the consultants often push this as it takes too long and is expensive. It really is a choice and often my budget does not allow me to do it.” (Mr. G., Marketing Manager).
Alternatively, it may not be the actual research which marketers seek in terms of skills,
but rather the analytical understanding of data.
Mr. G., (Group Marketing Manager) suggests this when he states; “Many marketing research consultants appear at our door, and I am bemused about their methodology and their interpretations. I could not understand unless I had experience within my marketing degrees.”
Marketing research tasks appear to be considered as not very important within the of
scheme developing marketing managers. It is possible for example that the marketers in
the contemporary marketing environment do not require formal research skills but do
require the ability to interpret research. The comments presented above are consistent
with Gray’s, et al., (2007) study which concluded that the high rating of marketing
research may actually infer it is the analysis of the information that is important rather
than actually conducting it.
147
Another issue of note is that there is so much information on the web that the need for
formalised marketing research is being questioned as was the case with the marketing
professionals above. According to Achrol and Kotler (1999), the data explosion via the
web has allowed marketers to respond better with access to information on most
marketing metrics. This would suggest that the use of databases and customer
information may require a different type of marketing research skill among today’s
marketing professionals, especially in relation to social media where the analysis of “big
data” has become the norm.
4.7.1.2: STRATEGY AND PLANNING Respondents acknowledged the importance of this marketing activity however it was
found to be most important for the academics and marketing management recruitment
consultants. This is evident in the following statements;
“Planning within the university curriculum is often the capstone subject. It is where we
combine many subjects into one and get the students to think outside the square.” (Dr.
A., Lecturer in Marketing). This is similar to the views expressed by marketing
management recruitment consultant, Ms. A. states, “The degree of planning they
undertake provides me with an indication of their holistic business capabilities. This is
very important for senior marketing positions.”
However, there are respondents whose opinions disagree with the inclusion of planning
in the CIM model. For example; “Marketers today are surely tactical, not strategic. If
this is the case, then why include strategy given there are many other subjects Higher
Education should be teaching them.” (Mr. B., Sales and Marketing Manager). However,
the degree of planning may be dependent on the size and seniority of the marketing
professional. For example;
“At my level of marketing within the company, company strategy is not an important factor. I am more tactical, rather than strategic. I am paid to get results and within my career plan, I do not expect to be here too long.” (Mr. G., Senior Product Manager).
The concern with planning was that there may be a misinterpretation of what it actually
entails. This is illustrated by Ms. A., (Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant)
view;
148
“Marketing strategy, as I see it is more about writing a marketing plan. I believe that many employers view this as being strategic. To my knowledge, it is not.”
This view is shared by other marketing management recruitment consultants. For
example; “Strategy is often asked for by my clients. When they infer strategy, they often
mean achieving and writing marketing plans” (Mrs. K., Marketing Management
Recruitment Consultant).
These statements raise questions about whether or not there is misrepresentation of the
term, strategy. The term could be related to the level of development of the marketing
professional. Schlee and Harich (2010) suggested there were significant differences
between the skills sought for marketers who had five years and more, and those with
much less. A similar view is expressed by a marketing director below:
“As a Marketing Director, I have to think of the big picture. It is my job to think of the long term goals of the company. My Product Managers, Marketing Managers are not concerned about this as I want them to achieve budgets, normally annually. To them strategy is a marketing plan.” (Mr. S., Marketing Director)
There were conflicting comments on the importance of marketing strategy, however,
this is in keeping with Hooley, et al., (1990) who suggested that chief marketing
officers are becoming more tactical, rather than strategic, though more product
managers prefer to be strategic (Tyagi and Sawheny, 2010). In any event, there appears
to be a difference of opinion about whether marketing professionals are considered
more strategic or tactical with regards to the tasks they need to complete. This has an
effect on the tasks they need to achieve to become established in their career.
4.7.1.3: BRANDS Of the respondents who commented on branding or brand strategy, only two marketing
professionals saw this as important. For example:
“Branding really was not mentioned within the post-graduate program I completed.
Within my marketing career, now it is stressed more and more.”(Mr. A., Marketing
Director). While other marketing professionals were adamant that the importance of
149
branding is often over-looked, there was a view that “branding is not understood by
many marketing professionals. It is seen by many marketers from my experience as a
corporate responsibility.”(Ms. J., Marketing Manager). While some respondents’ agreed
there is not much emphasis on branding tasks within their marketing responsibilities, no
respondent believed that it should not be on their list. This view is also supported by an
experienced marketing academic who stated that:
“It is my opinion that branding and brand strategy should be emphasised more within the post-graduate programs this Higher Education Institution and others offer. There appears a lack of understanding of the value of branding and this may hinder a graduate’s career progress.” (Mr. S., Lecturer in Business).
Other lecturers agreed advising that “branding could be considered a short program, as
it would provide the level of understanding this important topic deserves” (Dr. A.,
Lecturer in Business)
There appears to be an acknowledgment by the respondents who were interviewed that
branding is important, but they questioned how often the task is actually undertaken.
This is not consistent with the literature however. For example, Lehmann and Winer
(2004) suggest marketing managers are responsible for building and maintaining brand
equity over a lengthy period of time. At the same time Gray, et al., (2007) suggested
that brand management was one of the most important tasks a marketing manager must
undertake.
4.7.1.4: IMPLEMENTATION OF MARKETING PROGRAMS Implementation of the marketing program within the CIM Professional Standard
Framework really refers to the elements of the marketing mix. There were many
comments from the marketing managers about this section of the framework. They all
agreed this task is probably the most important issue, as it actually implements their
plans. For example:
“This is what I really do. Make sure the 4P’s are going to work. In my industry, the channels are not as important as others, but the promotions including sales strategy are imperative to my employment.” (Mr G., Senior Product Manager).
150
In support of this, Mr. B., (Sales and Marketing Manager) claims, “I spend so much
time on the costing, pricing and the product development, the rest appears not as
important, though I know it is.” Other marketing managers also support this from
various different industries; “In my industry and the competitiveness of similar
products, the promotions, particularly sales promotions and sales representatives are the
key.” (Mr. S., Marketing Director). Though some of the respondents suggest, it is not
the marketing mix, but a component of the implementation tasks, such as segmentation
that is more important. For example, “We have so many customers, understanding them
and segmentation are key. This allows me to create various marketing 4P’s for different
segments.” (Mr. L., Marketing Manager). However, Ms. J., (Marketing Manager) view
is indicative of most of the marketing managers interviewed;
“Really, we are taught the 4P’s in our post-graduate degrees. This section appears to have most of the headings I would undertake in my professional marketing role.” (Ms. J., Marketing Manager).
These comments appear to be supported by previous studies. Dawes and Patterson’s
(1987) study showed, for example, that product managers’ important tasks were Product
Development and Coordination and Implementation. These activities are listed in the
CIM Professional Standard Framework. The respondents in this thesis also highlighted
the need to look beyond the 4P’s;
“In my level of marketing, I consider which projects are viable and in line with my marketing objectives. The 4P’s to me is more of a functional level, where my role is more strategic.” (Mr. P., Director of Marketing).
Other comments suggested that a number of senior marketing managers share this view,
for example:
“I am a Marketing Director of a multi-national firm. The marketing mix is not my sole purpose as a Marketing Director. I think I am employed for the big picture.” (Mr. G., Director of Marketing).
This difference in views is consistent with the research by Schlee and Harich (2010)
who proposed the activities of a marketing manager are dependent on levels of
seniority. Previous studies by Lehmann and Winer (2004) also suggested the structure
of the company has an effect on the activities of a marketing manager or their
151
responsibilities (Hooley, et al., 1990), for instance, whether they have international
responsibilities (Lundstrum and White, 1997). These comments appear to be consistent
with other studies on the tasks involved in marketing. For instance, Hooley et al.,
(1990) claimed that promotions, advertising were key tasks a marketing manager is
responsible for, while Melaia, et al., (2008) posited implementation and all of its
elements are the most important tasks of a product manager.
The emphasis on the 4P’s component of marketing is not confined to the marketing
professionals within the interviews conducted for this research however. The following
comments from experienced marketing management recruitment consultants support
this:
“Many of my clients are HR focused. They may have undertaken a basic business degree majoring in HR. Often this degree has a marketing subject. Many of them view marketing as the 4P’s.” (Ms. O., Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant).
“4P’s to a non-marketer is what marketing is about. This is why I am asked about this and put it in my job advertisements by many of my clients who are not in marketing.” (Ms. A., Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant).
These comments suggest that industry places emphasis on the marketing mix. However,
this may be a symptom of how marketing is generally taught. For example, Mr. J.,
(Lecturer in Business) stated:
“As academics we have to break this monotony of using the 4P’s. Unfortunately we created it, but it is used all too often in our academic teaching. Marketers’ then focus on it when they are in their marketing career”.
Indeed, Dr. A., (Lecturer in Business) claims, “4P’s is not marketing! However, it is
taught that way in Higher Education Institutions.”
These comments by marketing management recruitment consultants and academics
reflect to the emphasis of marketing within Higher Education Institutions. It appears the
emphasis on the 4P’s has influenced, in part, the way it is seen by others who are not in
the industry. What is clear from these comments by the respondents above is the section
152
on Implementation of the Marketing Program is applicable to the marketing managers in
this thesis. Of particular interest was how professional marketers use project
management tasks as a method of achieving their tasks related goals. For example;
“I have three programs to release out per year. I cannot do this by myself, so I use other staff to run projects for me. Once a program has been released, then we start the next. I am really a project manager of marketing.” (Mr. S., Marketing Director).
Other marketers have a similar view. For example; “As a marketing director, I have
many projects running at once. I have to stay on top of them from a strategic and a cost
point of view.”(Mr. P., Marketing Director).
The importance of this task refers to the diversity of responsibilities a marketing
manager may undertake. The study by Dawes and Patterson (1987) on product
managers rated project management as the equal highest important task to undertake.
This research considers not just product managers, but marketing professionals who
have many years’ experience. Of the five management consultants interviewed, four of
them considered project management to be very important in the career of a marketing
manager. Their response in part is influenced by their clients. For example;
“Project Management as a task is required by marketing employers, since nearly all of the management consultants claim to ask for this in their applicant interviews.” (Ms. O., Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant).
“Project management must be the new buzz word for managerial experience. My clients often see this experience as being mandatory in their applicant specifications.” (Mrs. K., Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant).
The results in this section suggest the task of Project Management is becoming more
important and accordingly, it is worthy of inclusion in the next stage of this thesis, the
quantitative research phase.
4.7.1.5: MEASURING EFFECTIVENESS All of the marketing professionals cited the need to write marketing reports for senior
management. The reports could be reference to plans, briefs for advertising agencies or
153
outsourcing to other states or even countries. Furthermore, marketing managers are
often measured by their ability to meet objectives, which are generally sales and cost
driven targets. Though, they have said the task, “Marketing reports8 to senior
management”, as being important to undertake, it could be the content of the marketing
reports the respondents are referring to
Many of the respondents acknowledge the other tasks mentioned in the CIM
Professional Framework (monitor actual results against planned performance) as being
included in report writing. For instance; “Many new employees do not understand the
need to be very competent from an administrative perspective.” (Mr. Gr., Marketing
Director). Another response by Mr. B., (Sales and Marketing Manager) cited the need to
be quick and effective in report writing, “How many emails a day do I get? They have
to be answered professionally and quickly.” Other statements by Mr. G., (Senior
Product Manager) also support this; “The reports have to be available when and where
they are required. They have to provide evidence of what I am doing and what I have
planned to do. They keep my job.”
Nearly all of the marketing management recruitment consultants interviewed for this
thesis agreed that those in senior marketing positions often have to communicate
effectively to board members, clients or other external stakeholders. Thus, a critical skill
for marketing managers, particularly those who aspire to be General Managers, is to
have advanced levels of communication. To demonstrate this, (Mr. B., Marketing
Management Recruitment Consultant) stated;
“This task relates to their written communication skills which they believe are extremely important for any senior executive.” (Mr. B., Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant)
Effective report writing could also be related to the need for marketers to highlight their
contributions to the company. This includes being able to communicate financial
information because often (Baker and Hart, 2007), the performance of marketing
8 Marketing reports in this thesis refer to documents the marketing manager will show senior management related to their
performance. These could be a marketing plan, financial and sales figures, industry analysis or even a new product development
proposal.
154
professionals is gauged by their ability to meet financial targets. The importance of
these reports could, therefore, be seen as a direct report of their contribution to the
organisation and justification for promotion or indeed their ongoing employment.
4.7.1.6: MANAGING PEOPLE. The interview data also revealed that these marketing managers saw managing people as
a key task. The following examples capture the importance of managing people:
“Really this category should be expanded. Only three tasks in the management
personnel. I can think of many more” states Mr. S. (Marketing Director). This is similar
to Mr. B., (Sales and Marketing Manager) who stated “I have over 15 staff working
under me. I am no longer a functional marketer, but a manager.”
Ms. J., (Marketing Manager) has a similar view; “Marketing is not just marketing to customers, and it is marketing to staff. If there is not some form of synergy between states, divisions and operations, you will probably not last long”, She opined.
These responses further contribute to our understanding of the importance of
management to the marketing function. The response of a marketing director in
particular sums up the need for management skills in contemporary marketing. For
example:
“As I look at the CIM framework, I actually looked for the management function. If it was not there, then I know your research is not complete and you are wasting my time.” (Mr. S., Marketing Director).
Further evidence supporting this is provided by Mr. C., (Marketing Director) who was
adamant that:
“Marketing is managing people and processes. What I need is people who can do both, not processes. If you cannot, then this will hinder your career aspirations in this profession.”
The respondents provide evidence both in terms of number of marketing recruitment
consultants who cite the importance of management in marketing, but also in their
strong feelings of the amount of management that is required in a marketing position.
For example; “I have a marketing team and sales team all reporting to me. My position
155
is all about managing people”. (Mr. S., Marketing Director). His opinion is shared by
others, such as Ms. J., (Marketing Manager) who stated; “I have five product managers,
a brand manager and a marketing assistant, as well as a promotions manager all
reporting to me. My work is all about managing people.”
The importance of managing people was also acknowledged by the academics
interviewed for this thesis. For example:
“I understand the importance of managing people to ensure the activities of a marketer are implemented. I just don’t see it in the program we are using. That withstanding, the skills of management are embedded in most of the subjects they are undertake.” (Mr. G., Lecturer in Business).
Mr J (Lecturer in Business) describes management as important though he claims it is
embedded in the programs,
“I believe Higher Education Institutions recognise the importance of managerial skills in the marketing industry. How students interact, how the work in teams are in fact managerial skills. Many students do not understand this.”
The respondents have indicated the importance of the tasks and the suitability of the
CIM framework to the marketing tasks of the post-graduate marketing professionals
who have at least three years’ experience interviewed for this study.
4.8: STEP 3 – CONCLUSION AND VERIFICATION
Within other forms of research, quantitative for example, the issues of reliability and
validity are constantly demonstrated. Within the field of qualitative research, it is the
rigour of the actual collection, analysing and the presentation of the results that assist in
the development of theory (Hair, Lukas and Miller (2012) and the credibility of the
results. Within the context of qualitative research, validity and reliability are different to
quantitative research (Hair, et al., 2012). Instead of these terms, qualitative researchers
consider rigour, dependability, transferability and trustworthiness. It is also noted that
qualitative researchers may consider validity and reliability as not appropriate as there is
156
no one-way to interpret the results.
Within this chapter, credibility of the data is achieved by ensuring the respondents who
participated in the interviews all had at least 10 years’ experience in their field and were
also interested in the outcomes of this thesis, thus allowing them to answer the questions
and contribute to the study honestly on the basis that they were keen to see the results.
Nevertheless, the mixed methods approach was employed to allow triangulation of data
and to ensure that the data provided by a small sample of purposefully selected
respondents could be verified with a larger sample.
4.8.1: CONTRIBUTION OF QUALITATIVE FINDINGS TO QUANTITATIVE STUDY
As noted earlier, the methodology selected for this research was to use a mixed methods
approach. This combination of qualitative and quantitative methods allowed the
researcher to gain a further understanding by uncovering a divergent range of views
about the skills and tasks needed by marketing managers to establish their careers and
the context of these skills. At the same time each phase of the research was designed to
add to the development of a practical list of important skills that could be tested with an
appropriate group of respondent to continually refined and distil those skills that are
central to the role of a marketing manager.
To this end, the qualitative results allowed the researcher to clarify the skills and tasks
that respondents believed were important to establish their careers. The content analysis
of the job advertisements and position descriptions, together with the curriculum review
allowed the researcher to develop a set of skills which facilitated the implementation of
in-depth interviews.
Analysis of the interview data reveals a consistent theme of the importance of people
management skills as seen by all respondent’s groups, followed by financial skills as
reported by the marketing managers and marketing management recruitment
consultants. It was only the academics who saw marketing comprehension skills as of
prime importance.
157
The results of the in-depth analysis for research question number one (What are the
important skills marketing managers need to undertake the tasks required for career
establishment?) revealed many discrepancies between academics and marketing
professionals as to what are important skills. Marketing comprehension, interpersonal
and creative skills were considered differently across the respondent groups. However,
there was consensus among respondents in relation to people management, negotiation
with staff and financial skills. The next quantitative stage (Phase Four) will consider
which of these skills is important relative to each other.
The results of the second research question (What are the perceptions of marketing
managers, who have undertaken postgraduate education, of the effectiveness of the
programs in covering important skills for their career establishment?) revealed
academics and the professional marketers agreed that three key skills were covered in
the post-graduate programs These were; marketing comprehension skills, written
communication and analytical skills. However, there were other skills marketing
professionals believe should have been developed further more within their post-
graduate degree. These include negotiation, financial and creative skills.
The results of the third research questions established a high level of agreement by
marketing managers and lecturers in the emphasis in post-graduate marketing programs:
marketing comprehension, analytical and written communication skills. The marketing
management recruitment consultants had an alternative view. In particular, the
marketing management recruitment consultants placed a high value on people
management, leadership interpersonal, financial and creative thinking skills.
The last research question was designed to determine the tasks that post-graduate
marketing professional need to master in order to develop their career. The CIM
Professional Standard Framework was used and the marketing professionals agreed this
is appropriate for an Australian context. The respondents also suggested that financial
tasks should be included in the CIM Professional Standard framework. This was
consistent across all of the groups of respondents interviewed in the qualitative stage of
this thesis. The results of the interviews suggest there is a need for marketers to be able
to develop skills to assist them to analyse the results of market research but the need for
158
formalised marketing research skills to conduct research is not seen as important for
their career enhancement.
Planning tasks were not considered important for marketing managers in terms of the
everyday responsibilities the respondents have to undertake. Though there is evidence in
the literature about the need for tactical rather than strategic planning (Hooley, et al.
1990), it does not appear to be as important as might have previously been perceived.
Branding was only acknowledged as being important by two marketing professionals
despite the fact that Keller (1998) suggests there is a proliferation of brands and that this
will affect the brand strategy of the present marketing manager. Further research from
Phase Three provides additional insights into the importance of this marketing activity.
The respondents appeared to concentrate on the 4P’s as activities that are important to
their career. In addition, the management consultants commented on the importance of
project management tasks. There was no mention of these skills by any of the
respondents as important in the previous research question, Question 1 in Phase Three.
This question was endeavouring to determine the important skills the marketing
manager requires for their career establishment. Four of the five Marketing
Management Recruitment Consultants interviewed highlighted the importance of this
task however; further research is required to ascertain if this is an important task for the
today’s marketing manager.
4.9: SUMMARY
The in-depth interviews identified a wide range of skills as important for the marketing
manager in undertaking the wide range of tasks and activities that form part of their
cross-functional role. In all, 14 skills were identified in the early content analysis stage
of this research. The subsequent examination of the important skills in the in-depth
interviews confirmed the significance of these to the marketing manager’s performance.
Furthermore, there appeared to be a lack of agreement on the importance of some skill
to the marketing manager. As a consequence it was decided to examine the importance
of each of these skills with a large sample of marketing professionals in the next phase
of the research. The in-depth interview also provided clarification of the tasks and
159
activities of the marketing manager and provided support for the use of the CIM
Professional Framework for classification of these tasks in the next phase of the
research.
The in-depth interview also drew to the researcher’s attention to a broad level of
disagreement concerning the effectiveness of post-graduate programs in delivering the
skills required for marketing professionals to establish their careers in the contemporary
marketing environment. The following chapter, (Chapter 5) examines this further and
presents the results of the next (quantitative) phase of the research.
160
CHAPTER 5: QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
5.1: INTRODUCTION
The study sought to understand marketers’ perceptions of the role their post-graduate
education played in developing their skills. These issues were explored in the literature
review in Chapter 2, and the exploratory research, conducted, and reported in Chapter 4,
also to set the groundwork for this larger quantitative study. The purpose of the
quantitative study was to examine the skills and career anchors of established, post-
graduate marketing managers. The inclusion of the quantitative phase (Phase 4) allows
the researcher to examine the observations found in the previous phase to a much larger
population. The study employed a mail survey to solicit the perceptions of marketing
professionals and a total of 419 useable responses were collected.
This chapter begins with a brief description of the survey, followed by a justification of
the response rate and an assessment of normality, validity and reliability. The sample
size justification and methods of analysis are presented and a discussion of the profile of
the survey participants is included. The chapter ends with a discussion of the quantitative
results relative to the five research questions posited in this thesis.
5.2: SURVEY
The data collection instrument had three distinct sections. The first section was designed
to answer the research questions related to the perceptions of skills and contributions of
post-graduate studies to their skills. These are the skills the respondents believed were
important to the establishment of their careers. Question 1 in Section One asked, What
are the important skills marketers use to establish in their career? Question 2 asked, What
important skills are adequately covered in post-graduate marketing programs. Question 3
asked what important skills were emphasised in post-graduate marketing programs of the
survey. Section Two sought to ascertain respondent’s perceptions about the tasks they
undertook as a marketing manager. This section sought to answer Question 15 (What
tasks of the CIM Professional Standard Framework do post-graduate marketing
161
managers undertake?) and Question 16 (What important tasks of CIM Professional
Standard Framework do post-graduate marketing managers undertake?) The last Section,
Section 3 collected respondent’s perceptions on career anchors. A copy of the survey is
provided at Appendix 9 and a copy of the covering letter is provided in Appendix 8.
5.3: SURVEY RESPONSE RATE
In the two weeks leading up to the dispatch of the survey invitation, the List Bank had
been up-dated and the address and profile of all list members was validated. It was
considered that this list-update would have limited the number of non-respondents due to
inaccurate contact details. Moreover, as the survey was seen to be tailored to the interests
of the respondents; it was thought that this may have contributed to a strong response
rate (Goyder, 1982). In addition, the conduct of the research under the auspices of a
university, rather than from commercial sources, was considered to have the potential to
improve the response ratio. A response rate of 17.8% was obtained. The response rate is
defined as the number of completed questionnaires returned, divided by the original
sample (Faria and Dickinson, 1992). The response rate of 17.8% was considered low, but
however, it is consistent with the low response rate achieved in most mail surveys. It was
considered that the lack of follow-up of non-respondents also contributed to the low level
of overall survey response (Parasuraman, 1982).
Care was taken throughout the research design and implementation not to introduce bias
into the research that would result in misleading findings. Whilst there was some concern
about the low response rate to the survey, it was felt that this rate did not introduce bias
into the data analysis and research findings. The principal reason for non-response was
considered most likely to be that respondents, who were in senior professional marketing
roles, were managing strong demands on their time and so did not have time to complete
the survey. This is consistent with Peiperl and Baruch’s (1997) contention the present
market place, with all of its stresses and time constraints, may deter respondents from
completing questionnaires. This finding was also consistent with observations of the
Australian Market Research Society about the declining response rates in Australia,
which were similar to the declining response rates in the USA (Malhotra et al., 2004). A
162
very small number of non-responses (four in total) were due to the addressee no longer
being at the address where the survey was sent.
5.4: RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF SURVEY INSTRUMENT
This section is designed to provide the reader with details related to the reliability and
validity of the survey instrument. Content validity refers to the extent to which a scale
measures what it is supposed to measure (Peter, 1979). Most items in this survey were
single-item measures designed to assess individual skill levels and tasks undertaken
(Sections One and Two of the survey instrument). These single item survey measures
had been used in prior research and found to be reliable.
In Section Three of the survey, the career anchor survey scale was used because as it
had demonstrated a high degree of reliability and internal validity. The survey
instrument contained 41 items that measured nine career anchors. These career anchors
were validated by Igbaria and Baroudi (1993); Hsu, Jiang, Klein and Tang (2003) and
Custodio (2000). The career anchors survey scale was used to identify the respondents’
career anchors. In this study, the reliability and internal consistency of the scale was
tested using Cronbach’s alpha (Churchill, 1979). All career anchors, with the exception
of Entrepreneurial Creativity were found to be reliable, as they were within the
acceptable range of 0.5 and 0.8 (Nunally, 1967). The career anchor of Entrepreneurial
Creativity was excluded from analysis and discussion as it fell below the acceptable
level. The reliability of the career anchor scale in this study is outlined in Table 5.1
163
Table 5.1: Reliability of Career Anchor Scale in Main Study
Career Anchor Cronbach’s Alpha
Managerial Importance 0.72 Life style Integration 0.82
Sense of service 0.63
Pure Challenge 0.65
Autonomy 0.84
Organisational stability 0.76
Entrepreneurial Creativity 0.49
Geographic Security 0.82
Technical and Functional Competence 0.65
External validity is the extent to which the results can be generalised to other
populations, situations or conditions (Peter, 1981; Redmond and Griffith, 2003). In this
study, external validity will be established if the findings from the examination of the
respondents can be seen to be a good predictor of roles, skills and motivations of
professional marketers in Australia more generally (Brennan, Camm and Tanas, 2007).
In this research the external validity of the results has been achieved by using multiple
data sources (Leedy and Ormrod, 2005), in an attempt to understand the tasks and skills
that allow marketing managers to become established in their career.
5.4.1: MISSING VALUES
As missing values often represent some subset of the population, large numbers of
missing values can impact the generalizability of the results. Generally, both the
randomness and the number of missing values are important (Hair, Anderson, Tatham,
Black, 1998). Of the 450 surveys returned, 31 contained missing values. In reviewing
the responses with missing data, the researcher was aware of the implications of
deletion of the missing responses, but found it necessary to delete all cases as the data
obtained in the questionnaires appeared to have been either severely compromised
through missing values or flat lined (that is, same response for each question) when
questions were answered, and was considered not suitable for use in data analysis. The
percentage of missing values was 6.88%.
164
5.4.2: ASSESSMENT OF NORMALITY
Statistical research suggests if variables are normally distributed, the solution is
enhanced. To the extent that normality fails, the solution is degraded but may still be
worthwhile (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001). Therefore, before any analysis of data was
undertaken, the data was checked to see that this criterion of normality had been met.
The severity of non-normality is seen to be a function of two dimensions: the shape of
the data distribution and the sample size (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson and Tatham,
2006). The shape of the distribution can be described by two measures: kurtosis and
skewness. Kurtosis refers to the “peakedness’’ or “flatness” of the distribution, whilst
skewness refers to the symmetry of the distribution. When a distribution is normal, the
values of kurtosis and skewness are zero (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2001).
Examination of the univariate kurtosis value and its critical ratio (i.e., z-value) listed for
each of the variables was undertaken. The data revealed positive values from 0.007 to
157.734, and negative values from -1.685 to -0.027, yielding an overall mean kurtosis
value of > 1.00. Whilst Kline (2005) noted there is no clear consensus on the value of
large non-zero values before conclusions of extreme kurtosis can be drawn, West, Finch
and Curran (1995) consider a rescaled standardised kurtosis index (β2) with values
equal to or greater than 7 to be indicative of early departure from normality. Hence,
using this value of 7 as a guide, the results in this research can be viewed as
substantially kurtotic.
Examination of the univariate skewness value and its critical ratio (i.e., z-value) listed
for each of the variables was undertaken. The data revealed positive values from 0.006
to 11.210, and negative values from -1.832 to -0.004. A review of the critical z-value for
skewness also revealed non-zero values that indicate the distribution is non-normal in
terms of that characteristic. Having examined the shape of the distribution and
established that it departs from normality, the researcher has also taken into
consideration the effects of sample size (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson and Tatham,
2006). Hair et al. (2006) noted that larger sample sizes reduce the detrimental effects of
non-normality, and for sample sizes of 200 or more the effect of non-normality may be
negligible. Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) similarly noted that in large samples the
impact of departure from zero values of kurtosis and skewness does not make a
165
substantive difference in the analysis. As the sample size in this data collection is over
200, the researcher can be less concerned about non-normal variables. Accordingly, it
was concluded that no adjustments need to be made to the data to account for non-
normality.
5.4.3: DATA SCREENING
In this phase of the analysis, the data were examined to ensure the statistical
requirements were met for the statistical technique being undertaken. The survey
responses were examined individually to ensure the respondents met the requirements
of having a marketing manager title, a post-graduate marketing qualification and at least
three years’ work experience. All of the respondents met the job title and the experience
requirement. Screening of the post-graduate marketing qualifications also revealed that
within five of the 450 useable surveys the qualifications mentioned were not post-
graduate marketing qualifications. One respondent had a PhD, two respondents had an
MBA, one respondent had an information technology qualification and one respondent
had finance and accounting qualifications. These respondents were excluded from the
data analysis.
5.5: METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS FOR PHASE THREE
The analysis of data concentrated on three types of statistical techniques, beginning with
descriptive statistics. These include mean, mode and median. Further analysis including
multivariate techniques including Exploratory Factor Analysis and Linear Regression is
also used.
Factor analysis was used as a method to explain important skills by creating newly
appointed variables (ie factors). In other words, it condensed the number of skills into a
smaller number of variables so the data can be easily explained. Furthermore, it will
allow the researcher to concentrate on the skills that are important for the establishment
of post-graduate marketing managers by excluding those that do not fit into newly
derived categories. The other multivariate technique used is Regression analysis which
allowed the researcher to examine the existence and extent of this relationship between
166
the skills examined in this research. The results will show how changes in one skill will
have an effect on the respondent’s ability to be established in their career.
Descriptive research is a type of conclusive research that has as its major objective the
description of something (Malhotra et al., 2004), which in this study relates to the skills,
tasks and career anchors of marketing professionals. Figure 5.1 illustrates the type of
methods of analysis that are available to the researcher. As the data was interval in
nature, measured on Likert scales, metric data analytical methods were the only analysis
options applicable to this thesis study. The data analysis for this study was undertaken
using the social sciences statistical package, SPSS 17.0.
U n iv a r ia te te c h n iq u e s
T w o o r m o re s a m p le sO n e s a m p leT w o o r m o re
s a m p le sO n e s a m p le
N o n m e tr ic d a ta (o rd in a l o r n o m in a l )
M e tr ic d a ta (ra tio o r in te rv a l )
t te s ts z te s ts
t te s tsz te s ts
O n e w a y A N O V A
In d e p e n d e n t R e la te d
P a ire d s a m p le t te s ts
C h i S q u a re M a n n W h itn e y
M e d ia nK o lm o g o ro v -
S m irn o vK ru s k a l -W a llis
A N O V A
In d e p e n d e n t R e la te d
S ig n W ilc o x o n M c N e m a r
F re q u e n c y C h i - S q u a re
K o lm o g o ro v -S m irn o vB in o m ia l
Figure 5.1 – Types of Descriptive Statistical Analysis
Adapted: Malhotra, et al., (2002), p 486
167
Descriptive statistics are essentially what the term implies, statistics that describe the
data in this research. The intention of using descriptive analysis was to give the
researcher some meaning to the data being examined. It is appropriate to use this
approach in this thesis as the key focus is to identify the skills that allow the graduates of
post-graduate programs to become established in their careers. Since there are so many
ideas of the skills that marketers may need, the thesis took the position that at the very
least, a detailed descriptive research study should be conducted in the first instance. This
approach is consistent with the position of Crabtree and Miller, (1991) who suggested
that many areas of general research still need fundamental descriptive research.
Hammersley (1992) extended this proposition by stating that with the emergence of
theory; in this case the development of skills and activities that aid the post-graduate to
become established, then descriptive research is a vital first stage.
There are two main purposes and reasons for using descriptive statistics in this thesis.
First, descriptive analysis serves to organise the findings in order to provide suitable
explanations. Further tests can then validate the explanations that have been derived.
There are many roles and activities that the marketing manager could be undertaking and
many of these could be considered important for their career establishment. The use of
frequencies, percentage of time and ranking which is all summary data, allowed for a full
examination of the research questions developed for this thesis. This was consistent with
descriptive research as it is aimed at finding out what the skills are (Borg and Gall,
1989). Once these skills have been identified, then further validations can be made
(Krathwohl, 1993). Second, descriptive analysis allows a large amount of data to be
easily interpreted to ensure an accurate interpretation of the results. There are many skills
that have been suggested as important to the marketing professional. This thesis
identified and examined 14 skills that emerged from the literature review and previous
research phases that were posited as important as a way of understanding which of these
support and enhance the establishment of a career. In addition, the study examined 25
activities and nine career anchors in an attempt to answer other research questions which
were the subject of this thesis. The use of descriptive statistics in this research is
consistent with the methodologies proposed by O’Brien and Deans (1995); Nabi and
Bagley (1998) and Smith (2004).
168
In addition, multivariate statistics including Exploratory Factor Analysis and Multiple
Regression was conducted. There were 14 skills under examination in this thesis and
multivariate statistical techniques allowed these skills to be reduced into various factors
by analysing co-variance and correlation matrices and identifying potential latent factors.
The results produced by factor analysis are the creation of factors produced by
examining how the variables are correlated. Multiple regressions was used in this
research in order to understand the functional relationships between the dependent and
independent variables in order to determine what might be causing the variation in the
dependent variable. In this research it was used as tool to understand the relative
contributions of predictors (career anchors) to the skills under investigation in this thesis.
5.6: SURVEY PARTICIPANT PROFILE
This section provides a description of the participants in this quantitative research phase.
The demographics of respondents contained in Table 5.2 shows a large cross section of
participants. This gave the researcher confidence that the research questions could be
satisfactorily answered because the participants had the necessary knowledge, experience
and educational qualifications to understand the questionnaire and provide informed
responses. The backgrounds of the participants also ensure the research questions can be
answered in terms of professional role and variety of industry context.
The 419 responses covered respondents with a range of common marketing titles that
appeared consistent with a level of seniority and success in a marketing capacity. Roles
included Marketing Director (18.9%), National Marketing manager (30.5%), Marketing
manager (30.8%), Product Manager (13.8%), and Others (6.4%). The group others refers
to promotion managers, brand managers and sales and marketing managers. All
respondents had at least three years’ experience in a marketing role, and the respondents
overall were more likely to have had more than five years’ experience in a marketing
role. All respondents had completed or were currently undertaking post-graduate
programs.
Few respondents worked in companies with less than 10 employees (5.5%), and the
respondents were roughly divided between those employed in companies of between 10
and 100 employees (51.1%) and those companies with over 100 employees (43.9%).
169
Thus, the company size split provided an ideal balance between employees working for
medium and large companies.
The post-graduate programs respondents engaged in included the post-graduate
certificate, post-graduate diploma and masters in marketing. Most study participants had
completed a post-graduate certificate (41.8%), followed by masters (37.1%) and post-
graduate diploma (20.0%). The data revealed that most respondents (32.0%) had
completed their post-graduate studies more than 6 years ago, 23.6% had completed
within 4 to 6 years and 22.6% between 1 and 3 years ago and 21.7% less than one year
ago.
Table 5.2: Description of the Survey Respondents
Mar
ketin
g D
irec
tor
% Nat
iona
l Mar
ketin
g m
anag
er
% Mar
ketin
g m
anag
er
% Prod
uct M
anag
er
% Oth
er
% TO
TA
L
Marketing experience
3 to 5 years 2 1.7 33 27.7 47 39.5 29 24.4 8 6.7 119
5 to 10 years 24 15.8 44 28.9 54 35.5 19 12.5 11 7.3 152
> 10 years 53 35.3 51 34 28 18.7 10 6.7 8 5.3 163 Highest
Qualification P.Grad. Certificate 21 12.0 38 21.7 64 36.6 19 10.9 18 10.3 175
P.Grad. Diploma 13 15.5 34 40.5 20 23.8 21 25 6 7.2 84
Masters 45 29 56 36.1 42 27.1 18 11.6 2 1.2 160 Years since Completion
Still completing 5 11.9 8 19 7 16.7 21 50 1 2.4 42
<1 year 2 4.1 30 61.2 15 30.6 2 4 0 0 49
1 to 3 years 10 10.5 23 24.2 52 54.7 6 6.3 5 5.4 95
4 to 6 years 32 32.3 37 37.4 14 14.1 15 15.2 2 2 99
> 6 years 30 22.4 30 22.4 41 30.6 16 11.9 17 12.6 134 Comp. Size
No. of employees
< 10 0 0 2 8.7 1 4.3 17 73.9 3 13 23
10 to 50 8 6.7 45 37.8 33 27.7 21 17.6 12 10 119
51 to 100 19 20 34 35.8 36 37.9 0 0 6 6.4 95
> 100 52 28.3 47 25.5 59 32.1 20 10.9 6 3.2 184
170
5.7: IMPORTANT SKILLS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS
H 1: All of the 14 skills are important for the established marketing manager.
Table 5.3 presents the measures of central tendency (mean, median and mode), standard
deviations and tests of significance for perception of the respondents of the important
skills for marketing managers. The skills are measured on a five point Likert scale
ranged from 1 = very insignificant and 5 = very significant
The participants’ rated the fourteen skills under evaluation as all being significant. Thus,
support for Hypothesis 1 which stated that all fourteen skills would be seen as important
is provided. The fourteen skills were derived from an analysis of the literature in the
area, content analysis of job advertisements, marketing management job descriptions and
a review of post-graduate marketing programs in Australia, together with input from
marketing managers, academics and marketing management recruitment consultants.
Table 5.3: Important Skills required by Marketing Managers
SKILLS Mean
Std.
Deviation t-test df
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Median Mode
Interpersonal skills 4.49 0.69 154.07 418 .000 5.00 5.00
People management 4.41 0.61 148.07 418 .000 5.00 5.00
Decision making 4.39 0.69 130.02 418 .000 5.00 5.00
Problem solving 4.29 0.72 122.73 418 .000 4.00 4.00
Written communication 4.27 0.72 121.31 418 .000 4.00 4.00
Critical thinking 4.22 0.75 114.51 418 .000 4.00 5.00
Leadership 4.20 0.75 114.55 418 .000 4.00 4.00
Creative thinking 4.16 0.84 101.54 418 .000 4.00 5.00
Analytical skills 4.15 0.80 106.1 418 .000 4.00 4.00
Verbal communication 4.13 0.92 92.00 418 .000 4.00 5.00
Negotiation with staff 4.03 0.81 102.29 418 .000 4.00 4.00
Marketing Comprehension 3.99 0.78 105.48 418 .000 4.00 4.00
Negotiation with suppliers 3.74 1.11 69.05 418 .000 4.00 4.00
Financial skills 3.69 1.01 75.02 418 .000 4.00 4.00
Scale – 1 = Very insignificant to 5 = Very significant
171
The data indicate that all of the skills under investigation were important to the
establishment of the marketing professional. That is, the results in Table 5.3 indicate that
all of the skills presented in the survey are above the mid-point (3.0). This is consistent
with the skills selected for investigation, as they were considered the important skills in
both the literature review and the exploratory phases of the research conducted prior to
this phase.
5.7.1: PEOPLE MANAGEMENT SKILLS
H 1.1: The most important skills are people management skills
The data revealed that the most important skills for today’s marketing professional are,
interpersonal skills (mean - 4.49), people management (mean - 4.41) decision making
skills (mean - 4.39) and problem solving skills (mean - 4.29) appeared also important for
the marketers’ career establishment. These skills could be classified as management
focused and rather technical focused by dividing the skills into these two types of, we
can see that the highest technical skill was marketing (mean - 3. 99) and financial skills
(mean - 3.69), which was the least important skill. The other skill which respondents
considered important (as it was above the mid-point of three) but not as important as
some other skills, was negotiation with suppliers (mean - 3.74).
The median values in Table 5.3 are a measure of central location. This refers to half of
the values dropping below the median value and the other half of the values above the
median value. The relevance of this result is that decision making, interpersonal skills
and people management skills comprised approximately 50% of the respondents in this
thesis thus asserting these skills are extremely important to their career establishment in
marketing. These results suggest, in part, the importance of these skills to the
establishment of the professional marketer who has had at least three years’ experience
in a marketing role.
The mode represents the value that occurs most frequently. The skills had the highest
value (5) and most commonly occurring were decision making, interpersonal, people
management, critical thinking and verbal communication skills. The value of five for the
mode provides further evidence of the importance of these skills. The mode for all of the
172
skills apart from those mentioned above was at least four. The mode values provide
further evidence of the importance of these skills in the establishment of a marketing
career as perceived by the respondents in this thesis.
The results suggest that there is no skill that every one of the participants chose as
extremely important. In other words, there is not a single skill that is seen as imperative
to the established post-graduate marketer in this research. The results also suggest that
the skill sets, as derived from the literature and interviews, are all important to the
establishment of a marketing career, suggesting that it is the collection of skills
interacting together that is important.
H.12: The 14 skills importance of skills does not change with years of experience
The respondents in this research suggest skills under investigation are important. (Please
refer to Table 5.3) Further analysis of the data considered if there are various skills
associated with years of experience influence whether they are important. This section
considers whether skills under investigation in this thesis are dependent on the number
of years the marketing manager has been in their profession. These results used
Question 4, “Which of these skills have been important for your success in your
marketing plan?” and Question 3 “How many years have you been in a marketing
position?” The results were calculated by using SPSS and Anova. The results are in
Table 5.4
173
Table 5.4: Important Skills required by marketing managers for 3-5 years, 5-10 years and Greater
than 10 years
Sum of Squares df
Mean Square F Sig.
Analytical skills Between Groups .84 2 0.42 .66 .520 Within Groups 267.38 416 0.63 Total 268.22 418 Marketing Comprehension Between Groups 16.42 2 8.21 14.56 .000 Within Groups 234.56 416 0.56 Total 250.98 418 Creative thinking Between Groups 6.26 2 3.13 4.53 .011 Within Groups 287.35 416 0.69 Total 293.60 418 Critical thinking Between Groups 2.13 2 1.07 1.88 .154 Within Groups 235.67 416 0.57 Total 237.80 418 Decision making Between Groups 3.84 2 1.917 4.07 .018 Within Groups 195.76 416 0.47 Total 199.59 418 Financial skills Between Groups 3.84 2 1.921 1.90 .150 Within Groups 419.83 416 1.009 Total 423.67 418 Interpersonal skills Between Groups 8.03 2 4.02 11.87 .000 Within Groups 140.67 416 0.34 Total 148.70 418 Leadership Between Groups 2.17 2 1.09 1.94 .145 Within Groups 233.560 416 0.56 Total 235.76 418 Negotiation with staff Between Groups 6.76 2 3.38 5.31 .005 Within Groups 264.89 416 0.64 Total 271.66 418 Negotiation with suppliers Between Groups .45 2 0.22 .182 .833 Within Groups 512.67 416 1.23 Total 513.12 418 People management Between Groups 17.70 2 8.85 26.75 .000 Within Groups 137.65 416 .33 Total 155.39 418 Problem solving Between Groups 13.24 2 6.62 13.78 .000 Within Groups 200.4 416 0.48 Total 213.63 418 Verbal communication Between Groups 34.87 2 17.45 22.85 .000 Within Groups 317.46 416 0.76 Total 352.29 418 Written communication Between Groups .534 2 .267 0.51 .600 Within Groups 216.90 416 .521 Total 217.48 418
The data indicate that there are specific skills considered for all levels of experience for
today’s marketing manager as important. In other words, these skills must be seen as
important to the success of the marketing professional since they apply to all levels of a
marketing manager. These are analytical skills (p = 0.52), critical thinking skills
(p=0.154), financial skills (p=0.15), leadership skills (p=0.145), negotiation with
suppliers (external) (p=0.833) and written communications (p=0.6). All of these skills
174
had no difference between their means of the various groups of marketing experience.
Since these skills are considered important regardless of experience, then there must be
an effort by Higher Education Institutions to concentrate on these skills within the
curricula of post-graduate programs.
5.7.2: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN IMPORTANT SKILLS
H 2: A number of the most important skills are related or dependent on other skills.
This section examines whether or not there are relationships among the skills
investigated in this research. Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was used to reduce the
number of skills into smaller groups of factors. Furthermore, the use of Factor analysis
allows for the establishment of any underlying dimensions between the measured
variables and any latent constructs.
EFA was used as there are no expectations about the number of skills that are reduced
or how they would group hence the nature of the research is exploratory. It also permits
the researcher to generate potential models, which need to be further tested, from a
relatively large set of latent constructs.
Initially, the factorability of the 14 items was examined in this thesis. In order to
determine if factor analysis was applicable, various criteria were considered. Of the 14
skills that were examined in this thesis, 12 of the 14 items correlated at least 0.3 with at
least one other item, suggesting reasonable factorability. Secondly, the Kaiser-Meyer-
Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was 0.611, above the recommended value of .6,
and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (2 (191) = 1028.61, p < .05).
Furthermore, the communalities were all above 0.3 thus confirming that each item
shared some common variance with other items. Given these overall favourable
indicators, factor analysis was conducted with all 14 skills.
Principle components analysis was used because the primary purpose was to identify
and compute composite coping scores for the factors underlying the skills used in this
thesis. In essence, the objective of this hypothesis was to determine whether the skills
under investigation can be grouped in order to further explain the results. Principal
175
components analysis requires a large sample size since it is based on the correlation
matrix of the variables involved. As a result, the correlations usually need a large
sample before they become constant. Comrey and Lee's (1992) suggest a sample size of
300 is large enough for factor analysis conducted using principal component analysis. In
this study, the sample size was 419, which was ample for EFA.
The eigenvalues revealed that the first factor explained 20.15% of the variance, the
second factor 12.03% of the variance, and a third factor 10.96% of the variance. The
fourth factor represents 8.9% and the fifth factor is 8.1%. All of these factors are above
the eigenvalue of one. Further analysis suggests there are only three significant factors.
Factors Four and Five only had two items and they were excluded. The three factor
solution explaining 43.14% of the variance, was preferred since within Figure 5 2, the
Eigen values appear to level of on the Scree plot after the three factors. In other words,
the elbow appears to flatten after the third factor. Though, the number of factor can be
seen as subjective (Williams, Brown and Osman, 2010), it is best used with more than
one method.
The three factors had Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.628, 0.606 and 0.522. These value
are consistent with the Nunally (1967) as being acceptable, though they are referred to
as questionable (George and Mallery, 2003).
176
Figure 5.2: Scree Plot for Exploratory Analysis for Grouping of Important Skills
A principle-components factor analysis of the remaining 14 items used varimax
rotations. The factor analysis described in Table 5.5 reveals no cross loadings between
items and each factor measures different phenomena and not the same phenomena
multiple times. The three factors have been renamed into management skills, market
planning skills and innovative skills. The factor loading matrix for this final solution is
presented in Table 5.5
177
Table 5:5: Important skills Scale Factor Analysis with Varimax Rotations
Component
Management Skills Market Planning Skills Innovative Skills
People management 0.614
Financial skills 0.585
Decision making 0.575
Negotiation with staff 0.535
Negotiation with suppliers 0.482
Critical thinking 0.440
Problem solving 0.440
Written communication
0.805
Analytical skills
0.767
Comprehension
0.568
Creative thinking
0.751
Verbal communication
0.722
Leadership
0.577
Interpersonal skills
Cronbach’s Alpha 0.628 0.606 0.522
% of Variance 20.147 12.034 10.956
Eigne values 2.821 1.685 1.534
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser
Normalization. Factors < 0.4 excluded
178
5.8: COVERAGE OF IMPORTANT SKILLS IN POST-GRADUATE
MARKETING PROGRAMS.
Hypothesis (H2): all fourteen important skills are perceived to be adequately covered in
post-graduate marketing programs.
This section seeks to ascertain whether or not the important skills, identified in the
preceding section, are covered in post-graduate programs. The term coverage in this
thesis refers to whether the respondents, in undertaking their post-graduate programs,
have adequate exposure through their program work to use or develop the skills under
investigation.
A possible reason for students undertaking post-graduate programs is to acquire, or
develop, skills that are seen as important for career establishment and progression. The
acquisition of new skills could also aid in their long term employability (DfES, 2002). It
is thought that for post-graduates to acquire proficiency in a skill, the skill must be
practiced on numerous occasions (Middleton and Long 1990; Hill, McGowan, and
Maclaran, 1998). It is more than likely it requires a range of practical exercises and
knowledge which will also enforce the attainment of the skill. Consequently, confidence
by the respondents in a skill will only result after the employee has had adequate
exposure and training in the skill.
The results in this section will determine whether the skills identified as important, are
actually acquired or developed in post-graduate programs. It is considered that becoming
proficient in important skills is necessary for career establishment. With this in mind, the
inclusion of these important skills in post-graduate programs would facilitate the
employee’s career management via the acquisition of employability skills. The term,
employability skills, refers to the skills that are relevant to securing a career (McQuaid
and Lindsay, 2005). The acquisition of employability skills will, in part, be a significant
determinant to the marketing manager’s career establishment.
The results in Table 5.6 illustrate the skills marketing managers believe have been
covered in their post-graduate marketing programs. This information has been derived
179
from Question Six in the survey instrument: “How would you rate the coverage of these
skills in your post-graduate marketing education?” The results were calculated by
conducting a t-test using SPSS 17.0.
Table 5.6: Coverage of Important Skills in Post-Graduate Marketing Programs
SKILLS
Ranking
of skill
importance
Coverage
Mean
Std.
Deviation t-test Df
Sig.
(2-
tailed) Median Mode
Comprehension 12 3.95 0.83 97.08 418 0.00 4.00 4.00
Written communication 5 3.73 0.90 84.63 418 0.00 4.00 4.00
Problem solving 4 3.49 0.75 95.38 418 0.00 4.00 4.00
Critical thinking 6 3.43 0.98 71.92 418 0.00 3.00 3.00
Creative thinking 8 3.39 1.10 63.14 418 0.00 3.00 3.00
Analytical skills 9 3.35 1.02 66.92 418 0.00 3.00 4.00
Financial skills 14 3.21 1.02 64.07 418 0.00 3.00 3.00
Leadership 7 3.14 1.29 50.03 418 0.00 3.00 2.00
Decision making 3 3.12 1.02 62.09 418 0.00 3.00 3.00
Verbal communication 10 3.10 1.05 60.51 418 0.00 3.00 3.00
Interpersonal skills 1 2.91 1.26 47.38 418 0.00 3.00 2.00
People management 2 2.90 0.97 61.20 418 0.00 3.00 3.00
Negotiation with staff 11 2.75 1.11 50.62 418 0.00 3.00 3.00
Negotiation with suppliers 13 2.57 1.15 45.68 418 0.00 2.00 2.00
Scale – 1 = Very insignificant to 5 = Very significant
The data in Table 5.6 indicate that 10 of the 14 skills had a mean value above the
midpoint 3.0. The results indicate the skills were seen as adequately covered in post-
graduate programs. The skills that were seen as most adequately covered were marketing
comprehension (mean - 3.95), written communication (mean - 3.73) and problem solving
skills (mean - 3.49). There were four skills, which respondents believe were not
adequately covered in the post-graduate marketing programs. These skills were
negotiation with suppliers (mean - 2.57), negotiation with staff (mean - 2.75), people
management
(mean - 2.90) and interpersonal skills (mean – 2.91). As people management was seen to
be one of the key skills perceived to be important for marketing managers, it is of
concern that this key skill is not seen to be adequately covered in post-graduate
180
marketing programs. It was felt that it was necessary to examine other measures
identified in Table 5.6 in order to have a fuller appreciation of these respondent’s
perceptions of program coverage.
In Table 5.6, the median values suggest that many of the respondents have vastly
different points of view regarding the coverage of skills in their post-graduate marketing
programs. The median value for all but three skills (marketing comprehension, written
communication and problem solving skills) was 3.0. This suggests that half of the
respondents believed they were covered in the programs they have undertaken and the
other half considered they were not, since the median is a measure of the central
tendency of the data. The implications of this result are that there was a large proportion
of post-graduates who believe that their understanding of the skills necessary for their
career establishment was not sufficient. This finding potentially reflects a level of
dissatisfaction with the post-graduate marketing programs undertaken by the respondents
in this thesis.
The mode value, which is the most common value, suggests that for some of the more
important skills, such as interpersonal skills (mode - 2.0), were not seen to be covered
within the post-graduate programs undertaken by these respondents. This finding is of
particular concern as interpersonal skills were seen as one of the key skills identified as
important to marketers’ career establishment. A similarly low level of coverage was
observed for negotiation with suppliers (mode - 2.0), which was not seen as covered, but
this skill was not identified as one of the highly important skills.
The acquisition of important skill sets was seen to facilitate career establishment by
enabling professional marketers to undertake high level tasks. The post-graduate
programs undertaken by the respondents in this research covered certain skill sets within
the curricula. It would be expected that the curricula in post-graduate programs would
cover the skill sets that are deemed necessary for marketing manager’s to establish their
career. The results indicate the respondents were not uniformly satisfied with the level of
coverage of the skills they saw as important in the post-graduate programs they have
completed.
181
The results in Table 5.6 suggest that there are skills which were considered important to
the marketer’s career establishment (Please see previous section Table 5.3), which were
not included in the respondents’ post-graduate programs. With this in mind, the
participants in this research may not actually understand how to deploy these skills. This
could therefore represent a lack of ability or possibly confidence in the use of this skill,
which may in turn have an impact on the establishment of a marketer’s career. As a
result, the identification, coverage and emphasis on skills that are taught within Higher
Education programs were fundamental to this research. Hence, in the following sections
of this chapter, further analysis of issues relating to the acquisition and use of important
skills is covered. In the following section, an analysis of respondent’s perceptions, of the
emphasis placed on skills in the post-graduate programs that they had undertaken.
5.8.1: COMPARISONS BETWEEN IMPORTANCE AND COVERAGE OF SKILLS
Hypothesis 3: All fourteen important skills are adequately covered, compared to their
importance ranking, in post-graduate marketing programs.
The results in this section compare the results relative to the skills participants deemed
as important skills as well as the skills covered within their post-graduate programs.
This was achieved by using the data in Question 4 (Which of these skills have been
important for your success in your marketing career?) and Question 6 (How would you
rate the coverage of these skills in your post-graduate marketing education?)
The data used to answer these questions was calculated by using the Sign test using
SPSS 17.0. This non-parametric test allows the comparison of two groups that are non-
normal distributed. Within Table 5.7 it shows the z value and the significance value at
0.05 confidence level. The next column reveals the percentages of each skill based on
whether the importance of the skill matched the coverage of it in the respondent’s post-
graduate program. If the importance of the skill was greater than the coverage of it, it
suggests the respondents did not have enough coverage of the skill within their post
graduate programs. If the importance was less than the coverage, this suggests that there
was too much coverage of the skill given its importance. However, the coverage and the
importance are equal then this result suggests that the Higher Education Institutions
curricula have the amount of coverage equal to the importance. In other words, the
182
coverage of the skills is in tune with the importance of the skill. These results could aid
the development of curriculum for post-graduate programs in marketing by ensuring
there is adequate development and practice of important skills.
The results in Table 5.7 reveal many discrepancies between the skills deemed important
by the established post-graduate marketer compared to the skills covered in a post-
graduate program. Of the 14 skills investigated in this thesis, only the comprehension of
marketing skill was not considered significant (z = -0.983, p = 0.326). This suggests that
the amount of marketing covered in the post-graduate programs these respondents
experienced and the importance of this skill in terms of contributing to their established
career is about the same. Therefore, these respondents have acquired the right amount of
marketing skills to become established in their careers. However, the other results
suggest there is a difference between what is covered by post-graduate marketing
programs and what are important to their career establishment (except marketing
comprehension). The results indicate that Higher Education Institutions are not
providing all of the skills post-graduates need to be established in their marketing
careers. In other words, their coverage is not equal to the importance of the skills placed
on these skills by respondents in this thesis.
The next section seeks to determine whether or not the emphasis in the post-graduate
marketing programs offered by Higher Education Institutions on the skills are the same
as those the respondents believe are important to their career establishment.
183
Table 5.7- Comparison of Important Skill for Marketing managers and Coverage of Skills taught within programs
Skill Z Asymp. Sig.
(2 tailed)
Coverage v Important Comparison No. %
Analytical -11.474 0.000 Coverage Analytical skills < Important Analytical skills 255 61% Coverage Analytical skills > Important Analytical skills 52 12% Coverage Analytical skills = Important Analytical skills 112 27% Marketing Comprehension -0.983 0.326 Coverage Comprehension < Important Comprehension 115 27% Coverage Comprehension > Important Comprehension 111 26% Coverage Comprehension = Important Comprehension 193 46% Creative thinking -10.788 0.000 Coverage Creative thinking < Important Creative thinking 220 53% Coverage Creative thinking > Important Creative thinking 37 9% Coverage Creative thinking = Important Creative thinking 162 39% Critical thinking -11.254 0.000 Coverage Critical thinking < Important Critical thinking 233 56% Coverage Critical thinking > Important Critical thinking 41 10% Coverage Critical thinking = Important Critical thinking 145 35% Decision making -14.849 0.000 Coverage Decision making < Important Decision Making 307 73% Coverage Decision making > Important Decision Making 24 6% Coverage Decision making = Important Decision Making 88 21% Financial -7.420 0.000 Coverage Financial Skills < Important Financial Skills 194 46% Coverage Financial Skills > Important Financial Skills 81 19% Coverage Financial Skills = Important Financial Skills 144 34% Interpersonal -15.161 0.000 Coverage Interpersonal Skills < Important Interpersonal Skills 320 76% Coverage Interpersonal Skills > Important Interpersonal Skills 41 10% Coverage Interpersonal Skills = Important Interpersonal Skills 58 14% Leadership -11.331 0.000 Coverage Leadership Skills < Important Leadership Skills 249 59% Coverage Leadership Skills > Important Leadership Skills 70 17%
184
Skill Z Asymp. Sig.
(2 tailed)
Coverage v Important Comparison No. %
Coverage Leadership Skills = Important Leadership Skills 100 24% Negotiation with staff -14.078 0.000 Coverage Negotiation with staff < Important Negotiation with staff 290 69% Coverage Negotiation with staff > Important Negotiation with staff 37 9% Coverage Negotiation with staff = Important Negotiation with staff 92 22% Negotiation with suppliers -12.512 0.000 Coverage Negotiation with suppliers < Important Negotiation with suppliers 251 60% Coverage Negotiation with suppliers > Important Negotiation with suppliers 53 13% Coverage Negotiation with suppliers = Important Negotiation with suppliers 115 27% People management -15.868 0.000 Coverage People management < Important People management 331 79% Coverage People management > Important People management 18 4% Coverage People management = Important People management 70 17% Problem solving -13.060 0.000 Coverage Problem solving< Important Problem solving 258 62% Coverage Problem solving > Important Problem solving 30 7% Coverage Problem solving = Important Problem solving 131 31% Verbal communication -13.834 0.000 Coverage Verbal communication< Important Verbal communication 268 64% Coverage Verbal communication > Important Verbal communication 17 4% Coverage Verbal communication = Important Verbal communication 134 32% Written communication -9.390 0.000 Coverage Written communication < Important Written communication 212 51% Coverage Written communication > Important Written communication 46 11% Coverage Verbal communication = Important Verbal communication 161 38% N 419
185
5.9: EMPHASIS PLACED ON SKILLS IN POST-GRADUATE
MARKETING PROGRAMS
Hypothesis 4: All fourteen important skills are adequately emphasised in post-graduate
marketing programs.
The previous section determined how much coverage the participants in this study
believed were placed on important skills in their post-graduate programs. The results in
this section consider how much emphasis or importance is placed on the skills in post-
graduate programs. In this thesis, the term emphasis refers to a measure of marketers’
perceptions of the extent to which post-graduate marketing programs assigned time and
worth on the development of a particular skill.
The more exposure to skills in post-graduate programs, the greater the perceived value
rated by Higher Education Institutions on a skill. Furthermore, the more often the skills
are used within their post-graduate program, the more likely the post-graduate will be
able to use these skills appropriately in a work environment. As noted in the literature,
the additional opportunities students have to use the skills, their greater the
understanding of them (Bowden, Hart, King, Trigwell and Watts, 2000). The experience
and development of important skills during their post-graduate education places the
professional marketer in a position to move forward within their career to become
established. The ability to use the skills not only for gaining and maintaining
employment, but for career progress is referred to as employability skills (Hillage and
Pollard, 1998; Curtis and McKenzie, 2001). This section considers whether or not the
important skills for their career establishment are seen to have the necessary emphasis.
The results in Table 5.8 are from Question 7 in the survey instrument: “How much
importance has been given to the following skill sets in your post-graduate marketing
program?” The results were calculated using a t-test in SPSS 17.0.
186
Table 5.8: Emphasis on Important Skills in Post Graduate Marketing Programs
SKILLS
Ranking
of skills
Importan
ce
EMPHASIS
Mean
Std.
Deviation t-test Df
Sig.
(2-
tailed) Median
Mod
e
Marketing Comprehension 12 3.82 .916 85.27 419 0.00 4.00 4.00
Written communication 5 3.60 1.114 65.93 419 0.00 4.00 4.00
Critical thinking 6 3.28 1.056 63.54 419 0.00 3.00 3.00
Problem solving 4 3.27 .982 68.21 419 0.00 3.00 3.00
Financial skills 14 3.08 1.325 47.63 419 0.00 3.00 3.00
Analytical skills 9 3.04 .973 63.94 419 0.00 3.00 3.00
Verbal communication 10 2.97 1.106 54.83 419 0.00 3.00 3.00
Decision making 3 2.86 1.022 57.26 419 0.00 3.00 3.00
Interpersonal skills 1 2.81 1.310 43.96 419 0.00 3.00 2.00
Creative thinking 8 2.74 1.180 47.65 419 0.00 3.00 3.00
People management 2 2.64 1.077 50.12 419 0.00 2.00 2.00
Leadership 7 2.53 1.167 44.38 419 0.00 2.00 2.00
Negotiation with staff 11 2.28 0.979 47.70 419 0.00 2.00 2.00
Negotiation with suppliers 13 2.14 0.999 43.76 419 0.00 2.00 1.00
Scale – 1 = Very insignificant to 5 = Very significant
The data in Table 5.8 reflects participants perceived emphasis placed by Higher
Education Institutions on the 14 skills during the respondents’ undertake post-graduate
marketing programs. The data reveals only 6 out of the 14 skills had a mean value higher
than the midpoint (3.0). This indicates that these respondents believed that the skills
received adequate emphasis in their post-graduate degrees. It was felt that it was
necessary to examine other measures identified in Table 5.8 in order to have a fuller
appreciation of the perceptions of program coverage.
What is clear from the data is that whichever measure is examined, mean, mode or
median, these respondents see Higher Education Institutions as placing most emphasis on
marketing comprehension and written communication skills. The primary emphasis in
marketing post graduate programs is consistent with what actually is the unit focus, that
being the dissemination of marketing knowledge. The respondents in this study are
marketers, who are undertaking a marketing-related post-graduate program. It was also
187
clear, from all measures, that respondents saw a high level of emphasis on written
communication. These two skills were ranked 12 (marketing comprehension) and 5
(written communication), respectively. The results also indicated other potentially key
skills are not receiving adequate emphasis in post-graduate programs. However, the
finding of eight skills with a mean of less than the mid-point of 3.0 suggests they are
inadequately covered. The result is disturbing, particularly as three of these skills
(decision-making, interpersonal and people management skills) are highly ranked in
terms of importance in this research. An examination of the important skills, with median
values of 2.0, suggests that Higher Education Institutions are not adequately emphasising
the following skills: people management, negotiation with suppliers, negotiations with
staff, and leadership. Further analysis reveals similar conclusions can be made by
reviewing the median values. People management, negotiation with suppliers,
negotiations with staff and leadership all had a mode value of 2.0. This suggests that
according to the respondents, Higher Education Institutions do not adequately emphasise
these skills in their post-graduate programs. In addition, all of the other skills, except
marketing comprehension and written communication had a mode value of 3.0 or below,
suggesting that the respondents were not convinced, there was emphasis or not on these
skills within the post-graduate programs they undertook.
The results suggest there is a gap between the skills that Higher Education Institutions
view as important, and the skills that marketing managers have sought to develop to
successfully undertake the tasks needed for career establishment. This finding is of
concern both to the marketer undertaking a post-graduate program, to industry, and to
educators. It suggests there are potentially negative outcomes for the individual students,
the firm and the economy if the skills required for effective performance are not
sufficiently developed. In the next section, a comparison of the respondents’ perceptions
of important skills (Table 5.3) and the emphasis placed by Higher Education Institutions
on these skills (Table 5.8) in post-graduate marketing programs is undertaken. The
results provide insights whether Higher Education Institutions are emphasising the skills
needed for post-graduate marketers to become established in their career.
188
5.9.1: IMPORTANT SKILLS COMPARED TO PROGRAM EMPHASIS
Hypothesis 4.1: All fourteen important skills are adequately emphasised, compared to
their importance ranking, in post-graduate marketing programs.
The results in Table 5.9 were calculated by using the Sign test using SPSS 17.0. The
table shows the z value and the significance value at 0.05 confidence level. If the
importance of the skill was greater than the emphasis placed on it, it suggests that the
respondents did not perceive that there was enough emphasis of the skill within their
post graduate programs. If the importance placed by respondents was less than their
perceived emphasis on the skills, this suggests that there was too much emphasis placed
on the skill given its perceived importance or lack of importance. However, if the
emphasis and the importance are equal, then this result suggests that the Higher
Education Institutions curricula have the amount of emphasis equal to perceived
importance of the skill. In other words, the emphasis on the skills is in tune with the
importance of the skill. The questions used to determine this were Question 3 (Which of
these skills has been important for your success in your marketing career? These results
are in Table 5.3 (page 173) and Question 7 (How much importance has been given to
the following skill sets in your post-graduate program?)
The results suggest the emphasis on a number of skills by Higher Education Institutions
does not correspond to the importance placed on these skills by the respondents in this
thesis. At the 0.05 significance level, all of the z values of the skills were less than 0.05.
The values suggest that Higher Education Institutions have a different opinion on the
skills required by established marketing professionals. The results in Table 5.9 suggest
there are deficiencies or an over emphasis of skills in the programs and this could hinder
the post-graduate marketer’s career aspirations. These skills are of particular importance
as it suggests the students who undertake post-graduate degrees are not adequately
prepared for the demands of the industry.
Further evidence is provided by the number of respondents who believe the skills are not
emphasised enough within their post-graduate programs. These include creative thinking
(74%), decision making (79%), interpersonal skills (77%), leadership skills (77%),
negotiation with staff (84%), negotiation with suppliers (73%) and people management
189
(88%) were under emphasised within the program curriculum. In other words, the
emphasis of program skills in post-graduate programs are less than the importance placed
on them by the respondents.
190
Table 5.9: The Ranking of Important Skills and the Emphasis of Skills in Post Graduate Marketing program
SKILL Z Asymp Sig. (2 tailed)
Program v Important Comparison No. %
Analytical -14.079 0.000 Program Analytical skills < Important Analytical skills 301 72% Program Analytical skills > Important Analytical skills 28 7% Program Analytical skills = Important Analytical skills 90 21% Comprehension -2.950 0.003 Program Comprehension < Important Comprehension 159 38% Program Comprehension > Important Comprehension 94 22% Program Comprehension = Important Comprehension 166 40% Creative thinking -14.118 0.000 Program Creative thinking < Important Creative thinking 310 74% Program Creative thinking > Important Creative thinking 43 10% Program Creative thinking = Important Creative thinking 66 16% Critical thinking -12.444 0.000 Program Critical thinking < Important Critical thinking 257 61% Program Critical thinking > Important Critical thinking 39 9% Program Critical thinking = Important Critical thinking 123 29% Decision making -15.741 0.000 Program Decision making < Important Decision Making 329 79% Program Decision making > Important Decision Making 8 2% Program Decision making = Important Decision Making 82 20% Financial -7.646 0.000 Program Financial Skills < Important Financial Skills 205 49% Program Financial Skills > Important Financial Skills 78 19% Program Financial Skills = Important Financial Skills 136 32% Interpersonal -15.231 0.000 Program Interpersonal Skills < Important Interpersonal Skills 322 77% Program Interpersonal Skills > Important Interpersonal Skills 40 10% Program Interpersonal Skills = Important Interpersonal Skills 57 14%
191
SKILL Z Asymp
Sig. (2 tailed)
Program v Important Comparison No. %
Leadership -15.338 0.000 Program Leadership Skills < Important Leadership Skills 321 77% Program Leadership Skills > Important Leadership Skills 44 11% Program Leadership Skills = Important Leadership Skills 53 13% Negotiation with staff -16.267 0.000 Program Negotiation with staff < Important Negotiation with staff 352 84% Program Negotiation with staff > Important Negotiation with staff 18 4% Program Negotiation with staff = Important Negotiation with staff 49 12% Negotiation with suppliers -14.653 0.000 Program Negotiation with suppliers < Important Negotiation with
suppliers 306 73%
Program Negotiation with suppliers > Important Negotiation with suppliers
34 8% Program Negotiation with suppliers = Important Negotiation with
suppliers 79 19%
People management -16.794 0.000 Program People management < Important People management 368 88% Program People management > Important People management 4 1% Program People management = Important People management 47 11% Problem solving -12.534 0.000 Program Problem solving< Important Problem solving 254 61% Program Problem solving > Important Problem solving 27 6% Program Problem solving = Important Problem solving 138 33% Verbal communication -13.967 0.000 Program Verbal communication< Important Verbal communication 275 66% Program Verbal communication> Important Verbal communication 16 4% Program Verbal communication= Important Verbal communication 126 30% Written communication -9.733 0.000 Program Written communication< Important Written communication 225 54% Program Written communication> Important Written communication 71 17% Program Verbal communication = Important Verbal communication 121 29%
192
5.10: TASKS OF THE MARKETING MANAGER
The previous sections have considered the skills a marketer believes are important to
their career establishment. This was considered from three potential perspectives. The
first perspective was to determine the skills that aided post-graduate marketers in their
marketing career. The next was to consider the skills taught in their Higher Education
Institutions programs. The third perspective reflects the coverage of the skills within the
curriculum. This highlights how important Higher Education Institutions consider skills
within post-graduate programs. The more often the graduate of these programs has to use
these skills with their post-graduate degree will provide the post-graduate marketing
professionals with the confidence to use them to establish their career.
As a consequence, this section examined the findings in relation to the activities related
to the tasks that marketers need to undertake in the course of their employment in the
marketing field. The Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM) Professional Standard
Framework has been used as a benchmark to evaluate marketing tasks. As noted earlier,
the framework was developed by the British Government in order to ensure that
marketing professionals in that country met a competency standard. These standards are
in the form of competences and tasks that once completed enabled the professional
marketing manager to achieve a level that was suitable for their profession.
The tasks were considered in the context of the classifications of activities in the (CIM)
Professional Standard Framework (CIM, 2010). The CIM Framework which covered
five broad areas of marketing activities (Research and analysis, Strategy and planning,
Brands, Implementation of marketing programmes, Measuring effectiveness and
Managing people), was adapted to incorporate a new activity entitled ‘Financial activity’,
and its associated tasks. The additional tasks were added as a result of the findings in the
literature review and the qualitative phase of this research. In both cases, there was
compelling evidence to add financial tasks to the CIM Professional Standard Framework.
The adapted framework was then used as the benchmark upon which the marketing
activities and tasks were evaluated.
193
5.10.1: THE MOST IMPORTANT TASKS OF THE MARKETING MANAGER
Hypothesis 5: the 23 tasks of the CIM Professional Standard Framework are important
tasks for the marketing manager
This, the objective of this research question was to determine the tasks that a marketing
manager undertakes in their position. The marketing tasks examined were using two
items in the survey instrument: These were: Question 15, “Which of these tasks do you
perform in your current position”; and Question 16, “Which of the tasks do you consider
most important to your success.” The scale used the levels of 1=very unimportant and
5=very important or both of the questions (Please see Appendix 9 where the survey can
be found)
The ranking of respondents’ perceptions of the importance of tasks is presented in Table
5.10. The results suggest that the respondents consider all of the 23 tasks are important
as they are all above the mid-point of 3.0. There is only one possible exception. That is
the task of recommending market research projects, which has a mean value of 2.43.
This value is lower than the mid-point (3.0), suggesting that marketing research projects
are not an important task that need to be accomplished for their career. This result
would seem to imply that perhaps market research is a specialised function, or
alternatively, that more focus is placed on secondary research using internal records
(e.g., using data mining of existing customer records), than on recommending new
marketing research projects. This issue will be examined further in the next section
when the frequency of conduct of tasks is examined.
194
Table 5.10: Ranking and Correlation of Tasks of the CIM Framework
Task
Importance
(mean)
Correlations p
(a)
Management of staff 4.5 13
Co-ordinate marketing activities among sales and marketing
divisions 4.29
12
Assess company performance and competitor analysis 4.24 10
Determine the strategic direction of marketing portfolio
(department) 4.24
16
Monitor actual results against planned performance 4.11 14
Develop, monitor and control marketing budgets 4.09 16
Manage the running of projects 4.02 11
Develop a marketing plan 4.00 8
Contribute to the company's ability to manage change 3.85 12
Market reports to senior management 3.79 11
Develop branding strategy 3.75 16
Implement pricing strategy consistent with corporate
objectives 3.72
11
Implement communication mix for portfolio or company 3.66 10
Instigate a customer relationship strategy 3.64 17
Maintain a competitive product portfolio 3.60 16
Manage customer analysis 3.58 14
Develop effective channels to meet organisations objectives 3.56 10
Promote development of brands across the organisational
portfolios 3.48
16
Develop pricing strategy 3.37 11
Initiate new product development programs 3.36 15
Establish the project management hierarchy in line with
company’s objectives 3.36
14
Direct and support for marketing intermediaries 3.22 15
Recommend market research projects 2.43 13
Scale – 1 = Very Unimportant to 5 = Very important
(a) A significant correlation is when the p <0.05
195
5.10.2: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TASKS OF THE CIM FRAMEWORK
Hypothesis 5.1: Tasks in the CIM Professional Framework model are related or
dependent on other tasks within the model.
The literature suggests that there are specific tasks that contemporary marketing
managers undertake within their positions. Within the parameters of this thesis, these
are a part of the CIM Professional Standard Framework which was developed in the
United Kingdom. The objective was to determine if the tasks of the CIM Professional
Standard Framework are interlinked. The more a task is associated or related, the
greater the importance it is in terms of having influences on the other activities. In this
section, analysis is undertaken using Pearson’s rank correlation. This test is used when
there are non- normal data, and was used in this instance to examine the existence of a
correlation between the activities with the CIM Professional Standard Framework. A
summary of the frequency of tasks, the correlations at the 0.5 significance level (p<
0.05) are outlined in Table 5.10. The results are derived from Question 16 of the survey
instrument: “Which of these tasks do you consider most important to your success?”
The results show that many of the tasks are correlated with other tasks. The number of
significant (p< 0.05) correlations between the tasks in Table 5.10 are from a high of 17 to
a low of 8. The lowest number of associations is the task “develop a marketing plan”
with eight significant associations. The results for the task “instigate a customer
relationship strategy” had the highest associations (17), with the other tasks.
The interpretation of these results is the tasks from the adapted CIM Professional
Standard Framework, can best be seen as part of an interlinked system that is dependent
on all tasks being completed effectively. This interlinked system points to the need for a
marketing manager to work and interact with other members of the marketing
department (including subordinates), or other functional areas of the organisation. As
such, this finding again reinforces the previous finding that the Management of people
is considered the most important activity undertaken by a marketing manager.
This section has shown that the tasks of the adapted CIM Professional Standard
Framework are interrelated. What the results do not show, however, is how often the
196
tasks of the CIM Professional Standard Framework are attempted. This question is
answered by the next research question of this thesis, and the results are presented in the
next section of this chapter.
5.10.3: FREQUENCY OF CONDUCT OF TASKS BY THE MARKETING MANAGER
Hypothesis 5.2: The 23 tasks of the CIM Professional Framework model are completed
by marketing managers in accordance with their importance.
This section examines the frequency with which tasks are undertaken by marketing
managers. The participants were asked how often they completed the tasks according to
the adapted CIM Professional Standard Framework. The completion frequency of the
tasks was measured based on the scale of rarely do the task, once a year, 2-4 times per
year, 5-11 times per year, and monthly or more. The results are derived from Question 15
(Which of these tasks do your perform in your current position?) and Question 16
(Which of these tasks do you consider most important to your success?) of the survey
instrument.
It is considered that an understanding of the frequency of undertaking marketing tasks
would contribute to the richness of information on the importance of marketing tasks.
Accordingly, in this section the important marketing tasks are examined in the context of
the frequency of occurrence of the task. The results Table 5.11 lists the tasks undertaken
by a marketing manager by importance and frequency of conduct. A review of the results
will allow other marketers to develop a good appreciation of the activities and tasks that
are deemed to be of importance to a marketing manager, and therefore aid them in career
development and establishment.
..
197
Table 5.11: Importance and Frequency of Marketing Tasks with the CIM Professional Standard Framework
Activity Task
Importance of
Task Ranking
Frequency of Task
Rarely do Task
Once a year
2-4 times
/ year 5-11 times
/ year
Monthly
or more
Research and Analysis
Recommend market research projects 23 34.70 21.73 31.64 8.40 4.18
Assess company performance and competitor analysis 3 1.27 10.3 9.45 22.00 56.13
Strategy and Planning
Determine the strategic direction of marketing portfolio (department)
4 10.27 38.40 20.53 16.00 15.27
Develop a marketing plan 7 10.00 61.84 19.30 3.80 5.00
Brands
Develop branding strategy 12 13.6 43.4 30.54 8.80 3.60
Promote development of brands across the organisational portfolios
18 7.93 20.30 40.32 21.20 10.35
Implementation of Marketing Programmes
Implement communication mix for portfolio or company 13 8.43 35.35 33.20 8.10 15.00
Initiate new product development programs 19 17.36 16.7 42.723 11.45 11.09
Maintain a competitive product portfolio 14 15.48 28.25 29.36 19.78 6.90
Develop pricing strategy 20 25.79 37.65 25.77 6.70 3.8
Implement pricing strategy consistent with corporate objectives 10 24.34 32.43 13.60 22.23 6.44
Develop effective channels to meet organisations objectives 15 32.18 23.16 25.49 12.43 6.44
Direct and support for marketing intermediaries 22 5.30 25.47 27.00 10.02 32.09
Instigate a customer relationship strategy 11 15.33 16.02 26.03 31.54 11.18
Manage customer analysis 17 15.45 30.33 27.00 20.30 7.70
Establish the project management hierarchy in line with company’s objectives
21 13.780 27.88 39.64 10.01 8.57
Manage the running of projects 6 7.87 1.22 36.48 22.35 32. 08
198
Activity Task
Importance of
Task Ranking
Frequency of Task
Rarely do Task
Once a year
2-4 times
/ year 5-11 times
/ year
Monthly
or more
Measuring Effectiveness
Monitor actual results against planned performance 5 2.87 4.13 20.04 22.20 50.84
Market reports to senior management 16 3.59 10.67 14.57 20.45 50.61
Managing People
Management of staff 1 7.43 8.77 7.89 8.14 67.91
Co-ordinate marketing activities among sales and marketing divisions
2 1.00 7.87 9.51 16.00 65.55
Contribute to the company's ability to manage change 8 12.34 12.91 21.05 24.84 28.86
Financial Analysis Develop, monitor and control marketing budgets
9 2.02 25.75 18.5.9 11.59 42.00
199
The data analysis of task frequency substantiates the findings of the importance of the 23
tasks that were examined. In all of the 23 tasks examined, the most common response
was roughly 35% of the tasks (eight out of 23) were completed monthly or more, only
4% (one out of 23) chose the “completed their task 5-11 times per year” as the most
common response, 26% (six out of 23) selected 2-4 times per year as the most common
response, 26% (six out of 23) selected monthly as their most common response, while
only 9% (two out of 23) selected rarely do the task as the most common response as
shown in Table 5.11.
The two tasks that the respondents rarely complete were: “Recommend market research
projects” (34.70%) and “Develop effective channels” (32.18%). This finding again
reinforces the earlier findings on task importance, where these tasks were not identified
among the most highly rated tasks, but were ranked 23 and 17 respectively. However, the
three most important tasks; “management of staff, (67.91%)“, “co-ordinate marketing
activities among sales and marketing divisions”(65.5%) and “assess company
performance and competitor analysis” (56.13%) were the respondents most common
answer was monthly or more. The results suggest the important tasks needed for the
establishment of the marketing manager’s career and the numbers of times they are
attempted are consistent. In other words, the marketing managers in this thesis
understand which are the important tasks and attempt these very regularly. For a full
review of the results, please refer to Appendix 12.
5.10.3.1: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
Hypothesis 5.3: The financial tasks were an important task for the present established
marketing manager.
The inclusion of the financial task (ability to develop, monitor and control marketing
budgets) was a result of the qualitative phase of this research (Please refer to Chapter 4).
The results show that there is a high level of engagement by respondents in this task as
42% of the respondents conducted this task on a monthly basis or more. The high level
of engagement and frequency of conduct of financial management is reflected in the
200
assessment of the quite high ranking of the importance of the skill at six (of 23), a skill
that is not marketing in nature, but nevertheless seen as important for today’s marketing
professional’s career. These results also support the previous phase of this research, the
qualitative phase, as many of the marketing professionals suggested this task was very
important for their career establishment. The discussion in this section has established a
link between perceptions of task importance and the frequency of the conduct of
marketing tasks. In the following section insights into the importance of skills needed to
undertake these marketing tasks are examined.
5.10.4: SKILLS USED TO UNDERTAKE THE TASKS OF A MARKETING MANAGER
Hypothesis 5.4: The most important skills to complete the skills in the CIM Professional
Framework model are personal skills.
The CIM framework presented to respondents in the quantitative survey provides further
support to the results of the qualitative research phase. More specifically, the quantitative
phase confirmed the importance of people skills. In this section, the objective is to
understand the key skills that are required to undertake the marketing tasks contained
within the CIM Professional Framework. These results are derived from survey Question
17 which posed: “Which of these skills allowed you to accomplish these tasks?” The
skills were grouped according to the Nabi and Bagley (1998) study, which had adapted
the previous research by Binks and Exley (1992). These skills according to Binks and
Exley (1992) and Nabi and Bagley (1998), are indicative of the generic skills that
employers are increasingly expecting graduates to possess. These are; personal skills
(leadership, people management and creative skills), communication skills (written and
verbal communication and interpersonal skills) and problem solving skills (problem
solving, decision making skills, analytical skills, negotiation with staff, negotiation with
suppliers and critical thinking skills). In addition, since these are skills required by all
post-graduate marketing professionals, discipline skills such as marketing and finance
were also included.
The results in Table 5.12 illustrate the most important skill required for each of the tasks
included in the adapted CIM Professional Standard Framework. The shaded area in
Table 5.12 refers to the skill classification determined by Nabi and Bagley (1998) and
201
these were seen as the most important to achieve the tasks contained in the adapted CIM
Professional Standard Framework. The term most important refers to the skill the
respondents rely on most often to complete the tasks. The premise then is that the more
times the skills are considered as the most important skill for a particular task, the more
highly the marketers consider it as important to establishment in their career.
202
Table 5.12: The Skills required undertaking the CIM Framework
SKILL
TASK
Pers
onal
Com
mun
icat
ions
Prob
lem
Sol
ving
Dis
cipl
ine
Assess company performance and competitor analysis
Contribute to the company’s ability to manage change
Co-ordinate marketing activities among sales and marketing divisions
Determine the strategic direction of marketing portfolio (department
Develop a marketing plan
Develop branding strategy
Develop effective channels to meet organisations objectives
Develop pricing strategy
Develop, monitor and control marketing budgets
Direct and support for marketing intermediaries
Establish the project management hierarchy in line with company's objectives
Implement communication mix for portfolio or company
Implement pricing strategy consistent with corporate objectives
Initiate new product development programs
Instigate a customer relationship strategy
Maintain a competitive product portfolio
Manage customer analysis
Manage the running of projects
Management of staff
Market reports to senior management
Monitor actual results against planned performance
Promote development of brands across the organisational portfolios
Recommend market research projects
TOTAL : Number of times the skill is selected as most popular 10 1 7 5
The shaded area is the most common response
203
The data in Table 5.12 suggests that of the skills examined in conjunction with the 23
tasks, personal skills were considered the most important group of skills within the CIM
Professional Standard Framework. Within this research, this included leadership, people
management and creative skills. In all of the 23 tasks of the CIM Professional Standard
Framework, only 5 tasks were considered discipline related.
The findings re-affirm previous results presented in this thesis as it supports the
importance of people management and leadership skills for the establishment of today’s
marketing professional. The identification of leadership as an important skill may reflect
the career status of the survey respondents. That is, respondents in this thesis had at least
three years’ experience in a marketing position and were most likely to hold management
positions. The results suggest respondents see leadership as a management skill, which is
consistent with the views expressed by Greene (2009). However, Toor and Ofori (2008)
noted that there are differences between leadership and management. The skill
assessment by respondents of leadership skills may in fact refer to managerial skills.
Within many managerial programs there exists a leadership component and this may
have created the association between these two skills. This is particularly of interest to
this study as it adds to earlier findings that the most important skill in marketing is in fact
management.
The findings should be of interest to marketing management recruiters and educators as
well as to the marketing managers themselves. Moreover, these results outline the
frequency of the activities that marketers engage in and the skills they need to complete
the task required in their roles and thus, the results could provide marketers with a
benchmark to compare their activities against. The results show that today’s marketer is
most concerned with measuring effectiveness, management of people, and finance.
These activities are not marketing orientated. The only marketing activity which today’s
marketing manager actually attempts every month is assessing company performance
and competitor analysis. In addition, it suggests that there are personal attributes which
have a bearing on the establishment of the post-graduate marketing manager. The career
orientation is an important aspect of career establishment and progression. The next
section examines the career anchors of the respondents.
204
5.11: THE CAREER ANCHORS OF ESTABLISHED MARKETING
MANAGERS
Hypothesis 6; the dominant career anchor of marketing managers with post-graduate
marketing qualifications is a managerial orientation.
Career anchors are defined as a stabilising force in the individual’s career (Schein, 1975).
The eight career anchors identified by Schein (1978; 1990) were managerial, technical
and competence, autonomy, organisational stability, sense of service, lifestyle and
integration, entrepreneurial and creativity, and pure challenge. Further studies confirmed
that there are actually nine career anchors9 (Wood, Winston and Polkosnik, 1985; Burke
and Deszca, 1988) The questions from the COI scale, developed by DeLong and Schein
(1982), were used to identify respondents’ career anchors. The dominant anchor is seen
to influence the marketers’ career choices and employability since by definition this
anchor will not be sacrificed. The participant’s career anchors were determined using the
DeLong (1982a) and Schein COI scale. The results in Table 5.13 show the career
anchors, expressed as a mean value.
Table 5.13: Career Anchors of Marketing Managers
Career Anchor Mean Std. Dev.
Managerial Importance 1.77 0.93
Life style Integration 1.97 1.18
Sense of service 2.12 0.83
Pure Challenge 2.44 1.08
Autonomy 2.45 1.25
Organisational stability 3.00 1.19
Geographic Security 3.48 1.36
Technical and Functional
Competence
3.54 1.17
Scale: 1 = Completely True to 5 = Completely False
Note: The Entrepreneurial and Creativity Career Anchor was excluded
9 The career anchor, Eentrepreneurial Creativity was excluded because of the low Cronbach’s alpha < 0.6. Please refer to Chapter 5
for a full explanation.
205
The results in Table 5.13 reveals the most common career anchor is managerial (mean
1.77) as posed in hypothesis 6. The least common is the technical and functional
competence anchor (mean 3.54). Employees who possess a managerial anchor are more
generalists in their career.
5.11.1: DOMINANT CAREER ANCHOR
Schein’s (1978) career anchors theory assumes there is one dominant anchor which the
employee will not surrender. The determination of the career anchors in this study will
provide insights to the career aspirations of marketing managers, with post-graduate
qualifications.
In order to determine the dominant career anchor of these respondents, the mean of each
respondent’s anchor was calculated. It was then compared to other anchors and ranked
accordingly. The anchor which had the lowest mean suggests that the respondent agreed
to this the most, and therefore this was their dominant anchor. In cases where the
respondent equally rated two career anchors, both anchors were recorded as dominant
for the purpose of this thesis. The Dominant Career Anchors of respondents are
contained in Table 5.14.
Table 5.14: Dominant Career Anchor
Career Anchor
Dominant Career
Anchor (%)
Managerial Importance 62
Lifestyle Integration 14
Sense of Service 8
Organisational Stability 5
Pure Challenge 5
Autonomy 3
Geographic Security 2
Technical and Functional Competence 1
The results suggest that the dominant career anchor for the majority of the respondents
was the managerial career anchor. These respondents appear to be motivated by the idea
of senior management or possibly CEO (Chief Executive Officer) ambitions. They see
206
themselves as having the ability to make major strategic decisions and their own efforts
will be the difference between either establishing a career or not. The lowest career
anchor in these results was technical and functional competence. This group of
respondents measure themselves on how well they accomplish their own works, and
generally have a desire for a technical role.
5.11.2: DETERMINANT OF SKILLS IMPACTED BY SCHEIN’S CAREER ANCHORS
Hypothesis 7: The skills which are important to a marketer’s career establishment are
dependent on their career anchors.
In order to test this hypothesis, linear regression was undertaken. Linear regression
endeavours to determine if there is a relationship between two variables by fitting a
linear equation to observed data. One variable is considered to be an explanatory
(independent) variable, and the other is considered to be a dependent variable. In this
case, the dependent variable is the important skills as determined by Question 4 (Which
of these skills have been important for your success in your marketing career?) and the
Q21-28 (Schein’s career anchors)
5.11.2.1: MODEL FIT The ranges of R squared for all of the skills, using each one as a dependent variable
were from 0.04-0.18, thus the highest goodness of fit is around 18% (17.9).The skill
which had the highest R squared value was People Management These results are
presented in Table 5.15 below.
Table 5.15: Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjusted R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
Change Statistics
R Square Change
F Change
df 1
df2
Sig. F Change
0.424 .179 .167 .556 .009 4.6
89 1 411 .031
Predictors: (Constant), Managerial Importance, Sense of Service, Technical and Functional Competence, Autonomy, Organisational Stability, Pure Challenge
The Anova results (F 6,411) = 4.6307, p = 0.00 (using the step wise method) suggest the
linear model is overall significant and is useful. This is shown in Table 5.16.
207
Table 5.16: Anova Values
Model Sum of Squares df
Mean Square F Sig.
Regression 27.823 6 4.637 14.981 .000 Residual 127.222 411 .310 Total 155.045 417
Predictors: (Constant), Managerial Importance, Sense of Service, Technical and Functional Competence, Autonomy, Organisational Stability, Pure Challenge
The tests for multicollinearity indicate that there is a very low level (VIF <10),
suggesting there is no or little correlations between the independent variables. The
results are presented Table 5.17 below;
: Table 5.17: Collinearity Coefficients
Coefficients Model Collinearity Statistics Tolerance VIF Managerial Importance 0.804 1.244 Technical and Functional Competence 0.806 1.241
Autonomy 0.809 1.236 Organisational Stability 0.868 1.152 Geographic Stability 0.861 1.161 Sense of Service 0.946 1.058 Lifestyle 0.713 1.403
The results of the regression reveal that the career anchors have an impact on the
independent variable (when all the rest are being held constant). This means that a unit
change in the particular score of the standardised coefficients will improve the
dependent variable people management skills. The beta-coefficients for the career
anchors are shown in Table 5.18.
208
Table 5.18: Parameter Estimates
Model Unstandardized
Coefficients Standardized Coefficients
t Sig.
B Std.
Error Beta (Constant) 4.593 .202 22.727 .000
Managerial Importance -.299 .044 -0.326 -6.783 .000 Sense of Service -.196 .045 -0.197 -4.323 .000 Technical and Functional Competence .130 .038 0.163 3.421 .001
Autonomy .122 .029 0.195 4.221 .000 Organisational Stability .073 .028 0.120 2.564 .011 Pure Challenge -.089 .041 -0.102 -2.165 .031
Dependent Variable: People management
The regression equation is therefore;
Y = β0 + β1X1 + β2X2 + β3X3+ β4X4 + β5X5 + β6X6
The column estimates in Table 5.18 provide the values for β0, β1, β2, β3, β4, β5 and β6 for
this equation. The following career anchors had a negative influence on people
management skills. Managerial Importance (β1) has a coefficient of -0.326, Sense of
service (β2) has a coefficient of –0.197 and Pure challenge (β6) a coefficient of –0.102.
For every unit increase in those career anchors, there is a corresponding decrease in the
importance of the people management skill, when all other skills are held constant. On
the other hand, the career anchors such as Technical and Functional Competence (β3),
Autonomy (β4) and Organisational Stability (β5) had positive standardised beta
coefficients of 0.163, 0.195 and 0.120 respectively. For every increase in those career
anchors, a corresponding increase in the importance of people management skills would
result, if the other skills are held constant.
The results reflect previous results already explained in this chapter. People
management in this research refers to people skills where the marketing manager must
be able to show understanding compassion, the ability to work through others to make
contributions to organisations and experience job satisfaction (Wood, etal., 2004). The
209
managerial importance anchors is concerned with personal ambition and interest in
using power to influence others, while the pure challenge anchor is about winning.
These anchors appear to be opposed to the concept of working through others, but more
associated with personal ambitions. The negative service anchor suggests that the
respondents are more concerned about whether their work needs meet their value. They
are concerned about making the world a better place (Schein, 1990) and not concerned
with working through others. A negative value therefore makes sense in this regression
analysis.
The high value of technical and functional competence reflects the marketer’s ability to
perform their function and this impact on their people management skills. If they are in
a company that is not stable or their work is constrained, this would have a negative
effect on their people management skills. The results reveal a positive association to
these career anchors
5.12: SUMMARY OF RESULTS
The results in Table 5.19 are a summary of the results in Chapter 5. The results of the
study provide an understanding of the tasks of marketing managers, the skills they
perceived as important to their career establishment, and their career anchors. The study
also provided information concerning the effectiveness of their post-graduate education
in developing the skills that they saw as important in career development and which
enabled them to successfully undertake a marketing management role.
210
Table 5.19: Summary of Results
No. Research Question Research Hypothesis Research Results Hypothesis;
Accepted or Rejected
1 The important skills that
allow the marketing manager
to become established
H1: The fourteen skills under study are
all seen as important by marketing
managers.
All of the 14 skills were considered important, having a
mean value greater than the midpoint of three. H1 is
therefore accepted.
Accepted
H1.1: The most important skills are
people management skills
The results suggest that people management, problem
solving and interpersonal skills are the most important
skills. These are in fact people management skills. H1.1 is
accepted.
Accepted
H1.2: The 14 skills importance of skills
does not change with years of
experience
The results suggest the level of importance of some skills
changes over the years of experience
H1.2 is rejected
Rejected
H.2: A number of the most important
skills are related or dependent on other
skills.
EFA suggested there are three groups of skills. These were
termed management skills, market planning skills and
innovative skills. H2 is accepted.
Accepted
2 The coverage of these skills
within the post-graduate
marketing program
H3: All fourteen important skills are
adequately covered in post-graduate
marketing programs.
Only interpersonal skills, people management, negotiation
with staff and negotiation with suppliers were not covered
in post graduate programs. H3 is rejected.
Rejected
211
No. Research Question Research Hypothesis Research Results Hypothesis;
Accepted or Rejected
H3.1: All fourteen important skills are
adequately covered, compared to their
importance ranking in post-graduate
marketing program.
There were no skills that were equally ranked in the study.
H3.1 is rejected.
.
Rejected
3 The emphasis of these skill
sets within post-graduate
marketing program
H4: All fourteen important skills are
perceived to be adequately emphasised
in post-graduate marketing programs.
Only six skills of the 14 under examination in this thesis
were adequately emphasised. .H4 is rejected.
Rejected
H4.1: All fourteen important skills are
adequately emphasised, compared to
their importance ranking in post-
graduate marketing program.
There were no skills the Higher Education emphasised in
the programs that corresponded to the importance placed on
the skills by the respondents. H4.1 is rejected.
Rejected
4 The 23 tasks of the CIM
Professional Standard
Framework were seen as
important for established
marketing professionals who
have a post-graduate degree.
H5: The 23 tasks of the CIM
Professional Standard Framework were
seen as important for established
marketing professionals who have a
post-graduate degree.
Recommending marketing research was considered not
important as its mean value was less than 3.0.
H5 is rejected.
Rejected
H 5.1: The tasks in the CIM Professional
Framework model are related or
dependent on the other tasks.
All of the tasks in the CIM framework model are dependent
on other tasks. H5. 1 is accepted.
Accepted
212
No. Research Question Research Hypothesis Research Results Hypothesis;
Accepted or Rejected
H 5.2: The 23 tasks of the CIM
Professional Framework model are
completed in accordance with their
importance.
The most important tasks are managing people. This task
was completed monthly or more. The mean score was
ranked the highest. H5.2 is accepted.
Accepted
H5.3: The financial tasks are an
important task for the present
established marketing manager.
Financial tasks were completed monthly or more by the
respondents. The mean score of 4.09 ranked this the 6th
most important task. H5.3 is accepted.
Accepted
H 5.4: The most important skills to
complete the CIM Professional
Framework model are personal skills
The most important skill to complete the CIM Professional
Framework is personal skills. Within this research, this
includes leadership, people management and creative skills.
H5.4 is accepted.
Accepted
5 What are the career anchors
of marketing managers who
are established in their career
Schein’s career anchors?
H 6: The dominant career motivations or
anchor of marketing managers with
post-graduate marketing qualifications
was a managerial orientation.
The most important career anchor was Managerial
Importance. Geographic security and technical /functional
competence were not considered important anchors. H6 is
accepted.
Accepted
H7: The skills which are important to a
marketer’s career establishment are
dependent on their career anchors
The ranges of R squared using regression analysis ranged
from 0.04 to 0.18. The skills that had the highest R squared
is people management. H7 is accepted
Accepted
213
CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND
CONCLUSIONS
6.1: INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this research was to extend our understanding of the factors that
influence the career establishment of post-graduate marketing managers. As the
performance of marketing managers is seen to be clearly linked to the performance and
profitability of the organisation, it behoves researchers to develop an appreciation and
knowledge of the determinants of the factors that are seen to influence career
establishment. In this research, a survey of marketing managers, as distinct from
novices, was undertaken, to identify their perceptions of a number of factors seen to
influence their career establishment and career success. The factors examined the
related skills required to undertake the tasks of a marketing manager. In addition, the
perceptions of marketing manager of the adequacy of the post-graduate programs they
had undertaken, in covering and emphasising the skills they perceived as important
were identified. Finally, the career anchors of marketing manager were identified with a
view to establishing a link to their skill development and career establishment. In all, the
study examined a selection of internal (career anchors) and external (skills) factors, that
influence the marketing manager’s career development and establishment, together with
the identification of the contribution of their post-graduate marketing studies in
delivering the needed skill outcomes for career development.
This chapter summarises and discusses the findings of the quantitative study, which were
presented in Chapter 5. The theoretical and managerial implications of the findings are
also presented, as is the discussion of the limitations of the study and possibilities for
future research.
214
6.2: IMPORTANT SKILLS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS
The first set of hypotheses tested concerned the identification of skills that were seen as
important to the career establishment of a marketing manager, who had a post-graduate
marketing qualification. The results of the Hypothesis testing are presented in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Summary of Results: Hypotheses Testing of Important skills
H1 The fourteen skills under study are all seen as important
by marketing managers
Accepted
H1.1 The most importance skills for a marketing manager are
managerial skills
Accepted
H1.2 The importance of the 14 skills does not change with
years of experience
Rejected
H2 A number of the most important skills are related or
dependent on other skills.
Accepted
The study found full support for the importance of all the fourteen skills under
examination (Hypothesis 1). The study also sought to establish which skill was seen as
the most important skill. It was hypothesised that management skills would be found to
be the most important skills (Hypothesis 1.1), and this finding was supported in the table
below. However, the results do not support Hypothesis 1.2. A summary list of the 14
skills, their classification and importance ranking is presented at Table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Classification, Importance and Ranking of Skills
Skills Classification(a)
Rank Mean
Interpersonal Communication Skills 1 4.49 People management Personal Attributes 2 4.41 Decision making Problem Solving Skills 3 4.39 Marketing comprehension Discipline Skills 11 3.99 Financial Discipline Skills 14 3.63
(a) Classification of Skill by Nabi and Bagley (1998) and Binks and Exley (1992)
215
6.2.1: KEY SKILLS
The results presented in Table 6.2 indicate that three skills (interpersonal, people
management and decision skills) are seen as key skills. These three skills were found to
be significantly different and more important than the other 11 skills, and these three
skills are often components of what are generally termed management skills (Hypothesis
1.1). This finding does provide support for the acceptance of Hypothesis 2.
The importance of these three skills, which may be termed more generally management
skills, is consistent with what was anticipated as the respondents were undertaking
management roles, albeit in a marketing function. The role of the marketing manager
often requires them to have the ability to handle extensive interaction with others as well
as taking responsibility for subordinate staff. This view is consistent with perceptions of
the role of the product manager as requiring many functional interfaces within the
organisation, and, thus, being seen as the “hub of the wheel”, co-ordinating activities
with other areas of the firm (Lehmann and Winer, 2004). These functional interfaces are
perhaps the most numerous and challenging of any in middle management (Luck, 1969),
because power in an organisation typically resides outside the product management
organisation (Tyagi and Sawhney, 2010). As such, the finding of the key importance of
these skills is not unexpected. What is of concern, however, is the number of previous
studies (e.g., Floyd and Gordon, 1998; Gray et al., 2007) that have failed to incorporate
these so-called management skills in their studies of the important skill-sets of marketing
managers. These studies may have had a different orientation, context or timeframe,
however given the nature of the marketing managers’ roles it would have expected that
their skills would have been uncovered in this study.
A further issue is that all of the three key skills (interpersonal, people management and
decision skills) are generally not seen as skills that are covered or developed in
marketing programs. For example, the studies by Bruce and Schoenfeld, (2006) and
Dacko (2006) on decision making skills, Duke, (2002) on interpersonal skills and
O’Brien and Deans (1995) on people management skills all agreed that these skills and
were under developed. In fact, Dacko (2006) went so far as to say that the higher
education curriculum was deficient in this respect. These findings may be viewed with
some concern, as the implications point to a situation where post-graduate marketing
216
programs may not be providing the acquisition or skill development marketing managers
need for their career establishment. In subsequent sections of this chapter, the researcher
further explores the issue of the perceived effectiveness of post-graduate marketing
programs in addressing the development of these important skills. However, as reported
in the qualitative phase of this research, it is possible that the respondents do not know
they are actually obtaining these skills. For example, a respondent in that phase of the
research, Mr G, a Lecturer in Business noted that many programs have the skills
embedded in them and many students do not know this. That withstanding, a review of
the post-graduate programs by the researcher (Please see Appendix 2) revealed that there
were only a few programs that had management subjects as a core subject. The relevance
to this research is the development of the key skills will aid in program improvement by
allowing Higher Education Institutions to ensure that the skills are incorporated in the
future post-graduate marketing programs.
The results for Hypothesis 1.2 are not supported. This is different from the study by
Mumford, Campion and Morgeson, (2007) who suggested skills such as leadership are
used at all levels of an organisation. This would explain why there is no significant
change (p>0.05) in these skills across the difference years of experience by the post-
graduate marketing managers in this research. The result enforces the need for leadership
skills to be included in the post-graduate programs, given there is a need for such skills
throughout the established marketing manager’s career.
6.2.2: DISCIPLINE KNOWLEDGE: MARKETING AND FINANCIAL
Whilst the finding of the importance of management skill is no real surprise, given the
general management tasks and the specific activities required of a marketing manager,
the lesser importance placed on the technical skills of marketing knowledge and financial
skill is surprising. It would generally be inferred that having a high level skill of
marketing comprehension would be important for the career development of a
professional marketer. The study by Schlee and Harich (2010) found for example, that
marketing comprehension skills was not seen to decline in importance as an individual’s
career developed. However, it was seen as a most important skill in middle and higher
management positions, as against lower level or novice marketing roles. The
development of the marketing plan is a key activity of professional marketers, and the
217
more experienced the marketing manager, the more the reliance on conceptual
knowledge in the planning process (Schlee and Harich, 2010).
In seeking to explain the identification of the discipline skill of marketing
comprehension as important, but not of key importance, the researcher has given
consideration to the importance of theory (seen as the focus of higher education
programs) versus practice. For some students, and employers, it is the perceived lack of
practical application of the discipline knowledge that detracts from its importance as a
determining skill for career development and establishment in the workplace (O’Brien
and Deans, 1995; Bradstreet, 1996; and Davis, Misra and Van Auken, 2002). In
subsequent questions in this study, Question Two and Three, the researcher further
explores the issue of the perceived effectiveness of post-graduate marketing programs in
addressing the development of skills.
Another consideration, which may explain the lower ranking of the marketing
comprehension skill, is the possibility that the respondents are not seeking a career
specifically within the marketing discipline, but are focussed on moving into senior
levels of general management. Marketing has been long been considered a stepping stone
to a more senior career, particularly to general management. The respondents in this
study may have this view. The ranking of the key skills, which are all deemed to be
management skills or their components (Whitten and Cameron, 2002), would seem to
support the contention that these respondents do see the management function of their
marketing roles as very important to their success. Whether this is indicative of a career
interest in management more generally, or within the marketing discipline, is not an issue
covered in this study. It is possible, of course, that the less positive than expected ranking
of marketing comprehension skills, is simply a reflection of the marketers perception that
a very wide range of skills is needed for career establishment and possibly, success.
The identification of financial skills, as being important, but not so important, is more
understandable, as financial analysis is a task undertaken by professional marketers in
tasks relating to the development and assessment of marketing/brand strategy and
planning. There are mixed findings in the literature concerning the importance of
financial skills to marketers. For example, a survey of product managers (Hall, 1998)
showed financial skills as the lowest ranked skill. It was anticipated that financial skills
218
would be rated as one of the most important skills, given that the prime responsibility of
the product manager is to improve sales and profitability. Schlee and Harich (2010)
found an increasing need for forecasting and budgeting knowledge for marketers as they
move through various career stages. Their study showed an increased requirement for
budgeting and forecasting from 27% for entry level positions to 43% for marketers with
five or more years’ experience, and 55% for upper management jobs. Of concern,
however, is that, many researchers did not include finance or accounting within the skill-
sets when the skills of marketers were examined (Floyd and Gordon, 1998, Gray et al.,
2002, Dacko, 2006 and Gray et al., 2007).
The explanation for the lower than expected importance placed on financial skills in this
study is unclear, but the mixed findings could best be explained by the fact that
marketers see that financial skills are subsumed in other skills (for example, financial
skills are subsumed in problem solving and decision-making skills). Whilst the
researcher is unable to give a definitive answer to the reason for the mixed results, the
potential for financial skills to be considered as subsumed in other skills under
examination, is covered in the discussion in the next section of this chapter which covers
the relationship between skills.
In summary, the study findings have identified that these marketing managers have
clearly confirmed that all of the 14 skills have contributed to the establishment of their
marketing careers (Hypothesis 1). The study also found that three skills (decision
making, interpersonal skills, and people management), are seen as key skills (Hypothesis
1.1). Moreover, all these skills are complex, or layered, skills, and these skills are largely
not incorporated in post-graduate marketing programs
.
6.2.3: RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE 14 SKILLS UNDER INVESTIGATION
It was hypothesised that there would be found a relationship between the skills under
investigation (Hypothesis 2). This hypothesis was supported by the analysis of the
relationships between the 14 skills using EFA which revealed three factors. The three
factors have been termed; Management Skills, Market Planning skills and Innovative
Skills. The Management skills (people management, negotiation skills with staff and
219
suppliers, decision making, financial, problem solving and critical thinking skills)
appear to be similar to the synopsis of the major management books by Bigelow (1995).
The second factor, Market Planning skills relates to the tasks of market planning and the
marketing manager’s use of marketing comprehension skills and written communication
skills. The third factor is Innovative skills which include verbal communication,
leadership and creative thinking, and is in some way linked to the definition of creative
within this thesis. Amabile (1983) believed creativity as being the development of
unique responses to problems. In order for problems to be clarified between staff, there
needs to be some level of communication within the company. Furthermore, many of
them would have to be convinced the new unique response is worthy of consideration.
This would correspond to the leadership skills component. Each of these three factors
will now be further discussed.
Factor One was deemed to be managerial skills. Whetten and Cameron (2011) proposed
the development of nine managerial skills, which they classified into three intrapersonal
skills (self-awareness, creative problem solving and stress management) and six
interpersonal skills (supportive communication, conflict management, motivating
others, power and influence, empowering and delegating, and teamwork). The group of
skills in this factor is intrapersonal skills which are consistent with Whetten and
Cameron’s (2011) study as well as the findings by Nabi and Bagley (1998). Berdrow
and Evans (2011) specified 17 skills into four categories; one of those was managing
people and processes. The results from the factor analysis appear to concur with their
finding by including negotiation, people management and decision making. The other
skill included in Factor One, decision making could be included in another category,
termed self –awareness. Paglis (2013) believes that the common ground for categories
for management skills is self-management intrapersonal and relationship-orientated
interpersonal skills. The skills in this factor appear to agree with this believe.
Shaw, Fisher and Southey (1999) also found leadership and communication as
consistent themes. The results in this research do not support these skills, though they
are similar in that they include decision making skills. Furthermore, the leadership,
communication skills were included in the next factor, just not in the management
factor. The difference could be associated with the participants in the different samples
between Shaw et al. (1999) and this research.
220
The identification of financial skills as part of the management factor further
emphasizes the importance of monitoring results for the marketing manager. This result
is consistent with the findings of key important skills as noted earlier in the chapter.
The grouping of financial skills with other managerial skills is further evidence of the
metrics which marketers and managers are now experiencing. It also supports the
contention posed in the previous section that in identifying important skills, the
respondents in this study may have subsumed financial skills in management skills
since they were better identified in the marketing manager’s mind as problem-solving or
decision-making skills.
The second factor appears to be how the marketing manager’s plan and how they
communicate these plans via written communication. The study by McDonald (1989)
on barriers of market plans is particularly relevant to this factor. McDonald suggested
the barriers to planning are the lack of scanning of the environment, both internal and
external, together with a scarcity of in-depth analysis. Furthermore, McDonald (1989)
suggested a marketer must understand the theoretical component of marketing in order
to address the differences between the marketing function and its concept. In addition,
he added that communication skills are a pre-requisite for planning. The three skills
within this factor, now called Marketing Planning, support the ideas proposed by
McDonald (1989). Further evidence by Slotegraff and Dickinson (2004) suggested a
prime function of marketers is to consider opportunities within the marketing
environment, and then analyse these with respect to the firm’s resources and
capabilities. In other words, to develop new opportunities the marketer must assess
strategic options to develop strategies through the allocation of appropriate funds. The
marketer would presumably use analytical skills since they provide the ability to
identify opportunities to develop these strategies (Arora and Stoner, 1992). The use of
analytical skills was alluded to by Simon (1993) who suggested three skills are required
in planning. These are; (1) skills in anticipating the uncertainties of the future of the
firm, (2) skills in generating alternatives for effectively managing the changes and (3)
the skill to implement new plans and strategies. While the first skill refers to analytical
skills in terms of anticipating and solving the changes, the last two highlight the skills
needed to respond to change. In this factor, this would refer to marketing
comprehension skills and written communication skills. The ability to implement these
221
alternatives, presumably via written communications is therefore critical (Mintzenberg,
1990).
The written communication skills in this factor refer to the marketing manager and their
ability to convey information that can be stored. In this case, it refers to the marketing
plan which is often used continually throughout the planning cycle. The importance of
written communication is also supported by Gray et al. (2007).
Factor three, termed Innovative skills in this research suggests a combination of verbal
communication, creative and leadership skills. Ettington and Camp (2002) suggest a
particular leadership style reinforcing self-management aids in developing of new
products. They further this by stating that leadership encourages the search for new
products and thus evaluating opportunities to develop these. In this light, the marketing
manager is using leadership to develop new products by exhibiting skills within the
marketing domain. Webster, et al., (2005) also proposed that the need to be inventive
has a major influence on long term profitability. Indeed, his study found that two thirds
of 100 global companies surveyed in 2004 cited innovation as a top priority. Moreover,
the probability of being innovative is significantly increased if there is an understanding
of customer’s needs and wants. The link between innovation and marketing and
leadership skills is possibly a result of combined marketing efforts in order to present
new products to management. The increased marketing efforts result in clarification of
company directions of marketing activities via the re-emphasis of customer orientation
in order to provide better direction and support to creativity and development efforts.
Perhaps, the importance of this factor signals a change from traditional marketing to
adapt to changes in dynamic environments as suggested by Lehmann and Winer (2004).
The adaption of the web, for example, has revolutionized way in which companies
communicate with their customers. Creative skills are often utilised to deliver value to
customers as a method of creating a competitive advantage. How marketers handle this
change and develop new marketing activities that are accepted by the company could be
evidence that supports the study by Lehmann and Winer (2004). The results of this
research are possibly an indication of this.
222
Factor Three also includes verbal communication skills, rather than written
communication skills. This result confirms the research by Lehmann and Winer (2004),
who suggested that verbal communication skills entail interpersonal communication of
visual expression and dimensions of closeness. For a marketer to explain, their
innovation, the audience would have to be convinced, normally be a presentation or
even a demonstration. Though written information has the capacity of storing and
providing more information, it is verbal communication that convinces others of the
merits of innovative and creative opportunities.
In summary, the identification of the relationship between the skills in terms of the three
factors (Management Skills, Market Planning skills and Innovative skills) provides
support for Hypothesis 2, and again reinforces that it is not an individual skill but a
number of skills that are seen as most important in enabling the career establishment of
marketing managers. As earlier research, and the content analysis of post–graduate
marketing programmes in Australia, has established a lack of the development of some
of the skills required by these respondents in post-graduate programs, this aspect is
covered in the next section of this chapter.
223
6.3: COVERAGE AND EMPHASIS OF SKILLS IN POST-
GRADUATE MARKETING PROGRAMS
A set of hypothesises relating to the adequacy and coverage of important skills in post-
graduate marketing programs in Australia, as perceived by the respondents, is
summarised in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3 Summary of Results: Hypotheses Testing of Perceptions of Post-Graduate Marketing
Programs
H3 All fourteen important skills are adequately covered in
post-graduate marketing programs.
Rejected
H3.1 All fourteen important skills are adequately covered,
compared to their importance (ranking) in post-graduate
marketing programs
Rejected
H4 All fourteen important skills are perceived to be
adequately emphasised in post-graduate marketing
programs.
Rejected
H4.1 All fourteen important skills are adequately emphasised,
compared to their importance ranking in post-graduate
marketing programs..
Rejected
The results of the study findings on the perceptions of the post-graduate marketing
programs that had been undertaken by the marketing managers that responded in this
research are at Table 6.4. The results provide a summary of the findings of the difference
between the professional marketers’ perception of coverage, and, emphasis on a skill as
compared to their perceptions of the importance of the skill. The term emphasis in this
thesis refers to how much importance was given to the skill sets in the respondent’s post-
graduate marketing program. The term coverage is how much the student actually used
the skill-set within the post-graduate marketing program.
224
Table 6.4: Comparison of Importance versus Coverage/ Emphasis in Post-Graduate Marketing
Programs
Skill Importance v coverage
of skills
Importance v emphasis
of skills
Analytical Significant Significant Marketing Comprehension Not Significant Significant Creative thinking Significant Significant Critical thinking Significant Significant Decision making Significant Significant Financial skills Significant Significant Interpersonal skills Significant Significant Leadership Significant Significant Negotiation with staff Significant Significant Negotiation with suppliers Significant Significant People management Significant Significant Problem solving Significant Significant Verbal communication Significant Significant Written communication Significant Significant
The data in Table 6.4 demonstrates that marketing managers found the coverage of skills
in all cases, with the exception of marketing comprehension, was not consistent with the
level of importance placed on the skill, thus providing no support for Hypothesis 3.
Furthermore, the data in Table 6.4 reveals that marketing managers found the emphasis
on skills and their importance was not considered to be the same by the post-graduate
marketing managers, thus providing no support for Hypothesis 3.1. On the basis of these
findings, it is not unreasonable to say that all stakeholders, students, employers and
Higher Education Institutions, should be concerned that students are not obtaining the
skills that are deemed important for their career establishment from their post-graduate
marketing programs.
It is important to note here that although views on the importance of different skills vary
among various stakeholders, there is some agreement that marketing graduates have to
be well versed in marketing knowledge and possess a range of skills that are essential for
their career development (Kelley and Bridges, 2005). In discussing these results, first the
skill of marketing comprehension will be examined.
225
6.3.1: MARKETING KNOWLEDGE
Marketing comprehension is the only skill that was seen as being satisfactorily covered
in the post-graduate marketing programs, compared to its importance. This finding is
consistent with the common view by Evans and Rush (1996) that (marketing) knowledge
would usually take precedence over skills in higher education programs. However,
marketing comprehension was not seen as being given the emphasis that consistent with
its perceived importance to professional marketers. This finding suggests that there are
reservations about the adequacy of marketing comprehension skills development
compared to its importance. There are a number of possible reasons for these
perceptions, and prior studies have identified principal influences as the changing
demands of the marketing landscape, and the different knowledge demands as a
marketers’ career develops.
In looking to the influences of the changing marketing landscape, particularly the advent
of the World Wide Web has revolutionised the way organisations communicate and
deliver value to customers (Achrol and Kotler, 1999). As noted previously, the web is a
new channel of distribution, a new communication medium, and a way of building
relationships with a brand, and these changes make the role of the marketing professional
more complex given the expanded number of strategies for the organisation. A review of
the content of post-graduate marketing programs (Appendix 2), conducted by the
researcher has found few programs that include subjects specifically directed to e-
marketing, or that address the new focus on customer relationship management and data-
mining (as distinct from the traditional focus on primary research). A number of studies
have examined the areas of needed marketing knowledge in recent years. For example,
Gray et al., (2002) found that marketing managers ranked marketing communications,
market research and analysis, customer behaviour, and product and brand management
as the most important areas of marketing knowledge. The authors noted that the
knowledge areas reflected the functional roles which graduates were most likely to
undertake, as could be expected. The study by Schlee and Harich (2010) found there
were changing marketing knowledge needs among marketing managers compared to
novices. Their results suggested an emphasis on marketing knowledge was increasing
with experience, rather than decreasing. This finding was also supported by the findings
of Walker et al., (2009). The nature of the role of a professional marketer requires the
226
application of discipline-specific skills at later stage in one’s career compared with other
disciplines such as accounting (Schlee and Harich 2010). Moreover, the study by Schlee
and Harich (2010) suggested the need for conceptual knowledge may actually increase
with the more experience the marketer has. As the marketers’ career develops he/she is
required to conduct multiple tasks and integrate marketing knowledge from their post-
graduate programs. These tasks are often in a situation where there professional success
is assessed on the basis of achieving positive outcomes for the organisation. As such, the
marketing managers’ ability to perform their roles successfully depends, in part, on their
ability to bring into use the marketing knowledge from their post-graduate programs.
Whilst novice marketers are expected to have marketing knowledge, once they have
progressed beyond the entry-level stage, marketers are required to demonstrate
application of their theoretical knowledge to business practice and specific situations
(Walker et al., 2009). For the established marketer it is not knowledge per se but the
ability, comprehension, and experience to be able to use that knowledge in the correct
way and for a specific situation (Walker et al., 2009). The application of marketing
knowledge in the correct situation may be seen as integral to the development of the
skill. This process nature of skill development is reflected in the definition of skill by
Shipp, Lamb and Mokwa (1993). They viewed skills as abilities that are refined with
practice and its acquisition is a process. Using the Shipp’s, et al., (1993) definition, skills
are therefore taught and once acquired can be practised to then refine them. Thus, skills
are learnt and they are built upon through a highly structured set of activities that are
specific to a particular event or circumstance. A key implication of these findings is that
the development of adequate levels of marketing knowledge for marketing managers
requires opportunities for the post-graduate students to apply marketing knowledge in
situations that mirror a work environment. In fact, calls have been made for
improvements to business education more generally over past years to include a higher
emphasis on of the active learning approach (O’Brien and Deans, 1995). These finding
have implications for higher education, and reinforces the need to design programs with
up-to-date knowledge content and application that is relevant to the marketing manager.
These implications are discussed later in this chapter.
In terms of all the other 13 skills examined, the professional marketers surveyed in this
study considered that both coverage and emphasis on these skills, in the post-graduate
227
marketing programs they had undertaken, was inconsistent with the perceived
importance of the skill (Table 6.2). Whilst there is a large amount of information which
examines the role and proficiency of business schools in developing skills for effective
career development, most of the research has focussed on the novice graduate marketer.
There has been limited research on marketing managers or more specifically, marketers
who have undertaken post-graduate marketing programs and this thesis seeks to fill that
void. The real concern is the continued focus on marketing knowledge in post-graduate
marketing programs, rather than the emphasis on particular skills. The better the
coverage of important skills, the more likely the post-graduate will understand them and
be able to use them to establish their careers. The data in Table 6.4 suggests that the key
skills are generally not considered adequately covered in their post-graduate marketing
programs. As noted above, for the marketing manager, it is not just knowledge, but the
ability to apply that knowledge in the correct business context that is needed. In order to
acquire the needed marketing knowledge appropriate to a marketing manager, there must
be a concerted effort at the post-graduate level for students to have these skills reinforced
through task-relevant applications.
These results would be of particular interest to Dacko (2006) and Bruce and Schoenfeld
(2006), whose studies examined the coverage and emphasis of skills in MBA’s, noting
that the coverage of skills was a more realistic measure, than the emphasis on skills. In
this thesis, the evaluation of the skill development of post-graduate marketing programs
failed on both-counts, emphasis and coverage.
6.3.2: FINANCIAL KNOWLEDGE
The activities and tasks of professional marketers are seen to require a broad level of
financial knowledge, particularly given the increased importance on financial outcomes
to performance assessment. These propositions have been supported in prior research.
Panigryrakis and Veloutsou (1999), for example noted the need for product managers to
develop a better understanding of finance and its role in the assessment of products or
brands. Eberhardt, Moser and McGee’s (1997) research suggested financial skills to be
important to the MBA’s in their study. This finding was consistent with the content
analysis study by Melaia, Abratt and Bick (2008). Furthermore, research by Wong
(2008), suggested that financial skills were considered more important by alumni than
228
academics for undergraduate business programs. A review of the content of post-
graduate marketing programs revealed that no specific attention was paid to the
development of financial knowledge (Appendix 2). In addition there is little reference to
financial skills in the job advertisements reviewed by Bennett (2002) and Schlee and
Harich (2010). However, it is mentioned in the job descriptions that were analysed by
Melaia, Abratt and Bick (2008). These results indicate post-graduate marketing programs
need to specifically cover financial skills. Furthermore, a review of senior job
advertisements for marketing managers found the understandings of financial skills are
considered an important part of a required skill set at that level.
In the following section, some observations are made in relation to the role of Higher
Education Institutions in the development of skills, in post-graduate marketing programs,
that are seen as important for the career development of marketing managers.
6.3.3: SKILL GAPS IN HIGHER EDUCATION PROGRAMS
As noted previously, three skills (decision making, interpersonal and management skills),
were found to be the most important skills. Marketing is considered an applied field, as
are other business disciplines, and the activities and tasks of marketing managers
requires them to develop and implement marketing strategies. These are undertaken is
conjunction with the support of different functional areas of an organisation, and often
the responsibility of other staff.
There is considerable amount of literature explaining the importance of decision-making
skill. The studies such as Bruce and Schoenfeld (2006), for example have explained the
importance that recruiters place on decision making skills. Their research concluded that
45% of recruiters believe this skill is important. The opinions of the marketing
management recruitment consultants are often a reflection of their clients, employers and
industry needs. These clients are a part of industry which ultimately will employ the
marketers. If the post-graduate marketer does not have the correct skills and knowledge
of how to use them, it will hinder their career progress. It appears that the respondents in
this thesis are suggesting that decision making skills were not covered within their post-
graduate marketing programs, but rather subsumed in the program content delivery. The
229
study by Dacko (2006) also suggests that decision making skills are not emphasised
within post-graduate programs.
Interpersonal skills enable the employee to interact effectively with a variety of
individuals (superiors, subordinates and peers). As a result, understanding their needs,
and being sympathetic to them, with a view to developing positive relationships will aid
their task performance (Evers and Rush, 1996). Interpersonal skills are seen as complex
skills, and the components of interpersonal skills include influencing, negotiating,
professional writing, business planning and creative problem solving (Weiner, 1990). All
these are separate skills. Some of these are examined in this thesis (Negotiation and
Creative thinking skills). Prior studies (AC Nielson, 2000; Athiyaman, 2001) have
concluded that undergraduates were deficient in interpersonal skills. According to AC
Nielson (2000), undergraduates were not significantly developed in their education. In
order to be gainfully employed, it is thought that marketers need to exhibit an acceptable
level of interpersonal skills. If they did not, then their chance of being employed would
be hindered (White 1992). The results in this study found that these marketing managers
perceived both a lack of coverage and emphasis of interpersonal skills, in their post-
graduate marketing programs. One possible reason for the perceived lack of coverage of
this skill, or even the teaching of this skill, is the complexity of the skill. Nevertheless,
this thesis has provided evidence that coverage of this skill was also seen as deficient in
post-graduate marketing programs.
At the broadest level, managing people and tasks is defined as the ability to direct, plan,
organise and coordinate the work done by others. It is also is a complex skill that
involves decision making, leadership and negotiation skills among others. The
management of people is not necessarily restricted to people having the title or rank of
manager. It is considered that changes in organisational structures are increasingly
requiring all employees to possess skills to manage not only themselves, but also to
manage people and resources (Evers and Rush, 1996). The results in Table 6.4 reveal
that the marketing managers in this research perceive that the coverage and emphasis on
management skills in their post-graduate marketing programs was not adequate. Despite
the perceived importance of managerial skills, this skill has been included in scant few
post-graduate marketing programs (Appendix 2). A similar finding was found in a study
of marketing modules offered by UK institutions, which identified no direct management
230
subjects in the modules (Stringfellow, Ennis, Brennan and Harket, 2006). In all, the
thesis results point to clear deficiencies in the coverage of these three key skills in post-
graduate marketing programs.
If marketers are undertaking post-graduate education with a view to developing the
important skills to advance their career, then it would be desirable for them to have
knowledge of what skills, activities and tasks are needed. If these skills are not being met
within their educational programs then there should be alternative avenues for skill
development. The professional marketer needs an avenue that would enable the practise
of these skills which would aid in their career establishment. However, without the skills,
how can the marketer actually practise them, or know which ones ought to be acquired.
In addition, if higher education does not meet the demands of future marketers by not
offering these skills in the programs, then the value of post-graduate education is
questioned, since the potential marketer is not acquiring the skills necessary for career
advancement.
As noted previously, often a significant association has been established between the 14
skills examined in this thesis study. This finding supported the notion of complex, or
layered skills. In looking at these key skills, it is apparent that interpersonal and people
management skills are complex skill. This study, in examining the individual component
skills (for example, leadership and negotiation skills), and related skills (such as, the
group of problem solving and communication skills), have all been found to be
inadequately covered or emphasised, compared to their importance.
It would seem obvious that if there are gaps in the post-graduate marketing program
curriculum, and if the post-graduate program is the marketing managers preferred or
main source of skill development, then post-graduate marketers are being hindered in
their skill-set, and hence, career development. The perceived lack of adequate coverage
of most of the skills under examination, with the exception of marketing knowledge, may
suggest a gap in the post-graduate marketing program curriculum. It is recognised that
post-graduate, like undergraduate programs, cannot teach everything (Lundstrum, White
and Schuster, 1996) within a program, however, it could be that it is either not taught
enough (O’Brien and Deans, 1995), or that the student does not recognise the use of the
skill. The question then becomes which are the key skills and can, or should, universities
231
be trying to address the perceived skill needs that are sought by professional marketers at
later career stages. In the post-graduate marketing program outlines examined by the
researcher (Appendix 2), there is commonly an acknowledgement for the development of
communication skills, both written and oral. However there is a perceived view that
graduate and post-graduate programs are not adequately developing these
communication skills (O’Brien and Deans, 1995; Athiyaman 2001; Davis, Misra and
Van Auken 2002; Hogarth et al., 2004 and Bruce and Schoenfeld, 2006). So, with
communication skills, although clearly important and often foundations of other
important skills, their lack of development in Higher Education institutions may exclude
potential students from establishing themselves in a marketing career. In the case of other
skills such as people management and decision making, the case for a role for Higher
Education Institutions in developing these skills is more apparent. These two skills are
types of skills that become more in demand the more experienced the marketer is in the
work place. The gap in the program content could have an effect on the ability of the
post-graduate to become established in his or her career. It is impossible to teach
everything (Lundstrum, White and Schuster, 1996) within a program. Alternatively, it is
also an unsatisfactory outcome when what is taught is not enough to develop the skill
(O’Brien and Deans, 1995). In either case, the lack of skill development of those skills
seen to be of high importance, and of which coverage in post-graduate marketing
programs is sought, may prevent post-graduates from extending their role or successfully
establishing their career.
In order to better understand the needed skill-set of the activities and tasks of marketing
manager are examined.
232
6.4: TASKS AND RELATED SKILLS OF A MARKETING
MANAGER
A set of hypotheses relating to the tasks and associated skills of a marketing managers,
with a post-graduate qualification, in completing their activities as identified in the CIM
framework, is summarised in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5 Summary of Results: Hypotheses Testing of Tasks and Skills of Marketing Managers
H5 All 23 tasks of the CIM Framework were seen as important. Rejected
H5.1 The tasks in the CIM Professional Framework model are related or dependent
on the other tasks.
Accepted
H5.2 The 23 tasks of the CIM Professional Framework model are completed in
accordance with their importance.
Accepted
H5.3 H5.3: The financial tasks are an important task Accepted
H 5.4 The most important skills are management skills Accepted
The previous section was an examination of the skills that Marketing managers saw as
important to career establishment. In order to understand what they do in terms of
activities and tasks. An investigation was conducted using the Chartered Institute of
Marketing Professional Standard Framework. The framework classified activities into
various tasks: research and analysis, strategy and planning, brands, implementation and
marketing programs, measuring effectiveness and managing people. For the purpose of
this research, financial roles were also included.
A review of the importance of tasks, as identified by the Chartered Institute of
Marketing Professional Standard Framework (CIM), has identified the perceived
importance of tasks (See Table 6.6). All tasks were seen as important (exhibiting a mean
over 2.5), with the exception of the task of recommending market research projects.
Accordingly, Hypothesis 4 was rejected. The results suggests that the undertaking of
market research projects is often the responsibility of marketing research specialists, and
this may explain why the task is not seen as important by the respondents in this
233
research. This aspect will be examined further in a later section when the frequency of
conduct of marketing tasks is examined
Table 6.6: Importance of Tasks of Marketing Manager
Activity Task
Importance of task mean
Managing People Management of staff
4.5
Co-ordinate marketing activities among sales and marketing divisions 4.29
Contribute to the company's ability to manage change 4.85
Research and Analysis
Recommend market research projects 2.43
Assess company performance and competitor analysis 4.24
Strategy and Planning
Determine the strategic direction of marketing portfolio (department) 4.24
Develop a marketing plan 4
Financial Analysis Develop, monitor and control marketing budgets 4.09
Measuring Effectiveness
Monitor actual results against planned performance 4.11
Market reports to senior management 3.89
Brands Develop branding strategy
4
Promote development of brands across the organisational portfolios 3.75
Implementation of Marketing Programmes
Implement communication mix for portfolio or company 3.66
Initiate new product development programs 3.36
Maintain a competitive product portfolio 3.56
Develop pricing strategy 3.37
Implement pricing strategy consistent with corporate objectives 3.72
Develop effective channels to meet organisations objectives 3.56
Direct and support for marketing intermediaries 3.22
Instigate a customer relationship strategy 3.64
Manage customer analysis 3.58
Establish the project management hierarchy in line with company’s objectives
3.36
Manage the running of projects 4.02
Managing people was identified as being the most important task , with managing staff
rated as most important, and co-ordinating marketing activities rated as second most
important. This finding accords with the view of the marketing manager as being one
234
who has general manager type responsibilities for their product portfolio (Lehmann and
Winer, 2004). Additionally, this finding reinforces the perceived need of marketing
managers for management skills, as identified as a key skill in this study. Indeed, if
higher education could address these skills, then post-graduates would be much better
prepared for advancing their career and role development.
The other tasks, seen to be most important, covered the assessment of company
performance and competitor analysis (ranked third), and determining the strategic
direction of the marketing portfolio (ranked forth), both tasks are seen as requiring
marketing knowledge for their performance. The fifth most important task was seen to
be monitoring effectiveness, more specifically, monitoring actual results against
planned performance. Such a task is generally viewed as a common part of a broad
management role, regardless of the functional area of the organisation.
The tasks identified as least important were the recommendation of market research
projects, and a range of implementation activities including: channel management
(ranked 22), establishing project management hierarchy (ranked 21), price setting
(ranked 20), and initiate new product development (ranked 19). It is noted that the
marketing activities of market research, and channel management are often undertaken
as specialist roles, or in the case of price determination and establishing project
hierarchy may be undertaken at general management, rather than marketing
management level. Hypothesis 5.3 provided that financial tasks would be seen as
important, and this is supported by the mean ranking of the importance of financial
tasks at 4 (out of a possible 5). Support for this finding is provided in the upcoming
discussion of the frequency of the conduct of tasks.
In all, the perceived importance of the tasks identified in the CIM Framework does
provide support for its usefulness as a system of classification of the tasks of marketing
managers.
In all of the 23 tasks that were examined, the most common response was roughly 35%
of the tasks (eight out of 23) were completed monthly or more, only 4% (one out of 23)
chose the completed their task 5-11 times per year as the most common response, 30%
(seven out of 23) selected 2-4 times per year as the most common response, 26% (six out
235
of 23) selected monthly as their most common response, while only 4% (one out of 23)
selected rarely do the task as the most common response. The substantiation of the CIM
Professional Standard Framework is that 96% of the tasks contained within the CIM
model are completed by marketing manager at least once per year.
Additionally, the research findings of this study supported the incorporation of a new
task, financial, that was added to the activity and task framework. Financial activities
were rated as the ninth most important, and only 2.0% of respondents reported that they
rarely undertook such a task, with most respondents (50%) conducting this task with a
high level of frequency, that is monthly or more. In all, the abovementioned study
findings support the appropriateness of the adapted CIM Framework as a suitable model
for the identification of the roles of marketing managers. As such, one can have
confidence in using the framework as a means to develop an appreciation of the expected
tasks of a marketing manager. Or, alternatively as a means to measure competence by
reference to the marketers’ ability to undertake the tasks specified in the framework.
The four tasks that had the highest percentage of marketers rarely doing the task were:
recommend market research projects (34.55%); develop pricing strategy (24.09%);
implement pricing strategy (21.36%); and develop effective channels (28.12%). This
finding again reinforces the findings on task importance, where these tasks were not
identified among the most highly rated tasks, but were ranked 20, 23, 10 and 15
respectively.
The marketing tasks are next discussed individually to obtain a more complete
understanding of the interplay between perceptions of task importance and frequency of
conduct.
6.4.1: RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS
In considering the activity of Research and Analysis, two tasks were identified;
recommend market research projects, and assess company performance and competitor
analysis. The data suggests that recommending market research projects was seen as the
least important task of the 23 tasks identified, with only around 35% of respondents
indicating that they rarely do the task. This finding that a substantial proportion of
236
participants are not that often involved in recommending marketing research may reflect
the specialist nature of marketing research, or that data-mining has replaced primary
research, as a source of understanding customer behaviour. With time and budget
constraints, the marketing manager could be predisposed to utilising secondary data,
available from company internal records, as a means to better understand the behaviour
of the firms’ customers. Alternatively, if primary research is required, this function may
be out-sourced to specialist marketing research consultancies. These findings on the low
importance, and conduct of market research, are not consistent with the findings of
previous and recent studies. For example, Thomas (1984); Hooley, Lynch and Shepherd,
(1990), Murphy and Gorchels, (1996); Gray et al., (2007), Schlee and Harich, (2010) and
Tyagi and Sawheny, (2010) all suggested that the recommendation of research projects is
important. In most of these cases, the results refer to knowledge of marketing research,
rather than actually undertaking the process of marketing research.
In order to undertake marketing research, there must be evidence of problem solving
skills or knowledge of how marketing research works. This knowledge allows the
marketer to identify the problem, and to devise a methodology to collect and/or analyse
data intended to assist problem-solving, from existing or new sources. The results
suggest the process of recommending market research is not important to the
establishment of the professional marketer. On the other hand, it is the interpretation of
the results of research reports that is important for marketing managers within their
marketing activities. The analysis of research data (from internal sources), interpretation
of results and the subsequent decisions, have a bearing on the career development of the
Marketing manager, with a post-graduate marketing qualification. These results are
relevant to higher education. They may indicate that more focus in marketing research be
placed on the analysis of data from existing sources, rather than the commissioning of
new primary research. Such a change in research focus may have been a follow-on effect
from the explosion of information brought on by the use of new technologies and
customer interfaces. The resultant affect is that the illustration of various statistical
techniques involved in data mining, rather than the research process, may be more
beneficial to the post-graduate marketing student.
When the tasks are correlated against each other, the importance of recommending
marketing research projects and its importance becomes clearer. The task of
237
recommending marketing research projects was correlated with 16 other tasks. The result
suggests that the outcome, or recommendations of marketing research projects provide
the basis for other marketing tasks, for example, strategic planning. According to
Malhotra and Peterson (2001), marketing research findings are integral to decision
making and on-going business operations. Among the reasons cited include the
increasing access to information as well as growing access to international markets. In
the company’s search for growth, they now consider new markets and need knowledge
for marketing and management departments to enter the marker (Kotabe and Helsen,
2004). The extended relationship of marketing research with the conduct of other tasks
reinforces the value of marketing research. Whilst marketing research was not seen as an
important task in itself, the outcomes of the task would seem to have input into many
other tasks.
The second task, assess company performance and competitor analysis, was found to be
the third ranked most important task, and undertaken by most respondents on a highly
regular basis. This finding underscores the high importance of the task, but these
activities have not generally been examined in marketing job descriptions (Melaia,
Abratt and Bick, 2008). Competitor analysis, in practice, is routinely conducted, but
neither is that process, or the ethical implications, covered adequately in post-graduate
marketing programs.
The finding of this thesis study, points to the need for a review of the content of
traditional marketing research programs. There would appear to be evidence to support
more focus on the development of skills in relation to secondary data analysis, and to the
interpretation of market research results.
6.4.2: STRATEGY AND PLANNING
In considering the activity of Strategy and Planning, two tasks were identified: determine
the strategic direction of a marketing portfolio, and develop a marketing plan. The data
suggested that both tasks were seen as very important, being ranked fourth and seventh
in terms of importance, respectively. The importance of these tasks was reaffirmed by
the regularity with which they were conducted. For example, around 87.7% of
respondents determined the strategic direction of a portfolio with some regularity. The
238
determination of strategic direction of a marketing portfolio was rated as being a very
high level of importance, and around 53% of respondents conducted this activity more
than twice a year.
The data suggests the high importance of the marketing planning task, which was ranked
seventh in importance, and conducted by around 90.4% of respondents. The high level of
planning activity, with 58.7% of respondents conducting the plan on an annual basis, and
another 31.8% of respondents developing the plan more than twice a year, is certainly
consistent with the importance of the task. Prior studies had not found support for the
high level of importance or participation in strategic planning. The research by Dawes
and Patterson (1987) suggested that long term strategic planning was not a top 10 task.
The study by Murphy and Gorchels (1996) suggested that only 50% of the product
managers play a major role in formal plan development, however, these studies are now
somewhat dated.
Even though planning is only conducted once per year, many recruiters find planning
(Dacko, 2006) and strategic skills an attractive attribute (Bruce and Schoenfeld, 2006).
Furthermore, the ability to think strategically and translate this into action was seen as a
positive attribute for marketers to exhibit. According to Bruce and Schoenfeld (2006), if
marketers are able to think strategically and conduct financial analysis, these skills are
clearly of importance in career development.
Analysis of the correlations between tasks and skills The CIM Professional Standard
Framework suggest that the two most important skills for the strategic direction of the
marketing portfolio and the developing a marketing plan are comprehension of
marketing and leadership skills. These skills of importance in undertaking this task are
the skills of marketing management, as could be expected.
Additionally, task of determining the strategic direction of the marketing portfolio,
appears to have a relationship with other tasks that are essentially management and
marketing orientated. Of the 23 tasks under investigation in the CIM Professional
Standard Framework, there were only two tasks that did not show a significant
relationship using Spearman’s co-efficient. They were; assess marketing performance
and competitor analysis, develop pricing strategy, implement communication mix for a
239
portfolio or a company, manage customer analysis, development of marketing reports
and recommend marketing research projects. The correlations may reflect the level of
seniority of the respondents in this thesis. The research by Schlee and Harich (2010) also
showed that there are differences in activities associated with different years of
experience of marketers. The results in this thesis suggest that marketing managers, who
have completed a post-graduate marketing program, were seeking particular knowledge
and skills that would enable them to advance their career.
In summary, these results provide further evidence of the need for the marketing
manager to have a strong appreciation of marketing knowledge and management skills,
as both skills are needed to successfully accomplish the required tasks of the role. This
finding has important implications for post-graduate students and post-graduate program
providers, in particular. These implications are discussed in a later part of this chapter.
6.4.3: BRANDS
In considering the activity of brands, two tasks were identified: develop branding
strategy and promote development of brands across the organisational portfolios. These
two tasks were ranked 12 and 18 in importance, respectively, suggesting that they were
tasks that were seen as having a mid-range importance. Again, most respondents were
involved in undertaking these tasks at some time in a year. Indeed, the development of
brands occurred for the majority of these respondents once per year. This would
presumably happen around the planning session. In contrast, the promotion of the brands
occurs 2-4 times per year. It would appear that the proliferation of brands as reported by
Keller (1998), and increasing global competition, has made the respondents conscious of
their brand portfolio. However, the importance of these tasks is not consistent with the
number of times they are looked at per year. The importance of brand management
appears higher in other research (Dawes and Patterson, (1987); Murphy and Gorchels,
1996; Gray et al., 2007), and is generally considered a key role for a marketing manager.
The development of brand strategy appears to have a relationship with most other tasks
in the adapted CIM Professional Standard Framework (significant correlations with 18 of
the 22 other tasks), demonstrating the interlinked nature of the development of a brand
strategy. The results suggest that the development of brand strategy is a very complicated
240
process and requires many tasks for it to be achieved. Moreover, the results suggest that
the development of brand strategy is an ongoing process, and not limited to the yearly
outcome of brand strategy planning. It is noted that, development of an effective
branding strategy would require a comprehensive knowledge of marketing theory and
practice.
The other branding task, promoting and developing of brands across the organisational
portfolio, also has a relationship with a large number of other tasks (14 significant
correlations).
According to Shipper and Davy (2002), the measure of behaviour is not how often it is
attempted, but rather the ability of the skill of getting it right. The extended linkages of
the branding tasks with other marketing tasks may be an attempt to keep the branding
portfolio in line with marketing strategies. It could also be an indication of the changing
market place that marketing professionals are currently experiencing.
In order to undertake some form of brand management or strategy, the marketer must
have an advanced level of marketing knowledge. In addition, the extensive number of
inter-correlations between the tasks and over half of the other tasks under investigation
supports the notion of a strong relationship between most of the tasks. That is, the tasks,
although able to be classified according to the CIM Professional Standard Framework,
were seen to have relationships and to be interconnected, in their focus of developing
value for the firm’s customers.
6.4.4: IMPLEMENTATION OF MARKETING PROGRAMS
In considering the activity of implementation of marketing programs, 11 tasks were
identified. Most of the 11 implementation tasks were ranked at best as sixth most
important task, but generally lower, and were undertaken by over 80% of respondents
with a conduct frequency of more than once a year. An interesting exception to this
pattern was the task of Manage the running of projects, which had the highest ranking
(ranked six), having only 7.3% of respondents rarely doing the task, and a very high
frequency of conduct of the task among marketing managers. This finding is consistent
241
with the high ranking of importance of the task at sixth, and its importance to the success
of a marketing manager.
The tasks that had a high degree of respondents rarely doing the task were as follows:
develop pricing strategy (24.1%), implement pricing strategy (21.4%) and develop
effective channels (28.18%). These three tasks had previously been identified as having a
relatively low level of importance relative to other tasks, being ranked 20, 10 and 15,
respectively. This finding of a relatively high level of non-performance of these tasks
would seem to imply that these tasks are seen as more specialist in nature and, therefore,
may not be seen to be generally performed by a marketing manager. Alternatively, these
tasks are conducted by upper general management, for example, development of pricing
strategy.
The Dawes and Patterson (1987) research essentially saw the components of the
marketing mix as the most important of all of the tasks. This is consistent with the
decisions and responsibilities of a product manager in the study by Murphy and Gorchels
(1996). These results also demonstrated that respondents in their research were more
tactical than strategic. The results of this study based on from the CIM Professional
Standard Framework present an alternative result. The implementation of marketing
programs was not the most important task of the model. The most important task within
this category was managing the running of projects, an implementation task that could be
viewed as a managerial task. The activities referred to as the marketing mix (4P’s), were
at the lower end of task importance of the 23 tasks examined.
Of all of the implementation tasks in the CIM Professional Standard Framework, CRM
(Customer Relationship Marketing) is considered the most important task. The idea of
CRM is essentially to acquire, retain and partner with selective customers to create
superior value for the company and the customer (Parvitiyar and Sheth, 2001). This
process really should be ongoing as the company would be continually collecting
information on customers. The building of the ongoing relationship as a result of the
information allows for a marketing orientated company (Webster, 1992). CRM is an
ongoing and continuous activity which explains the frequency of the tasks associated
with this task from the CIM Professional Standard Framework.
242
Even though CRM is actually attempted monthly, it was considered the 11th most
important task, and was seen as an activity related to 16 of the other 22 tasks. The
importance of CRM is well researched and acknowledged. It is a core organisational
process (Morgan and Hunt, 1994, Srivastava, Shervani and Fahey, 1998) which
advocates relationship marketing theory. This theory suggests that companies should
pursue a long term relationship with customers instead of a short term approach
(Grönroos, 1991). The results show that it has an influence on many other activities, but
it is not considered in itself to be a very important task for the development of career
success. The finding may suggest that the actual implementation of CRM is conducted
by lower level staff, although the implementation is managed by the marketing manager.
These results suggest that marketing managers understand it, but do not see it as an
important task.
6.4.5: MEASURING EFFECTIVENESS
In considering the activity of “measuring effectiveness”, two tasks are identified:
Monitor actual results against planned performance, and market reports to senior
management. Only a very small number of respondents, less than 4%, reported that they
rarely undertook these tasks. Moreover, both these tasks were undertaken with a very
high degree of frequency with over 50% of respondents conducting these tasks on a
monthly basis or more often. The frequency of this measurement, both in terms of
analysis and reports, suggests that the performance of marketing outcomes of strategic
and tactical activities is under constant review and meeting corporate (financial)
objectives is an important performance measure for marketing managers. These results
are supported by the research by Doyle (2000), who suggested that the modern marketer
is under increasing pressure to demonstrate their contribution to the company’s
performance.
As these effectiveness reports, generally, provide information on the outcome of strategic
and tactical marketing activities, common sense would provide these reports provide a
basis for other marketing decisions. As such, the finding of a significant relationship with
a number of important tasks (for example, customer relationship, competitor analysis and
management of customer analysis), could be expected, and, also, underlie the importance
of the task.
243
In summary, the results have identified the importance of measuring effectiveness, as a
skill that is important to the performance assessment, and so, career development, of
professional marketers. As a consequence, it would be important for marketing
professionals to be familiar with marketing and financial metrics, forecasting, and report
writing in order to meet this task requirement. Additionally, marketing managers would
need to have the skills to justify their position. On the other hand, negotiation skills could
allow more desirable job outcomes which could eventuate in senior management
positions.
6.4.6: MANAGING PEOPLE
In considering the activity of managing people, three tasks were identified: management
of staff, co-ordinate marketing activities, and contribute to change management. The first
two of these tasks were ranked as the first and second most important task, respectively.
Most respondents undertook all three tasks, with most respondents undertaking the task
of management of staff (71%), and co-ordination of marketing activities (64.6%), on a
monthly basis or more. This level of engagement in these two tasks, coupled with the
high frequency of conduct of the tasks, are seen to contribute to the high ranking of the
importance of these tasks. As noted above, marketing management tasks have been
identified as most important to the success of a professional marketer, rather than
marketing tasks. These results add more light to the understanding of why managerial
skills are seen as most important to the success of the marketing professional.
Also, significant relationships were identified for the following tasks: management of
staff and determine the direction of the marketing portfolio, manage change, develop
pricing and customer relationship management. These results reflect the activities of an
experienced marketer or senior executive with staff responsibilities. That
notwithstanding, the importance of the management of others for the marketing manager
is a necessary task.
The importance of for management tasks for the marketing manager, suggest that
without the skills to undertake management tasks that it is less likely that a career in
marketing could be developed. As such, it would seem important for management
244
subject(s) to be included in post-graduate marketing programs, as an important step
towards the development of these needed management skills.
The second most important task was coordinating activities among sales and marketing
divisions. According to the Shipper and Day (2002) model, the respondents are using
their abilities to aid in coaching and training employees. The implementation of
marketing plans requires marketing managers to explain and communicate their
strategies to a range of staff, including the sales staffs that are responsible for
implementing the strategies. The training and guidance of staff enables professional
marketers to achieve the marketing objectives. In fact the task of coordinating activities
is related to developing marketing plans, implementation of communication mix for
portfolio or company, assess company performance and competitor analysis,
development of brand strategy, and manage the running of projects. This relationship
among tasks provided support for the model developed by Shipper and Day (2002),
which noted the coaching, and training role of marketing managers.
In summary, the results demonstrate the key importance of managerial skills to the
development of the professional marketers’ career. The results clearly support the
proposition that managerial skills are used regularly and that they are important to
marketers’ career establishment. The results fill in the gap that exists in the literature by
suggesting a relationship between the marketing professional’s success and their
managerial ability.
6.4.7: FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
The results also demonstrated that financial management tasks were seen as important,
having a rating of eight out of the 23 tasks examined, and undertaken by most
respondents (98%) on a high frequency basis. Again, the study has identified a task,
financial management, that is not generally covered in post-graduate marketing programs
but which is seen as an important task for marketing managers.
The results suggest that the majority (50%) are involved in budgeting, monitoring and
controlling budgets every month. The results indicate that marketing managers should
understand accounting and finance activities in order to become established in their
245
positions. This is important because financial activities may be referred to as non-
marketing functions and are not directly related to the marketing theory. Prior studies
have provided conflicting findings on the importance of financial skills, but given the
nature of marketing activities undertaken, it was apparent that marketing managers must
have is the understanding of the financials.
Moreover research by Wong (2008) suggested an increasing reliance on financial
outcomes of marketing strategies as a way of measuring the marketing manager’s
performance. Of 17 of the 22 marketing tasks were found to have a relationship with
monitoring and controlling budgets. These results support that most marketing
undertakings of the task involve an appreciation of financial implications. Consequently,
the formation and monitoring of the budget was seen as a very important task for the
marketing manager. Of the 22 tasks that were considered in the CIM Professional
Standard Framework, 17 marketing tasks were found to have a relationship with
monitoring and controlling budgets. This result suggests that before most marketing
activities are performed, there must be an appreciation of the financial implications. In
all, formation and monitoring of the budget was seen as a very important task for the
marketing manager and supports the adaption of the CIM Professional Standard
Framework to include financial activities. In the following section insights into the
importance of skills needed to undertake the marketing tasks are examined.
6.4.8: SKILLS USED TO COMPLETE THE TASKS OF THE CIM FRAMEWORK
It was hypothesised (Hypothesis 5.4) that the most important skill of the marketing
manager needed to complete the tasks prescribed within the CIM Framework was
management skills. The frequency of a skill being identified as the most important for
undertaking each one of the 23 tasks was shown in Table 6.7.
246
Table 6.7: Ranking of Most Important Skills Required to conduct Tasks
Tasks
Importance
Of Task
Most
Important skill
Management of staff 1 Leadership
Co-ordinate marketing activities among sales and marketing divisions
2 Management
Assess company performance and competitor analysis 3 Critical thinking
Determine the strategic direction of marketing portfolio (department
` Leadership
Monitor actual results against planned performance 5 Critical thinking
Manage the running of projects 6 Leadership
Develop a marketing plan 7 Marketing
knowledge
Contribute to the company’s ability to manage change 8 Leadership
Develop, monitor and control marketing budgets 9 Management
Implement pricing strategy consistent with corporate objectives 10 Marketing
knowledge
Instigate a customer relationship strategy 11 Communication
Develop branding strategy 12 Marketing
knowledge
Implement communication mix for portfolio or company 13 Creativity
Maintain a competitive product portfolio 14 Critical thinking
Develop effective channels to meet organisations objectives 15 Critical thinking
Market reports to senior management 16 Communication
Manage customer analysis 17 Critical thinking
Promote development of brands across the organisational portfolios 18 Leadership
Initiate new product development programs 19 Problem solving
Develop pricing strategy 20 Marketing
knowledge Establish the project management hierarchy in line with company's objectives
21 Leadership
Direct and support for marketing intermediaries 22 Leadership
Recommend market research projects 23 Problem solving
247
Table 6.7 reveals that leadership and people management skills were the most frequently
used skill required to undertake the most important tasks (as identified in the CIM
Framework) of the marketing manager. As noted previously, leadership is most often
viewed as a function of management. This finding of the key importance of management
skills is consistent with earlier findings on skill importance from the initial hypotheses in
this chapter (Hypothesis 1 and 2). Marketing knowledge was only seen as the key skill in
conducting four of the 23 tasks. In all, these three skills, (leadership, people management
and marketing knowledge), were jointly found to represent the most important skills to
undertake around 60% (13 of 23) of the tasks. So, not only do these skills cover the
majority of tasks, these skills also cover three of the four most important tasks. This
finding reinforces the need for marketing managers to achieve competency in these three
skills in order to effectively undertake the tasks required of a marketing manager.
The results illustrate the need for effective leadership skills as the impetus to create
marketing driven organisation. These results are supported by Harris and Ogbonna
(2001) who suggested that leadership provides the environment in which a marketing
orientated culture is attainable. In extending this notion, Howell and Avolio (1993) and
Slater and Narver (1994) noted that the presence of leadership skills could be what
determines whether or not the performance of the company is satisfactory or not.
Moreover, prior studies have found that leadership skills are central to the effective
implementation of marketing strategies (Meldrum, 1996), and, conversely, leadership
factors could aid in the explanation of poor implementation (Doyle, 1987).
The results are also supported by Mumford, Campion and Morgeson, (2007) who
suggests leadership skills are used across a number of layers in an organisation and are
complex. Furthermore, Mumford et al. (2007) proposed that leadership skills encompass
four different categories: cognitive, interpersonal, business, and strategic. Their research
revealed that senior positions (much like the respondents in this research) require high
level of leadership skills. They also found that cognitive and interpersonal skills did not
reduce with the level of seniority of marketing position. The categories of the CIM
Framework which suggested leadership appear to concur with the categories as proposed
by Mumford et al., (2007). Furthermore, the other skills (people management and
marketing) were seen as a part of business skills and interpersonal skills as proposed by
Mumford et al., (2007). In all, the results support the importance of leadership skills to
248
the marketing manager’s role. However, it is acknowledged that there is leadership
deficiency among marketing graduates (O’Brien and Deans, 1997; Dacko, 2006) which
may be of concerns to the marketing fraternity. In other words, novice marketers are not
adequately prepared to develop in a marketing role to one which requires management
skills. A review of the post-graduate marketing programs conducted in this study has
indicated that they do not cover management skills (See Appendix 2), and the survey
respondents did not believe that their post-graduate program had adequately covered or
emphasised management skills.
The results are important to Higher Education Institutions, marketing management
recruitment consultants and aspiring marketing managers. For Higher Education
Institutions, the incorporation of programs and subjects that allow aspiring marketers to
learn, practice and master leadership skills is essential in order to aid career
development. Management Marketing Recruitment Consultants can benefit from these
results as they now can look for traits of leadership skills as a measure of the candidate’s
aptitude for marketing positions. Finally, the aspiring marketing manager can benefit
from these results by ensuring they enrol in programs that incorporate the development
of leadership skills.
The high incidence of the importance of managerial skills may not be surprising to many
scholars. Earlier in this chapter, the key importance of management skills was identified
as important to career development and success. The findings of the relationship between
key management skills (leadership and people management), and a large number of tasks
conducted by the marketing manager, has again reinforced the importance of managerial
skills to the undertaking of the tasks of a marketing manager. In thinking about the role
of management at its broadest level, for managers to develop marketing strategies and
engage in planning, organising, leading, and controlling, they need a sound knowledge
base and key management skills. Managers require people management skills in order
for them to work well with others, both as a group member and as a leader who gets
things done through others.
The findings of the skill importance in Table 6.7 also suggest the need for a sound level
of marketing knowledge to undertake the tasks of a marketing manager. In the case of the
marketing function, managers do require a high level of marketing knowledge, which is
249
often seen as a technical skill or specialist skill, to undertake these tasks successfully. In
particular the important tasks of developing the marketing plan and branding strategy,
and pricing strategy and implementation, are tasks where marketing knowledge is the
key skill to undertake these tasks.
In summary, the findings of the relationship between tasks and the key skills that are
required to undertake these tasks have again provided evidence of the importance of
management skills (leadership and people management) and have provided support for
the acceptance of Hypothesis 5.4. A similar finding was identified when important skills
were examined without any relationship to the tasks being undertaken (Hypothesis 1.1)
and managerial skills were identified at that time also as key skills.
6.5: CAREER ANCHORS OF MARKETING MANAGERS
The final set of hypotheses relates to better identifying the link between the career
anchors of marketing managers, who have a post-graduate qualification, and their career
establishment.
Table 6.8: Summary of Results: The Career Anchors of Marketing Managers
H6 The dominant career motivations or anchor of marketing managers with post-
graduate marketing qualifications was a managerial orientation.
Accepted
H7 The skills which are important to a marketer’s career establishment are
dependent on their career anchors
Accepted
The career anchors as defined by Schein (1978; 1990) of marketing managers, who have
a post-graduate qualification, are shown in Figure 6.1.
250
Figure 6.1 – Career Anchors of Marketing Managers by Importance
Clearly the results in Figure 6.1 show that the most common career anchor of marketing
managers, with a post-graduate marketing qualification, was managerial importance
(63%). Given the nature of the roles of marketing managers in this study, it could be
expected that a managerial anchor would be the predominant orientation, and this has
been confirmed. Similarly, Crepeau, et. al, (1992) concluded that individuals in
managerial positions, like the respondents in this study, were orientated to managerial
anchors. In this thesis, the managerial orientation is particularly strong, and it is thought
that not only are the respondents in this study in managerial roles, but the fact that they
have undertaken post-graduate marketing programs aimed at developing their skills for
this type of role, explains the very high level of managerial orientation.
The results of the thesis and prior studies on career anchors are shown in Table 6.9
below. The results by Schein (1996), together with the study by Kniverton (2004) and
Marshall and Bonner (2003) are also shown. The study by Kniveton (2004) included
540 managers in the UK. The study by Marshall and Bonner (2003) involved 423
graduate students, enrolled in management programs in Western Australia, the USA,
Malaysia, South Africa and the UK. Kniveton (2004) noted that it was unlikely that the
graduate students were representative of managers more generally, for according to
Career Anchors of Respondent
010203040506070
Man
agem
ent
Techn
ical
Autono
my
Org St
ab
Geogr
aphic
Sens
e of S
ervice
Lifesty
le
Challe
nage
Num
ber
of R
espo
nden
ts %
251
Campbell, Wilson and Hanson (1980), adults who return to education later in their life
tended to be dissatisfied with their life. This finding was seen by Kniveton (2004) to
place restriction on the application of the Marshall and Bonner (2003) study to
managers generally.
Table 6.9: Career Anchors of Managers
Career Anchor Thesis Study Schein (1996) Kniveton (2004)
Marshall & Bonner (2003)
% Rank % Rank Rank Rank Managerial Importance 63 1 25 1 2 7 Life style Integration 13 2 7.5 6 6 1 Sense of service 8 3 7.5 6 1 4 Pure Challenge 5 4 7.5 6 5 2 Autonomy 3 5 10 3 3 3 Organisational stability 5 6 10 3 4 Geographic Security 2 7 10 3 5 8 Technical and Functional Competence
1 8 25 1 7 5
Entrepreneurial(a) N/a N/a 7.5 6 8 6 (a) The Entrepreneurial Anchor had a Cronbach’s Alpha Value <0.6 and was not considered. Please see methodology for an
explanation
The researcher posited that managerial anchors would be the most important career
anchor. In addition, the researcher posited that the managerial anchor would be
relatively higher and technical/functional and security would be relatively lower, when
comparing Schein’s (1996) ranking of anchors with the ranking for the sample from this
thesis study. The results shown in Table 6.9 indicate support for these propositions.
These results note that in the thesis study that the managerial anchor is the dominant
anchor (63%). Schein (1996) also found that the managerial anchor was dominant
(25%). The thesis study found technical and function competence was lowly ranked at
eight (1%), whilst Schein found that technical/security was equally ranked as one
(25%). In this thesis study, the geographic security was ranked at seven (2%), which
was lower than the ranking of three found by Schein (1996).
The results of the thesis study as shown in Table 6.9 show no similarities with the study
by Bonner and Marshall (2003), which saw the managerial anchor as having a ranking
of seven out of eight. As noted by Kniveton (2004), the Bonner and Marshall (2003)
findings may well have been an artefact of the characteristics of the student sample used
in the study. Within that study, the majority of the respondents had been retrenched as a
252
result of downsizing. Thus, their economic circumstances may have had an impact on
their career anchor choice. There are more similarities between the findings of the thesis
study and those of Schein (1996) and Kniveton (2004). Whilst Kniveton (2004) did not
see managerial as the most important anchor, it was ranked as second to sense of
service. This thesis study also saw sense of service as an important anchor, with a
ranking of three. Both, the results of this thesis study and Kniveton (2004), found
technical anchors to be of low ranking.
The finding in this thesis study of the dominance of the managerial anchor, as the
predominant anchor of these respondents, could have been expected because most of the
respondents were established in their careers and held marketing management positions.
Individuals having a managerial anchor see managing others, advancement,
responsibility, leadership and income as important. The managerial anchor is a category
that is publicly espoused because of the great rewards that are presumed to go with high
level management jobs (Srinivasan, 2007). Schein (1996) predicted that the importance
of managerial anchors would increase with changing work practices, but would be
pushed to lower levels of the organisation. Consequently, the skills of general
management, i.e. analytical, interpersonal, and emotional competence, would be needed
at lower and lower levels of the organisation. In addition, such an anchor requires a high
aptitude in financial and analytical skills, which is supported by well-honed
interpersonal skills and decision making skills. The skills that were found to be highly
important in this thesis were decision making and interpersonal skills.
Individuals with a technical/functional anchor concern themselves with the content of
work itself. They prefer advancement in a technical area rather than in general
management (Danziger, Rachman-Moore and Valency, 2008). It would seem consistent
that in this study which covered marketing professionals (mainly marketing managers),
that the ranking of this anchor would be relatively low. The thesis study did find the
technical/functional anchor as the lowest ranking of 8, covering 1% of respondents.
Srinivasan (2007) noted that increasingly the technical/functionally anchored person
would recognise that the skill set and emotional make-up that is needed for management
jobs is fundamentally different. He further posited that in a management role, an
individual must be highly motivated to succeed in the increasingly political
environment, as well as having analytical and financial skills, high levels of
253
interpersonal competence to function in teams and in negotiations, and, most important
of all, they must have the emotional make-up to make highly consequential decisions
with only partial information.
The security and stability anchor represents individuals who are mainly motivated by
long-term job security and attachment to one organisation, or geographical area.
Individuals with this orientation are more concerned about the context of their work (for
example pay, working conditions and benefits such as being close to home or salary
packages) rather than the content of their work (Schein 1990). Schein predicted that this
anchor would become less popular as a result of the increasingly transient nature of
employment. The thesis study appears to have confirmed this trend, with the security
and stability anchor ranked in the lower third of anchors. This finding appears to be
supported by the increasing predisposition of employees to travel or change residence to
take up work opportunities (Kniveton 2003). It is also supported by Marshall and
Bonner (2003) who ranked this at the end of the anchors in their study suggesting that
the low level indicates that employees rely more on their career dependence rather than
the organisations vocational offerings.
The most dramatic difference in the study results revolve around the lifestyle anchor.
Individuals having this anchor as predominant are primarily concerned with aspects of
their whole life, balancing career with family and other interests. Schein predicted an
increasing emphasis on this anchor with the growing proportion of dual career (job and
family) individuals. This study has found the lifestyle anchor to be ranked second,
which is markedly higher than the ranking of six in the study reported by Schein (1996)
and Kniveton (2003). This result is not unexpected as the lifestyle anchor is becoming
more important among other executives when compared to previous studies (Arnold,
1997). Interestingly, the study of graduate students found the lifestyle anchor to be
ranked first (Bonner and Marshall, 2003). It was earlier suggested that their results may
have been an artefact of the sample.
Schein (1996) ranked the sense of service anchor among the bottom third of the
anchors, but predicted an increase with growing emphasis on ecology and recycling.
This anchor is largely concerned with improving the world, helping society, and desire
to work in a field that meets their values, rather than their skills. Individuals who are
254
oriented towards the service anchor normally would not consider employment that takes
them away from their values. The sense of service anchor was ranked third, covering
8% of respondents in this study. As Schein (1996) posed, there would appear to be more
interest in this value based orientation, and this would appear to be the case, when
comparing the results from Schein (1996) with this study. As such, the results suggest
that there may be a growing value-based orientation where individuals are largely
concerned with improving the world, and seeking to work in a field that matches their
values. This change in orientation was supported by the recent amendment of the CIM
Professional Standard Framework to cover social marketing in their list of competences.
The pure challenge anchor represents individuals concerned with overcoming obstacles
or problems, who also emphasise competition and winning. Within this thesis, this
anchor was ranked four, and considered the dominant anchor by 5% of the respondents.
The marketing managers possessing this orientation would enjoy competition, want to
overcome obstacles, and prove to themselves and others they can achieve. These
conditions are certainly the environment in which many marketing managers find
themselves given the volatility of the marketing landscape. Some marketing managers,
more than others, would have experience in delivering positive marketing outcomes in
very challenging situations. The relatively small numbers of respondents who favour
this orientation are ambitious and want to achieve as a way of driving their career.
These individuals are not necessarily seeking to be tied to a particular organisation, but
will consider movement, or novel projects, as a method of stimulating their career. If
these individuals are not challenged, they may experience a decline in career
satisfaction. In some organisations, career development programs are founded on the
premise that employees are principally motivated by promotion, however, there is
ample evidence of differences in motivation (Yarnall, 1998). For example, individuals
who possess a pure challenge orientation respond to challenge, and money or other
benefits will not motivate them.
Individuals who have an autonomy career anchor value independence from
organisational rules and individual freedom. The results of this study found that the
autonomy career anchor was ranked five, representing 3% of respondents. The
respondents who identified with an autonomy orientation would have chosen marketing
as a career since it allowed them a level of independence which suited their career
255
motivations (Tan and Quek, 2001). Essentially, the established marketers having this
orientation saw a marketing management role as one that provided them with flexibility
and the option to include other elements of their life. Schein (1996) saw this anchor as
typical of older workers, who had the personal and financial security to be more
independent, and self-willed. In this study, the ranking of the autonomy anchor was
lower than for the Schein (1996) and Kniveton (2004) study. The respondents in this
study all were undertaking a marketing management role, and had at least 3 years’
experience in a marketing role. As such, it would appear that most of the respondents
were in the mid-career stage, which may have influenced the lower ranking of this
anchor. These results are similar to the results by Suutari and Taka (2004) whose results
also suggested a low compliance to this career anchor.
Schein (1978) has asserted that a stable career identity is formed only through concrete
experiences with real tasks and real co-workers in real work organisations. The main
attribute of career anchors which drive Schein’s model of career anchors was
congruence. Schein argued that when individuals achieve congruence between their
career and their work environment they are more likely to achieve positive work. Schein
(1987, 1990) identified the positive career outcomes of work effectiveness, job
satisfaction, and job stability. Schein was also of the view that there is one dominant
career anchor (1990). This thesis study has clearly identified the dominance of the
managerial career anchor among nearly two-third of the study respondents, thus
supporting Hypothesis 6. This finding would seem to support the notion that most of the
marketing managers, had achieved congruence between their career anchor, and their
work as a manager in a marketing functional area. As such, the congruence between the
individual’s career anchor and their role at work would indicate a positive career
outcome.
6.5.1: SKILLS AND CAREER ANCHORS
The final Hypothesis, Hypothesis 7 proposed that the skills which are important to a
marketer’s career establishment are dependent on their career anchors. Linear regression
was undertaken to determine if there is a relationship between the fourteen important
skills and career anchors. The ranges of R squared for all of the fourteen skills, using
each one as a dependent variable were from 0.04-0.18. The skill which had the highest
256
R squared value (0.18), representing the highest goodness of fit of 18%, people
management, was deemed to be a significant relationship. Thus Hypothesis 7 is
supported as a relationship between career anchors and people management skills has
been identified as significant. This finding was not unexpected as common sense would
provide that marketing managers with a management orientation (career anchor) would
most likely see people management skills as a prelude to successfully undertaking a
management role.
6.6: CONCLUSIONS
Marketing is seen by many organisations as the driver of long-term profitability and
success (Caruana and Calleya, 1998). Consequently, the marketing manager responsible
for undertaking the tasks that lead to success may be seen to have the primary
responsibility for the success of the organisation’s products and services in the market
place. Given the key role of marketing managers to the profitability of the organisation, it
behoves researchers to develop an appreciation and knowledge of the determinants of
marketing management career success. Consequently, the intent of this thesis was to
focus on marketing managers, with a view to examining factors that influence their
career establishment. In doing so, the study examined the activities and tasks of the
marketing manager, and the required skill sets needed to undertake tasks appropriate to
this role. The study also examined the marketing managers’ perceptions of the post-
graduate marketing studies they had undertaken, with a view to identifying if the
program studies had contributed to developing and augmenting their needed skill sets.
An individual’s skill-set is seen as an important factor in defining their “external career”,
as it enables them to advance through the formal stages and roles that are defined by
organisational policies and societal concepts in the occupational structure (Schein, 1978,
1990). In the light of recent changes in the organisational environment, Srinivasan (2007)
noted that managerial ladders as such may become much fuzzier and status will be
defined more by the number of skills a given manager has than by their position in a
hierarchy. The study has identified not only important skills but skills that are seen as
most important, or key skills. The key skills identified were management skills, rather
than marketing knowledge which may have been expected to be one of the most
important skills. The study examined a range of skills, 14 in all, to establish their
257
perceived importance to the career establishment of the post-graduate marketing
manager. The respondents perceived all of the 14 skills as important. However, the most
important, or key skills, were decision making, interpersonal and people management
skills. Marketing knowledge was found to be an important skill for an established
marketing manager, but not a key skill, being ranked nine out of 14 skills in terms of
importance. The three key skills, decision making, interpersonal and people management
skills, were all found to have high levels of significant correlations with other skills,
being ten eight and seven associations, respectively. The high level of association
between these three skills accords both with the importance of these skills, and the
complex, or layered, nature of these skills. This complexity and layering is referred to as
“strataplex” by Mumford et al., (2007). The term refers to the complex nature of the
skills and their relationship with various elements of the organisation.
The importance of management skills to marketing managers was reinforced by the
finding that leadership skills (which is a management skill), were found to be the most
important skill in conducting seven of the 23 tasks that were examined. Of more
interest, and possibly concern to marketing managers, is that these skills are generally
regarded as management skills and thus are skills that are not usually covered in post-
graduate marketing programs.
Career progression from novice to established professional marketer involves a change in
the nature of tasks undertaken. The identification of marketing tasks, and the frequency
with which they were undertaken was identified using the CIM Professional Standard
Framework. The CIM Framework was adapted to incorporate financial activities, as
these were identified in the initial exploratory research conducted prior to the main study,
and found to be a significant activity of marketing managers. The data analysis of task
frequency substantiated the findings of the importance of the 23 tasks that were
examined. As all 23 tasks of the CIM Framework, with the exception of the conduct of
market research projects, were identified as important, and most of the tasks were
undertaken by marketing managers at least once per year, the findings have provided
support for the use of the CIM Framework as a suitable classification system for
investigating the tasks of marketing managers in Australia.
258
The inclusion of financial task in the study was validated as the task was ranked nine out
of 23 tasks in importance. Moreover, only 2% of respondents rarely undertook this
financial activity task, and half the respondents conducted this task with a frequency of
monthly or more. The study also found significant relationships between the tasks, as
would seem obvious that, for example, tasks such as market research, and
implementation strategies, depend on other tasks that are being undertaken. The most
important tasks undertaken were noted as principally requiring management tasks for
their performance, thus reinforcing the earlier finding of the important skill set of
management skills for the marketing manager.
Clearly, the most common career anchor of marketing managers, with a post-graduate
marketing qualification, was found to be a managerial orientation (63%). Given the
nature of the respondents (marketing managers) in this study, it could be expected that
the managerial career anchor would be the predominant orientation, and this has been
confirmed. Similarly, studies on careers (Crepeau, et al., 1992), found that individuals
in managerial positions, like the respondents in this study, were orientated to managerial
anchors. In this study, the managerial orientation is particularly strong, and it is thought
that not only are the respondents in this study in managerial roles, but the fact that they
have undertaken post-graduate program aimed at developing their skills for this type of
role, explains the very high level of managerial orientation. The apparent high level of
congruence between the dominant career of managerial, and the individuals work role
as a manager, would suggest that most of these respondents had achieved positive career
outcomes. Additionally, it was found that there was a relationship between career
anchors and skills, with the perceived importance of managerial skills identified as most
strongly dependent on the career orientation. Again further supporting the earlier links
between the identification of managerial skills as most important for the career of an
established marketing manager.
In reflecting on the role of the post-graduate marketing programs they had undertaken,
the study results clearly demonstrated that the marketing managers found the coverage of
skills in all cases, with the exception of marketing comprehension, was deficient. The
skill coverage was not considered to be consistent with the level of importance they
placed on the skill. Furthermore, the study found that the emphasis on skills in all cases
was not considered to be consistent with the level of importance they placed on the skill.
259
On the basis of these findings, it is not unreasonable to state that all stakeholders,
students, employers and Higher Education Institutions, should be concerned that largely
all of the skills identified as important for career establishment and success are not seen
to be satisfactorily covered in post-graduate marketing programs. It is important to note
here that although views on the importance of different skills vary among stakeholders,
as established in past research, there is some agreement that marketing graduates have to
be well versed in marketing knowledge and possess a range of analytical and soft skills
that are essential for their career development (Kelley and Bridges, 2005). But, even
more important in today’s marketplace may be the supported findings of this thesis study
that it is most important for the marketing manager to hold a range of management skills
as well.
6.7: PHASE 4 – TRIANGULATION OF QUALITATIVE AND
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH RESULTS
In order to confirm the results of the quantitative stage of the research, the researcher
again approached the respondents from Phase 3 of the research design to obtain their
feedback. All 13 respondents were contacted and all agreed to a further interview in
which to provide feedback on the research results. The respondents (six marketing
managers, two marketing management recruitment consultants and one academic) were
provided with a copy of the quantitative research results one week before the agreed
follow-up interview to ensure they had time to preview the findings. This final phase of
the research was specified and justified in Chapter 3 of the thesis.
In summary, all respondents expressed their support for the finding the first set of
hypotheses relating to the identification of important skills and of the finding of a group
of key skills, identified as management skills. For example:
Mr A (Marketing Manager) explains this by stating:
“Of course you should find managerial skills as the most important. Marketing is not just about dealing with customers, but dealing with internal customers as well.”
Mr B. (Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant) stated that:
260
“Leadership is still the word I hear a lot from my clients. I see it was acknowledged and is consistent with many facets of your results. I am not sure that is should not be the top skill”.
Other comments by Mr S (Marketing Director) also support these results, For example;
“If managers cannot make decisions and solve problems, then why are they employed? The answer is they are not. However, in order for them to make those decisions, they have to be able to communicate to staff and manage them to aid us getting to those results. Your results make perfectly good sense”
There was discussion by the respondents on the ranking of the skills, though they all
agreed on their importance and the inclusion of financial tasks included in the research
design. As a marketing management recruitment consultant explained;
“I am asked for marketing managers who are capable of understanding the bottom line. It scares me in some ways that financials are the most important skill.” (Ms O. Marketing Management Recruitment Consultant)
When the respondents looked at the CIM Professional Model Framework, they were not
surprised on the order of importance of tasks. For example,
“As a sales and marketing manager, I have to make sure of my staff and their progress, since their performance will impact on my career. This becomes a priority of my day to day tasks.” (Mr. B., Sales and Marketing Manager)
Ms O comment was not alone in seeing the importance of financial skills as needed to
undertake the most important tasks of a marketing manager. The issue of the adequacy
of the post graduate marketing program in delivering this needed skill set for marketing
managers was discussed. The industry respondents were in agreement that management
skills needed to be adequately covered in post graduate programs, and there was
concern that the study had provided a range of evidence that the programs were
deficient in this respect. A more considered view was put by the one practising
academic who stated that:
“As an academic, we focus much of our attention on the 4P’s which I agree with. The results suggest that our focus in program development in terms of activities and skills may require a re-think. This I am also in agreement of.” (Mr. S., Lecturer in Business)
In summary, these findings suggest that the results in this thesis are consistent
with the beliefs of the respondents who are currently engaged within the industry.
261
The concern of the adequacy of the post-graduate programs is an issue that
involves many stakeholders and only the views of past students have been
examined in this thesis study. The findings also, generally, support the findings of
this quantitative stage of the research which has been discussed in this chapter.
6.8: THEORETICAL CONTRIBUTION OF RESEARCH
Few would argue with the proposition that transformations of organisations worldwide
have implications for career development in the future (Schein, 2007). It would seem that
these changes indicate an organisational environment in which individuals are required
to effectively plan and manage their own careers to meet their desired outcomes. In
concert with this there has been a move by governments and organisations to introduce
competency testing as a means to assess and clarify the expected roles of professional
(marketers), and the associated needed skill-set at various stages of career development.
Much of the previous research on skills has focussed on the development of the entry-
level skills of graduates (Walker et al., 2009), and, accordingly, the needed skill sets of
graduates at later stages of career development have been neglected within the literature.
It is expected that at these later stages of one’s career that more sophisticated or
enhanced skills are required to perform associated marketing tasks. The primary purpose
of this thesis was to advance our knowledge of the skills, associated tasks, and internal
factors that facilitate the career development and success of established marketing
managers, who have a post-graduate marketing qualification. The theoretical
contribution of the thesis is discussed below.
6.8.1: NEEDED SKILLS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS
First, the study has presented the marketing manager’s perceptions of important skills for
career establishment. The findings are of particular interest because firstly, these
marketing managers identified a wide range of skills, fourteen in all, that were all
deemed as important. So, thus marketing managers saw many skills as important with
marketing knowledge and also financial knowledge were seen as important but not listed
among the skills as most important. The study also found a high level of
interrelationships between the 14 skills, and this finding is consistent with the often cited
262
complex, or layered nature of professional skills. These findings also raise practical
issues relating to the mechanism of development and teaching of these skills.
Second, a number of key skills (decision-making, interpersonal and people
management) were identified that are generally recognised as management rather than
marketing skills. This study finding, in part, reflects changes in the organisational
environment where management functions are being pushed lower within the
organisation (Schein, 2007). Consequently, it appears that, whether or not employees
ever become or seek to become managers, they are now required to possess managerial
skills to lead teams, or small groups, in work projects. The importance of these
management skills to successfully undertake the tasks of a marketing manager is
discussed in the following section. Of note is the finding that leadership (a management
skill), was cited most frequently, as the most important skill for conducting the tasks
required of a marketing manager.
Third, the study established that at no stage in their higher education studies were
students aware that their skills had been tested, other than the more obvious marketing
knowledge and written and oral communication skills. Anecdotal evidence suggests that
skill testing is also not undertaken in the workplace, other than the testing that occurs
prior to employee engagement. Given that the literature confirms that the workplace is
evolving in a manner where individuals are required to be more responsible for their own
careers, it may be desirable for individuals to become more aware of their current skills
and those skills that they need to possess for career establishment.
6.8.2: THE ROLE OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN SKILL DEVELOPMENT
The study identified a number of perceived deficiencies related to the ability of
Australian post graduate marketing programs to develop the skills required by marketing
managers. Of the fourteen skills examined, for example, only one skill, marketing
knowledge, was seen by some graduates to be adequately covered and emphasised in
these programs. These findings are of grave concern to all stakeholders but particularly
in Higher Education Institutions.
263
More specifically, the post-graduate marketing programs are the marketing managers’
preferred or main source of skill development, then post-graduate marketers are
potentially being hindered in their skill-set development, and hence, career establishment
and further development. Moreover, industry is not receiving graduates who are properly
equipped to successfully conduct the required tasks of a marketing manager. Finally, the
post graduate marketing programs are generally not meeting their promoted purpose of
career establishment, and may in fact be opening the higher educational institutions up of
a strong competitive attack, particularly from private universities as foreshadowed by the
current Federal Government. These findings and development have important practical
implications that are covered in the discussion of the theoretical implications in the
following section.
6.8.3: ACTIVITIES AND TASKS OF MARKETING MANAGERS
The study has provided an up-to-date account of the activities and tasks of marketing
managers who hold having a postgraduate qualification, in Australia. This information
was much needed, as most of the recent studies on the nature of the activities and tasks of
marketing managers have been conducted using job content analysis (e.g., Bennett, 2002;
Melia, et. al., 2008; Schlee and Harich, 2010). The two key findings of this part of the
study related first to the finding of the importance of financial activities to the conduct of
the role of marketing manager and, second, to the key importance of leadership skills in
conducting most of the tasks in the framework. These findings also raise concern and
further support the earlier findings about the perceived inadequacy of postgraduate
marketing programs in providing the necessary knowledge and skill development for
individuals seeking or undertaking marketing management roles. These findings were
also supported by the results of the content analysis of post-graduate marketing programs
in Australia which were found to not cover either financial knowledge or
leadership/management skills (Appendix 2 refers).
These findings may be seen to have benefits to a range of stakeholders in higher
education. For the individuals seeking to pursue a marketing career, the information will
provide them with a current appreciation of the skills that will be required and the tasks
and activities they can be expected to undertake in marketing management roles. For
employers, the knowledge of the applicability of the CIM Professional Framework to the
264
Australian context will enable them to better benchmark marketing roles within their
firm or the industry in Australia. For Higher Educational Institutions, which need to keep
their programs at the cutting edge of knowledge, it will enable these to design program
curriculum with a strong understanding of the current tasks, activities, and skills required
within industry.
In summary, the CIM Professional Standard Framework, adapted to include financial
skills/tasks, has been shown to be useful in identifying, and possibly benchmarking the
role of marketing managers that have a post graduate marketing qualification. The
identification of the needed skills that are required to perform the tasks also should
provide guidance to higher educational institutions on program design.
6.8.4: CAREER ANCHORS OF MARKETING MANAGERS
This research is, to the author’s knowledge, one of the first to identify the career anchors
of marketing managers, with post-graduate marketing qualifications, in Australia. The
dominant career anchor of marketing managers (covering respondents largely with the
title marketing manager and national marketing manager) was predominantly
management as posited by Schein (2005) who saw congruence between chosen career
role and career anchor. As respondents had all undertaken post-graduate marketing
programs, it could be implied that these individuals were ambitious, and focussed on
accelerating their career development. Schein (2005) saw individuals that have a
managerial anchor as having analytical, interpersonal, leadership and emotional
competence skills. This study has confirmed that the marketing managers did largely see
the acquisition of management skills as important to their career establishment, thus in
part confirming Schein’s proposition that individuals having a management anchor
would see management related skills as important.
Whether this finding is new in an Australian context is unknown due to the lack of
previous studies. Moreover, for management skills may not just be a necessity for more
senior marketing managers, but also for marketers at lower levels. Schein (2005), the
architect of the notion of career anchors, noted that the need for individuals with
management skills would increase as general management was pushed to lower levels in
265
an organisation. The study results, and perceived changes to organisational structures,
also point to the importance of the acquisition of management skills to the establishment
of the careers of marketing managers.
A number of other trends foreseen by Schein (2007) in his research into career
development were validated in this study. First, the study confirmed, as posited by
Schein (2007), that the lifestyle anchor would become increasingly important. The study
found the lifestyle anchor to have demonstrated the most change in appeal, and was seen
as increasingly important from the original research by Schein. Second, the study found
the decreased importance of the stability/security and technical/functional anchors, and
this was consistent with the trends posited by Schein (2007). Taken together, an
understanding of the tasks and skill requirements of marketing managers, and an
appreciation of career anchors, adds to an understanding of the marketer’s career
aspirations and motivations. This information provides a more embracing view of this
segment of marketing professionals, and the needs these marketers have in terms of
professional development. It is of interest to both the marketer, and the firm, that these
individuals receive professional development that optimally enhances and develops their
needed skills. This would enable the marketer to progress on their career path, or
undertake employment that achieves a high level of congruence with their values and
motivations.
6.9: PRACTICAL CONTRIBUTION
6.9.1: IDENTIFIED SKILLS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS IN THE HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR
The study has identified a broad range of skills, 14 in all, that are seen as important by
marketing managers to their career establishment. It is evident that it would be most
difficult for any educational program to adequately develop such a broad range of skills.
Not only because of the size of the task but also because skill development is a complex
issue that cannot be solely addressed in an educational program. It is, of course,
recognised that skill development can be facilitated through short-term assignments,
cross-functional business exposure, reading books and varied work projects (Lall,
266
2007), but that many individuals prefer to undertake skill and knowledge development
through recognised higher education institutions, both for skill acquisitons and for
certification.
The 14 skills were each complex skills, which by their nature are quite difficult to
measure and teach. The subsequent study findings of the identification of a key
grouping of needed skills, coupled with confirmation of the interconnectedness of the
skills perhaps points to a practical solution to skill development where Higher
Educational Institutions could focus on the key skills, rather than trying to
accommodate the development or enhancement of a wider array of skills in an
educational program.
The grouping of key skills that are most important could be broadly classified as
management skills educational providers could more focus on these key skills in their
programs rather than trying to accommodate all skills. This approach would and also fit
into the current curriculum design framework.
The practical implications of the study findings may be viewed in another light as not so
much an intrusion on current educational programs but perhaps in relation to a new
approach to skills development. As technology has facilitated the delivery of more
customised offering in the marketplace more generally, it is now possible for
educational providers too to develop customised programs for their students. In the case
of skills development, as the study has identified, the assessment of existing skills more
generally has not been undertaken in post/graduate marketing programs, other than in a
limited manner in the context of knowledge based assessments. There is now the
identified need to offer skill development to students seeking career establishment in
marketing management roles as well as individual skills testing. Thus the development
of customised programs for individual students may be an approach that can be
considered by higher educational providers.
6.9.2: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
Of real concern is the perception of the marketing managers, who had undertaken
postgraduate marketing programs of the perceived inadequacy of the programs in
267
meeting their skill development or enhancement needs. The exception was only for the
adequacy of the coverage of marketing knowledge. These findings again bring to the
fore the ever present debate surrounding the role of Higher Education Institutions in the
development of knowledge versus focussed career building programs. The findings may
also be of interest to the bodies handling and managing the quality accreditation of
higher educational bodies in Australia, as presumably the continued delivery of
programs that provide the expected skills and knowledge are required for continued
accreditation.
In a large part, the role of Higher Educational Institutions, in the development of
competent marketing managers, relies on its ability to keep abreast of changes in the
dynamic marketing landscape. Whilst seeing change and making changes to program
curriculum offers benefits to particular Higher Educational Institutions in terms of
competitive advantage, the failure to adapt brings with it not only out-of-date knowledge
and skill development for students but less-able preparation of students for career
establishment. Furthermore, the importance of higher education to Australian society
derived from its functioning as a successful export earner is contingent upon addressing
the needs of its post graduate students. On the issue of both required knowledge and
skills, this thesis study has delivered insights that may be taken up by Higher Educational
Institutions to enable the development of post graduate marketing programs that are more
tailored to the needs of marketing managers, as against novice marketers.
In the above discussion on skills a number of potential approaches to skill development
were seen as having practical appeal. First, the adjustment of programs to incorporate the
key grouping of important management skills and financial knowledge that were seen as
lacking in post graduate marketing programs was seen as a viable practical solution to
meeting the perceived needs of the postgraduate marketing student. This approach was
perhaps practical but it could not attempt to accommodate all the identified important
skills in one program. It could be inferred that the incorporation of new skill
development into the marketing curriculum would be at the expense of current marketing
knowledge based subjects, and this would be consistent with the perceptions of the
marketing managers who saw too much emphasis on marketing knowledge in the
programs. However, such a change to incorporate management subjects in a marketing
program would better meet the needs of established marketing managers.
268
A second option posed to skills development would be a more customised approach with
a foundation based on an assessment of the students current skill levels and perceived
development needs for a marketing management role, as identified in the adapted CIM
framework. Such an option could perhaps better meet the needs of students while
offering more flexibility in program delivery. This type of approach may, however, move
too far away from the traditional program delivery of higher educational institutions and
not be favoured. It may, however, point to an innovative educational product that may be
introduced by service providers better able to deliver these types of educational
outcomes.
So whilst Higher Educational Institutions are often seen as the provider of choice in
development of knowledge and skills for professional careers, they are not the only
source of skill development. In reality, there must be a point where individuals
recognise that no single source of skill development, including post graduate marketing
qualifications, will exactly meet their requirements or expectations. However, whilst the
promotional material for the post graduate marketing programs continues to describe
them in terms of their ability to establish and define careers it can be expected that
stakeholders continue to assess them on this basis. Ultimately, the value of the programs
can be assessed by the competence of students in their field. It is not uncommon for
higher educational programs to define their competitive advantage in terms of the
competence of their students, Accordingly, any Higher Educational Institution which
develops a program designed to deliver to the needs of the established marketing
manager, and thus provide outcomes that define successful marketing managers, could
be seen to have identified and delivered a sustainable competitive advantage.
In summary, the study findings offer insights into the perceived skill development needs
of marketing managers which were sought in their postgraduate marketing studies.
Higher Educational Institutions in their program review activities could study these
findings with a view to implement more satisfying programs for the established
marketing manager.
269
6.9.3: ACTIVITIES AND TASKS OF MARKETING MANAGERS
Specifically, the study has validated the CIM Professional Standard Framework, but
recommends it be amended to incorporate financial activities. The amended framework
effectively covers the range of tasks and activities that are expected of a marketing
manager. The knowledge of the expected tasks, and the frequency with which they were
conducted, also provides insights for marketers. As such, it should aid employers and
Higher Education Institutions to understand the skills and task competency needed for
career progression in a marketing role.
The adapted CIM Professional Standard Framework used as a framework of activities
and tasks, in this study, would appear to provide a suitable basis for organisations to
define the competencies required for marketing manager’s functions. The framework
may also be applicable for other levels of marketers as well. Such a framework may not
only provide a basis for career progression, but also may be linked to many other
development initiatives in an organisation (Srinivasan, 2007).
Consequently, the adapted CIM Professional Standard Framework developed in this
thesis can be used as representative of the tasks of the marketing manager and has been
supported by the frequency of tasks undertaken, as identified in this thesis study. The
CIM Professional Standard Framework should provide insights into the marketing
management roles to students, marketers, employers and Higher Education Institutions
alike.
6.9.4: ROLE OF CAREER ANCHORS
As the literature provides the notion of an individual’s career as changing from an
external to an internal perspective, an individual’s career anchor becomes more
important in determining career choice and measuring career success. Schein (2007)
foresaw the link between a managerial career orientation and the individual’s
motivation to build skills, and also foresaw the increasing importance of a lifestyle
career anchor. This study has confirmed both these trends and in so doing has provided
clear and current support of the career anchor theory.
270
Moreover, this study, and the finding of the congruity between the dominant career
anchor of the individuals (management and the career role marketing management) is
again supportive of career anchor theory but has career management implications.
Schein (2005) saw individuals having a managerial anchor as having analytical,
interpersonal, leadership and emotional competence skills. The logical extension of
these propositions is that some groups of individuals, for example, those with a
managerial anchor, will be more adapt at self-management of their careers than others.
Quite obviously, there are benefits for both the individual and the employing
organisation in identifying career anchors. For individuals there is the knowledge that
will guide decisions about career choice that lead to more positive outcomes, and, for
organisations, there is the potential to align human resource management decisions,
with individual career anchors. The development of human resource management
practices, designed to meet individual career anchors, and thus meet the internal career
needs of individuals would potentially enhance retention of staff.
The issue to consider is at what stage individuals are introduced to the concept of career
anchors and how and when they may be tested so that they may take this career
orientation into account when planning their career. There are a range of stakeholders
having a vested interest in the development of individuals and their attainment of
satisfying and engaging work-lives. No doubt, as time moves on, steps need to be taken
to adjust to the dynamics of the current workplace where organisational position and
advancement is increasingly defined in terms of what one knows and what skills one
possesses and based less and less on security and loyalty.
Schein’s posited that career anchors develop through the individual’s experiences in a
variety of work settings. Accordingly, the appropriate time for marketing professionals
to give consideration to their anchors may be at a time when they have some work
experience. However, whilst the testing may be most usefully conducted during an
individual’s early working life, it may be more important to introduce the concept to
individuals during their studies so that they can better understand the dynamics
surrounding the development of a satisfying career or positive work outcomes.
271
In summary, this thesis has examined the perceptions of marketing managers, who have
undertaken a post-graduate marketing qualification, on a number of issues. This study is
one of the few that has investigated issues pertaining to the career development and
success of the established, as distinct from novice, marketer. The insights developed in
the study have provided an understanding not only the skills needed for career
development, but also the effectiveness of post-graduate marketing programs, and of
career anchors in leading to positive career outcomes.
As students continue to expect post-graduate marketing programs to deliver the desired
skill development it is important for academics to consider changes in the program
content to ensure development of these needed skills. Only then will the students realise
a return on their educational investment and society at large reap the benefits of
effectively managed industries that enhance the economy and operate effectively with a
global environment.
6.10: LIMITATIONS
The principal limitations of the study are related to the conduct of this thesis research.
First, the thesis has been restricted to better understanding the skills, activities and career
orientation that affect marketing managers, who have undertaken post-graduate
marketing studies, in their career establishment. As such the study examined only the
issues in relation to experienced marketing managers, and did not seek to examine the
skill requirements at different periods in the professional life of a marketer. Additionally,
other issues or factors that advance or inhibit an individual’s skill development or career
progression have been excluded from study. These factors do, in themselves, provide
fertile grounds for future research in this area of study.
During the progress of the thesis, there were updates incorporated into the CIM model,
which was used to examine the role and activities of the marketing manager. These
updates were made public after the survey had been undertaken. The updates covered
social marketing and, given the scope of this thesis, it was considered that this update did
not invalidate, or adversely influence, the findings of the study.
272
The sample in this thesis was drawn from the commercial database managed by List
Bank. All 2319 registered marketing managers with List Bank in Australia, who met the
study requirements, were invited to participate in the survey. Whilst List Bank is a
widely recognised organisation with a credible track record and strong quality data
management policies and procedures, it quite does not have a listing of all marketing
managers in Australia. It is possible, therefore, that the sample may not be representative
of all marketing managers in Australia. As such, the nature of the sample provides that
the survey results may be viewed as indicative without being absolutely conclusive.
6.11: DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
This section will outline the future directions of research the researcher believes will
further add to the body of knowledge that this thesis has uncovered.
6.11.1: STUDY EXTENSION
The thesis study has examined marketing managers, who have undertaken a post-
graduate marketing program, as against the more common research into novice
marketers. Consequently, an interesting area for future research would be to undertake a
study to examine the skills and associated activities of marketers at various stages of
their career development from novice to a senior marketing management role. Such a
study would extend the findings of a content analysis study by Schlee and Harsh (2010)
which identified differences in required skills by career stage. Ideally, the conduct of a
longitudinal study would be best suited to monitor changes in skill requirements over
time and thus extend the findings of this thesis
Another interesting direction would be to consider not only marketing managers who
have undertaken post–graduate marketing program, as in this thesis, but also marketing
managers who have not undertaken formal study. It is believed that there are many
marketing managers with little or no formal education. It would be interesting to
investigate the views of this segment and identify their perceptions of needed skills, their
development, and to what they attribute their success to a marketing role.
273
6.11.2: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Recently researchers have been examining how individual differences are impacting on a
person’s career establishment. This thesis study has identified a link between a person’s
internal career orientation and motivation to develop skills and reach a management level
in their career. There are a range of internal difference factors which may impact on
career development and establishment. One such area is the gender difference which may
explain differences in the representation of women at the higher levels of marketing
management. Another direction may be to study the impact of personality, as an
individual’s personality, could affect not only the performance of the skill, but the
individual’s comprehension and ability to learn the skill. Whetten and Cameron (2002)
were adamant that the manager should understand their self-awareness skills. In all, the
study of individual differences should provide some exciting insights into career
development.
6.11.3: SITUATIONAL VARIABLES
The inclusion of other variables such as size of company would provide added insights
into the roles and skills that are used by marketers. It is considered that the role and
associated skills required by marketers may vary by the size and nature of the company,
being product, service or not-for-profit. A study of these variables could cover new
industry categories where e-marketing now dominates. In addition, such studies could
cover social marketing, a new task identified by the CIM Professional Framework.
6.11.4: SKILL DEVELOPMENT
Further research is needed into appropriate mechanisms for building those skills which
have been identified as necessary to the establishment of a successful professional
marketing career. This research would include investigations into how best to build and
develop skills, and to better understand how knowledge is developed and transferred in
the formation of skills, whether within Higher Education Institutions or the workplace.
The discrepancies identified between the needed skills and the skills taught in Higher
Education Institutions point to the need for changes in the their curriculum to
accommodate these skills. It is felt that additional research which would confirm this
274
position would provide some impetus for Higher Education Institutions to move to
include the development of these important skills into the curriculum in a manner that
better connects their use to a real-world situation. Additionally, research could be
undertaken in Higher Education Institutions to gain a better appreciation of its
effectiveness in skill development, and the appropriateness of the skills selected for
development, given its focus on preparing students to be effective in the workplace. The
skills identified in this thesis may be seen as a starting point for the consideration of
changes in the Higher Education Institutions curriculum for post-graduate education. In
addition, there could be more research from the recruitment industry that could identify
needed skills, and together with industry associations, encourage, facilitate, and promote
marketing skill development.
275
REFERENCES
Abramson, C., Currim, I. S., and Sarin, R. (2005). “An Experimental Investigation of
the Impact of Information on Competitive Decision Making.”, Management Science ,
51 (2), 195–207.
Achrol, R. S. and Kotler, P. (1999). “Marketing in the Network Economy.”, Journal of
Marketing, 63, 146-163.
Ackerman, D. S., Gross, B. L. and Perner, L. (2003). “Instructor, student, and employer
perceptions on preparing marketing students for changing business landscapes.”,
Journal of Marketing Education, 25(1), 46-56.
A C Nielson (2000), “Employer satisfaction with Graduate Skills. Research Report”
Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs, AC Nielson Research Services
Adamson, S. J., Doherty, N. and Viney, C. (1998). “The Meaning of Career Revisted:
Implications for Theory and Practice.”, British Journal of Management, 9, 251-259.
Allen, J., Ramaekers, G. and van der Velden, R. (2005). “Measuring Competencies of
Higher Education Graduates.” in D. J. Weerts and J. Vidali (Eds.), “Enhancing Alumni
Research: European and American Perspectives”, New Directions for Institutional
Research (Vol. 126, 49-59). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Amabile, T. M. (1983). “The social psychology of creativity: A componential
conceptualization.”, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 357-376.
Amabile, T., Conti, M. R., Coon, C., Lazenby J. and Herron, M. (1996). “Assessing the
Work Environment for Creativity.”, The Academy of Management Journal, 39(5),
1154-1184.
Anakwe, U. P., Hall, J. C. and Schor, S. M. (2000). “Knowledge-related skills and
effective career management.”, International Journal of Manpower, 21(7), 566-579.
Andrews, J. (1996). “Creative Ideas Take Time: Business Practices that help Product
Managers cope with time Pressure.”, Journal of Product and Brand Management, 5(1),
6-18.
Andrews, J., and Smith, D. C. (1996). “In search of the marketing imagination: Factors
affecting the creativity of marketing programs for the mature products.”, Journal of
Marketing Research, 33:174-187
276
Arnold, J. (1997). ”Managing Careers in the 21st Century.”, Paul Chapman Publishing,
London.
Arora, R. and Stoner, C. (1992). “The importance of skills of M.B.A. students seeking
marketing positions: An employers' perspective.”, Journal of Marketing Education,
14(3), 2-9
Arthur, M. B. (1994). “The boundaryless career: a new perspective for organisational
inquiry.”, Journal of Organisational Behavior, 15, 295-306.
Arthur, M. B., Hall, D.T. and Lawrence, B.S. (1989). The Handbook of Career Theory.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge:
Arthur, M. B., Inkson, K. and Pringle, J. K. (1999), “The New Career: Individual Action
and Economic Change”. London: Sage Publications.”, Academy of Management
Executive, 10(4), 28-39.
Arthur, M.B. and Rousseau, D.M. (1996), “The boundaryless career: A new
employment principle for a new organizational era.” NY: Oxford University Press
Association of Graduate Recruiters (AGR). (1995). “Skills for Graduates in the 21st
Century”. Cambridge, AGR:
Association of Graduate Recruiters, (1995), “Skills for Graduates in the 21st Century”.
AGR, October, Cambridge.
Athiyaman, A. (2001). “Graduate's Perception about Business Education: an
exploratory research.”, Journal of Further and Higher Education, 25(1), 5-19.
Australian Qualification Framework Council. (2010), “Overview of the Empirical
Validation of the Strengthened Australian Qualifications Framework. “September ,
South Australia.
Australian Qualifications Framework Council . (2011),” Higher Standards
Framework..” Department of Industry, Science, Research and Tertiary Education. South
Australia, 1: 1-20.
Ayikoru, M., Tribe, J. and Airey, D. (2009) “Reading Tourism Education:
Neoliberalism Unvweiled.”, Annals of Tourism Research, 36 (2), 191-21
Baker, S. M., Schultz, Kleine, S. and Bennion, M. (2003) “What do they know?
Integrating the core concept of customer value into undergraduate marketing curriculum
and its assessment.”, Journal of Marketing Education. 25, 79-89
Baker, M. J. and Hart, S. J. (2007), “Product Strategy and Management”. London:
Pearson.
277
Ballout, H. I. (2007), “The effects of human capital, person environment fit and
organizational support.” Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22 (8), 741 - 765
Barker, R. A. (1997), “How Can We Train Leaders if We Do Not Know What
Leadership Is?” Human Relations, 50(4), 343-362.
Barr, T. F. and McNeilly, K. M. (2002), “The value of students' classroom experiences
from the eyes of the recruiter: Information, implications and recommendations for
marketing educators.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 24(2), 168-173.
Barth, T. J. (1993),”Review of public personnel administration.” Review of Public
Personnel Administration, 13(4), 27-42.
Baruch, Y. (1999), “Response Rates in Academic Studies - A comparative analysis.”
Human Relations, 52(4), 421-438.
Baruch, Y. (2004), “Transforming careers from Linear to multidirectional career
paths.”, Career Development International, 9(1), 58-73.
Baruch, Y., Bell, M. and Gray, D. (2005), “Generalist and specialist graduate business
degrees: tangible and intangible value.”, Journal of Vocational Behavior , Vol. 67, 51-
68.
Baskin, O. and Aronoff, C. (1980), “Interpersonal Communication in Organizations”.
,Santa Monica, California: Goodyear.
Bath, D., Smith, C., Stein, S. and Swann, R. (2004), “Beyond mapping and embedding
graduate attributes: bringing together quality assurance and action learning to create a
validated and living curriculum.”, Higher Education Research and Development, 23(3),
313-328.
Bazerman, M. H (2002). “Judgment in Managerial Decision Making”. New York:
Wiley Press.
Beaver, G. and Harris, L. (1996), “Performance Management and Competitive
Advantage: Issues, Contexts and Approaches for the Smaller Organisation.”, Business,
Growth and Probability 2(3): 227–38
Beck, J. and La Lopa, J. M. (2001), “An exploratory application of Schein's Career
Anchors Inventory to hotel executive operating committee members.”, International
Journal of Hospitality Management, 20(1), 15-28.
Berdrow, L. and Evers, F.T (2011), “Bases of competence: A framework for facilitating
reflective learner-centred educational environments.”, Journal of Management
Education, 17, 399-415
278
Bennett, R. (2002), “Employers' Demands for Personal Transferable Skills in Graduates
a content analysis of 1000 job advertisements and an associated empirical study.”,
Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 54(4), 457-475.
Bennett, N., Dunn, E. and Carre, C. (1999), “Patterns of core and generic skill provision
in higher education.”, Higher Education, 37 (1), 71-93
Berek, R. (1998), “Product Management: A Work in Progress.” Pharmaceutical
Executive, 18(March), 60-71.
Bergman, M.M. (2010), “On Concepts and Paradigms in Mixed Methods Research”
Journal of Mixed Methods Research .”, 4(3) 171–175
Bernard, H. R. and. Ryan., G. W. (2010),“Analysing Qualitative Data: Systematic
Approaches.” Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications.
Bigelow, J. D. (1995), “Teaching Managerial Skills: A critique and future
directions.”,Journal of Management Education, 19(3), 305-325.
Binks, M. and Exley, K. (1992), “Observing the Output of Institutions of Higher
Education: The Case of Graduate Attributes”, University of Nottingham, Nottingham
Bloom, B. (1956). “Taxonomy of educational objectives.”, McKay, New York:.
Boatwright, E. W. and Stamps, M. B. (1988), “Employers' importance ratings of student
characteristics: A conjoint analysis approach.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 10(3),
74-78.
Bonoma, T. V. and Crittenden, V. (1988), “Managing marketing implementation.”,
Sloan Management Review (Winter), 7-14.
Borden, N. H. (1965), “The concept of the marketing mix.” in G. Schwartz (Ed.),
Science in Marketing (Vol. 386-397). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Borg, W. R. and Gall, M. D. (1989). An Introduction Educational Research.” (5th ed.).
New York: Longman.
Bowden, J., Hart, G., King, B., Trigwell K. and Watts, O. (2000), “Theme: Assessing
Graduate Attributes.” Retrieved 30 March 2010 from
http://www.clt.uts.edu.au/Theme.assess.grad.att.htm.
Boyatzis, R. E. (1982), “The Competent Manager: A Model for Effective
Performance.”, New York: Wiley.
Bradshaw, D. (1985),” Intellectual and personal skills.”, Oxford Review of Education,
11(2), 201-216.
279
Bramson, C., Currim, I. and Sarin, S. R. (2005),”An Experimental Investigation of the
Impact of Information on Competitive Decision Making.”, Management Science. 51(2)
195–207
Bradstreet, T. (1996),“Teaching introductory statistics courses so that non statistician
experience statistical reasoning.”, The American Statistician, 50, 69-78.
Brennan, L. (2000), “How Perspective Students Choose Universities. A Buyer Behavior
Perspective.” PhD, University of Melbourne, Melbourne.
Brennan, L., Camm, J. and Tanas, J. K. (2007), “Validity in market research practice;
New is not always improved". Der markt, 4 6(1-2), 6-16.
Bridges, W. L., and Brearley, N. (1995),” Job shift: How to prosper in a workplace
within jobs.”, London: Nicholas Brearley.
Bridgstock, R. (2009), “The graduate attributes we've overlooked: enhancing graduate
employability through career management skills.”, Higher Education Research and
Development, 28(1), 31-44.
Briscoe, J. P., Hall, D. T. and DeMuth, R. L. F. (2006), “Protean and boundaryless
careers: An empirical exploration.”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69, 30-47.
Briscoe, J. P.and Hall, D. T. (2006), “The interplay of boundaryless and protean careers:
Combinations and implications”,. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69, 4-18.
Brønn ,P.B., (2014), "How others see us: leaders’ perceptions of communication and
communication managers.", Journal of Communication Management, Vol. 18 (1), 58 -
79
Brown McCabe, D. B. and Meuter, M. L. (2011), “A Student View of Technology in
the Classroom: Does It Enhance the Seven Principles of Good Practice in
Undergraduate Education?”, Journal of Marketing Education, 33(2), 149-159.
Brown, A., Bimrose, J., Barnes, S.A. and Hughes, D. (2012), “The role of career
adaptabilities for mid-career changers.”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80, (3), 754-
761
Brownlie, D. T. (1993), “The Marketing Audit: A Metrology and Explanation.”,
Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 11(1), 4-12.
Bruce, G. and Schoenfeld, G. (2006), “Marketers with MBAs: Bridging the thinking-
doing divide.”, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 24(3), 257-282.
Buchanan, J, Yu, S, Wheelahan, S, Keating, J and Marginson, S (2010), “Impact
Analysis of the proposed strengthened Australian Qualifications Framework, Australian
Qualifications Framework council”, Adelaide, July
280
www.aqf.edu.au/.../AQFC%20-%20impact%20analysis%20-
20final%208Oct10%20(3).pd
Burdett, J. and. Crossman, J. (2012), "Engaging international students: An analysis of
the Australian Universities Quality Agency (AUQA) reports.", Quality Assurance in
Education, 20(3): 207-222
Burgoyne, J., Hirsh, W. and Williams, S. (2003), “The value of business and
management education.”, Working Paper 2003/099. Lancaster: Lancaster University
Management School.
Burke, R. J. (1983), “Career Orientations of Type A Individuals.”, Psychological
Reports, 53, 979-989.
Burke, R. J., and Deszca, G. (1988). “Career orientations, satisfaction and health among
police officers: some consequences of person-job misfit.” Psychological Reports, 62 (2
April), 639-649.
C.I.M. (2010), Professional Marketing Standards from
http://www.cim.co.uk/about/mktgstandards.aspx.
Campbell, M. D., Wilson, L. G. and Hanson, G. R. (1980), “The invisible minority: A
study of adult university students.” (Final Report). : University of Texas, Austin.
Cannell, C. F. (1985), “Interviewing in a Telephone system” in Survey Interviewing
Theory and Techniques. T. W. Beed and Simpson, R.J. , George Allen and Unwin,
Sydney.
Carmeli, A., and Tishler, A. (2006), “The relative importance of the top management
team's managerial skills.”, International Journal of Manpower, 27(1), 9-36.
Carnevale, A., Gainer, L., and Meltzer, A. (1988).,“Workplace Basics: The Skills
Employers Want, Washington DC.”: The American Society for Training and
Development and the United States Department of Labor.
Caruana, A., and Calleya, P. (1998), “The effect of internal marketing on organisational
commitment among retail bank managers.” International Journal of Bank Marketing,
16(3), 108-116.
Catterall, M., P.Maclaran, and Stevens, L. (2002), “Critical reflection in the marketing
curriculum.” Journal of Marketing Education, 24 (December), 184 -192.
Chang, I. C., Liu, C.F., Hwang, H.G. and Siang, S. H. (2007), “A study of career
anchors and job characteristics preferences of IS students.”, Journal of Computer
Information Systems (Spring), 24-33.
281
Chansa-ngavej, C. (2008), “Managerial Skills expected of Middle Managers: A bottom-
up Approach to Development Needs”, School of Management. Retrieved January 2012
from
http://shinawatra.academia.edu/ChuvejChansangavej/Papers/276115/Managerial_Skills
_Expected_of_Middle_Managers_a_Bottom-Up_Approach_to_Development_Needs.
Chonko, L. (1993), “Business school education: Some thoughts and
recommendations.”, Marketing Education Review, 2, 1-9.
Chonko, L. B. and Cabballero, M. J. (1991), “Marketing Madness, or how marketing
departments think they're in two places at once when they're not anywhere at all
(according to some).”, Journal of Marketing Education, 13(1), 14-25.
Churchill, G. A. (1979), “A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing
constructs. “,Journal of Marketing Research, 16 (February), 64-73.
Churchill, J.G., and Lacobucci, D. (2010).,“Marketing Research: Methodological
Foundations.”, USA: Nelson Education Ltd.
Clark, B., and Ambler, T. (2001), “Marketing Performance Measurement: Evolution of
Research and Practice.”, International Journal of Business Performance Management,
3(2/3/4), 231-244.
Cohen, W., M. and Levinthal, D., A. (1990), “Absorptive Capacity: A New Perspective
on Learning and Innovation.”, Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 35, No. 1, Special
Issue: Technology, Organizations, and Innovation. (Mar), 128-152
Comrey, A. L. and Lee, H. (1992). “A first course in factor analysis”, Erlbaum,
Hillsdale. NJ.
Constable, J. and McCormick, R. (1987), “The Making of British Managers.”,
BIM/CBI. London
Cooper, M. and Loe, T. (2000), “Using theory of constraints' thinking processes to
improve problem-solving skills in marketing.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 22,
137-146.
Cowell, D. W. (1987), “Some insights into the background and training of marketing
executives in the UK.”, Plymouth, Plymouth Business School.
Crepeau, R. G., Crook, C. W., Goslar, M. D. and McMurtrey, M. E. (1992),”Career
Anchors of Systems Personnel.”, Journal of Management Information Systems, 9(2),
145-160.
Creswell, J. W. (1998), “Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five
traditions.” Thousand Oaks, CA, Age.
282
Creswell, J. W. and Plano Clark, V. L. (2011), “Designing and conducting Mixed
methods Research.”Sage Publications. USA .2nd Ed.
Cromie, S. (1994),“Entrepreneurship: The role of the individual in small business
development”. IBAR, 15, 62-73.
Crosier, K. (2004), “How effectively do marketing journals transfer useful learning
from scholars to practitioners?” Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 22(5), 540-556.
Culliton, J. W. (1948), “The Management of Marketing Costs”. Boston, MA: Division
of Research, Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University.
Cummings, R. (1998), “How should we assess and report student generic attributes?”
Paper presented at the 7th Annual Teaching Learning Forum, University of Western
Australia.
Cunningham, A. C. (1999), “Commentary confessions of a reflective practitioner:
meeting the challenges of marketing's destruction.”, European Journal of Marketing,
33(7/8), 685-697.
Curtis, S. and Lucas, R. (2001), “A coincidence of needs? Employers and full time
students.”
Employee Relations, Vol. 23 No. 1, pp. 38-54.
Curtis, D. and McKenzie, P. (2001), Employability Skills for Australian Industry:
Literature Review and Framework Development from
http://www.dest.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/FDD9BFD1-F678-4EA6-AAD6-
71F135E002CC/2213/literature_research.pdf.
Custodio, L. P. (2000), “Career Anchors of Filipino Academic Executives.”
Catanduanes, College of Business and Accountancy (1-13).
Dacko, S. G. (2001), “Narrowing skill development gaps in marketing and MBA
programs: The role of innovative technologies for distance learning.”, Journal of
Marketing Education, 23(3), 228-239.
Dacko, S. G. (2006), “Narrowing the skills gap for marketers of the future.”, Marketing
Intelligence & Planning, 24(3), 283-295.
Dahlstrom, R., A. Nygaard and J. L. Crosno, (2008), “Strategic, Metric, and
Methodological Trends in Marketing Research and their Implications for Future Theory
and Practice.” Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 16, 139-15
Dailey, R. M. and Kim, S. S. (2001), “To what extent are principles of marketing
students market oriented? The review category.”, Marketing Education Review, 11(2),
57-72.
283
Daley, B. J. (1999),“Novice to expert: An exploration of how professionals learn.”,
Adult Education Quarterly, 49, 133-144.
Danziger, N., Rachman-Moore, D. and Valency, R. (2008), “The construct validity of
Schein's career anchors orientation inventory.”, Career Development International,
13(1), 7-19.
Das, H. T. (1983), "Qualitative Research in Organizational Behaviour." ,Journal of
Management Studies 20(3): 301-311.
Davies, K. (2008), "Job hunting in the UK using the internet: finding your next
information professional role in the health care sector and the skills employers require.",
Health Information and Libraries Journal 25: 106-115.
Davies, L. (2000), “Why kick the “L” out of “Learning?”, The development of students’
employability skills through part-time working.”, Education + Training, 42(8), 436-445.
Davis, D., Siau, K. and Dhenuvakonda, K. (2003), “A fit gap analysis of e-business
curricula versus industry needs.”, Communications of the ACM - Mobile computing
opportunities and challenges, 46(12), 167-177.
Davis, R., Miscra, S. and VanAuken, S. (2002), “A gap analysis approach to marketing
curriculum assessment: A study of skills and knowledge.”, Journal of Marketing
Education, 24(3), 218-224.
Dawes, P. L., and Patterson, P. G. (1987), “An empirical study of product management
in Australia.” ,Australian Journal of Management, 12(2), 237-261.
Day, G. S. (1994), “The Capabilities of Market-Driven Organisations.”, Journal of
Marketing, 58(October), 37-52.
Day, G. S., and Montgomery, D. B. (1999), “Charting New Directions for Marketing.”,
Journal of Marketing, 63, 3-13.
Dearing, R. (1997), “High Education in the Learning Society.”,National Committee of
Inquiry into Higher Education. Leeds, England
Deckinger, E. L., Brink, J., Katzenstein, M H. and Primavera, L. H. (1990), “How can
advertising teachers prepare students for entry-level advertising agency jobs?”, Journal
of Advertising Research, 29(6), 37-46.
Derr, C. B. (1986), “Five Definitions of Career Success: Implication for Relationships.”,
International Review of Applied Psychology, 35, 415-435.
DeFillippi, R. J. and Arthur, M. B. (1996), “Boundaryless contexts and careers: A
competency based perspective.” in M. B. Arthur and D. M. Rousseau (Eds.). “The
boundaryless career.” (pp. 116-131). New York: Oxford University Press.
284
DeLong, T. J. (1982a). “The career orientations of MBA Alumni.” in R. Katz (Ed.),
“Career Issues in Career Orientations.” (pp. 50-64). Englewoods Cliff, N.J: Prentice-
Hall.
DeLong, T. J. (1982b), “Re-examining the career anchor model.”, Personnel, 59(3 May-
June), 50-61.
DeLong, T. J. (1983),“Dentists and career satisfaction: an empirical view.”, Journal of
Dentistry for Children (May-June), 179-185.
Denzin, N. K. (1978), “The Research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological
methods.”Praeger, New York.
Department of Education and Employment, (DfEE) (1997), “Labour Market Skills and
Trends 1996/97.” London.
Department of Education and Skills, (DfES) (2002),“Work related Learning Report.”:
DfES WRLRI.
Department of Education, Science and Training, (DEST) (2002), “Employability skills
for the future.” Department of Education, Science and Training, Canberra
Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs, (DETYA). (1999). “Research on
Employer Satisfaction with Graduate Skills Interim Report”: Government and Social
Research Team; ACNielsen Research Services.
Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs, (DETYA). (2000), “Employer
Satisfaction with Graduate Skills.”- Research Report. Department of Education,
Training and Youth Affairs, Canberra:
Donthu, N., Hershberger, E. K. and Osmonbekov, T. (2005), “Benchmarking Marketing
Productivity Using Data Envelopment Analysis.”, Journal of Business Research, 58(11),
1474-1482.
Doherty, D. (1992), “Interpretative barriers to Successful Product Innovation in large
Firms.”, Organization Science, 3(May), 179-202.
Doyle, P. (1987), “Marketing and the British chief executive.”, Journal of Marketing
Management, 3(2), 121-132.
Doyle, P. (2000), “Value-Based Marketing.”,John Wiley and Sons. New York
Dreyfus, H., and Dreyfus, S. (1985), “Mind over machine.”, Free Press. New York
Driver, M. (2001), “Fostering Creativity in Business Education: Developing a Creative
Classroom Environments to provide students with critical work place Competencies.”,
Journal of Education for Business, 77(1), 28-33.
Drucker, P. F. (1954). “The practice of management.” New York: Harper and Brothers.
285
Drucker, P. F. (1999), “Management Challenges for the 21st Century.”,Butterworth-
Heinemann. Oxford
Ducoffe, R. H.and Ducoffe, S. J. (1990), “Tips from top advertising executives:
Implications for advertising executives.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 12(1), 52-58.
Duff, A. and Cotgrove, S. (1981), “Social values and the choice of careers in industry.”,
Journal of Occupational Psychology, 55, 97-107.
Duke, C. R. (2002), “Learning outcomes: Comparing student perceptions of skill level
and importance.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 24(3), 203-217.
Dunphy, D., and Griffiths, A., (1998) “The Sustainable Corporation.”,Allen Unwin
Sydney
Eastlack, J. O. and Rao, A. G. (1986), “Advertising Experiments at the Campbell's Soup
Factory”, JSTOR: Marketing Science, 8(1, Winter), 57-71.
Eastlack, J. O.and Ambar, G. R. (1986), “Modelling Response to Advertising and Price
Changes for 'V-8' Cocktail Vegetable Juice.”, Marketing Science, 5(3), 245-259.
Eberhardt, B. J., Moser, S. and McGee, P. (1997), “Business concerns regarding MBA
Education: Effects on Recruiting”, Journal of Education for Business, 72(5, May/June),
293-296.
Ebert, C. (2007), “The impacts of software product management.”, Journal of Systems
and Software, 80(6), 850-861.
Ehiyazaryan, E. and Barraclough, N. (2009), “Enhancing employability: integrating real
world experience in the curriculum.”, Education + Training, 51(4), 292-308.
Ellen, P. and Pilling, B. (2002), Using employer input to assess graduate marketing
education effectiveness: A working example of curriculum development, Marketing
Education Review, 12(1), 31-40
Ellis, N. (2000), “Developing graduate sales professionals through co-operative
education and work placements: a relationship marketing approach.”, Journal of
European Industrial Training, 24(1), 34-42.
Ellis, R. and Heneman III, H. G. (1990), “Career Pattern Determinants of Career
Success for Mature Managers.”, Journal of Business and Psychology, 5(1), 3-21.
Ennis, R. H. (1993), “Critical thinking assessment.”, Theory into Practice, 32, 176-186.
Erickson, G. and Jacobson, R. (1992), “Gaining Comparative Advance expenditures in
our analysis, we cannot make definitive state-stage. Through Discretionary
Expenditures: The Returns to R&D and Advertising.”, Management Science,
38(September), 1264–1279.
286
Ettington, D. R.and Camp, R. R. (2002), “Facilitating transfer of skills between group
projects and work teams. “, Journal of Management Education, 26 (4), 356-379
Evers, F. T. and Rush, J. C. (1996), “The bases of competence: Skill development
during the transition from university to work.”, Management Learning, 27, 275-299.
Facione, P. A. (2009), “Critical thinking: what it is and why it counts.” (Retrieved
January 2013) from; http:/www.insightassessment.com/pdf_files/what&why2006.pdf).
Fagin, B., Harper, J., Hadfield, S. and Sward, R. (2006), “Critical thinking and
computer science: implicit and explicit connections.” ,Journal of Computing Sciences in
Colleges, 21(4), 171-177.
Faria, A. J. and Dickinson, J. R. (1992), “Mail Survey Response, Speed, and Cost.”,
Journal of Marketing Management, 21, 51-60.
Feldman, D. C. (1988), Managing Career Organisation.” Scott Foresman, Glenview, IL,
Feldman, D. C. and Bolino, M. C. (1996),“Career within Careers: Reconceptualising the
nature of Career Anchors and their consequences.”, Human Resource Management
Review, 6(2), 89-112.
Feldman, D. C. and Bolino, M. C. (2000), “Career patterns of the self-employed: career
motivations and career outcomes.” Journal of Small Business Management, 38(3), 53-
67.
Ferguson, S., Hidler, P., and Lloyd, A. (2008), "Are librarians the ultimate knowledge
managers? A study of knowledge, skills, practice and mindset." ,Australian Library
Journal(Feb): 39-61.
Ferrell, L. and Gonzalez, G. (2004), “Belief and Expectations of Principles of
Marketing Students.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 26(2), 116-122.
Field, L. (2001), “Industry speaks: Skill requirements of leading Australian
workplaces”. Report on the Employability skills for the Future Project. Retrieved 21
Oct, 2011, from
http://www.dest.gov.au/ty/publications/employability_skills/case_study.pdf
Finch, D., Nadeau, J. and O’Reilly, N. (2013), “The future of marketing education: a
practitioner’s perspective.” Journal of Marketing Education 35: 54 -67
Flick, U. (2009), “An Introduction to Qualitative Research.” Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage.
Floyd, C. J. and Gordon, M. E. (1998), “What skills are most important? A comparison
of employer, student, and staff perceptions.” , Journal of Marketing Education, 20(2),
103-109.
287
Fogelman, K. (2002), “Surveys and Sampling”. In M. Coleman and A. R. J. Briggs
(Eds.), “Research Methods in Educational Leadership and Management.”, London: Paul
Chapman Publishing.
Freling, T. H., & Forbes, L. P. (2005), “An examination of brand personality through
methodological triangulation.”, Journal of Brand Management, 13, 148 – 162
Gaedeke, R. M., Tootelian, D. H. and Schaffer, B. F. (1983), “Employers want
motivated communicators for entry-level marketing positions: Survey.”, Marketing
News, 17(16) (Section 2), 1.
Galaskiewicz, J. (1996), “The New Network Analysis and its Application to
Organisational Theory and Behaviour.” in D. Iacobucci (Ed.), “Networks in Marketing”
(pp. 19-31). Thousand Oaks. CA: Sage Publications.
Gardiner, J. W. (1993), “On Leadership”, Free Press, New York.
George, D. and Mallery, P. (2003),” SPSS for Windows Step by Step: A Simple Guide
and Reference.” 11.0 update. 4th Ed, Allyn and Bacon, Boston.
Gifford, J. B. and Maggard, J. P. (1975), “Top agency executives' attitudes toward
academic preparation for careers in the advertising profession.”, Journal of Advertising,
4, 9-16.
Giles, M. and West, M. (1995), “People as sculptors versus sculptures: what shape
career development programmes?”, Journal of Management Development, 14(10), 48-
63.
Glazer, R. (1991), “Marketing in an Information-Intensive Environment; Strategic
Implications of Knowledge as an Asset.”, Journal of Marketing, 55(October), 1-19.
Goleman, D. (2000), "Leadership that gets results.", Harvard Business Review, 78 (2),
78-93
Goodwin, L.D. and Goodwin, W.L. (1984), “Are validity nd reliability ‘relevant’ in
qualitative evaluation research?”, Evaluation and the Health Professions, 7, 413-426
Gorchels, L. (2000), “The Product Manager's Handbook: The Complete Management
Resource.”, Chicago: NTC Business Books.
Goyder, J. C. (1982). “Further Evidence on Factors Affecting Response Rates to Mailed
Questionnaires.” American Sociological Review, 47(4), 550-553.
Gray, B. J., Ottesen, G. G., Bell, J., Chapman, C., and Whiten, J. (2007), “What are the
essential capabilities of marketers? A comparative study of managers', academics' and
students' perceptions.”, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 25(3), 271-295.
288
Gray, B., Whiten, J., and Knightbridge, K. (2002), “What skills do marketing students
need?” ANZMAC 2002 Conference. Melbourne, Australia.
Greene, J. C., Caracelli, V.J., and Graham, W.F. (1989), "Toward a conceptual
framework for mixed-method evaluation designs.", Educational Evaluation and Policy
Analysis 11: 255-274.
Grönroos, C. (1991), “The marketing strategy continuum: towards a marketing concept
for the 1990s.”, Management Decision, 29(1), 7-13.
Grönroos, C. (1994), “From Scientific Management to Service Management A
Management Perspective for the Age of Service Competition.”, International Journal of
Service Industry Management, 5(1), 5-20.
Gupta, A. K. and Wileman, D (1990). “Accelerating the Development of Technology-
Based New Products.“ California Management Review, 32(2, Winter), 24-44.
Gupta, S. and Zeithaml, V. (2006), “Customer Metrics and Their Impact on Financial
Performance.”, Marketing Science, 25(6), 718-739.
Guthrie, B. (1994), “The Higher Education Experience Survey.”, Graduate Careers
Council of Australia, Canberra
Hafer, J. C. and Hoth, C. C. (1981), “Job Selection attributes: Employer preference
versus student perceptions.”, Journal of College Placement (Winter), 54-57.
Hair, J. F., Lukas, B. A. and Miller, K. E. (2012), “Marketing Research”, McGraw-Hill,
North Ryde, N.S.W
Hair, J. F., R.E. Anderson, R. L. Tatham and Black, W. C. (1998), “Multivariate data
analysis.”, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Hall, D. T. (1976), “Careers in Organisations.”, Goodyear, Pacific Palisades ,CA.
Hall, D. T. (1996), “Protean careers of the 21st century. ”,Academy of Management
Executive, 10(4), 8-16.
Hall, D. T. (2002), “Protean careers in and out of organisations.”, Sage, Thousand Oaks,
CA
Hamilton, D., McFarland, D. and Mirchandani, D. (2000), “A decision model for
integration across the business curriculum in the 21st century. ”,Journal of Marketing
Education, 24, 102-126.
Hammersley, M. (1992), “What’s wrong with ethnography? Methodological
exploration.” Routledge, London
Handy, C. (1994). “The empty raincoat: making sense of the future.” Hutchinson,
London
289
Hanvanich, S., K. Sivakumar and Hult, G. T. M. (2006), “The Relationship of Learning
and Memory with Organizational Performance: The Moderating Role of Turbulence”,
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 34(4), 600-612.
Hardre, P. L. and. Sullivan., D.W. (2008), "Teacher perceptions and individual
differences: How they influence rural teachers’ motivating strategies.", Teaching and
Teacher Education 24(8): 2059-2075.
Harper, R. (2012), "The collection and analysis of job advertisements of research
methodology.", Library Information Research 36(112): 29-54.
Harrigan, P. and Hulbert, B. (2011), “How Can Marketing Academics Serve Marketing
Practice? The New Marketing DNA as a Model for Marketing Education.” ,Journal of
Marketing Education, XX(X), 1-20.
Harris, C. H. and Ogbonna, E. (2001), “Leadership style and market orientation: an
empirical study.”, European Journal of Marketing, 35(5/6), 744-764.
Harvey, L., Moon, S., Geall, V. and Bower, R. (1997), “Graduates' work: organisational
change and students' attributes.” ,Centre for Research into Quality, University of
Central England: Birmingham
Headley, D. E. and Choi, B. (1992), “Achieving service quality through gap analysis
and a basic statistical approach.”, Journal of Services Marketing, 6(1), 5-10.
Hill, J., McGowan, P. and Maclaran, P. (1998). “Developing marketing planning skills:
combining theory and practice.” Journal of Marketing Practice: Applied Marketing
Science, 4(3), 69-84.
Hillage, J. and Pollard; E. (1998), “Employability: developing a framework for a policy
analysis.”, Research Brief 85, Department for Education and Employment.
Hobson, C.J., Strupeck, D., Griffin, A., Szostek, J. and Rominger, A.S. (2014),
"Teaching MBA students teamwork and team leadership skills: AN empirical
Evaluation of a Classsroom Educarional Program.", Americal Journal of Business
Education - Third Quarter, 7 (3), 191-212
Hogarth, T., Shury, J., Vivian, D., Wilson, R. and Winterbotham, M. M. (2004),
“National Employers Skill Survey 2003”: Main Report. Report prepared for the
Learning and Skills Council.
Hollan, J. and Stornetta, S. (1992), “Beyond being there.” Paper presented at the ACM
Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, Monterey, CA. May 3-7
Holmes, L. (2001), “Reconsidering graduate employability: The graduate identity
approach.”, Quality in Higher Education, 7(2), 111-119.
290
Homburg, C., Workman Jnr, J.P. and Jensen, O. (2000), “Fundamental Changes in
Marketing Organisation: The Movement Toward a Customer-Focused Organisational
Structure.”, Journal of Academy of Marketing Science, 28(4), 459-478
Homburg, C. and Jensen, O. (2007). “The Thought Worlds of Marketing and Sales:
Which Differences Make a Difference.” Journal of Marketing, 71(July), 124-142.
Hong, P., Doll, W., Revilla, E. and Nahm, Y. A. (2011), “Knowledge sharing and
strategic fit in integrated product development projects: an empirical study.”,
International Journal of Production Economics, 132(2 August), 186-196.
Hooley, G. J., Lynch, J. E. and Shepherd, J. (1990),“The Marketing Concept: Putting
the Theory into Practice.”, European Journal of Marketing, 24(9), 7-24.
Howell, J. M. and Avolio, B. J. (1993), “Transformational leadership, transactional
leadership, locus of control, and support for innovation: Key predictors of consolidated
business unit performance.”, Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(6), 891-902.
Hsu, M. M., Jiang, J.J., Klein, G. and Tang, Z. (2003), “Perceived career incentives and
intent to leave.”, Information and Management, 40(5), 361-369.
Hu, L. and Bentler, P. M. (1995), “Evaluating model fit. Structural Equation Modeling:
Concepts, Issues and Applications.” Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, 76-99.
Hughes, E.C. (1937), “Institutional Office and the Person.” American Journal of
Sociology, Vol. 43, 404-13.
Hughes, G. D.and Chafin, D. C. (1996), “Turning New Product Development into a
Continuous Learning Process.”, Journal of Product Innovation Management, 13(2), 89-
104.
Hunt , S. D. (2007), “A Responsibilities Framework for Marketing as a Professional
Discipline.”, Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 26(2), 277-283.
Hyman, M. R. and Hu, J. (2005), “Assessing faculty beliefs about the Importance of
various marketing skills.”, Journal of Education for Business, 81
(November/December), 105-110.
IBIS World, (2014) University and Other Higher Education in Australia: Market
Research Report.” Available from:
http://www.ibisworld.com.au/industry/default.aspx?indid=600. [1st Nov. 2013]
Igbaria, M. and Baroudi, J. J. (1993), “A short form measure of career orientations: A
psychometric evaluation.”, Journal of Management Information Systems, 10(2), 131-
154.
291
Igbaria, M., Greenhaus, J. H. and Parasuraman, S. (1991), “Career orientations of MIS
employees: An empirical analysis.”,MIS Quarterly, 15(2), 151-169.
Igbaria, M., Kassicieh, S. K. and Silver, S.M. (1999), “Career orientations and career
success among research and development engineering professionals.”, Journal of
Engineering and Technology Management, 2(3), 205-230.
Inkson, K. (1995), “Effects of changing economic conditions on managerial job changes
and careers.”, British Journal of Management, 6, 183-184.
Isaac, S. and Michael, W. B. (1997), “Handbook in research and evaluation: A
collection of principles, methods, and strategies useful in the planning, design, and
evaluation of studies in education and the behavioural sciences.” (3rd ed.). San Diego:
Educational and Industrial Testing Services.
Jamali, D. (2005), “Changing management paradigms: implications for educational
institutions.”, Journal of Management Development, 24(2), 104-115.
Jarlstrom, M. (2000), “Personality preferences and career expectations of Finnish
business students.” ,Career Development International, 5(3), 144-154.
Jennings, S. (2000), Graduate Employment – a Survey of Employers: Final Results,
Wolverhampton, Undergraduate Programme Management Team, Wolverhampton
Business School.
Jick, T.D. (1979), “Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: triangulation in
action.” Adminstrative Science Quarterly, 24, 602-611
Jobber, D. (1985), “Questionnaire factors and mail survey response rates.” European
Research, July, 124-129.
Joby, J. and Needle, M. (1989), “Entry level marketing research recruits: What do
recruiters need?”, Journal of Marketing Education, 11(1), 68-73.
Johnson, R. B. and Onwuegbuzie., A. J. (2004), "Mixed Methods Research : A
Research Paradigm Whose Time Has Come.", Educational Research 33(7): 14-26.
Johnson, R. B. and Turner., L.A (2003), Data collection Strategies in Mixed Methods
Research. Handbook of Mixed Methods in social and behavioural research. A.
Tashakkori and C. Teddlie (Eds.). CA, Sage: 297-319.
Johnson, S. (1999), “Marketing Roles and Salaries Survey.” Retrieved 25 June, 2013,
from http://pragmaticmarketing.com
Jones, P., Trier C. J. and Richards, J. P. (2008), “Embedding Education for Sustainable
Development in Higher Education: A case study examining common challenges and
292
opportunities for undergraduate programs.”, International Journal of Educational
Research 47, 341-350.
Jones, W. H. and Linda, G. (1978), “Multiple Criteria Effects in a Mail Survey
Experiment.” Journal of Marketing Research, 15, 280-284.
Judge, T. A., Cable, D. M., Boudreau, J. W and Bretz, Jnr., R. D. (1995), “An empirical
investigation of the predictors of executive success.”, Personnel Psychology, 48, 485-
519.
Kannan, R. (2007), “Career Management and Development: The emerging paradigm”.
NHRD Network, 1(4), 6-10.
Kanter, R. M. (1989). “The new managerial work.” Harvard Business Review 67(6), 85-
92.
Kanungo, R. N. and Misra, S. (1992), “Managerial Resourcefulness. A
reconceptualization of management skills.”, Human Relations, 45, 1311-1332.
Karpin, D. (1995), “Enterprising nation: The report of the Industry Task Force on
Leadership and Management Skills”, AGPS, Canberra.
Katz, R. L. (1974),”Skills of an Effective Administrator.”, Harvard Business Review,
52(5), 90-102.
Keillor, B. D., Bush, R. P. and Bush, A. J. (1995), “Marketing-based strategies for
recruiting business students in the next century.”, Marketing Education Review, 5(3),
69-80.
Keller, K. L. (1998), “Strategic Brand Management: Building, Measuring, and
Managing Brand Equity”, Prentice Hall, New Jersey
Kelley, C. A. (1992), “Educating marketing students in the art of business etiquette.”,
Journal of Marketing Education, 14(2), 34-38.
Kelley, C. A. and Bridges, C. (2005), “Introducing Professional and Career
Development Skills in the Marketing Curriculum.”, Journal of Marketing Education,
27(3), 212-218.
Kelley, C. A. and Gaedeke, R. M. (1990),“Student and employer evaluation of hiring
criteria for entry-level marketing positions.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 12(3), 64-
71.
Kelly, P. and Hise, R. (1979), “Industrial and consumer goods product managers are
different.”, Industrial Marketing Management, 8, 325-332.
Kenkel, J. L. (1989),“Introductory statistics for management and economics.” (3rd ed.).
PWS-Kent, Boston.
293
Kennedy, E. J., Lawton. L. and Plumlee, E. L. (2002), “Blissful ignorance: The problem
of unrecognized incompetence and academic performance”, Journal of Marketing
Education, 24(3), 243-252.
Kinkus, J. (2007), "Project Management skills: a literature review and a content analysis
of Librarian position announcements.", College and Research Libraries 68(4): 352-363.
Klebba, J. M. and Hamilton, J. G. (2007), “Structured case analysis: Developing critical
thinking skills in a marketing case course.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 29(2),
132-139.
Kline, R. B. (2005), “Principles and practice of structural equation modelling.” New
York: Guilford.
Kniveton, B. H. (2004), “Managerial career anchors in a changing business
environment.” , Journal of European Industrial Training, 28(7), 564-573.
Koch, A. J. (1997). “Marketing curriculum: Designing its new logic and structure.”,
Journal of Marketing Education, 19(3), 2-12.
Kohli, A. K. and Jaworski, B. (1990), “Market Orientation: The Construct, Research
Propositions and Managerial Implications.”, Journal of Marketing, 54(3), 1-18.
Kotabe, M. and Helsen, K. (2004), ”Global Marketing Management.” (3rd ed.), John
Wiley and Sons, USA
Kotler, P. (1972), “A generic concept of marketing.”, Journal of Marketing Education
Review, 36(April), 46-64.
Krathwohl, R. A. (1993), “Methods of educational and social science research: An
integrated approach.” White Plains, NY: Longman.
Kress, G. J. and Wedell, A. J. (1993), “Departmental Advisory Councils: Bridging the
Gap between Marketing Academicians and Marketing Practitioners.”, Journal of
Marketing Education 15(2), 13-20.
Kunnanatt, J. T. (2004),” Emotional Intelligence: The New Science of Interpersonal
Effectiveness”, Human Resource Development Quarterly, 15(4), 489-495.
Lall, M. (2007), “Career Development at Standard Chartered Bank.”, NHRD Network,
1(4), 43-45.
Lamb Jnr, C. W., Shipp, S. H. and Moncrieff, W. C. (1995),” Integrating skills and
content knowledge in the marketing curriculum.”, Journal of Marketing Education,
17(2), 10-20.
Lamont, L. M. and Friedman, K. (1997), “Meeting the challenges to undergraduate
marketing education.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 19(3), 17-30.
294
Law, P. and Wensley, R. (1979),“Marketing teaching.”, European Journal of Marketing,
13(1), 15-26.
Lee, S. H. and Wong, P. K. (2004), “An exploratory study of tecnhnopreneurial
intentions: a career anchor perspective.”, Journal of Business Venturing, 19, 7-28.
Leedy, P. D. and Ormrod, J. E. (2005), “Practical research: Planning and design” (8th
ed.) Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall, NJ
Lehmann, D. R. and Winer, R. S. (2004), “Product Management” (4th ed.): McGraw-
Hill/Irwin.
Leonard-Barton, D. (1995), Wellspring of Knowledge: Building and Sustaining Sources
of Innovation. Harvard Business Scholl Press, Boston, MA.
Lewicki, R. (1997), “Teaching Negotiation and Dispute Resolution in Colleges of
Business: The State of the Practice.”, Negotiation Journal, 13(3), 253-269.
Lewis, D. A.and Ducharme, R. E. (1990), “The education of business undergraduates: A
gap in academic/practitioner expectations?”, Journal of Education for Business, 66(2),
116-120.
Lewis, P. (1993), “The Successful Manager of Redundancy.” Blackwell, Oxford.
Lincoln, D. J. (2010), “Is marketing education "producing" the right product (student)
for todays' job market? Maybe.” Paper presented at the Marketing Educators’
Association, Seattle, Washington State, USA.
Lopes, L. L., (1987), “Between hope and fear: the psychology of risk.”, Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology, 20: 255–295
Loughry, M.L., Ohland, M.W. and Woehr, D.J., (2014), “Assessing Teamwork Skills
dfor Assurance of Learning CATME Team Tools”, Journal of Marketing Education, 36
(1), 5-19.
Louis, M. R. (1990), “The Gap in Management Education. Solutions.”, The magazine of
Graduate Management. Management Admissions Council (Winter), 1-12.
Louw, L., van Eeden, S.M., Bosch J. K. and Venter, D. J. L. (2003), “Entrepreneurial
traits of undergraduate students at selected South African tertiary institutions.”,
International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research, 9(1), 5 - 26.
Low, G. S. and Fullerton, R. A. (1994), Brand, Brand Management, and Brand
Management System. A Critical Historical Evaluation.” Journal of Marketing Research,
131, 173-190 (May).
Luck, D. (1969), “Interfaces of the Product Manager.”, Journal of Marketing, 33, 32-36.
295
Luen, W. K. (2008), “Curriculum gaps in business education: A case study of
stakeholders’ perceptions.”, Doctor of Education, University of Leicester, United
Kingdom.
Lukas, B. A., Whitwell, G. J. and Doyle, P. (2005), “How can a shareholder value
approach improve marketing's strategic influence?”, Journal of Business Research,
58(4), 414-422.
Lundstrom, W. J. and White, S. D. (1997), “A gap analysis of professional and
academic perceptions of the importance of international marketing curriculum content
and research areas”, Journal of Marketing Education, 19(2), 16-25.
Lundstrom, W. J., White, S. D. and Schuster, C. (1996), “Internationalising the
Marketing Curriculum: The Professional Marketer's Perspective.”, Journal of Marketing
Education, 18(2), 5-16.
Lundstrom, W. J., White, S. D. and Schuster, C. (1997), “The International Business
Research Agenda: Recommendations from Marketing Practitioners.”, Journal of
Teaching in International Business, 9(2), 17-30
Luo, X., Slotegraaf, R. J and Pan, X. (2006), “Cross-Functional “Cooperation”: The
Simultaneous Role of and Competition within Firms”, Journal of Marketing, 70(2), 67-
80.
Lysonski, S., Singer, A. and Wileman, A. (1989),“Coping with environmental
uncertainty and boundary spanning in product manager's role.”, Journal of Consumer
Marketing (Spring), 33-44.
Madhavaram, S. and Laverie, D. (2010), “Developing pedagogical competence: Issues
and implications for marketing education.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 32 (2), 197
- 21
Maes, J. D., Weldy, T. G. and Icenogle, M. L. (1997), “A managerial perspective: Oral
communication competency is most important for business students in the
workplace.”,The Journal of Business Communication, 34(1), 67-80.
Malhotra, N. and Peterson, M. (2001), “Marketing research in the new millennium:
emerging issues and trends.” Marketing Intelligence and Planning, Vol. 19 No. 4, pp.
216-35.
Malhotra, N., Hall, N., Shaw, M. and Oppenheim, P.P. (2002),” Marketing research. An
applied orientation.”, Prentice Hall Pearson Education.
Malhotra, N., Hall, N., Shaw, M. and Oppenheim, P.P (2004), “Essentials of Marketing
Research: An Applied Orientation.”, Pearson Education, French Forrest NSW:
296
Malkin, J., A. Allen, Hambly, L and Scott, F. (1997), “Rational career planning.” Paper
presented at the Perspectives in Career Planning, Occasional Papers in Careers
Guidance No.1.
Mallon, M. (1999), “Going "portfolio": making sense of changing careers”, Career
Development International, 4(7), 358-369.
Manta, (2013), “Companies in Australia Market Information.” Available from:
http://www.manta.com/world/Oceania/Australia/. [1st July 2012]
Marchant, T. (1999), “Managers' careers in the context of organisational turbulence.”,
Australian Journal of Management and Organisational Behaviour, 2(4), 43-60.
Marshall, V. and Bonner, D. (2003), “Career anchors and the effects of downsizing :
implications for generations and cultures at work : a preliminary investigation.”, Journal
of European Industrial Training, 27(6), 281-291.
Martilla, J. A. and James, J. C. (1977),”Importance Performance Analysis.”, The
Journal of Marketing, 41 (1 Jan), 77-79.
Martin, E. and Polivka, A. E. (1995). “Diagnostics for Redesigning Questionnaires”.
Public Opinion Quarterly, 59, 546-567.
Martin, G. A. (1997),“Teachers or Researchers? The Perceptions of Professional Role
amongst University Lecturers.”, Innovations in Education and Training International,
34(2), 154-.
Martin, J. (1997b), “Job Surfing: Move on to Move up”,. Fortune, 135(1), 72-76.
Mason, H. (1998), "A persistence model for African American male urban community
college students." ,Community College Journal of Research and Practice 22: 751-760.
Mathews, B. P. and Redman, T. (1994). “Professionalizing Marketing: The Public Face
Portrayed in Recruitment Advertisements.” Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 12(9),
30-36.
Mathews, M. R. (2000), “Accounting in Higher Education: Report of the Review of the
Accounting discipline in Higher Education.” ,AGPS, Canberra: Commissioned by the
Department of Employment, Education and Training.
McCorkle, D. J., Alexander, J. F., Reardon, J. and Kling, N. D. (1999), “Undergraduates
marketing students, group projects and teamwork: The good, the bad and the ugly?”,
Journal of Marketing Education, 21(2), 106-117.
McCorkle, D. J., Alexander, J. F., Reardon, J. and Kling, N. D. (2003), “Developing
self-marketing skills: Are marketing students prepared for the job search?”, Journal of
Marketing Education, 25(3), 196-207.
297
McDonald, M. H. B. (1989), “Ten barriers to marketing planning.”, Journal of
Marketing Management, 5(1), 1-18.
McDonough, P. (1997), “Choosing College: How Social Class and Schools Structure
Opportunity.”, State University of New York Press, Albany. Alabana.
McGovern, G. J., Court, D., Quelch, J. A and Crawford, B. (2004). “Bringing
Customers Back into the Boardroom.”, Harvard Business Review, 82(11), 70-80.
McKenna, S. (2004), “Predispositions and context in the development of managerial
skills.”, Journal of Management Development, 23(7), 664-677.
McLarty, R. (2000), “Evaluating graduate skills in SME's: the value chain impact.”
Journal of Management Development, 19(7), 615-628.
McQuaid, R. and Lindsay, C. (2005), “The concept of employability.” ,Urban Studies,
42(2), 197-219.
Melaia, S., Abratt, R. and Bick, G. (2008), “Competencies of marketing managers in
South-Africa.”, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 16(3), 233-246.
Meldrum, M. (1996), “Critical issues in implementing marketing.”, Journal of
Marketing Practice: Applied Marketing Science, 2(3), 29-43.
Menon, A., Bharadwaj, S.G., Adidam, P.T. and Edison, S. W. (1999),“Antecedents and
Consequences of Marketing Strategy Making: A Model and a Test.” , Journal of
Marketing, 63(April), 18-40.
Middleton, B. and Long, G. (1990), “Marketing skills: Critical issues in marketing
education and training.”, Journal of Marketing Management, 5(3), 325-342.
Mihail, D. M. (2008), “Graduates' career orientations and strategies in corporate
Greece.” Personnel Review, 37(4), 393-411.
Miles, M. B. and Huberman., A. M (1994), “Qualitative Data Analysis.” Sage
,Thousand Island, CA.
Miller, M. (2000), “Six elements of corporate creativity.” ,Credit Union Magazine,
66(4), 20-23.
Miller, W. L. and Crabtree, B. F. (1992), “Primary care research: A multi-method
typology and qualitative road map.” in C. W. L. Miller (Ed.), “Doing qualitative
research.” (pp. 3-28). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Mitchell, T. and Strauss, J. (2001), “Practitioner and Academic Recommendations for
Internet Marketing and E-Commerce Curricula,” Journal of Marketing Education, 23
(August), 91-102
298
Minichiello, V., Aromi, L., Timewill, E. and Alexander, L. (1995),” In-depth
Interviewing.”, Longman 2nd Ed, Australia
Mintz, O. and Currim, I. (2013), “What drives Managerial use of Marketing and
Financial Metrics and does metric use affect performance of Marketing Mix
Activities.”, Journal of Marketing, 77, March, 17-40
Moenaert, R. K. and Souder, W. E. (1996), “Context and antecedents of information
utility at the RandD/marketing interface.”, Management Science, 42(11), 1592-1610.
Monks, K. (1993), “Careers in personnel management.”, Personnel Review, 22(1), 55-
66.
Monks, K. and Walsh, J. S. (2001), “The role of postgraduate education in management
development.”, Journal of European Industrial Training, 25(2), 148-158
Moon, M. A., Mentzer, J. T., Reizenstein, R. C. and Woodruff, R. B. (1998), “An
Integrative Customer-Value Based Approach to MBA Marketing Education.”, Journal
of Marketing Education, 20(1), 53-62.
Moorman, C. and Rust, R. T. (1999), “The Role of Marketing.”, Journal of Marketing,
63, 180-197.
Morgan, N. A., Clark, B. H. and Gooner, R. (2002), “Marketing productivity, marketing
audits, and systems for marketing performance assessment integrating multiple
perspectives.”, Journal of Business Research, 55, 363-375.
Morgan, R. M. and Hunt, S. D. (1994), “The commitment-trust theory of relationship
marketing.”, Journal of Marketing, 20-38.
Mumford, T., V., Campion, M.A. and Morgeson, F.P. (2007), “The leadership skills
strataplex: Leadership skill requirements across organisational levels.”, The Leadership
Quarterly, 18, 154-166
Murphy, W. H. and Gorchels, L. (1996), “How to Improve Product Management
Effectiveness.”, Industrial Marketing Management, 25, 47-58.
Murray, S. and Robinson, H. (2001), “Graduates into sales - employer, student and
university perspectives.”, Education + Training, 43(3), 139-144.
Myers, J. H. and Alpert, M. I. (1968), “Determinant Buying Attitudes: Meaning and
Measurement.”, The Journal of Marketing, 32(4 Oct), 13-20.
Nabi, G. R. and Bagley, D. (1998), “Graduate's perception of transferable personal
skills and future career preparation in the UK.”, Career Development International, 3(1),
31-39.
299
National Board of Employment, Education and Training (NBEET). (1992), “Skill
required for Graduates: one test of quality in Higher Education”, Australian
Government Publishing Service, Canberra
Neelankavil, J. P. (1994),“Corporate America's quest for an ideal M.B.A.”. Journal of
Management Development, 13(5), 38-52.
Ng, KK.Y., Koo, W.C. and Ho, J., (2009), “The motivations and added values of
embarking on postgraduate professional education: Evidences from the maritime
industry.”, Transport Policy, Vol. 16 (5), 251-258
Nordvik, H. (1996), “Relationships between Holland's vocational typology, Schein's
career anchors and Myers-Briggs' types.”, Journal of Occupational and Organizational
Psychology, 69(3), 263-276.
Nunnally, J. C. (1967). “Psychometric theory.”, McGraw-Hill, New York
O'Brien, E. M. and Deans, K. R. (1995), “The position of marketing education: a
student versus employer perspective”, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 13(2), 47-52.
O'Leary, C., Rao, S. and Perry, C. (2004),”Improving customer relationship
management through database/Internet marketing: A theory-building action research
project.” ,European Journal of Marketing, 38(3/4), 338-354.
O'Reilly, C. A., III, and Chatman, J. (1994), “Working smarter and harder: A
longitudinal study of managerial success.”, Administrative Science Quarterly, 39: 603-
627
Olejnik, S. F. (1984), “Planning Educational research: Determining the necessary
sample size.”, Journal of Experimental Education, 40-48.
O'Mahony, B., Whitelaw, P.A and McWilliam, A. (2008),"The Drivers of Program
Selection in Hospitality Management in Victoria University.", Journal of Hospitality
and Tourism Education 20(3): 5-11.
O’Mahony, B. and Salmon, G. (2014), “The Role of Massive Open Online Courses
(MOOCs) in the Democratisation of Tourism and Hospitality Education”, in Handbook
of Tourism and Hospitality Education, Ed’s D. Airey, D. Dredge and M. Gross, Elsevier
Oxford, 130-142
Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2003), "Expanding the framework of internal and external validity
in quantitative research.", Research into the schools 10: 71-90.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J. and. Leech., N.L. (2004), “Enhancing the interpretation of
significant findings: The role of mixed methods research.” , Annual meeting of the
Eastern Educational Research Association. Clearwater, FL.
300
Opengart, R, and Short, D. (2002), “Free Agent Learner: The new career model and its
impact on human resource development.”, International Journal for Lifelong Education,
21(3), 220-233.
O'Reilly, B. (1999), “Re-engneering the MBA.”, Fortune, 24(January), 38-47.
O'Sullivan, D. and Abela, A. V. (2007), “Marketing performance measurement ability
and firm performance.”, Journal of Marketing, 71, 79-93.
Paglis, L., (2013), “A Review of managerial skills Training in the Classroom.”, Journal
of Management Education, 37 (4), 472-498
Panigyrakis, G. G. and Veloutsou, C. A. (1999), “Brand managers' interfaces in
different consumer goods industries.”, Journal of Product and Brand Management, 8(1),
19-37.
Pappu, R. (2004), “Why do Undergraduate marketing majors select marketing as a
Business Major' Evidence from Australasia?”, Journal of Marketing Education, 26(1),
31-41.
Paranto, S. R. and Kelkar, M. (1999), “Employer satisfaction with job skills of business
college graduates and its impact on hiring criteria.”, Journal of Marketing for Higher
Education, 9(3), 73-88.
Parasuraman, A. (1982), “More on the Prediction of mail Survey Response Rates.”
,Journal of Marketing Research, XIX (May), 261-268.
Parker, A. M., Bruine de Bruin W. and Fischoff, B. (2007), “Maximizers versus
satisficers: Decision making styles, competence, and outcomes.”, Judgment and
Decision Making, 2, 342-350.
Parvitiyar, A. and Sheth, J. N. (2001), “Customer Relationship Management: Emerging
Practice, Process, and Discipline.”, Journal of Economic and Social Research, 3(2), 1-
34.
Patton, M. Q. (2002),” Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods.”, Sage
Publications, Thousand Oaks CA.
Payne, N., Campbell, J. C., Bal, A. S. and Piercy, N. (2011), “Placing a Hand in the
Fire: Assessing the Impact of a YouTube Experiential Learning Project on Viral
Marketing Knowledge Acquisition.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 33(2), 204-216.
Peiperl, M.A. and Baruch, Y. (1997), Back to square zero: The post-corporate career.”,
Organizational Dynamics (Spring), pp. 7-22.
Pemberton, J. M. and McBeth, R. R. (1995), “Opportunities out of Chaos: Survival
Strategies in the Information Age. Records.” ,Management Quarterly, 29(3), 8-15.
301
Perlesz, A. and Lindsay, J. (2003),“Methodological triangulation in researching families
making sense of dissonant data..”, International Journal of Social Research
Methodology, 6, 1, 25-40
Peter, J. P. (1979), “Reliability: A review of Psychometric Basics and Recent Marketing
practices.”, Journal of Marketing Research, 16(1), 6-17.
Peter, J. P. (1981), “Construct validity.”, Journal of Marketing Research, XVIII (May),
133-145.
Peterson, R. A. (1975), “An Experimental Investigation of Mail Survey Responses.”,
Journal of Business Research, 3, 199-210.
Pharr, S. J. and Morris, L. J. (1997), “The Fourth-Generation Marketing Curriculum:
Meeting AACSB's Guidelines.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 19(3), 31-43.
Phillimore, J. and. Koshy., P. (2010), “The Economic Implications of Fewer
International Higher Education Students in Australia.”, Curtin University, South
Australia.
Phillips, E. M. and Zuber-Skerritt, O. (1993), “Perceptions of educators and potential
employers of the research training needs of postgraduates in business and management.”
,Journal of Management Development, 12(5), 12-20.
Pica, J. A. and Detrick, G. (1997),“AACSB/EBI student satisfaction report for
undergraduate business programs.”, MO:EBI Educational Benchmarking. St. Louis.
Polonsky, M. J. and Whitelaw, P. (2005), “What are we measuring when we evaluate
journals?”, Journal of Marketing Education, 27(2), 189-201.
Polonsky, M. J., Fry, M., Mankelow, G., Morgan, P. and Rugimbana, R. (1999), “A
structural overview of undergraduate marketing education in Australia: Implications for
defining core competencies.”, Journal of Marketing, 9(2), 33-42.
Porter, L. W. and McKibbin, L. E. (1988), “Management Education and development:
Drift or thrust into the 21st century.” McGraw-Hill: New York.
Purcell, K. and Pitcher, J. (1996), “Great expectations: the new diversity of graduate
skills and aspirations.”, Coventry: Institute for Employment Research: University of
Warwick.
Rackman, N. and Carlislie, J. (1978),“The effective negotiator", Parts 1 and 2.”, Journal
of European and Industrial Training, Vol. 2(6/7).
Radford, C. (1997),” Marketing's influence within the organisation. In Marketing.” ,
The Marketing Forum (Oriana), The Guardian.
302
Ramakrishna, H. V. and Potosky, D. (2003), “Conceptualization and exploration of
composite career anchors: An analysis of information systems personnel.”, Human
Resource Development Quarterly, 14(2), 199-214.
Rasdi, R. M., Ismail, M., Uli, J. and Noah, S. M. (2009), “Career Aspirations and
Career success among Managers on the Malaysian Public Sector. Research.”, Journal of
International Studies (9 January), 21-35.
Raymond, M. A., Carlson, L. and Hopkins, C. D. (2006), “Do perceptions of hiring
criteria differ for sales managers and sales representatives?, Implications for marketing
education.” Journal of Marketing Education, 28, 43-55.
Redmond, E. C. and Griffith, C. J. (2003), “A comparison and evaluation of research
methods used in consumer food safety studies.”, International Journal of Consumer
Studies 27(1 January), 17-33.
Reitman, F., and Schnee, J. A. (2008), “Enabling the New Careers of the 21st century.”,
Organization Management Journal , 17-28
Remington, S., Guidry, J. A., Budden, M. C. and Tanner, J. R (2000), “When Were the
Good Old Days? Revisiting Perceptions of Marketing Students’ Prior Preparation.”,
Journal of Marketing Education 22(3), 188-198.
Rhoades. (1985), “Farming Systems Research.” ,Human Organization, 44(3 Fall), 215-
218.
Richman, L. S. (1994), “How to get ahead in America.”, Fortune, 129(10), 46-54.
Rieckmann, M. (2012), "Future-orientated higher education: Which key competencies
should be fostered through teaching and learning.", Futures 44(2): 127-135.
Rinaldo, S. B., Tapp, S. and Laverie, D. A. (2011), “Learning by Tweeting: Using
Twitter as a Pedagogical Tool.”, Journal of Marketing Education 33(2), 193-203.
Ronchetto, J. R. and Buckles, T. A. (1994), “Developing critical thinking and
interpersonal skills in a service marketing course employing total management concepts
and techniques.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 16(3), 20-31.
Rothe, J. T., Harvey, M. G. and Jackson, C. E. (1997),“The marketing audit: five
decades later.”, Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 5(3), 1-16.
Roy, A. and Macchiette, B. (2005), “Debating the issue: A tool for argumenting in
critical thinking skills of marketing students.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 27, 264-
276.
Rubinstein, H. (1996), “Brand first management.” Journal of Marketing Management,
12, 269-280.
303
Ruekert, R. W. and Walker Jnr, O. C. (1987), “Marketing's Interaction with Other
Functional Units: A conceptual framework and empirical evidence.”, Journal of
Marketing, 51(January), 1-19.
Rust, R. T., Ambler, T., Carpenter, G. S., Kumar, V. and Srivastava, R. K. (2004),
“Measuring Marketing Productivity: Current Knowledge and Future Directions.”,
Journal of Marketing, 68(4), 76-78.
Sanchez, R., Heene, A. and Thomas, H. (1996), “Towards the theory and practice of
competence-based competition.” in Dynamics of competence-based competition (pp.
39-62): Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.
Schein, E. H. (1974). “Career Anchors and Career Paths: A Panel Study of Management
and School Graduates”, Technical Report No. 1, Sloan School of Management, MIT,
Cambridge, MA.
Schein, E. H. (1975), “How career anchors hold executives to their career paths.”,
Personnel, 52, 11-24.
Schein, E. H. (1978), “The individual, the organisation and the career: a conceptual
scheme.”, Journal of Applied Behavourial Science, 7, 401-426.
Schein, E. H. (1987),” Individuals and Careers.” in J. Lorsch (Ed.), “Handbook of
Organisational Behaviour.” (pp. 155-171). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Schein, E. H. (1990), “Career Anchors”: Discovering Your Real Values.”, Jossey-Bass
Pfeiffer, San Francisco, CA.
Schein, E. H. (1993), “Career Anchors: Discovering your Real Values.”, (Revised ed.).
Pfeiffer and Company: Sydney.
Schein, E. H. (1996), “Career anchors revisited: implications for career development in
the 21st century”, Management Executive, 10, 80-88.
Schein, E. H. (2007), “Career Anchors Revisted: Implications for the Career
Development in the 21st Century.”, NHRD Network, 1(4), 27-33.
Schibrowsky, J. A., Peltier, J. W. and Boyt, T. E. (2002), “A professional school
approach to marketing education.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 24, 43-55.
Schlee, R. P. and Harich, K. R. (2010), “Knowledge and Skill Requirements for
Marketing Jobs in the 21st Century Journal of Marketing Education.”, 32(3), 341-352.
Schleff, D. (2000), "That's a Good Question! Exploring Motivations for Law and
Business School Choice.", Sociology of Education, 73, 155-174.
Schram, T. H. (2006). “Conceptualizing and proposing qualitative research.” Upper
Saddle River, Prentice Hall: N.J
304
Scott, J. D. and Frontczak, N. T. (1996), “Ad executives grade new grads: The final
exam that counts.”, Journal of Advertising Research, 36(2), 40-47.
Shah, C., and Burke, G. (2007), “Education and training for new entrants and existing
workers”, 11th Annual National Conference, Ascot Vale: 1-2.
Shaw, J.B., Fisher, C.D., and Southery, G.N. (1999), “Evaluating organisational
behaviour teaching innovations: More rigorous design, more relevant criteria and an
example.”, Journal of Management Education, 8 208-224
Sheth, J. N. and Sisodia, R. S. (2005), “A Dangerous Divergence: Marketing and
Society.”, Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 24(1), 160-162.
Shi, N. and. Bennett., D. (2000), "Information systems management positions: a market
perspective.", Work Study 49(7): 275-284.
Shipley, D. (1994), “Achieving Cross-functional co-ordination for marketing
Implementation.”, Management Decision, 32(8), 17-20.
Shipp, S., Lamb Jnr, C. W and Mokwa, M. P. (1993), “Developing and enhancing
marketing students' skills: Written and oral communication, intuition, creativity and
computer usage.”, Journal of Marketing, 3 (fall), 2-8.
Shipper, F. and Davy, J. (2002), “A model and investigation of managerial skills,
employees' attitudes, and managerial performance.”, The Leadership Quarterly, 13, 95-
120.
Shipper, F. and Dillard, J. E. (2000), ”A study of impending derailment and recovery
among middle managers across career stages.”, Human resource Management Journal,
39, 331-345.
Sieber, S. D. (1973), "The integration of fieldwork and survey methods.", American
Journal of Sociology 73: 1335-1359.
Skaggs, K., Dickinson, A. M. and O'Connor, K. A. (1992), “The use of concurrent
schedules to evaluate the effects of extrinsic reinforcement on intrinsic interest: A
replication.”, Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 12, 45-83.
Slater, S. F. and Narver, J. C. (1994), “Does Competitive Environment Moderate the
Market Orientation-Performance Relationship?", Journal of Marketing, 58(January), 46-
55.
Slattery, L. (2007), “Tourism threat to Go8”, The Australian, Higher Education,
Available at http://www.theaustralian.new.com.au/story/0,22832929-
22812332,22832900.html?froM=public_rss
305
Slattery, L. (2008), "Australian universities fear a dangerous dependence.", The
Chronicle of Higher Education: 1-15.
Slotegraaf, R. J. and Dickson, P.R. (2004), “The paradox of a marketing planning
capability.”, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 32 (4), 371-385
Small, J. and McClean, M. (2002), “Factors impacting on the choice of entrepreneurship
as a career by Barbadian youth: a preliminary assessment.”, Journal of Eastern
Caribbean Studies, 27(4), 30-54.
Smart, D. T., Kelley, C. A. and Conant, J. S. (1999), ”Marketing education in the year
2000: Changes observed and challenges anticipated.”, Journal of Marketing Education,
21(3), 206-216.
Smith, K. (2004), “Implementing the "Marketing You." Project in Large Sections of
Principles of Marketing.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 26(2), 123-136.
Sneed, J. and Morgan, D. A. (1999), “Deficiencies in communication and problem-
solving skills of business graduates: is the business curriculum at fault? “, Management
Research News, 22(18), 1-11.
Solomon, R. C: (1992), “Ethics and Excellence: Cooperation and Integrity in
Business.”, Oxford University Press, New York
Song, X. M., Montoya-Weiss M. M. and Schmidt, J. B. (1997), “Antecedents and
Consequences of Cross-Functional Cooperation: A Comparison of Brand,
Manufacturing, and Marketing Perspectives.”, Journal of Product Innovation
Management, 14(1), 35-47.
Srinivasan, P. S. (2007),” Fulfilling Career Aspirations - Emerging Approaches.”,
NHRD Network, 1(4), 10-16.
Srivastava, R. K., Shervani, T. and Fahey, L. (1998), “Market-Based Assets and
Shareholder Value: A Framework for Analysis.”, Journal of Marketing, 62(January), 2-
18.
Starkey, S. Tempest, and McKinley, J. (2004), ” How organizations learn: Managing the
search for knowledge”, Cengage Learning 2nd Ed. London.
Stavros, C. and Westberg, K (2009), "Using triangulation and multiple case studies to
advance relationship marketing theory.", Qualitative Market Research: An International
Journal, 12 (3), 307 – 320
306
Stemler, S. (2001), “An overview of content analysis. Practical Assessment. Research
and Evaluation.” 7 (17). Retrieved June 20, 2012 from
http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7andn=17
Stephens, S., C. Balan, G. and Callaghan, S. (2010), “Theory and practice: The
experience of marketing graduates.”, Education + Training, 52(6/7), 552-560.
Stern, B. L. and Tseng, L. P. D. (2002), ”Do academics and practitioners agree on what
and how to teach the undergraduate marketing research course?”, Journal of Marketing
Education, 24(3), 225-232.
Steward, M. D. and Lewis, B. R. (2010), “A comprehensive analysis of marketing
journal rankings.”, Journal of Marketing Education.” 32, 75-92.
Stewart, J. and Knowles, V. (1999), “The changing nature of graduate careers.” Career
Development International, 4/7, 370-383.
Stewart, J. and Knowles, V. (2000). “Graduate recruitment and selection: implications
for HE, graduates and small business recruiters”. Career Development International,
5/2, 65-80.
Stringfellow, L., Ennis, S., Brennan, R. and Harker, M. J. (2006), “Mind the gap. The
relevance of marketing education to marketing practice.”, Marketing Intelligence &
Planning, 24(3), 245-256.
Sullivan, S. E. and Arthur, M. B. (2006). “The evolution of the boundaryless career
concept: Examining physical and psychological mobility.” Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 69, 19-29.
Suutari, V. and Taka, M. (2004), “Career anchors of managers with global careers.”,
Journal of Management Development, 23(9), 833-847.
Tabachnick, B. G. and Fidell, L. S. (2001), “Using multivariate Statistics.” (4th ed.). :
Allyn and Bacon: Boston.
Taka, V. S. M. (2004), “Career anchors of managers with global careers.”, Journal of
Management Development, 23(9), 833-847.
Tan, H.-H. and Quek, B.-C. (2001), “An exploratory study on the career anchors for
educators in Singapore.”, Journal of Psychology, 135, 527-545.
Tangen, S. (2003), “An overview of frequently used performance measures.”, Work
Study, 52(7), 347-354.
Tashakkori, A. and. Teddlie., C. (2010),” Sage Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social
and Behavioural Research.”, Sage. CA.
307
Taylor, K. A. (2003), “Marketing yourself in the competitive job market: An innovative
course preparing undergraduates for marketing careers.”, Journal of Marketing
Education, 25, 97-107.
Taylor, S. A., Hunter G. L., Melton, H. and Goodwin, S. A. (2011), “Student
Engagement and Marketing Classes.” ,Journal of Marketing Education, 33(1), 73-92.
Teer, H. B., Teer F.P. and Kruck, S.E. (2007), “A Study of the Database Marketing
Course in AACSB: Acredited Business Schools.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 29,
245-253.
Thomas, M. (1984), “The education and training of marketing managers.”, The
Quarterly Review of Marketing, Spring, 27-30.
Thomas, D. R. (2006), “A general inductive approach for analyzing qualitative
evaluation data.”, American Journal of Evaluation, 27, 237–24
Thomas, T.,Petocz, P., Rigby, B., Clark-Murphy, M., Daly, A., Dixon P., Kavanagh M.,
Lees N., Leveson L. and Wood, L. N. (2009), “Embedding generic skills means
assessing generic skills”. Paper presented at the ATN Assessment Conference, RMIT
University.
Titus, P. A. (2000), “Marketing and the creative problem-solving process.”, Journal of
Marketing Education, 22(3), 225-235.
Tomlinson, M. (2008), “The degree is not enough: Students' perceptions of the role of
the Higher Education credentials for graduate work and employability.”, British Journal
of Sociology of Education, 29(1), 49-61.
Toor, S. U. R. and Ofori, G. (2008). “Leadership versus Management: How they are
different, and why?” Leadership and Management Training, 61, April, 61-71
Treleaven, L. and Voola, R. (2008), “Integrating the Development of Graduate
Attributes Through Constructive Alignment.”,Journal of Marketing Education, 30(2),
160-173.
Tsai, M. T. and Shih, C. M. (2004), “The Impact of Marketing Knowledge among
Managers on Marketing Capabilities and Business Performance.”, International Journal
of Management, 21(4), 524-530.
Turnquist, P. H., Bialaszewski, D.W. and Franklin, L. (1991),“The Undergraduate
Marketing Curriculum: A Descriptive Overview.”, Journal of Marketing Education,
13(1), 40-55.
308
Tyagi, R. K. and Sawhney, M. S. (2010), “High-Performance Product Management:
The Impact of Structure, Process, Competencies, and Role Definition.”, Journal of
Product Innovation Management, 27, 83-96.
Ulinski, M., D. and O'Callaghan, S. (2002). “A comparison of MBA students' and
employers' perceptions of the value of oral communication skills for employment.”
Journal of Education for Business, 77, 193-197.
UNESCO (2005), “Academic Across Borders: Opportunities and Options”. Final
Report.
van Gelder, T. J. (2001), “How to improve critical thinking using educational
technology.” in M. K. G. Kennedy, C. McNaught and T. Petrovic (Ed.), “Meeting at the
Crossroads. Proceedings of the 18th Annual Conference of the Australasian Society for
Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education” (pp. 539-548). Melbourne: Biomedical
Multimedia Unit, The University of Melbourne.
Vieria da Cunha, M. (2009), “The information professional's profile: an analysis of
Brazilian job vacancies on the internet.”, Information Research 14,
http://InformationR.net/ir/14-13/paper407.html
Waege, H. (1997), “Is current validation valid? Some intriguing problems with
traditional validation designs for general (value) survey.” Bulletin de Methodologie
Sociologique, 54, 41-63
Waldman, D. A. and Yammarino, F. J. (1999), “CEO Charismatic Leadership: Level of
Management and levels of analysis effects.”, Academy of Management Review, 24(2),
266-285.
Walker, P. and Finney, N. (1999), “Skill Development and Critical Thinking in Higher
Education.”, Teaching in Higher Education Research and Development, 4(4), 531-547.
Walker, I., Tsarenko, Y., Wagstaff, P., Powell, I., Steel, M., and Brace-Govan, J.
(2009), “The development of Competent Marketing Professionals.”, The Journal of
Marketing, 31(3 December), 253-263.
Webster, Jnr. F. E. (1992), “The Changing Role of Marketing in the Corporation.”, The
Journal of Marketing, 56(4 October), 1-17.
Webster, Jnr. F. E. (2009), “Marketing IS management: The wisdom of Peter Drucker.”,
Journal of Academy of Marketing Science, 37, 20-27.
Wee, L., Kek, M. and Kelley, C. (2003), “Transforming the marketing curriculum using
problem-based learning: A case study.”, Journal of Marketing Education, 25, 150-162.
309
Wellman, N. (2010), “Relating the curriculum to marketing competence: a conceptual
framework.”, The Marketing Review, 10(2), 119-134.
West, S. G., Finch, J. F. and Curran, P. J. (1995), “Structural equation models with non-
normal variables: Problems and Remedies.” in R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), “Structural Equation
Modelling: Concepts, Issues and Applications”. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage Publications.
Whetten, D. A. and Cameron, K. S. (2002), “Developing Managerial Skills.”,
Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, NJ.
White, J. A. (1992), “Applying Experimental Learning Styles to Framework and
Professional Development.”, Journal of Management Development, 11(5), 55-64.
Whittington, R. and Whipp, R. (1992), “Professional ideology and marketing
implementation.”, European Journal of Marketing, 26(1), 52-62.
Whitworth, M. (1995),“Conquering the world by degrees major retailers seek graduate
employees: focus on graduate recruitment.”, Grocer, 21, 58-61.
Wiese, N. M. and Sherman, D. J. (2011),“Integrating Marketing and Environmental
Studies through an Interdisciplinary, Experiential, Service-Learning Approach.”,
Journal of Marketing Education, 33(1), 41-56.
Willard, P. and. Mychalyn., J. (1998), "New information management work in a
changing world: an Australian survey.", International Journal of Information
Management 18(5): 315-327.
Williams, B., Brown, T., and Onsman, A. (2010), “Exploratory factor analysis: A five-
step guide for novices. Australasian Journal of Paramedicine 8 (3) Retrieved from
http://ro.ecu.edu.au/jephc/vol8/iss3/1
Winer, L. (1990), “Adding Skill Development to Graduate Marketing: A Case History.”
in B. J. Dunlap (Ed.), “Developments in Marketing Science”, Vol. XIII (pp. 284-288).
Cullowhee, NC: Academy of Marketing Science.
Wong, K. L. (2008),” Curriculum gaps in business education: A case study of
stakeholders’ perceptions.”,. PhD, University of Leicester, Malaysia.
Wood, J. M., Chapman, J., Fromholtz, M., Morrison, V., Wallace, J., Zeffane, R. M.,
Schermerhorn, J. R., Hunt, J. G. and Osborn, R. N. (2004), “Organisational behaviour: a
global perspective.” (3rd ed.) Wiley. Brisbane.
Wood, L., Winston Jr., R. B. and Polkosnik, M. (1985),“Career orientations and
professional development of young student affairs professionals.”, Journal of College
Student Personnel, 26(6 November), 532-539.
310
Wood, S. J. (1999), “Human resource management and performance.”, International
Journal of Management Reviews, 1(1), 367-413.
Wood, V. R. and Tandon, S. (1994), “Key components in Product Management Success
(and Failure).”, Journal of Product and Brand Management, 3(1), 19-38.
Wood S.J., Stride C.B., Wall T.D., Clegg C.W. (2004), “Revisiting the use and
effectiveness of modern management practices.”, Human Factors and Ergonomics in
Manufacturing, 14, 415–432
Woodburn, D. (1999), “Benchmarking Marketing process for Performance
Improvement: A new Approach from the Chartered Institute of marketing.”, Journal of
Marketing Management, 15, 779-796.
Workman, J., Homburg, J. P. and Gruner, K. (1998),“Marketing Organisation: An
intergrative framework of dimensions and determinants.”, Journal of Marketing.
69(July), 41-40.
Yammarino, F. J. (1995), “Dyadic leadership.”, The Journal of Leadership Studies, 2(4),
50-74.
Yarnell, J. (1998), “Career anchors: results of an organizational study in the UK.”,
Career Development International, 3(2), 56-63.
Yaveroglu, I. S., Donthu, N and Garcia, A. (2003), “Antecedents of survey response
bias in business - to - business services.”, Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing,
18(4/5), 366-375.
Yin, R. (1994),“Case Study Research: Design and Methods.”,Thousand Oaks, Sage
Publications.
Yorke, M. (2006), “Employability in Higher Education: what it is – what it is not.”,
York, England: The Higher Education Academy.
Young, M. R. and Murphy, W. (2003),“Integrating Communications Skills into the
Marketing Curriculum: A case study”, Journal of Marketing Education, 25(1), 57-70.
Yukl, G. A. (2002), “Leadership in Organizations” (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Zahay, D. and Griffin, A. (2010), “Marketing strategy selection, marketing metrics, and
firm performance.”, Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, 25(2), 84-93.
Zikmund, W. G., B. J. Babin, J.C. Carr and Griffin, M. (2010),“Business Research
Methods“, (8th ed.).Cenage Learning Inc: Canada
1
APPENDICES
Appendix 1 - Glossary
Appendix 2 - Summary of core subjects in post graduate marketing programs in
Australia
Appendix 3 – List of skills found in the literature
Appendix 4 – Summary of Transcripts for Qualitative Research
Appendix 5 - Roles frequently found in job advertisements for marketing managers
Appendix 6 - Skills frequently found in job advertisements for marketing managers
Appendix 7 - Roles frequently found in job Descriptions for marketing managers
Appendix 8 – Cover Letter of Main Study Survey
Appendix 9 – Survey Questionnaire
Appendix 10 – Ethics Approval
Appendix 11 – CIM Professional Framework
Appendix 12 – Full Analysis of Hypothesis 5.2.
Appendix 1 Page 1
APPENDIX 1: GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Activity: These are measurable piece of work performed to convert action into output.
They are often referred to as ongoing events that allow the marketing manager to
perform their role.
Career Anchor: describes the group of self-attitudes, vales and needs which guide and
shape career choices and directions (Schein, 1978).
Competence: in a particular skill is how well the actions are performed and sequences
at attain a goal (Evers and Rush, 1996).
Competency: is variously defined but generally refers to aspects of human
performance (Hoffman, 1999).
Coverage: refers to the amount of time that is spent in a program on developing the
skills under examination in this thesis.
Effective: refers to a person’s ability to satisfactorily attain a performance goal.
Emphasis ; refers to the level of focus of a program on a skill under examination.
Knowledge: conceptual and theoretical based aspects that allow the marketer to
understand the concepts of marketing (Davis, Misra and Van Auken 2002).
Management: refer to the accomplishment of tasks at hand by planning, organising
and coordinating and controlling both resources and people (Evers and Rush, 1996).
Marketing Manager: refers to professional marketers who are undertaking a
management role in a marketing functional area of a firm.
Appendix 1 Page 2
Occupational Standards: refers to recognisable outcomes that are based on task
performances in a marketing role. These standards specify a range of activities which,
if the marketer performs sufficiently, will lead to a capable overall performance
(Cheetham and Chivers, 1996).
Skill: is the ability to demonstrate a system and sequence of behaviour that is
functionally related to attaining a performance goal…….it must result in something
observable, something that someone in the person’s environment can see (Boyatzis
1982). Skills are abilities that can be developed through repetition (Shipp, Lamb and
Mokwa, 1993).
Skill set: a group of skills that allow the marketer to use their knowledge and abilities
to undertake the tasks required of a marketing role.
Role: with respects to the marketing managers in this thesis, it is their function they
perform within the marketing function of the company.
Task: An activity that is performed as a part of their job description. In this thesis, it
refers to the specific duties of the marketing manager.
Success: is defined broadly to cover the achievement of both personal and
organisational goals. In a personal sense it refers to the individual achieving a
management role in a marketing functional area.
Appendix 2 Page 1
APPENDIX 2 - SUMMARY OF CORE10 SUBJECTS IN POST GRADUATE MARKETING PROGRAMS IN
AUSTRALIA U
nive
rsity
Deg
ree
nam
e
No
of su
bjec
ts
requ
ired
Mar
ketin
g
Inte
rnat
iona
l
Prom
otio
ns
Fina
nce
Man
agem
ent
Con
sum
er
Beh
avio
ur
Info
rmat
ion
Syst
ems
Stra
tegy
Mar
ketin
g R
esea
rch
Law
Proj
ect
Ent
repr
eneu
rial
Swinburne Master of Business (Marketing) 12 1 0 0 0 0 1
2 1
1
Master of Commerce (Marketing) - Global Leadership program 16 1
1 6 1 1 2 1
1
Graduate Diploma in Marketing 8 1
1
2 1
1
Graduate Certificate in Marketing 4 1
1
1 1
Macquarie University
Master of Commerce (Marketing) 12 3
1 3 1 1
1
1
Monash University Master of Marketing 12 1
1
1 1 1 1
Masters of International 12 1 2 1
1
1
Masters of Marketing Communication 12 1
3
1
1
Masters of Relationship 12 2
1 1
1
1
10 The core subjects are those subjects that the student must attempt within the program. The core subjects were included since it allowed a comparison between the post graduate marketing units offered. The
post graduates who attempted these programs should at least had exposure to the skills and knowledge as a result of the subjects.
Appendix 2 Page 2
Uni
vers
ity
Deg
ree
nam
e
No
of su
bjec
ts
requ
ired
Mar
ketin
g
Inte
rnat
iona
l
Prom
otio
ns
Fina
nce
Man
agem
ent
Con
sum
er
Beh
avio
ur
Info
rmat
ion
Syst
ems
Stra
tegy
Mar
ketin
g R
esea
rch
Law
Proj
ect
Ent
repr
eneu
rial
Marketing Masters of Retailing 12 4 1
1
Graduate Diploma in Marketing 8 1
1
1
1
Graduate Certificate in Marketing 4 1
1
1
1
RMIT University Master of Business (Marketing) 12 1
1
1
1 1
Graduate Diploma in Marketing 8 1
1
1
1 1
Graduate Certificate in Marketing 4 1
1
1
1
University of Melbourne Master of Marketing- 13 1
2 2 1 1 1 1
Post Grad Marketing 9 1
2 1 1
1 University
of Melbourne Certificate in Marketing 4 1
Queensland University of Technology
Master of Business (Marketing) Advanced 12 5 1 2
1
1
2
Master of Business (Marketing) 10 5 1 2
1
1 Graduate Diploma in Marketing 8 1 1
1
1
Graduate Certificate in Marketing 4 1 1
1
1
Edith Cowan University
Master of Professional Marketing 12 4 0 4 0 0 1 0 1
Deakin University Master of Marketing 8 4 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
Graduate Certificate in Marketing 4 1
Appendix 2 Page 3
Uni
vers
ity
Deg
ree
nam
e
No
of su
bjec
ts
requ
ired
Mar
ketin
g
Inte
rnat
iona
l
Prom
otio
ns
Fina
nce
Man
agem
ent
Con
sum
er
Beh
avio
ur
Info
rmat
ion
Syst
ems
Stra
tegy
Mar
ketin
g R
esea
rch
Law
Proj
ect
Ent
repr
eneu
rial
Victoria University Master of Business (Marketing) 10 5 1 2 0 0 1 2 0
Australian Catholic University Masters of Marketing Advanced 13 2
1
1 1
1
3
Masters of Marketing 12 2
1
1 1
1 Graduate Diploma in Marketing 8 2
1 1
Graduate Certificate in Marketing 4 1
University of Canberra
Master or Marketing Communication 16 0 0 7 0 0 0 0 0
University of Canberra
Master of Marketing Management 12 1
1
1 1
Graduate Diploma in Marketing 8 1 1
1
1
1 1
Graduate Certificate in Marketing 4 1
1
University of Technology Sydney
Master of Business in Marketing 12 2 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
1
Graduate Diploma in Marketing 8 1
1
1 1
Graduate Certificate in Marketing 4 1
1
1 1
University of South Australia Master of Marketing 12 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
Graduate Diploma in Marketing 8 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
Graduate Certificate in Marketing 4 1
1 1
University of Western
Master of Business (International Marketing) 12 3 2 1 0 0 0 0 0
Appendix 2 Page 4
Uni
vers
ity
Deg
ree
nam
e
No
of su
bjec
ts
requ
ired
Mar
ketin
g
Inte
rnat
iona
l
Prom
otio
ns
Fina
nce
Man
agem
ent
Con
sum
er
Beh
avio
ur
Info
rmat
ion
Syst
ems
Stra
tegy
Mar
ketin
g R
esea
rch
Law
Proj
ect
Ent
repr
eneu
rial
Sydney University of Western Sydney Master of Business (marketing) 12 2 1 0 0 0 1 0 2
Graduate Certificate in Marketing 4 1
1 1 1
Curtin University
Master of Commerce (Marketing) 12 1
2
Master of Marketing 12 `1
1
1
1 1 Graduate Diploma in Marketing 8 1
1
1
1
Graduate Certificate in Marketing 4 1
1
1
Post Grad in Commerce 8 1
1 University of
Western Australia Master of Marketing 12 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Masters of Marketing Advanced 16 4 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 University of
Wollongong Master of Strategic Marketing 8 1
1
1
Master of Strategic Management and Marketing 8 1
3 1
1
University of Sydney
Master of Commerce (Marketing) 10 3 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
2
Grad Cert in Marketing 8 3 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1
Appendix 3 Page 1
APPENDIX 3: LIST OF SKILLS FOUND IN THE LITERATURE
Active Learning
Analytical
Awareness of ethical
Behaviour analysis
Building relationships (Networking)
Career management skills
Communication
Competitiveness and ambition
Computer and IT skills
Coordination
Creativity
Critical thinking
Decision making
e-marketing
Enthusiastic in the marketing process
Entrepreneurship
Environmental awareness
Financial
Flexibility and adaptability
Generic
Human Relation
Information analysing
Innovation management
Interdepartmental cooperation and conflict resolution
Internal marketing
Internal political
International marketing
Interpersonal
Leadership
Listening
Appendix 3 Page 2
Literacy
Logical
Management
Market research skills/marketing research commissioning
Marketing Comprehension
Multi-disciplinary
Negotiation
New product development
Numeracy
Organisational
People management
Persuasiveness
Planning skills
Presentation
Problem solving
Product Knowledge
Relationship marketing
Salesmanship
Strategic thinking
Stress Management
Teamwork
Technical
Time Management
Verbal communication
Vision
Written communication
Appendix 4 Page 1
APPENDIX 4 - SUMMARY OF TRANSCRIPTS FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
LIST OF INTERVIEWERS – INDUSTRY
INTERVIEW
No.
INDUSTRY POSITIO
N
EXPERIENCE DEGREE REASON WHY SELECTED
1(a) Fruit and
Vegetables
Marketing
Director
20 years Masters Mr C has been very successful in his business. He has worked extensively in variety of
marketing and sales positions. He is in the retail industry and is currently a Marketing
Director in the agricultural fields. He has set up departments in marketing as well
considerable experience in employing senior and junior staff. He has two post graduate
degrees in marketing and has current experience what is taught in Higher Education
Institutions
2(a) Confectionary Marketing
Director
20 years Masters Currently working in the retail industry. Worked as a marketing director and as a
General Manager. Mr. S. his experience in all facets of marketing ensuring an in-depth
answer all of the research questions. In addition, his experience as a senior manager
with marketing managers reporting to him allows for a well-grounded perspective. As
a general manager, he was able to observe the marketing managers who were
successful within his business. Mr S has numerous post graduate degrees including a
Masters of Marketing.
Appendix 4 Page 2
3 Children’s Toys Marketing
Manager
17 years Masters Ms J is currently in children’s merchandising having left the services industry
beforehand. Currently, she is a Marketing Manager with over several brand, product,
communication and research managers reporting to directly to her. Ms J perspective of
what makes a marketing manager successful are well founded, She also claims to have
hired over 20 product/brand/marketing managers in her career. This allows her to not
only understand the role of the marketing manager in various organisations, but the
tasks they have to complete which will aid in their career. Her experience and passion
for the marketing profession provides the necessary experience to answer all of the
research questions
4 Computers Senior
Product
Manager
18 years Masters Mr G claims that he is a salesman who entered the marketing field. His perspective is
from a Product Manager who works with salesman, and the reverse. The industry has a
high turnover of staff and his observations on what allows marketers to be successful
will aid in the marketing research questions of this thesis.
5 Packaging Director of
Marketing
20 years Masters Mr P has had many years’ experience in sales and marketing positions in the printing
and allied industries. He has worked overseas and interstate within this industry. His
knowledge of marketing is not confined to one particular level of marketing as he has
experience in product management, brand management, marketing management and
now as a marketing director. He has also had considerable experience in employing
and evaluating marketer’s performances at all levels.
6 Retail Marketing
Manager
15 years Grad. Dip
Marketing
Mr L has been in retail for over 15 years and has a Grad Dip of Marketing. As a
Marketing Manager in the sports industry, he has witnessed firsthand the career
progress of many marketers. Before his current position, Mr L. has worked as Sales
Manager and a State Manager. His experience allows him to make accurate evaluations
of the tasks that marketers actually perform, how they interrelate with other personnel
and most of all, what they need to do in order to establish their career. As an
experienced marketing professional, he is in a position to make an accurate
determination of the skills that allows a marketer to become established in their career.
Appendix 4 Page 3
7 Pharmaceutical Group
Marketing
Manager
15 years Grad. Dip
Marketing
Mr G has worked as a Group Marketing Manager for 5 years. Previously to this, he
was a Senior Product Manager and a Sales Manager. He currently has six direct reports
including product, brand and communication marketers. His opinions of the skills that
aid in the career comes are from both years of personnel experience and current
observations of his own staff.
8 Electrical
Wholesaling
Marketing
Director
20 years MBA Mr S completed his MBA over 5 years ago. He is currently employed as a Marketing
Director. His knowledge is marketing and this industry results from being an
electrician, a sales manager and a marketing manager. His knowledge of marketing and
this industry allows him to understand what need to be done for marketer to contribute
to the company’s performance, as well the skills required to become established in
their chosen career.
9 Packaging Sales and
Marketing
Manager
15 years MBA Mr B has been involved in sales and marketing for 15 years. Though his focus is on
sales, he has many product managers who have reported to him. Many of these have
gone onto in senior careers in marketing. Their career success plus his own experience
has provided an insight into the skills career marketers possess.
10 Medical
Diagnostics
Marketing
Director
15 years Grad. Dip
Marketing
Mr G travelled marketer who has considerable marketing, in Australia and overseas.
Started as a sales manager and moved to marketing, he has had as many as 40 staff in
various marketing positions and departments reporting to him. His knowledge of what
makes a marketing manager established is well founded as a result of his industry and
professional experiences.
Note – (a) This signifies that both of these respondents full transcript of interview is included in this section
Appendix 4 Page 4
LIST OF INTERVIEWERS – LECTURERS
INTERVIEW
No.
INDUSTRY POSITION EXPERIENCE REASON WHY SELECTED
11 Higher
Education
Lecturer in
Business
Yes
in industry
Mr G has been an academic for over 20 years. Previously he has worked overseas in the housing
and allied industry as a marketing manager. A comprehensive knowledge of teaching in MBA
programs in both the marketing and strategic marketing allows an understanding of the skills
taught within their domain. In addition, he can further contribute to the tasks the present marketer
is actually undertaking. Mr G knowledge of the marketing manager and the experience within the
Higher Education Institutions, allows him to answer the research questions of this thesis. This
makes him an ideal candidate to be interviewed.
12 Higher
Education
Lecturer in
Business
Yes
in industry
Mr A is currently working as a consultant and a Lecturer in Marketing. He teaches both
undergraduates and post graduates marketing subjects, in both their final year. Mr A is in a
position to understand the questions of the thesis since he has direct experience with a variety of
marketing managers through his consultancy business. In addition, he has held marketing
positions in a variety of companies. Furthermore, he has an interest in this academic research and
as a consequence, has an active interest in the concepts of this thesis.
13 Higher
Education
Lecturer in
Business
Yes in industry Mr S is an academic teaching post graduates in the marketing related fields. He has worked as a
product manager and other related field in the marketing field before pursing an academic career.
He still works as a consultant in the services fields. His knowledge of the theory of marketing
together with his own personal experience in industry allows him to provide valuable insight into
the current tasks of the present marketer. Mr S has taught marketing at numerous universities so
he understands the skills universities include in their programs.
Appendix 4 Page 5
14 Higher
Education
Lecturer in
Business
Yes
in industry
Mr J has been an academic for over 12 years, as well as a business owner, a sales manager as well
as a consultant. He currently consults in marketing and sales training. As a result of his
experience as a marketing practitioner, a marketing educator and as a consultant, he has the
experience to understand and answer the research questions in this thesis. He was especially
chosen as he has the ability to contribute to all of the elements of this thesis. In addition, he has an
interest in marketing education and the issues in involved with this research
15 Higher
Education
Lecturer in
Business
Yes
in industry
As an academic for over 15 years Dr. A., he has worked in the industry for over 15 years. Dr A’s
has an in-depth knowledge of students progressing throughout their career via his many
professional associations. He has seen many students progress from undergraduates to post
graduates and establish themselves as a professional marketer. He is able to draw his immense
experience to critically evaluate the research question in this thesis. His standing as an academic
ensures that his responses are accurate and are worthy of being included in this research
Note – (a) This signifies that this respondent’s full transcript of interview is included in this section.
Appendix 4 Page 6
LIST OF INTERVIEWERS – MANAGEMENT CONSULTANTS
INTERVIEW
No.
INDUSTRY POSITION EXPERIENCE DEGREE REASON WHY SELECTED
16 (a) Consultant Management
Consultant -
Director
15 years Masters of
Marketing
After having a successful career as a Sales Manager in the health industry,
Mr B moved into the recruitment, specialising in marketing and sales
positions. Now he is a director in a National Recruitment company. Mr B
has the experience to recognise what makes an established marketer as
well as being able to discuss the roles and tasks that his client, many of
whom has had for many years.
17 Consultant Management
Consultant
16 years Management
Degree
Ms O has been a management consultant for over 10 years. She is
currently a senior consultant who specialises in senior positions. She has
worked for many of Australia’s blue chip companies and actively head
hunts for senior staff. She has placed many marketers in very senior roles
and has firsthand knowledge of their skill levels, motivations, roles and
tasks they are required to do. This experience has enabled her to aid in
answering the research questions of this thesis.
18 Consultant Management
Consultant
15 years Business
Degree
Ms C has held senior marketing positions in the retail and services
industry. She is now working as a management consultant specialising in
marketing and sales positions. She is in a position to understand what her
clients are after in recruiting marketing personnel. Her knowledge of
understanding marketing professionals as well her client’s need, provides a
background to understand the skills candidates have and the tasks they will
be undertaking within their employment.
Appendix 4 Page 7
19 Consultant Management
Consultant
15 years Business
Degree
Ms A is an experienced recruitment manager in all areas of business. She
has an excellent understanding of what makes a marketer established
because of her many placements within various industries. Her
communication with various levels has provided the knowledge of the key
tasks that today’s marketing manager has to undertake. She has a
management and psychology degree which allows her to understand the
graduate’s applications to enable her to find the best applicant for the
marketing position.
20 Consultant Management
Consultant
10 years MBA Mrs K has worked as product manager within the media industry. Over the
last 10 years she has worked as a management consultant specialising in
marketing and sales positions. Her experience dealing with all levels of
management has allowed her to understand the requirements industry
expect marketers to undertake. In addition, her experience with the various
industry levels has allowed her to understand what skills marketers need to
for their new positions, and to look for these in perspective candidates.
Appendix 4 Page 8
APPENDIX 4.1: INTERVIEW NO. 1 (FULL TRANSCRIPT) Industry – Agriculture Position – Marketing Director Degree – Masters Experience – 20 years Where – at a coffee shop near his place of work.
Good Morning Mr C
Good Morning John
Mr C, just checking your references here. You have been involved as a marketer in the retail,
health and the agriculture industries for over 20 years. Is that right?
Yes, that is correct.
Given your experience, I could say that you are pretty successful. Mr C what are the 5 major
skills that you think have contributed to your success?
John in this industry it really is very much building relationships. Fruit and Veg are essentially the
same and my job is to facilitate relationships across a number of people within the industry. This
could be from the mega rich farmer, the politician, the corporate buyer to the small little fruit shop
down the road. What I am good at is bringing people together so I can actually perform my job.
With this respect, interpersonal skills, communication skills with more of an emphasis of verbal
rather than written skills, negotiation, critical thinking skills are those that have contributed to my
success. I understand that I am marketing or a marketer and really my job is to solve problems to
ensure that the plan runs smoothly. Also, it is not really being good at a particular skill, but it is
more the idea of when they should be used.
So essentially it is managerial skills?
Yes John, since at my level, I have to organise a vast amount of people from various different
background together so that the array of products are available. Many of the growers have little
idea of marketing and do not understand the concepts. It is my job to lead them to a point that it
will all benefit them as well as me.
Appendix 4 Page 9
But surely, the other people who work for you are not as much focusing on managerial skills?
Yes definitely, the promotion, the marketing research and the brand managers are all more
functional, rather than strategic. Their skill levels would be different to what I would use or have.
So what skills do you think have contributed to being a successful marketer, rather than your
current position?
In order to be a marketer, you have to read lots. This means that analytical, critical thinking and
problem solving are important. The solution or the problem is not always obvious. We have to
read, listen and evaluate what we here, see and read. These skills (analytical, critical thinking and
problem solving) will enable you to do this. However, I have seen many a good marketer not
successful because they cannot make a decision or convince or possible lead others their same
point of view. This gets the above skills implemented. John, in business, nothing happens if
nothing is done. Marketing is about getting things happen through other people. This is why I have
stressed before, marketing is about management and the processes, not as much as the tactics or
strategies that many of my colleagues and schools believe.
So in other words, your key to your success is to get the processes right, guide the staff and
customers so your objectives are achieved. Is that right?
Absolutely, but this is not rocket science. It is the implementation that allows marketing plans to
happen. Without it, nothing happens.
You did not mention creativity?
Often I feel that it is over emphasised. Companies are not opting for the revolutionary changes as it
is fraught with so much danger. They want return on what they are doing. My career is not about
being revolutionary, but achieving output. Creativity in doing something different, which results in
increase productivity, now that is creative. It is not thinking something very different.
You mentioned a lot on communication skills, was there more of an emphasis on verbal
rather than written skills?
Written skills are very important, particularly when we are organising contracts and alike. Much of
my conversations are with growers and farmers. They are not particularly skilled when it comes to
reading and understanding copious amount of content. They have to be explained and convinced
that my way of thinking is the best way.
Appendix 4 Page 10
Essentially, Mr C, you are selling them an idea. So in fact, leadership and negotiation are
skills are also valuable to you.
Yes, may be right, but without building good interpersonal skills, you are not in a position to get
people to trust you. I believe that leadership and negotiation skills are higher order skills. These
skills are not used or even considered unless a level of communication and relationship has been
built. As marketers, we often think about negotiation or leadership, but it is the interpersonal skills
that are required to get you in a position to use these skills.
What do you mean, higher order skills?
Like, I have been in the education industry. I believe that different levels there are different skills
taught. Since you are confining your research to post graduates, their skills they are after should be
different to the under graduates. Essentially, there are different needs between an undergraduate
and a post graduate. This is not rocket science. What is relevant is, does the program structure
reflects this? My opinion is that it does not! Higher order skills such as leadership, creativity are
needed at senior management, whereas functional skills, essentially the basics are needed for
undergraduates.
Mr C, you are talking about a lot of people you are trying to influence, surely it is not just
you?
I use other people within organisations to aid me. In a sense, I create teams to aid me in my
decisions. Even at these levels, the same skill applies. Marketing is often selling an idea to the
internal market (your own company) as well as your customers.
In sum up, you have used managerial skills to get to your position, what about marketing
skills?
Sure, I would be not employed to without them. The marketing skills I believe within the
university domain are not actually skills, but rather knowledge. It appears that we are taught all
about the knowledge and then have to work out how to use them. This I believe should be the
difference between an undergraduate and post graduate degree. At this level, it should not be
knowledge, though we all can learn something, but it should be applying them in a way. This is
where I see the need to learn and understand marketing skills. It is the use of the skills that will
determine my success, not the knowledge.
Appendix 4 Page 11
Surely, the knowledge has given you the opportunity to sell the idea, but how I convince others of
the idea is the skill. It is how you use these skills that will determine the success or failure of a
career.
Which of these skills do you specifically look for when you hire other marketing staff?
This is the $64 question John and probably the essence to what you are really talking about. For
junior levels of marketers, marketing knowledge is important. They have to basically understand
the lingo. I cannot build them up if they do not understand the basics of their career. This
knowledge does not include just understanding the text book, which I find many applicants do, but
it is actually using the skills in a practical point of view. You have heard the old statement, theory
and practice! However, for experienced marketers a different set of rules applies. I know they
understand marketing so it is not that important. It is the business part of their resume that I am
interested in. How they get things done and how long it takes. It is the business skills that I am
after. This includes relationship building, decision making, interpersonal skills, and negotiation
both internally and externally with various stakeholders, communication skills both verbal and
written and analytical skills.
When you say relationship building, does this refer to both internal and external?
Yes, definitely. Marketers must be able to work through other people. If these people are not on
your side, failure inevitably happens. Marketers must work across other departments as well other
people. This requires advanced interpersonal skills and managerial skills. Remember, many of the
employees do not have direct report to the marketing manager, hence they do not need to help
unless they want to
This is really not a skill?
However, John it is an advanced skill which is built on basic interpersonal skills. This is something
I talked before about. The ability to listen, talk and understand what they are saying is the basic
skill. Networking and management to some extent is taking these skills and extending them. At a
senior level, this is really is the difference, they are now proficient at these higher order skills. This
is why I believe the difference between marketers who are successful and those who just plod
along, their ability to combine skills to form higher order skills.
Appendix 4 Page 12
What about marketing decision making?
Marketers must make decisions and be able to justify them and convince others they are right. For
example, I had a problem with the committee that I report to. The advertising mix was inadequate
and we could have wasted a lot of money. It became apparent that unless someone was going to
make a decision, nothing was going to happen. It was me that said we need to change this and do
this. Yes, it was the right decision, but unless someone is going to make a decision, I believe
marketing does not go ahead. I believe at universities students are conditioned to think right and
wrong. That is far from industry. Often applicants do not want to make decisions for fear of getting
it wrong. I get so annoyed when any member of staff does not want to make a decision. I ask
myself, why am they here?
While completing your degree was there any skills you thought you used to complete your
degree?
Research, analytical, oral and written communication and, marketing research were the major skills
that I used to complete my degree. It was good to present and watch others present. I honestly
believe that the learning within the program came from other students. It is not often I can watch
other people present. Research is interesting as I have never or will do marketing research. That
leads to me think that is there more on the process rather than the analytical skills that underpin this
subject. I was taught how to use SPSS. I can understand what it is, but the analysis and how it is
used is probably more important.
What do you think is the skill that Higher Education Institutions has missed out on the most?
Management based skills, preferably even components of them. These would be negotiation,
leadership and basic people management skills. Other skills could be included are corporate skills
and networking. It is marketing management? I see a lot of marketing, but in Masters of Marketing
program there was no managerial subjects at all. I enrolled to improve my skills. I do understand
that one leads to the other, so in this respect my degree was very worthwhile.
Would you have done a management component if it was offered?
Yes definitely, as many of the subjects that were offered in my Master’s degree I had done in my
undergraduate degree. Why am I paying considerable amount of money for subjects that
undergraduates are taught? It appeared not fair and perhaps Higher Education Institutions is
missing the point here.
Appendix 4 Page 13
Would you have considered a management subject or part of management?
Ideally, focused on the marketing manager’s plight would be ideal, but that may be hard to
implement. A general management subject would be for those who should not be in a managerial
position already. There has to be a range of subjects. Perhaps I should consider a management
degree, but then I would have missed out on marketing.
What were the skills that you believed were the most emphasised within your degree?
Research, marketing and statistics were the most emphasised in my post graduate degree. I am an
arts student, so really stats and I are not compatible. The use of stats in the degree I believe is ideal,
but it there must be a focus on the interpretation, rather than the process. It is the interpretation that
will enable decisions to be made. I remember we spent hours on a program called SPSS and little
time on what it means. Go figure!
Apart of this research is to determine what the tasks an established marketing manager
would do. The model I will use was developed by the Chartered Institute of Marketing in the
UK. I am really testing it in the Australian market. Looking at the CIM model, is there any
tasks that you would add that you do which were important for your success?
Networking is vital in this day and age. It is something that cannot be taught at university, but the
basics can be taught so the marketer can at least feel comfortable about it.
So what do you think are the basics of networking?
I think it is good interpersonal skills, managerial and most of good verbal and written skills.
Probably, it how you speak to people that often aids or hinders your career.
And the others?
Financial and networking are the other tasks I would add. As a marketer, my boss is after the
bottom line. My job really is to deliver that. The CIM framework does not show this.
Appendix 4 Page 14
But Mr C, does that mean you have to understand all of the elements of a balance sheet?
No it does not. You must understand all of the elements and be able to evaluate it. Often, the board
members are talking about ROI and various ratios. As a senior manager, it is my job to understand
this and produce results that correspond to these objectives. You could add e-marketing to this but
it would not be undertaken instead of these which have been outlined in this framework.
Which of the Tasks in the CIM framework do you believe you undertake the most?
I need to undertake a lot of promotion. I spend a lot of time with external partners. These are often
in the form of research specialists and advertising agencies. So, their administration is a large part
of the day to day activities. A lot of my time is managing process, so time management is a key
element, but more importantly, it is about managing processes. This includes measuring the
performance of the advertising campaigns and monitoring sales against the objectives. In a sense, I
am looking at my performance.
This I understand was taught in your program?
Yes, but we have to remember, it is the implementation of strategies that we are measuring. Often,
it is not the planning and strategy itself. If they are not done, then what are we measuring? The
implementation of the plans is not something that I look at as I expect my staff to be in charge of
that. I can determine what is happening by the results. Planning is not always an ongoing process
throughout the year but it is as important. Sometimes things go off the rails (the cyclone that wiped
out the banana industry), and others, government intervention for imports. These are somewhat
unexpected, but nevertheless, the need to have a very sound framework which becomes imperative
to the company’s success. Just because it is not done all the time, it does not mean it is not
important. Planning is done normally once per year. Administrative virtually every day to my
disgust! I ask you, which is the most important?
Thanks for your time Mr C
Thank-you John.
Appendix 4 Page 15
APPENDIX 4.2: INTERVIEW NO. 2 (FULL TRANSCRIPT)
Industry – Confectionary Position – Marketing Director/General Manager Degree – Masters Experience – 20 years Where – over lunch near his place of work.
Good afternoon Mr S
Good afternoon John
Thanks for seeing me and agreeing to be involved in your research. Just checking your
professional background, you spent over 10 years as a marketer in the health industry, 10
years as a CEO and marketing director in the confectionary industry. Currently you own
and run a chain of shopping centres throughout Victoria employing marketers in all of them.
.
Thanks John
So how did you get so successful?
Considerable time, effort and hard work are what got me to my position and level of career. I think
the key is being intuitive and a lot of determination and most of all; do not give up.
What do you mean?
In my career, it has been the ability to see opportunities and make appropriate decisions to use
these. Not all opportunities are viable, so it is the ability to look at these and consider which one or
ones are going to be the best. In this case, there is a lot of planning, business sense, decision
making and people skills.
People skills you mean?
This to me includes listening, talking, negotiation and managerial skills. In a sense, I am talking
about communication in general.
Appendix 4 Page 16
What were the skills that you believe have enabled you to become so successful in your
professional life?
Planning is important in all aspects of your career and probably life as well. Generally, there is not
enough time to do this, so it becomes haphazard. So, the key then is to balance when you can
undertake this skill.
By this do you mean, time management?
Yes I do as well, but this is not something I think should be taught at a university, particularly in a
Master’s program.
And the other skills?
There is so much management in marketing. It is often over looked. I have always had the ability
to work with and get the most out of other people. Other skills such as interpersonal skills,
communication and decision making were also important. In addition, I think negotiation, both
internally and externally am very important.
Mr S, you have a made a distinction between negotiation, you see it different? Why?
When we are dealing with customers and their needs, it is different to the needs of staff. As a
senior employee, the differences have to be understood. I have seen many senior employees who
believe the way they act with clients and suppliers is the same as they conduct themselves within
the organisation. This has and can course discomfort among the staff. It also can be just as a
deterrent for customers as well. The last thing I want is my marketing manager to alienate staff.
You mention many skills that have contributed to your success and not one particular. Are
you saying this is a combination of skills?
Yes, since being intuitive is really an action. I believe this skill is a result of decision making,
analysis, evaluation of the alternatives and communication and negotiation. This is particularly
important as others within the organisation must be convinced it is the right decision. I believe that
the skill which separates a successful marketer is also the ability to make decisions and then justify
them and finally convince others that it is the right decision.
But Mr S, marketers are not always allowed to make decisions?
True John, but their ability to convince others then bellies the importance of negotiation. The art of
getting what you want. There is always an opportunity for this to occur. It really depends on how
the marketing manager approaches this.
Appendix 4 Page 17
Really, the skill of negotiation relates to interpersonal skills and people skills as well as
communication skills. These skills are also as important since without then, the art of negotiation
would be less likely understood.
So when you employ marketers at a senior level, what are you looking after?
Really it is a sense of confidence, but not arrogance. I do not want some person entering my
organisation who believes they are the best. Yes, please have an inner belief, but do not show it.
This relates to interpersonal skills and their ability to listen and understand people.
So they should have an experience to many marketing situations?
Yes, but they cannot get that from a text book or one or two companies. They must have had
experience or at least understand the limitations of them. For example, you have heard the term,
paralysis by analysis. This is really an over use of analytical skills.
When you say experience and with reference to this research, can I say use of skills?
Yes definitely, since the skills allow them to be valuable in the company. Really, the idea of your
research makes a lot of sense, but marketing managers must know which skills to use or how to use
them. Anybody can add a set of numbers and call that analytical thinking, but can they understand
it quickly or better than their competitors is the real question.
Do you think it is a sense of well-being or rather maturity?
Yes, definitely. That is why experience in sales is very important to the success of the marketing
manager. It always impressed me when a senior marketing manager has carried a bag. The
marketing managers that I am looking for are all experienced and as such are mature, or at least
industry experienced.
Can you explain further?
Marketing in itself has a lot of management in it, so really I am after these skills. You are
convincing others, often sales people and alike to undertake actions based on your
recommendations. What you are recommending is ultimately going to affect the livelihood, so any
marketer worth his salt is able to communicate and convince others what they are saying is correct.
What is the old saying John, “When you ask a group of people about accounting only a few people
put their hands up, however when you ask a group of people about marketing, they all put their
hand up”. Everybody has view of marketing and it is often the marketing manager’s point of view
Appendix 4 Page 18
that they have to agree with. I believe that management is one of the keys to being a successful
marketer.
While completing your degree, what were the skills you thought you needed to complete the
degree?
Before I answer this, I think that Higher Education Institutions are really providing you a list of
skills to be used. It is not about actually preparing you for a work force, but giving you the
knowledge to do it. It probably does not show how to use them, but makes the student aware of
them. So answer to your question, the skills that I gained from my Master’s degree were verbal
communication (not sure about this one as we were all in marketing roles), marketing research and
probably most of all, teamwork. I worked with many other students from different backgrounds
and levels that I would not off work with before. This I found most challenging.
So is this skill very important for your success?
Probably not, but it adds to the make-up of the marketing manager.
Could you explain this more for me?
Let’s go back to the foundation of the 4P’s. I recall it is referred to as a mixer of ingredients. I
really think that a marketer or if you like, any senior employee has to be a mixer of skills. The
ability to use the appropriate skill at the right time is really the key to whether a marketer or any
business professional. It is a bit like a really good salesman who know what to say, when to say
and to whom to say it at the right time.
So in that way, you actually gained something from your Master’s degree?
Yes most definitely as I learned to communicate with all levels of employees, many of them from
other countries and ages. The university in my Master’s program was really an exercise in
knowledge acquisition
What skills do you think they missed out?
Creativity and leadership skills were clearly lacking within my Master’s program. I actually did a
leadership and management program after completing my Masters of Marketing. Really you could
aid networking but once again, I think this is a higher order skill.
Creativity I believe is really hard to teach. Sometimes the most creative ideas are not the best. For
example, I have been very successful by not creating the wheel, but rather modifying it. I have not
Appendix 4 Page 19
revolutionised the industry, but rather tweaked it. This really links to the decision making skills
that I have already talked about.
But you did a Masters of Marketing, shouldn’t this skill be included?
Yes definitely, but as a higher order skill, it is composed of others. Communication, interpersonal
skills, management skills and alike are others which I feel are deficient in the post graduate degree
that I undertook. I think this is where Higher Education in my opinion should really distinguish.
The subjects I found in my master’s degree were actually the same as an undergraduate degree.
Surely, we have different needs. An experienced marketing managers who are looking for a post
graduate marketing degree, should be considered different. In reality, I look for certain traits in an
experienced marketing manager, rather than their assistants or a junior position. We are talking
about experienced marketing managers aren’t we?
How did you measure success within a marketing position?
I did not look at length of time in a one company as often the marketing manager may have
become stale and really not contributing to the whole company’s success. I looked for a number of
positions and a career. Starting from a junior role then progressing to a more senior role with
accomplishments and successes along the way. I would say it would take at least three years of
success to be considered for the roles that I was looking for. However, this was not the only thing
that I looked at. I looked for evidence of accomplishment which according to your work would be
an expression of skills.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that you do?
Really John, it comes down the level of the marketing professional within the organisation. I would
expect the lower managers to be more functional and the elements in this model correspond to this.
There are two elements that I believe are not here are financial and internet considerations. Within
my industry, the justification of expenditure and profit and loss are mandatory. It surprises that it is
not in this model.
And the internet?
Yes, I can see the relevance of this within the framework, but is it a whole new topic or apart of
how we do marketing? Is important to be included, but not essential.
Appendix 4 Page 20
Can you elaborate?
E-marketing is becoming more and more accepted by both business and consumers. Whether it
should become a part of a generic model for all of education of marketers, I am not sure. It should
be there, but to what extent, I am not certain. Certainly in this industry, it is becoming more
important, but is it more important for others, I am still not convinced.
Apart of this research is to determine what the tasks an established marketing manager
would do. The model I will use was developed by the Chartered Institute of Marketing in the
UK. I am really testing it in the Australian market. Which of the Tasks in the CIM model do
you believe you undertake the most?
As I said, it depends on the position of the marketer. At my senior position, it was the
determination of new products, managing the people who reported to me and often those people
who were above me, financial knowledge to justify my portfolio/profitability to the board. This
really includes measuring the effectiveness of the plan and my performance.
Really John, it is about what we are measured by, rather than measuring effectiveness. This really
includes achieving of KPI’s as well as financial objectives.
I had many product managers and alike reporting to me, much of my work was to direct them to
achieving the company’s goals. Their opinions would therefore be a lot different to what I am
explaining.
I really did not commission much research, as I believe this to be more of a functional unit and this
is something I probably could of done more with, but, it is often considered an expense, and would
go by the by so to speak. Given the amount of information at my disposable, it was often easier to
use secondary information. There is always a database or information around. It is just a matter of
finding it.
So, the ability to find information would be an ideal skill to have?
Yes John, but a lot of it is common sense. Today, most people are pretty OK with the computer. I
do not see as the ability to find information as that important, but rather the ability to use it. The
finding of information is really a combination of good analytical skills and decision making skills.
Appendix 4 Page 21
How about planning?
Well this is the old problem, do you plan for the next incumbent, or do you look after your own
position and think tactical? I was only intended to be in this position for 3-5 years. My aspirations
were always General Management. As such, I really had to think strategic, but this is not an
ongoing process, but rather a very intensive at the planning cycle of the year.
If I stayed at the company, then the last thing I wanted was a new marketing manager to realise that
my plans were not appropriate.
Now Mr S, I want to research into the tasks of a marketing manager. I have based this part
of the research on the CIM model. This model was developed to include all of the tasks that a
marketer would undertake during their day to day activities. It is also divided the tasks
according to the level of academic qualifications. It suggests that a marketer who has a level
of experience will have a different emphasis of the tasks. This you can see in the copy of the
model as described in the picture. The first thing I want to ask you is your first impressions
of the model?
What this model should also have is level of experience. If level of experience and qualifications
equate to the same in this model, then I am not sure that I agree with this. If your research is trying
to find out which tasks we do, then that is fine. I find many marketers do not understand what they
are meant to be doing. Those who are successful do to a point, but often their tasks they have done
before. This I call their marketing template. If it worked in one company, it works in another
company even industry. I do not understand this and this makes me inclined to seek experience in
my industry. Really, it should not be the case. If this research provides light on this, then it should
be interesting to read.
What tasks would you add to the model?
Definitely financial and maybe e-marketing tasks should be added to the CIM model. I would also
include more information on management as at this level, it becomes imperative to me that the
manner that we work though our staff will ultimately influence our ability to be successful.
Which of the tasks in the CIM model do you believe that you undertake the most?
I understand that the different levels of a marketer require different tasks. The tasks that I
undertook the most were planning, both tactical and strategic, relationship building, both internal
and external. As a marketing director, with many product managers below me, my position was the
Appendix 4 Page 22
drive the SBS’s to a certain place that achieved corporate objectives. Product managers must
therefore follow me.
Why?
The issue comes down to what the environment is, and the importance of the task. The problem
with marketing I feel, is the really important tasks are not attempted often (planning, budgeting)
though the routine tasks of managing the work function are what occupy my time. For example
email. This is for our discussion another time.
Thanks Mr S, it has been a pleasure.
Thanks John, Good luck with your research…
Appendix 4 Page 23
APPENDIX 4.3: INTERVIEW NO. 3 Industry – Children’s merchandising Position – Marketing Manager Degree – Masters Experience – 17 years
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the major skills that you think have contributed to your success?
Creative, decision making, financial, leadership and interpersonal skills.
Why? I have to come up with creative ideas all of the time and then justify them in order to make them viable for release. Since there are always many ideas, there has to be decisions made on which ideas we go ahead with. You really can add planning to a skill here as we think along way ahead. Also add manufacturing and design that goes in here as well. Within this industry, it becomes important to cease opportunities, and that means making decisions. Often, it is the person who dares wins, so ideas have to be innovative and creative. Most importantly, they have to be put into action quickly, so really time management is important. Often, I get a lot of colleagues who have alternative views. My skill is convincing my staff and senior managers my plans are right is often the key. Once I back it up and continue to do this, the sales people will sell, since I have a track record of being right. If they are not totally convinced, then problems do and often arise. Understanding the balance sheet and being wary of costs are very important for today’s marketing professional. Interpersonal skills are always important. We can get so many ideas from just listening to our customers and suppliers. I group communication skills in here since how we talk both internally and externally to the company. These skills have a large bearing on how the department, the company and the employee are perceived by other stakeholders. There is so much data that comes across my desk. The ability to understand it and probably more importantly, use it becomes important.
Which of these skills do you specifically look for when you hire other marketing staff?
Interpersonal skills, decision making skills, creative, financial and marketing skills.
Appendix 4 Page 24
Why? We make decisions as a team. We work a lot with other departments both here and overseas. The way my staff work
with others is very important. Marketing is often cross boundaries, so all of my staff must show a level of exceptional interpersonal skills. This includes both senior and very junior staff. In addition, it is becoming more multi-cultural; women in senior positions and my staff have to understand how to communicate professionally. Basically, to be senior in this industry, you need the ability to talk and listen to many different areas within the company. This is not particular to this company as I feel it is comparable to many industries. I cannot afford a staff member to alienate themselves or others in the company. How they interact with others and me is important. What I surely look for is their ability to listen (a skill that is clearly missing) and talk professionally. Marketing skills is normally in the form of business accomplishments. I often ask about their ability to run a business, which really is what marketing is all about. I see many applicants whose idea of marketing is just that. In fact it is more than a part of a business; it can be the whole business. I ask myself, can they run a business when I consider them for employment. Many of my colleagues look at 4P’s and what they have done with this. OK for junior staff, but what about senior?
While undertaking your degree was there any skills you thought you used to complete your degree?
Analytical, marketing, problem solving, research, written communication and people management skills. Research can be an over generalised word. I used to see it as just that. The SPSS, the stats type of stuff. Now I know it is more. I think in your results it is to general as all marketers conduct research, often without actually knowing they are. Literature review is part of research and can be viewed in the same light. We often look at the market place in terms of conducting audits and review of information that we come across. I think it is not the process of marketing research, but the understanding of it. Many marketing research companies offer you research and data. Often, the answers are hard to understand, unless you understand how they got the results and probably what they mean. I think Higher Education Institutions are confused with the how to of marketing research, rather than what does it mean. The latter is what will determine or aid my career success. I was brought up in the inner parts of Melbourne. I had a privileged life. Working with other people who are not as fortunate was a real eye opener. I had little use of management skills, however within group dynamics; there was some use of interpersonal skills.
What were the skills that you believed were the most emphasised within your degree?
Marketing research, critical thinking, analytical and oral presentations. There was a large emphasis on marketing research. Oral presentations were used, but a 10 minute talk is really not going to teach you much. Essentially, it is an extended talk. In my position, my presentations can go for an hour. I had little experience with these and they were not taught within my Master’s program. It was a marketing master’s program with the emphasis on marketing knowledge was high. The skill used to be a marketer I believe were in the subjects, though it would be hard to say which ones. I tended to use the same skills as I have listed above.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that you do?
Creativity or a more emphasis on new product development. Children get sick of products very quickly. It is often about finding something new. In order to do this, it is not about trying, there is a lot of money that goes into making new products. Their statement of initiate new product development, in reality is a lot more than that. For one, the coordination of staff and resources. This should be expanded.
Appendix 4 Page 25
Which of the Tasks in the CIM model do you believe you undertake the most?
Creativity and promotions. I am always looking at the product mix and where our products are displayed. This could be looking at large customers and their purchasing trends. I review data and sales all of the time as a way of measuring my marketing performance. The dealing with the advertising agencies is a major part of my position. Getting the right communication strategy to attract our target markets is imperative to our success. Financials as it is the bottom line and how I measure my marketing performance are tasks that I undertake every month. I would add measuring marketing performance and financial reporting as tasks I undertake the most.
Why? Releasing new products and positioning through advertising are important tasks of my job. When I started as a product manager, it was the marketing mix.. As I became more senior, it was more of strategic look, hence the strategic orientation of my tasks. However, I would like to make a comment, that strategy is not always what I was led to believe. We look into the future as we should, but how far is another question. I get amazed about how many of my colleagues are really tactical, but they believe they are strategic. My results are really evaluated on my yearly outcomes, not what I want to do in 3-5 years from now. More than likely, I may not be in this position. As you know, marketers generally are not a long term proposition in terms of staying in a company.
Appendix 4 Page 26
APPENDIX 4.4: INTERVIEW NO. 4 Industry – Computers Position – Senior Product Manager Experience – 18 years Degree - Masters
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the major skills that you think have contributed to your success?
Technical, negotiation, marketing, written communication, finance, decision making and analytical skills.
Why? Understanding technical jargon is only half the battle. Communicating it to others in the organisation is the other. Just because I am in IT, it does not make my sales staff or others techno experts. The products can get pretty technical, so often I am forced to produce product information my staff will understand and most importantly, our customers will also. I have to convince them that what I am saying is the right thing to say. There is plenty of negotiation with both internal and external staff at this office. Many of my sales representatives are on commission, so they get pretty involved in what pricing, product mix and services I put forward. This does result in many heated discussions which I have to resolve. Ultimately, a decision has to be made, so possibly a decision has to be made before the negotiation actually happens. There is a considerable amount of data that I have to review. Much of this is in terms of sales and finance. I need to understand what it means and translate it into strategy and actions. My writing skills are pretty advanced, so I am able to make technical jargon pretty easy to understand. This holds very well for me as I can advise the advertising agencies what my product is about, so they create good copy.
Which of these skills do you specifically look for when you hire other marketing staff?
Technical, negotiation with staff and customers, interpersonal and marketing skills.
Why They must have the ability to understand the industry and the marketing to it. I also look for sales skills since I am in as highly competitive and sales orientated industry. Sales skills does not mean the ability to sell as I see this as not what we are talking about, but more importantly, the ability to negotiate, lead and manage customer relationships. We have to work closely with our major customers since many of them are multi-million dollar accounts. I cannot afford to have a marketer alienate any of these. I see many staff that cannot make decisions. Either they are too scared; do not have the confidence to or just not capable of doing so. What I do not want is a staff member who I have to do everything for. What makes a successful marketer is one who is willing to make decisions based on sound judgement. They may not always be right as we are never always, but it is at least start. Once the decision has been made, it is not the end of the marketing managerial process. I rather think it is the start. After that it is putting the decision into action, this where what determines a successful marketing manager.
Appendix 4 Page 27
While undertaking your degree was there any skills you thought you used to complete your degree?
Research, marketing, written communications, analytical skills and teamwork. This is the part many aspiring marketers do not know about, the amount of reading we do. This can be in terms of actually preparing for the tasks and performing them.
What were the skills that you believed were the most emphasised within your degree?
Research, written communication, analysis and IT skills. The understanding of how to write reports was very academic, but because of the teachers and the time frames, I learned to be quicker and better. In that respect, this was a plus for me. I am much more able to use excel, an imperative in my line of work, which enabled me to understand the piles of data that I get on my desk. My analytical skills improved immensely from the IT component and most likely from the amount of research we did in the degree
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that you do?
e-marketing, financial, sales. A lot of software is downloaded. This is a growing segment and avenue for us. Retail sales would also confirm the importance of it. Financial tasks more than ever as marketing is now being evaluated. The budget, the budget, that is all I hear about these days
Which of the Tasks in the CIM model do you believe you undertake the most?
New product development and operational planning.
Why? We are in the market of solving customer’s problems, so New Product Development is very important. I constantly have to look at new opportunities and new customers. In order I have to plan ahead. In this industry, really must keep updating your products or competitors will overtake you. This requires us or me to constantly looking for opportunities and planning where we should be doing. This is in terms of our customers future needs and our present capabilities, what are the growing markets and what do we have to do to enter it. The small section in the model does not show enough for its importance. I would also see more emphasis on cross boundaries, not just marketing divisions which the model allures to. In my case, it is the technos and the software designers. They are not in the marketing or sales domain.
Appendix 4 Page 28
APPENDIX 4.5: INTERVIEW NO. 5 Industry – Packaging Position – Director of Marketing Experience – 20 years Degree - Masters
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the keys that have helped become successful in your career as a marketer?
Negotiation, managerial, financial, leadership, networking, analytical, interpersonal, creative and, decision making, business.
Why? This industry is all about customer relationships. Keeping customers and making sure you get as much as you can out of them. Negotiation therefore is a major part of it. Our representatives are the front line. They have to be listened to in order to understand the marketing dynamics and be convinced about our marketing plans. What is often needed is a group or marketing manager who can hear their “gripes”, and get them back on track. This is where we need people management skills. Apart of the interpersonal skills I believe is networking. This is very important for a marketer as there are many personnel that are beyond their control, but their input is surely needed. Sales people will get bored flogging the same old product. I need to produce either creative ideas in terms of new products or promotional material that helps them. The promotional ideas are in conjunction with the advertising agencies. This is the leadership and people management skills coming to the front here. They are given the brief to what I want and something they have other ideas. Being creative is essential to any marketer’s success, but it does not have to be revolutionary to be well accepted. It has to be only different or some cases or even just novel. I honestly believe now more than ever, marketers are becoming more accountable. I remember really not doing much at the start of the career. Creating promotion plans via the advertising agency, releasing new products via the design engineers. I believe those days are gone and marketers are being forced to consider the bottom line more. I have a limited budget and not enough time in the day to complete my work load. I work through other people as a person in my position can, but ultimately, it is the decisions that I make will actually determine the success of the marketer or in this case, me. These decisions are not always what I do, though it is a large part, but what I have to forgo. Marketing is often about making choices, of if you like, making the best decision at a particular time.
Appendix 4 Page 29
Why? In this industry, there is considerable dealings with customers. The ability to listen, talk and understand their needs is
very important. There are always negotiation skills at most senior levels within a company. Not only external but internal. I am not a manager who is a dictator. That is not my way. I have learned that this does not work and. I work through others. This requires negotiation as I have to convince them to understand my way. Marketing is not just for outside the company, but there is a phrase I recall from my studies, Internal marketing. I think leadership skills are really what I am after, though when you see a marketer who is a leader, you tend to take notice. However, you know deep down that he/she will move on to more a general management role. Marketers must be able to manage their costs. Often, I see marketers who do not allocate their funds appropriately and this can cost them, both in terms of career structure and company profits.
Which of these skills do you specifically look for when you hire other marketing staff?
Business acumen.
Why? This will tell me, are they going to contribute or be a cost? This skill is really a combination of all of the skills that I have mentioned before. The ability to run a business. Marketing is not just marketing today but really it is running a business. You have staff, some that work for you or you have little direct reports which you have to manage. You have budgets, both in terms of financial and sales. More than ever, your managerial skills are on show as everybody thinks they know about marketing, so they want to have their input. It becomes a test of your managerial skills or sometimes the structure/culture of the company what happens next.
While undertaking your degree was there any skills you thought you used to complete your degree?
Research, written communication, people management, comprehension of marketing, critical thinking skills.
Why The case studies were a great way to learn to apply critical thinking skills. I am going to add people management skills here. I worked with many people who I did not care for, and would not employ in any business situation. In my group work, I found this particularly challenging as I had to learn to manage many others who I would not normally work for or with. This is particular relevant with people from different academic backgrounds.
What were the skills that you believed were the most emphasised within your degree?
Marketing research, written communication and marketing skills, problem solving and critical
Why I understand the focus on research from a university point of view. I remember actually completing a mini thesis as part of my program. What it achieved, I am not sure. I can say that the ability to write was well used as well understanding the knowledge of marketing. As a skill of marketing, this I am not sure. The term marketing skills as I am sure it is embedded in all of the subjects, to some degree or another. What I think marketing skills are at university is marketing knowledge, which to me is only half the lesson. How to use the knowledge is what creates good marketers!
Appendix 4 Page 30
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that you do?
Sales. Marketing must work with sales. There is no mention of a sales department. It probably may go under the managerial section, but really, it should be a separate section. My company cannot be alone, with the sales department ultimately under my domain.
Which of the Tasks in the CIM model do you believe you undertake the most?
People management, both internal and external, 4P’s, advertising related tasks and planning.
Why? Marketing really encompasses people management. Even though I do not have direct input into the marketing mix (my product managers actually do), my involvement is indirect. This is internally and externally. It took me many years at the start of my career to realise this. We really do manage a process and marketing is not just a single task or person, but a contribution of many skills and tasks through various people. I set the budget and they all have to follow my marketing plan, which will ultimately affect my product managers. Since, I am thinking about the whole company, I am involved with planning as making packaging is about reading trends in the market place and making products to satisfy them. I am successful about looking at market demands and producing packaging to suit the customer’s needs.
Appendix 4 Page 31
APPENDIX 4.6: INTERVIEW NO. 6 Industry - Retail Position – Marketing Manager Experience – 15 years Degree – Grad Dip
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the major skills that you think have contributed to your success?
Decision making, interpersonal, business knowledge, marketing, financial, creativity, flexibility, self-motivation and critical thinking skills.
Why? It is a very hard industry and the drive, perseverance, making the right decisions, knowing your bottom line, understanding customers are really the key. I am in apparel, so considerable amount of planning in terms what are we going to make next year, making decisions that are going to aid the bottom line are always going to aid our success. I am normally looking ahead, so ultimately I have to make a decision in which directions we want to go. This is not done lightly, as considerable amount of analytical skills, critical thinking and problem solving skills. My opinion is many marketers do not make decisions because of the basics. The basics are getting the information, understanding the information and be able to act on it. As marketers we have to make decisions, but often we cannot because we do not have all of the information. I cannot do my job without liaising with other staff. That is a given, so people management skills are essential for any marketer. The problem today, is there is a lot less time from creation of new ideas and to release. The competition is always there. As a group marketing manager, I have to be aware of the bottom line. In my case and all of my line managers, we have to show financial accountability to all marketing projects. I include self-motivation as a skill as if you see marketing as a stepping stone to general management, which from my experience many do, they will not see the long term impact of their decisions. In a sense, they will think tactical and not strategic. This has an impact on their skill sets as see managerial skills as the most important.
What are the skills that you think are important Decision making, financial, managing people, marketing skills and creativity. Which of these skills do you specifically look for when you hire other marketing staff?
Creativity, marketing, critical thinking, decision making and planning skills. Interpersonal skills are of course important, but they are often hard to gauge in an interview setting.
Why? Must be able to break barriers and challenge to differentiate, but most of all must be willing to make a decision and then stand by it. Creativity is creating something different or looking at it in another way. If we are going to improve, then we must be doing things different. In this way, it is finding better way of undertaking our employment.
While undertaking your degree was there any skills you thought you used to complete your degree?
Marketing comprehension, analytical, written and verbal communications. I believe that at the end of the degree we were given a lot of marketing theory so we understand it. Can we use it, is really the question which has to be answered by our career performance. I did a lot more presentation that I normally would use. I have learned to write reports more effectively and efficiently.
Appendix 4 Page 32
What were the skills that you believed were the most emphasised within your degree?
Marketing comprehension, analytical, written and verbal communications.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that you do?
Financial, creativity, relationships, networks and e-marketing. Within my industry, it is e-marketing. One element which is not added is networking. It is also to get to see buyers, understand what they are going to do in the future. Creating relationships with key personnel is very important. I cannot believe that there is no mention of financials in the CIM model.
Which of the Tasks in the CIM model do you believe you undertake the most?
Customer analysis including marketing research, the 4P’s
Why? Always looking for trends, particularly what is happening overseas in terms of products and designs? We are thinking what is happening for the next cycle. We have to consider this before we order or get products made overseas. In order to do this, we have to look at potential and current customers. The gathering of information and understand it are tasks that we are constantly undertaking. I spend a lot of time on the marketing mix. I have heard it is not what marketing is, it is only a guide, but if the marketing mix is not right, my career would suffer. For people who have little idea of what marketing really is, it resolves around the 4P’s. It could be as simple as the promotions or just low price.
Appendix 4 Page 33
APPENDIX 4.7: INTERVIEW NO. 7 Industry – Pharmaceutical Position – Group Marketing Manager Experience – 15 years Degree – Grad Dip of Marketing
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the major skills that you think have contributed to your success?
Written and oral communication, analytical, leadership, project management, critical thinking and marketing skills.
Why? There are a lot of regulations within the industry. This has an effect on how we market our product. To overcome this, I spend considerable time and effort trying to be creative. We encourage marketers to be able to manage many projects at once which require advanced time management and organisational skills. I spend a lot of time with the advertising agencies, so the ability to manage people to get the right result is imperative. I must be able to articulate what I want and be able get this in order to achieve the company and my personnel goals. Since I have many projects happening at once, my time management and the ability to work through others are important. Marketing I believe is the ability to get things done quickly. You cannot always do this by yourself. What I have to do is present a lot to state managers, sales managers and territory representatives. They must understand what and why I am doing and saying important strategies. In an effect, I am selling my expertise by organising promotional material and product programs to both my customers, both internally and externally. I cannot expect them to do what I want if they do not understand it. If any marketer does not know their craft (in terms of understanding marketing theory and skills), regardless if it is seen as important, they will not be successful. If have seen many sales managers get promoted to product managers, and fail. They know their products and the customers, but they do not understand the marketing process and knowledge that is needed for their position. Critical thinking is much of what we do. Often, the evaluation and the understanding of the problem or opportunity provides the grounding to either solving it or using it as an opportunity. Without this skill, a marketer would struggle to add value to the company.
What are the major skills that you think have contributed to your success?
Critical thinking, leadership, verbal and written communication and marketing skills.
Which of skills do you specifically look for when you hire other marketing staff?
Marketing, knowledge of the industry and project management. At a post graduate level, we expect advanced written and oral communication skills.
Why? They must understand the products and have knowledge of marketing. They must be able to present in a manner that is persuasive, so written and verbal communication skills are very important. They must understand marketing and how it interrelates with other departments. I often ask whether they have carried a bag (being a salesman). This often tells me whether they have project management, people and product knowledge skills.
Appendix 4 Page 34
While undertaking your degree was there any skills you thought you used to complete your degree?
Marketing, research, time management skills, critical thinking skills. I have the problem when we group research together. I tell my staff we have to do some research and the first thing they say which MR company. Often, it is just collecting some basic secondary data. I was taught more research than I thought was needed, but I have been proven wrong. Many marketers I believe underutilise marketing research. I could be put in this as time constraint which is normally the problem. Often, we do not know how to do this or really how to interpret it. The term research skills are too broad as it really includes many skills.
What were the skills that you believed were the most emphasised within your degree?
Marketing, written and analytical skills.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that you do?
I would include more elements of the managerial section. This should include management of your staff as well as external parties. Marketing is both an internal and external function as well as up and down. I would also add public relations. A lot of copy is written by marketers. Often we do not have the skill to do this. It would be easier to use external sources to do this, but budget constraints and time resources will not allow this to happen. In a sense, I think the elements of the CIM model should be expanded concerning the product and promotional mix elements. More specifically, branding and social marketing.
Which of the Tasks in the CIM model do you believe you undertake the most?
Promotion and brand, planning.
Why? At the moment with the number of generics entering the industry, recognizing the brand becomes very important. I believe that more of branding or strategic branding should be in the program. Promotion is a larger part of the tasks I undertake. Basically it is so expensive and if we get it wrong, it would be a disaster. Planning is very important as the market is becoming very competitive and we must look long term, though I think we are paid short term.
Appendix 4 Page 35
APPENDIX 4.8: INTERVIEW NO. 8 Industry -.Electrical wholesaling Position – Marketing director Experience – 20 years Degree - MBA
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the keys that have helped you become successful in your career as a marketer?
Industry knowledge, sales, marketing, financial, negotiations, decisions making, networking, interpersonal, decision making and motivation skills. I put motivation in here as marketing is an area that you want to be in. It is not like sales or finance or any other area since it combines so many areas of business. We are communicating to all stakeholders both, internal and external. Our responsibilities are outside our domain, but often we are constrained by our title. I see to many times in this industry that a marketer is a very good sales person. Their ideas then become sales driven, with a little bit of promotion in it., rather than strategic where they should be looking at the big picture. This industry is very much sales and relationship driven. The skills that have helped me are therefore anything that helps with sales (negotiation, networking, interpersonal and decision making). I believe that sales are often a skill a marketer needs. The term sales are really made up of many skills, but I think interpersonal skills are the most important. Listening and talking is a major part of the sales function. Networking as once you know people in an industry, it helps. Before sales actually happen, it is making the right decisions about 4P’s is very important.
So what are the major skills that you think have contributed to your success?
Negotiation, sales, critical thinking, people management and problem solving.
Why? In this very price orientated industry, there is a lot of dealing and negotiation with customers. The ability to listen, talk and understand their needs are very important and the ability to negotiate. I believe the most important skill is negotiation. This skill should be divided up between to the internal and external of a company. You have negotiation with customers which is self-explanatory. You also have the same with staff, both senior and junior. I still believe that my success has been due to managerial skills. Apart of skills I believe is the ability to run a business. This really means marketing, managerial and financial skills.
Which of these skills do you specifically look for when you hire other marketing staff?
Critical thinking, leadership, people management and negotiation skills.
Appendix 4 Page 36
While undertaking your degree was there any skills you thought you used to complete your degree?
Written communication, analysis and critical thinking skills. I honestly think there are too much research skills at university. I understand why, but at the expense of others! There were no sales unit, no leadership or negotiations skills in the program I undertook.
What were the skills that you believed were the most emphasised within your degree?
Management, finance, leadership and written communication. Within my post-graduate, there were a lot of management subjects which is great since it has helped me enormously as I have gained promotions. These subjects were often general and I think at post graduate level, they should be more specialised. I really understand the accounting side. Strategy is OK, but really will never need it in this industry.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that you do?
Sales, relationships, networks and financial skills. Networking is a large part of what I do. We have to create relationships with others. In the model, it is not really referred to. Networking can also be internal, especially when there is manufacturing schedules involved. Incidentally, many of us understand the importance of it and we know it works. Financials – why isn’t in there?
Which of the Tasks in the CIM model do you believe you undertake the most?
Customer analysis and pricing.
Why? We are in a very competitive industry. Understand the pricing of the industry and our bottom line is paramount to the success of the company. I am constantly looking at our prices compared to the industry.
Appendix 4 Page 37
APPENDIX 4.9: INTERVIEW NO. 9 Industry – Packaging Position – Marketing Manager Experience – 15 years Degree – Masters of Marketing
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the keys that have helped become successful in your career as a marketer?
Negotiation, managerial, communication, financial, business, analytical, interpersonal and creative skills From my perspective, this is a highly competitive industry. We often talk in very small amounts per item but in huge quantities. As a company, the marketing team often has to do something better or different since we are often competing with very similar products. This where the creative skills are important as well as the ability to make decisions. Often our sales team does not get a second opportunity to win business. In addition, what we manufacture and when we can also influences our marketing success I have a budget and there are goals to achieve. The creativity is how I stay under budget, but without sacrificing company goals. Communication is everything, but I feel there are elements in communication skills which are particularly important. Political savvy, who to address, the leaders, the followers and personalities could be a part of communication skills that need to be addressed. Essential, this is the corporate politics. I think part of this is negotiation skills and the art of management. You consider the marketers who are successful like myself, would not be here if I could not manager others. What is important is to understand the marketing environment, and this is often achieved by crunching numbers and using the analytical skills. A marketer like many other senior executives is responsible for their decisions. These will eventually impact on the company and their career. In any event, decisions have to be made and probably more importantly, these have to be the correct ones. How we make these decisions is also a skill that I believe is important to the establishment of a marketing manager.
What are the major skills that you think have contributed to your success?
Negotiation, sales, interpersonal, critical thinking and decision making skills.
Why? The ability to listen, talk and understand customer needs is very important. The industry is very heavy reliant on sales. In order to sell, you need the skills that I have mentioned. Interpersonal, critical thinking, decision making and negotiation skills are also important skills I believe. What many marketers forget, that once you enter this field, the customers are your colleagues. You have to sell to them. This I know from my experience is a lot harder than those customers who are outside of the building. Critical thinking skills are so important.
Appendix 4 Page 38
Which of these skills do you specifically look for when you hire other marketing staff?
Marketing, leadership, decision making and experience within the industry.
Why? A marketer must make a difference. They are not there to add company costs, they must contribute. I have to determine in an interview these two key criteria; are they going to contribute or be a cost to the company. In most cases when I employ marketers, it comes down to those key issues. Marketers can no longer sit in the ivory towers. They have to be seen contributing to the company and this must be something that can be measured or at least tangible. Marketers have to make decisions and are held accountable for them. I hate it when staff will not make a decision. If they understand the industry and its dynamics, I am not unhappy if they get it wrong, because this is how they learn. How they overcome their decisions and make them into a positive contribution the company, are the candidates I want to employ. I am happy for marketers to make decisions based on boundaries that I provide them. Those who can and are able to justify themselves are surely going to be promoted within my company. I am after marketers who can do this and then implement their ideas and plans through their staff and company.
While undertaking your degree was there any skills you thought you used to complete your degree?
Written communication, analysis, marketing and critical thinking skills. The post graduate degree I completed taught me about marketing. At the end, I understood all about the knowledge of it. What I was not sure is about is the skills of marketing or rather how to use them in a marketing context. I remember doing case study after case study in a strategic marketing class. This was good as I learned how to think and really be a marketer. It is my opinion this is how post graduates should be taught. Literature reviews? OK, but I will never ask an employee to do this?
What were the skills that you believed were the most emphasised within your degree?
Marketing, analytical, written communication skills. I was scared of stats and probably still am not sure. I learned all about them, but did it contribute to understanding the marketing process? This I am sure of.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that you do?
Sales and financial. There should be a section on how marketers interact with sales staff. The building of relationships both internal and external which are important for a career. My boss will often about the profitability of products or customers. This should be in the CIM model.
Which of the Tasks in the CIM model do you believe you undertake the most?
People management, both internal and external, 4P’s, advertising related tasks, and planning.
Why? My customers are both internal and external. I need to use managerial skills that apply for both however, there is a different emphasis on them. For example, there are different negotiation skills and communication skills for internal and external to the company.
Appendix 4 Page 39
APPENDIX 4.10: INTERVIEW NO. 10 Industry – Medical Diagnostics Position – Marketing Director Experience – 15 years Degree – Grad Diploma of Marketing
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the keys that have helped become successful in your career as a marketer?
Negotiation, leadership, interpersonal, marketing, decision making, problem solving and technical skills.
Marketers must be able to relate to other staff. They have to overcome problems to make decisions that aid their portfolio. They have to make decisions which way they want their market offerings to go. Once they make a decision, they must be able to convince others it is best one. This is where the negotiation skills become important. The problem solving and the leadership skills also apply. Essentially, developing the strategy and writing the marketing plan is only skills that allow a marketer to be successful, the rest is the managerial skills. They must understand marketing knowledge, but that is from a textbook. I see too many of these, but can they use the skills that allow them to be a valued employee. I have added technical skills since this really is a scientific industry. Many of our customers are scientists, pathologist and PhD’s, who are very aware of their fields. Any marketer must be able to talk their language.
What are the major skills that you think have contributed to your success?
Negotiation, leadership, interpersonal, problem solving and decision making skills. Problem solving from these five because I believe this comes from understanding your customers and their needs. It is still an important skill, but I believe the others are more important. How can a marketer become employed if they do not know their profession Yes, a degree does give you the knowledge, but it really comes down to the skills they use that make them successful? My marketers must interrelate with the sales people in order to train them with their product range. It is probably a training component of their role. Their interpersonal skills and leadership skills they possess enables them to aid sales staff, as well overcome objections we have from our clients. I see our product managers really as product champions. In that sense, they need sales skills. All of my product managers have had sales experience.
Appendix 4 Page 40
Which of these skills do you specifically look for when you hire other marketing staff?
Sales, marketing, communications and people management.
Why? Marketing is about people management. It is both people, both internal and external to the company. Therefore, people skills are essential to their success. I believe the apprenticeship for marketing is a sales career. They have to understand and demonstrate the skills they have used before I would employ them. Their ability to communicate is paramount. This includes both written and verbal skills. If anything, written skills are more important since we are an international company, and most of the communication is performed electronically. There is nothing worse than bad copy. It is, I see this as being unprofessional.
While undertaking your degree was there any skills you thought you used to complete your degree?
Marketing, critical thinking and written communication. There appears a lot of critical thinking in the program. I do not have a problem with that, but really would have liked to use creativity or more managerial skills. Management skills and their usage would be great. I actually completed a further degree in management after my post graduate degree. Leadership skills were not used or taught in my post graduate marketing degree.
What were the skills that you believed were the most emphasised within your degree?
Research, marketing, computer, written skills and oral presentations. I learned a lot about the use of excel from my degree. This is a positive step as I believe in a business sense, it is underutilised. I am not sure why we were introduced to SPSS. I understand the need for research because the academic background, but would rather the practice of analytical skills. I know I write better now, so the use of or the detail we were scrutinised with written skills has paid off. However, for all copy in the company, we use our advertising agency to do. Though it has helped me, it would of being great to consider other skills. People management, networking and interpersonal skills were very much under emphasised in my degree.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that you do?
Sales and financial.
Which of the Tasks in the CIM model do you believe you undertake the most?
Product development and managing people and processes.
Why I think product development is a process, so it really needs many skills to complete it. One of these is creativity. Just a note here, just because I do not do a particular task all of the time, does not mean that it is not important. I probably check my emails more than any of the tasks in the CIM mode. However, it does not mean that it is the most important. The industry like it is, very competitive; I look at the industry a lot as well as the pricing. The products are very important, particular if the competitors bring out another product. The competitiveness of the industry and technological changes mean we have to improve and create value added via our reputation and our associated brands.
Appendix 4 Page 41
APPENDIX 4.11: INTERVIEW NO. 11 Position – Lecturer in Business Have you had marketing related experience – Yes Program – Post Graduates
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the major skills that you think contribute to marketer’s success?
Marketing comprehension, analytical, written communication, management and critical thinking skills.
Why? These are general skills that everybody who completes a Higher Education degree should understand. They are transferable skills which apply to all facets of business. I believe since we are talking about post graduates, the skill levels do not change. I have many post graduates whose communication skills, particularly written are not as good as undergraduates. This is very evident with students who have not been to study for many years. There is a lot of group work in this program. I think that many of the students should get used to working in teams. There are many students who are scared of statistics. We have to show how they are used. This contributes to their analytical and critical thinking skills. There is a lot of concentration on discipline related skills, so marketing, management, finance and accounting.
When the students have completed their degree what are the skills that you expect they will understand?
All of the above. There is an emphasis on their discipline related work and skills. Many of the students entering this program are using it to further their career. I believe we have to give them the knowledge of the discipline.
What were the skills that you believed were the most emphasised within the post graduate degree?
Analytical because of the information we are given. Critical thinking, written communication and leadership. If anything, probably working in teams. Probably, the most important I think is corporate values. Understanding what is needed to be successful. This I think is in terms of work ethics and time load. We spend a lot of time on communication skills, which includes both written and oral. Much of the work is case study driven, with many lecturers from industry using life experiences. I believe this adds to the critical thinking skill development of the post graduate.
What were the skills that you believed should be more emphasised within the post graduate degree?
Managerial skills and leadership. Marketing is about managing people. It is where marketers have to dedicate resources to more than one project at a time through other people. How they do this is to use managerial skills. Management I believe is a higher order skill that relies on many others. What we need to do is show the students how to use management skills more effectively and efficiently in order to get things done.
Looking at the subjects, which subjects do you believe should be added to the degree?
Project management, advanced leadership and management skills. Many of the students who enter in this program have aspirations for general management. This level requires advanced leadership skills. It should be taught as a subject, not as part of it.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that you do?
Social marketing – this I believe is getting bigger and will be a part in the future. A marketer should be aware of this and it should be in their tasks to do. How often, it would depend on their industry.
Appendix 4 Page 42
APPENDIX 4.12: INTERVIEW NO. 12 Position – Lecturer in Business Have you had marketing related experience – Yes. Program – Post graduate and undergraduate marketing
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the major skills that you think contribute to marketer’s success?
Financial, management, negotiation, decision making and critical thinking.
Why? This degree is a generalist degree with a lot of the focus on business practice. The focus is therefore on transferable skills which can be used in many different fields. Many of the graduates go into various fields such as finance, accounting and business marketing. Marketers must be able to look for opportunities in the market place. They must be adaptable and therefore skills that are able to be used in all situations are the focus. Negotiation is a very important skill, though not many people master it. I am inclined to think it is the most important skill as it appeals not only to their career, but to their self-being as well. There would be very few facets of business where this skill is not used. Moreover, decision making and problem solving are probably in this light as well.
When the students have completed their degree what are the skills that you expect they will understand?
Marketing, written and verbal communication skills, time management skills, creativity (thinking outside the square), analytical and critical thinking. We ask our graduates to consider other opportunities, not just what they read in the text book. Yes, this is important, but they have to look outside the square. In a sense, they are being creative. The degree is pretty complex as it should be. The students have to learn about team working and group dynamics.
What were the skills that you believed were the most emphasised within the post graduate degree?
As above plus teamwork. I think teamwork is a higher skill. Some would call this ability, but it requires many skills to be proficient at it. I think, interpersonal skills, people management, problem identification and decision making are a part of it of the skill called teamwork.
What were the skills that you believed should be more emphasised within the post graduate degree?
Project Management. In a sense we mention about in the program, though not directly teach it. It is often an elective, but many of the students do not participate in it. This really is a competence as there are many skills to project management. One of these is leadership, negotiation and of program managerial skills.
Looking at the subjects, which subjects do you believe should be added to the degree?
Project management but the categories or tasks really do not allow for this.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that you do?
Financial management – for some reason it is not in it. I would also use networking as relationship building is becoming very important, both from a career and a personnel perspective. Corporate politics would also be considered as it often explains why some employees are promoted over others. However, like teamwork, I think this task has many components in it.
Appendix 4 Page 43
APPENDIX 4.13: INTERVIEW NO. 13 Position – Lecturer in Business Have you had marketing related experience - Yes Program – Masters of Marketing coordinator
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the major skills that you think contribute to marketer’s success?
Marketing, negotiation, management, problem solving, leadership and decision making.
Why? Often I here that sales are important. I suggest it is unless the marketer has good interpersonal skills. We teach marketing knowledge in the hope that the students will at least understand it. Marketing is really is not a skill, but it is a combination of skills. The skills we teach are the building blocks marketers use to further or start their career. Negotiation is extremely important as often a marketer will have to convince others in a company what they are trying to achieve. Negotiation is a part of managerial skills, which I do not believe we teach. The other skills, problem solving, critical thinking, decision making are part of the managerial skills but also they are generic skills. How the marketer uses these skills is probably more important. Most of the graduates in the program would have these skills and as they study their post graduate degrees, they further advance them. I am convinced with today’s market place, the ability of the marketer to express them by written communication it extremely important. There is no secretary like there once was so reports could be amended. The marketer must make good copy and do it quickly, in order to further their career.
When the students have completed their degree what are the skills that you expect they will understand?
Really all of the above. I expect this as we are talking about post graduates. Many of them have experience in marketing environment already. You have to remember, to enter this degree, you have to have had some work experience, so really the program is not teaching the skills of marketing, but refining them. The key is when do they use them and what tasks requires which skills.
What were the skills that you believed were the most emphasised within the post graduate degree?
Research, marketing, teamwork and report writing. As I said before, the ability to communicate is imperative in all of business, both written and oral. Both of these skills are emphasised well. We teach a lot by cases, so I will also add critical thinking as the students are given real cases which they have to solve. In addition, computer software programs allow the students to solve problems from a statistical point of view. As for decision making, it is how they organise their life. The students have full time work, social life, with some of them with children and now studies. The ability to juggle this is reflected in their ability to make sound decisions.
Appendix 4 Page 44
What were the skills that you believed should be more emphasised within the post graduate degree?
Leadership, creativity and managerial aspects. Not another manager subject as it is too broad, but something more specific. At this level, we should be extending, not going over the basics. A basic managerial program really is not going to cut it. The students need more than this. We should be talking about hiring, recruiting, negotiation and leadership. These are aspects of a managerial program, but at this level, it is not going to help them. The students at this level have to understand the how to use them.
Looking at the subjects, which subjects do you believe should be added to the degree?
e-marketing since that is where much of retail is going. However, with e-marketing, I would not recommend it over other major topics. I understand a program cannot teach everything and there are other topics that should be covered over electronic marketing. For example, leadership, creativity and other managerial aspects. I would also add social marketing as it will have an impact on marketing in years to come.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that you do?
Financials and human relations. Marketers work through other people to achieve success. Many of the graduates have little or no idea of how to employ others. I think the managerial section of the model is too limited. It really should be expanded like they have done for the marketing mix.
Appendix 4 Page 45
APPENDIX 4.14: INTERVIEW NO. 14 Position – Lecturer in Business Have you had marketing related experience – Yes. Program – Post Graduate lecturer
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the major skills that you think contribute to marketer’s success?
Negotiation, management, problem solving, leadership, creativity and analytical skills.
Why? To be a good marketer, I believe you must have being a salesman. You learn how to understand customers and probably more importantly you use skills that are invaluable for your marketing career. These are interpersonal skills and analytical skills. Surely a marketer must look at other alternatives and find ways of improving themselves. The basic managerial skills and an understanding of marketing are the basics. How they use these is the key. I believe that self-development is an important skill. Marketers must understand what they are trying to achieve in terms of career goals. It will influence them in what the skills they want. I see and have experienced many students view marketing as a stepping stone. If this is the case, then are marketing skills are used to get a promotion to another field or perhaps a specialised field. This means in my opinion that marketing skills should be general or if you like transferable to many disciplines because marketers often change careers.
When the students have completed their degree what are the skills that you expect they will understand?
If we are doing our job, all of the above. Most have problem with written communication. Often they do not understand marketing research or the statistics of them. If they hear the word, statistics, there is often fear in the class room.
What were the skills that you believed were the most emphasised within the post graduate degree?
Analytical, marketing, teamwork and written communication skills. Really it should be all of the above, but it is not. The different types and levels of students within a class let alone a program. This means all of the skills are not emphasised in a correct way, but it would be impossible to do this. I believe research skills are, but this is a higher order skill as it requires many skills to do this. In this sense, problem solving, analytical and critical evaluation skills are taught. I often get annoyed when students claim they do not understand research. What students are really saying is they cannot use the skills to conduct research. Of program marketing is, that is the program, though I am not sure about the skills of marketing are taught in Higher Education Institutions, but rather the knowledge of it
What were the skills that you believed should be more emphasised within the post graduate degree?
Leadership, creativity – these are not taught in this program. It could be that it is too hard, or there is no staff who could adequately teach this. That withstanding, these skills are taught in other subjects. I think leadership is definitely taught, since there are many group work activities. Creativity is how they present or write their reports.
Appendix 4 Page 46
Looking at the subjects, which subjects do you believe should be added to the degree?
e-marketing since that is where much of retail is going. There is only a limit time and resources so all of the important subjects cannot be taught. In a perfect world, societal and e-marketing should be included in the core subjects. In this world, I would not include either as there are more important subjects that should be added.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that you do?
Financials, human relations and planning. Planning should be looked at from a tactical and a strategic point of view. Many marketers do not actually think strategic because they are not required to, or basically cannot. We should think more tactical for the students, because basically, the industry is demanding it more. Human Relations should be included because many marketers will have to employ staff. They will ask outside agencies to help them, which can be good or bad. Many marketers I believe do not know the type of people who can work for themselves as they are not sure what they want.
Appendix 4 Page 47
APPENDIX 4.15: INTERVIEW NO. 15 Position – Lecturer Have you had marketing related experience – Yes. Program – Masters of Marketing
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the major skills that you think contribute to marketer’s success?
Verbal Communication, people management, financials, interpersonal and marketing skills.
Why? Marketing to me is managing a process. The need for managerial skills becomes a necessity. The basic P.L.O.C of management applies with the emphasis on marketing. In addition, the understanding of marketing and its sub sections. This is the 4P’s. In this point of view, I see marketing manager as similar to a line manager in any organisation, though they specialise in marketing. I see the skills therefore are generic to most managers, but they use these skills together with the marketing theory and practice. I get my students to present all of their findings in a talk or lead a discussion. They show little understanding for the process and should be more competent in it. Many marketers actually are in charge of a business or a business function. As a consequence, a complete understanding of the financials is important. They are often the voice of the company in terms of the products and positioning of the market offering. Interpersonal skills, management skills and communication skills in both verbal and written are important.
When the students have completed their degree what are the skills that you expect they will understand?
Really above as they are a part of the program curriculum.
What were the skills that you believed were the most emphasised within the post graduate degree?
Critical thinking, time management, analytical, marketing comprehension, written communication and problem solving. One would think that marketing comprehension is in a marketing program. The ability to write effectively is a pre-requisite in all Higher Education Institutions programs, let alone a post graduate program. There is much apprehension to statistics by many students. As a result, the statistics level is reduced, which really overcomes the reason why it is introduced, especially at this level. Time management is emphasised, though I believe it is not a skill that can be taught at Higher Education Institutions. Critical thinking is very apparent as we want post graduates to look results, literature and evaluate it. The days of just reading and remembering are not for this level, it should be about questioning and evaluating. Problem solving is through many subjects where students have to present solutions to case studies or solve problems.
Appendix 4 Page 48
What were the skills that you believed should be more emphasised within the post graduate degree?
Managerial – because it is rarely been a core subject and an elective. Students often pick other marketing subject without realising that they are really studying, marketing management. This subject should be a core subject. The electives should include specific parts of management. For example, human relations and leadership.
Looking at the subjects, which subjects do you believe should be added to the degree?
Creativity, teamwork, negotiation (though they are in part in the sales subject) and leadership.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that you do?
e-marketing and social marketing. Yes they are important, but will they add to the success of the typical marketing manager. I am not convinced.
Appendix 4 Page 49
APPENDIX 4.16: INTERVIEW NO. 16 (FULL TRANSCRIPT) Position – Management Consultant Do you have a business degree? – Yes, Masters of Marketing Experience – 15 years Where – Coffee ship in the city near his work place.
Good Morning Mr B. Good Morning John Mr B, just checking your experience here. You have been a management consultant for 15 years. Before that you were a National Sales Manager in the Health Industry. You are now a director of a National Recruitment Company. Is that right? Yes John From your experience in recruiting marketers, when do you think marketing managers become established? Do you mean in terms of success or experience? Really both? Normally when a marketer has been in industry full time for a minimum of 3-5 years, they are considered established. In some cases it could be more, but that is general rule. This is the rule I ask my staff and advice my clients. How about in a position? This is very varied as some industries will claim success after 18 months while 12 months with exceptional results could also be considered. I personally think that is too short a time. In marketing roles which you appear to be concentrating on, I want to see if a plan has actually eventuated. In other words, I want to see if they can actually lead the company to a successful resolution. So Mr B., what are the major skills from your experience in recruitment is the skills for a marketer’s career establishment? Do you mean what I look for or my clients? Really both? In all honesty, they should be the same since I am representing them. However, the personnel who I have seen create a path in marketing and have been successful. They tend to have sound marketing comprehension skills, rather than just knowledge, are able to show they have made decisions that have contributed to the company progress, people management, both with very good written and verbal communication skills and are highly motivated. The people management we can see a lot when we talk to them.
Appendix 4 Page 50
In what way? Firstly, how intently do they listen? Do they look at us? Are they attentive? Do they focus on one person, or actively engage others in the room. That sought of thing. Why did you say motivated? Many applicants see marketing as a stepping stone. They are very focused on achieving and this often means they are driven for success. That could be to general management or to a specialised position of marketing. For example, advertising, online or even research. Motivational skills refer to their career motivations as well as their ability to stimulate others to work for them. This is particular evident when I see the company structure and the sales departments reporting to the marketing manager. So when you see clients for established marketing positions, what are the skills potential employers want in today’s marketing managers they are after? In all seriousness, many of them do not know. This is one of the reasons why your research interested me. Often, we tell them, which is concerning for us and perhaps for academics like yourself. Many of our clients read from the job description. What goes in these descriptions is another matter. So how do you know? From their job descriptions is always a good start. Many of my staff has been employed as marketers so they have first-hand experience on what is required to be a marketer. Others often look at what they have done before or what they have read. Also, many of the HR specialists have completed a unit on marketing. This normally helps. So what are the skills that your clients are asking? Interesting here John, it depends on the size of the company and the industry. Since your research is talking generally, then I am asked for communication skills, (normally verbally but written as well), interpersonal skills, decision making, technological (though not much these days as everybody in proficient on a computer), decision making skills, analytical skills, marketing skills which at this level are business skills and an educational level. Since we are talking established or this case, senior, I am asked for or the propensity for existence or evidence of managerial skills. Can you explain why? Marketing at this level is normally associated with a staff. Managerial skills or another word is people management are required as well as good interpersonal skills. Also, at this level, they often report to the board or are held at the same light. The skills and presence a candidate should possess often have to reflect the rest of the company. They must know when to speak, what to speak and how to speak at functions. In this case, they must show a sense of decorum or maturity. So you saying at this level, managerial skills are very important? Yes, and you could be even more particular as to the components of it. I am asked for negotiation skills and most of all, leadership skills. Negotiation is very important as many marketers find themselves struggling with staff or major suppliers.
Appendix 4 Page 51
Why do you say leadership skills? They are in charge of other staff and they have to convince others what they are doing is the right decision. Senior marketers will often have product managers, brand managers and even sales staff reporting to them. In fact they have a team of people who in most cases are relying on them to get it right. As you know, many employees will argue with the marketing department, so they have to convince others to do what they want as well as lead others. I believe that marketing is about internal as much as external customers. And the others? Marketing skills are often referred to as business skills. Often these candidates are in charge of a portfolio and have to report a bottom line. They have to make decisions. This means it is not just marketing skills, but the whole gamut of skills which aids to the marketers’ success. One of these is also financial accountability. When you mean financial accountability what do you refer to? How to manage costs, consider ROI, understand the balance sheet, be happy with talking about the financials so they can ultimately report and discuss their performance. I hear this often from my clients, “marketing is not just spending money; they have to understand how to control it, allocate it and most of all show a ROI from it”. And the other skills you mentioned? In so many resume’s we see spelling mistakes or grammatical mistakes. This is unacceptable when the applicant is trying to show they have the dedication of detail needed to be successful in this competitive environment. If the staff see copy that does not make sense, or a person who is not happy talking in front of a crowd, taking charge of meetings, then there be second doubts of their professionalism. It is often a downward spiral from then. Marketers must be able to make informed decisions. They have to show me that they are able capable of doing this and more importantly, can show a record of making the right ones. My clients want employees who are willing to make decisions and stand by them are the candidates they want me to find for them. My clients tell me they want marketers who make decisions and stand by them. If they are easy persuaded of their original decision, then it normally does not make for good candidate. Surely Mr B., they are not going to want people to make reckless decisions? Yes, but these people have a track record of making decisions and this is how they have become as you call it established. Are skill sets currently requested by your clients changing? Yes they are. The market becoming more competitive and the number of applicants applying for positions are becoming more and more. Now more than ever, companies can become even more choosey in the new applicants. This has transferred to how we screen new applicants.
Appendix 4 Page 52
So what skills are you seeing more of? I am asked for more emphasis on management, creative and financial skills than before. More e-marketing skills but this is very industry specific. A lot more emphasis on creativity than we use to for marketers who have considerable experience. When you say creativity, what are your clients actually saying? It is not talking from the moon and back. What I think they are saying is they want the new applicants to bring something to the company and to consider new directions. We often hear the new applicant is taking the company on the new direction or is not willing to look at new products etc. I often think that this term is over used and we often think creativity as being something new. For all we know, it could be using a different tactic for an old client. My experience is that creativity is often referring to something new, not actually being totally creative. Basically, what can you bring to the company that will benefit them? So you are saying creative is a way of thinking? Yes, but it can be a new of something different. In other words, give the old girl a new party dress. Analytical skills are becoming more reliant now. There is so much information now and companies can use this to their advantage. How it is used is a skill that I am seeing a change. What the clients are telling me is that they do not want potential employees who will not do anything apart from over analysis and not make any decisions. In that sense, decision making is very important as the new applicant must make the right decisions. Any reasons why you think analytical skills are more in demand? The markets as I see are becoming more competitive. It is harder to get a competitive advantage. Companies have to be doing it better. A lot of this is by considering what happened and doing it better. I guess that transfers into understanding what has happened and why. This is probably from using analytical skills. I also know of more and more information that is available, so any marketer worth his salt must have these skills. What are the skills that you believe should be emphasised more within the applicants that you see? I think there should be more evidence of creative skills. It is something that does separate many marketers. Their ability to think outside the box is often a buying symbol for potential marketing professionals. There has to be more emphasis on managerial skills or components of it. The ability to manage staff and get the most of them is something I am asked often. Many applicants can manage, but can they truly lead and motivate their staff. This I am not convinced of. Many applicants have sales experience, but the ability to negotiate is truly lacking. I see this often when they try to negotiate a package for themselves and they become much undervalued. This is great for their employer as they want a marketer who is much better than their package. Human Relation skills or the ability to employ staff should be emphasised within the applicants that I put forward for employment. Marketing Managers rely on other staff to achieve their objectives. They should understand about the creation of teams that enable this. This is probably putting me out of a job, but the fact remains, if they cannot get staff that fits the marketing department, then probably not going to be there very long.
Appendix 4 Page 53
Are you really speaking another skill set rather than marketing? Perhaps a joint degree? Yes, a major in marketing is great, but then what? We have many Masters of marketing, MBA and others etc applying for jobs. Marketers must now be less focused and more encompassing other disciplines. I also think here should be more reliance on international skills. We are becoming more reliant on our partners overseas. This may include other languages which I consider another skill. A candidate who has overseas experience often gets an advantage over others, because they have had alternative experiences. In this marketing field, this could be considered an advantage. What tasks do your clients ask for when designing the brief for the new marketing positions? They often want examples of communication strategies. This is probably more evident in FMCG, as well as brand strategies. Some of these applicants are in charge of large budgets they want to know what they did and how well it worked. Many HR professionals have done a basic marketing program. Often like many other people I see, they see marketing as the 4P’s. This is not the case with large companies, but the 4P’s is often there is one form or another. I get asked about managerial experience and evidence of this. I think there is a concern that new employees will come into the organisation and change staff, change everything and ultimately stuff everything. What they are after are marketers who take charge of their unit and do not cause any more hassles and fix the problem. John, I read that marketers are problem solvers in my degree, which is what they are employed to do. Show the potential employee this. These are the tasks that my clients want to see evidence of. And others? Since we are talking about experienced managers, if am asked to include evidence of strategic tasks. Strategy and planning to me is not rehashing the same old marketing plan, but thinking where they are really going. Often the examples I am shown from candidates are tactical, rather than strategic. In their defence, many marketers are evaluated short term and this becomes their focus? Yes I here this, but the clients are after candidates at this level who can show they can look long term. They must monitor short term results, but they must have the ability and skills to look forward in the company. I here this often John; the number of competitors are changing and companies are after new opportunities. This means they have to consider other avenues of growth and this requires planning. This may be a reason that I am seeing more about new markets and new product development. Also, creativity is becoming more common for the same reasons that I said before. In addition, an understanding of e-marketing could also be added to your list. However, the need for e-marketing tends to be for specific industries such as retail.
Appendix 4 Page 54
At this level, the report writing is mandatory, though I can tell you that it is a dying art. This I note through many years of experience that many senior managers cannot write professionally or effectively. Maybe the days of the assistant is not dead. Marketers are also being asked to understand the financials. This we have already talked about. I often advertise for senior marketing managers as senior business positions. This title is really asking for the professional who is apt in all levels of experience within a business portfolio. I will get many accountants, finance and marketing professionals who can all do their occupation very well, but they often will struggle with the other areas. As I said before John, it is very competitive and the applicants must be experienced in all facets of business. My clients are generally after business savvy professionals and will wait to they come along. The last part of the research is to look at the career motivations of marketing professionals. Do you have comment on what you see? Very generally is an overriding element is the view of entering into general management. Marketing is often seen as the stepping stone to general management, though this will change depending on the size of the company. Finance and Accounting could also be put in this category as well. I sometimes query marketing managers who have been in the same position and same company for many years. Given the industry, the position, it appears that they may not be contributing as much as they think. So, Mr B., if it is seen as a stepping stone, then your idea of adding more managerial skills within the curriculum would make a lot of sense? Yes definitely, but it appears that the idea of considering planning, especially strategic could also be considered. You could add financial skills as well, though the accountants with the same career motivations may think about marketing as well. Is this why you look for business managers? Yes, as if they are really just looking for a marketing positions and given the nature of the positions, I often have to evaluate whether they will stick around or not. As you are aware, this industry is also very competitive and if our candidates are not that truly motivated, then my career could be at jeopardy. Thanks for your time Mr B.
Thank you John
Appendix 4 Page 55
APPENDIX 4.17: INTERVIEW NO. 17 Position – Management Consultant Do you have a business degree? – No but have a degree in HR. Experience – 16 years
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the major skills from your experience in recruitment are the key skills for a marketer?
Communication, creativity, negotiation, financials, decision making and management.
Why? My clients are after these skills. This leads me to think they are important. At the level I concentrate at, most of the applicants have these skills in one way or another. I am after examples they can show me. I tend to concentrate on business added examples. These could be many of these skills. Really, I do not think that many clients really know what makes a good marketer. I often here, “just like him or get me an applicant that is like her”. It is not as common as once was as there are many Human Resource professionals who have had marketing experience in some form or another. I have seen many job descriptions which they have basically downloaded from the net. Alternatively, if they have come from another company, they use their old descriptions. The result I feel is a generalist skill sets that could apply to most business professions. I see a lot of budget focused which I think they are talking about financial skills. Negotiation, creativity and people management are also mentioned constantly. Communication skills are probably the most requested, though I do not know what skills of communication my clients are actually after.
What are the skills your clients ask for? As above, but leadership is a common skill these days. Also, creative problem solving as it is very competitive in the industry. The term creative problem solving is what I hear often. It appears that my clients are not after the same old solution, but they want marketers who are able to come up with alternative ideas. Marketing is going the past of the routine, to looking to other solutions. I think the marketing landscape is changing and so do many of my clients. What they are after is skills that will enable marketers to contribute, not be a cost. Since I am talking about senior marketing positions, evidence of people management. Often this includes hiring, training, firing, motivating and delegation examples. This appears as managerial skills which are virtually in all of the positions that I currently see. I hear this a lot, business acumen. I think marketing has progressed from marketing, it is now a business. This means that my clients are after more than marketing skills, they are basically after a person who can run a business. In some industries, though not all, social media and e-marketing are becoming more common.
Appendix 4 Page 56
What are the skills the applicants claim they have?
Analytical, decision making, marketing knowledge and project management. These are the most common as this is what most job advertisements have. I see creativity happening in resumes lately. This could be a result of what was said in the advertisements as well.
What were the skills that you believed should be emphasised more within the applicants that you see degree?
Creative, budgeting, leadership, interpersonal and managerial skills. I am asked for these all of the time. Probably, more importantly, I am asked for specific communication skills, like other languages or the ability to communicate with partners overseas or via the internet. As for management skills, leadership and motivation. I understand through my own experience that a managerial subject is an over view in most marketing subjects. I think my clients are after, not just the ability to manage, but the skill of leading or managing change. Negotiation skills are becoming more common as companies want marketers to contribute to more of the bottom line.
What are the specific tasks that your clients ask for experience in?
Planning, new product development, relationship building and corporate policy. I hear a lot of corporate communications. The ability to write well is in my view a lost art. I see many resumes with spelling mistakes and bad grammar. Database management is becoming more common as well as customer retention strategies. This is particular in the services industries. Probably, the most specific task I get is about growing the business or business development. This often concerns me as I start thinking about a good salesman. My clients want marketers who can contribute to the bottom line, not interfere with it. I also get more requests for examples for negotiation with suppliers and customers. Often, this is referred to as experience with advertising agencies, marketing research agencies and consultants.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that are common requests from your clients?
Financial, budgeting and database management. Really customer management, which as a senior executive, that could mean, internal, external or even at the board level
Appendix 4 Page 57
APPENDIX 4.18: INTERVIEW NO. 18 Position – Management Consultant Do you have a business degree? – Yes. Experience – 15 years
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the major skills from your experience in recruitment are the key skills for a marketer?
Decision making, creativity, financials, people management, new product development, critical thinking and verbal communication skills.
Why? From my experience, the more of these skills the applicants have, the generally more successful they are. Communication skills, particularly verbal are the most common. This appears strange as many of the positions that I advertise for, are experienced marketers. I often see marketers who are successful because they are capable of making the right decision. My clients require staff at this level to have made decisions that have benefitted the company. How they made the decisions and the process that allowed them to do this is of interest. Marketing is working through other people, particularly the sales personnel. Many marketers I have placed have some form of sales experience, or at the very least, customer service. This I feel allows them to develop interpersonal skills and time management skills. Critical thinking to me is ultimately task orientated. Marketers must be able to resolve and interpret their progress in order to achieve goals. There will be many ideas that are put forward a marketer’s desk. Which one and their ability to choose the best alternative, is one of the keys to marketers having a successful career.
Appendix 4 Page 58
What are the skills your clients ask for? Budgeting, interpersonal skills, analytical, strategic skills, passion and a business sense. Lately I am requested to
look for e-marketing requests as part of the promotional media. Marketing is very fast paced, but it is working with many other staff. They could be anywhere, across their desk, overseas or on the internet. Evidence of dealing with a variety of different staff that aid their position is a common request. I also hear this a lot, results. Show me results, not just plans that do nothing. So, essentially, the marketers are showing them actual examples of what they have achieved, not what they were meant to do. Often the words on budgets and budgeting occur. This includes control of financials and skills that are involved in strategic planning. The basics such as communication skills, marketing prowess are often not listed as they are expected at this level. What I hear a lot is managerial skills or advanced interpersonal skills. Marketers at this level are often in charge of departments or engaged with large stakeholders. Presently it is all about decision making, especially those that engage in company growth. In some industries, it also about the brand and the advertising strategies that corresponds with it.
What are the skills that the applicants claim they have?
Marketing and strategy, analytical, written and oral communication, team working, and numeracy.
What were the skills that you believed should be emphasised more within the applicants that you see degree?
Leadership, financial, management and initiative. Leadership is a skill that when an applicant can demonstrate they have it, I can place them very quickly. When my clients say this person show leadership qualities, I can feel the commission cheque. If they say this person shows initiative or progress, the same feeling again. How you teach initiative or progress is not from a skill or a text book. I think it is really teaching them confidence. The marketer believes they have the skills, knowledge and experience to do the job. Most of them are motivated to be a marketer, and are not just passing through. I think initiative is what you are looking for. The skills that allow a marketer to be successful are all about marketers taking the initiative, or making the most out of their situation. Many of my positions are senior, but unless they understand how to manager people or a team, and to manage a budget, then they will struggle for senior positions.
What are the specific tasks that your clients ask for experience in?
Evidence of initiative and results. Anything that shows the marketer actually achieves something.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that are common requests from your clients?
Financial and creativity. The competition for marketing positions is so strong. If the marketer has knowledge of being creative or is that way by nature, then they will stand out. This transgresses to their performance as it is more competitive in industry, especially now with e-marketing taking off.
Appendix 4 Page 59
APPENDIX 4.19: INTERVIEW NO. 19 Position – Management Consultant Do you have a business degree? – No but have Management and HR post graduate Experience – 15 years
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the major skills from your experience in recruitment are the key skills for a marketer?
Marketing, financials, leadership, analytical and problem solving.
Why? They (my clients) want people who will contribute to the company quickly. They look to marketers as business managers which means they need more than the basic marketing functions. Most of all, my clients are after leadership qualities. In this I mean motivation, presentation, communication and interpersonal skills. The very successful marketers have this sense of arrogance or if you like, self-confidence. I think it is the way they present themselves or probably their ability to manage staff that gives this impression. They appear easy to get on with. This may be relationship skills as well. Essentially, they are people orientated as well as task orientated. When I look at a marketing manager who is successful, I often see very little difference between them and a general manager. Both appear to have strategic skills and have leadership skills. Marketers really are there to solve problems and create opportunities. I see the analytical side as being important for any marketing manager or manager for that matter. I think this means that they can gauge what is happening in the market place and are willing to make decisions to make their budgets.
What are the skills your clients ask for? Managerial, particularly leadership, interpersonal and verbal communications. I always I get marketing knowledge and skills. This is where there causes confusion from my clients. At the higher level, they really ask for marketing knowledge and skills, but what they really want is an ability to run a business. They want to know how they work in team and how they interact with other members. I think they are really asking about the managerial skills.
What are the skills that the applicants claim they have?
Analytical, IT, critical thinking, research and marketing skills.
Appendix 4 Page 60
What were the skills that you believed should be emphasised more within the applicants that you see?
Leadership, managerial, interpersonal and financial skills. I employ marketing managers, not managers who are marketers. The distinction is that these candidates are marketers first and foremost who can manage departments. They must understand people and how to manage them. I get this a lot from my clients who say they need people who are capable of running a team and can contribute to the company. Leadership skills are rare from my experience. Interpersonal skills include networking which is crucial in relationship building and in some cases, career development. My clients often do not want time for their marketing manager to settle in which was the case previously. The idea of the honey moon is over. Clients want results, fast. Many of my clients demand that marketers understand the costs and bottom line. Written communication skills are poor as I see many grammar and spelling mistakes in the resumes. This is at all levels.
What are the specific tasks that your clients ask for experience in?
Creativity, thinking outside the square, achieving and setting budgets, use of all elements of the marketing mix, particularly promotions and brands. Regardless of the level, the idea of brands and technology tasks are common requests. Branding particularly as more and more enter the marketplace; many clients want to see experience in how they overcome it or deal with it. A lot of relationship with major stakeholders. I hear that marketers are required to get out of their office more and this is reflected with the requests for relationship skills and probably industry experience as well. For marketing directors and alike, corporate communications where they write policy or have direct contact with the board.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that are common requests from your clients?
Financial, planning and new product development – What you do not have is time frames. All of these tasks could be done but how long. The last thing any company wants is a marketer who spends all year doing one thing, only to find out when they produce copy, the opportunity has finished. When I hear about new product development from my clients, I really think they are asking to see if the clients have started something from scratch and finished it. To me, new product development requires a lot of tasks and skills in order to achieve success.
Appendix 4 Page 61
APPENDIX 4.20: INTERVIEW NO. 20 Position – Management Consultant Do you have a business degree? – Yes Experience – 10 years
QUESTIONS COMMENTS What are the major skills from your experience in recruitment are the key skills for a marketer?
Comprehension of marketing, decisions making, financial interpersonal, negotiation with staff and problem solving skills.
Why? We employ senior marketers who are capable of thinking big picture. Many of the clients are after candidates who can run a business. Those who can normally are pretty successful. The ability to take over a department, make decisions and run with it. Marketing at this level is not an important skill, though all the applicants for these positions have a lot of experience in it. I would rather say business skills. These include communication, negotiation, decision making, analytical, managerial, leadership and financial skills. Really, it is not the skills you have, it is how you use them. I am after skills that contribute to the big picture or in other words, the bottom line. This could be the reason why I am seeing more emphasis on financial skills from my clients.
What are the skills your clients ask for?
Since there are many companies exporting, another language is becoming more popular now. The skill to export products and to create relationships is becoming more common or experience in this skill. In other words, relationship building with external partners. I see this as adding value to the company. Any marketing professional who can show this, will be gainfully employed by my clients. This could be in terms of new skills such as creativity, relationships with other stakeholders, leadership which by my own experience is really lacking in all facets of business, negotiation and possibly database management. The evidence of brand and promotional exposure is common, though they are really tasks. Since many marketers do not have secretaries, the marketing manager must be able to write well. This creates a sense of professionalism and company standing. Nobody will have credibility if they cannot write well, it looks poor.
Appendix 4 Page 62
What are the skills that the applicants claim they have?
Research, planning, analytical, marketing, communication both verbal and written.
What were the skills that you believed should be emphasised more within the applicants that you see?
Interpersonal and decision making. Many of the resumes are poor with spelling mistakes in them, so written communication I also include. I often believe this is not given the importance it deserves. Well-constructed copy is really a skill and many applicants cannot write it Relationship building in terms of internal and external staff. Communication skills is taught so broadly with many applicants are good at some areas and not at other sections. It really can be the deal breaker. Even at this level, there are often holes in their communication skills or areas that need improvement.
What are the specific tasks that your clients ask for experience in?
Planning, new product development and promotion budgets. Particularly in FMCG markets where marketers have been given large promotional budgets or their relationship with the advertising agency becomes important. Unless they have a lot of experience in dealing with these partners, they can often be let astray. Clients do not want this to happen, so their ability to see the big picture is often requested. More and corporate communications and the ability to write policy as well as a focus on brand strategies. Probably the biggest is business development which something I would associate with sales. Also, management always is included and provide examples of it.
Looking at the CIM model, is there any tasks that you would add that are common requests from your clients?
Financial, business development, planning, managerial sub-sections (Planning, leading, organising and controlling). In a similar way to how the 4P’s have been divided up. Given my experience there should be another section, career motivations. I often use the word General management opportunities to get marketers to apply or use it to create the impression of job prospects. It works very well as a career enticement. This tells me that marketing is often used as a stepping stone to higher positions. Business development is something that should be added. Marketers must be seen to add to the company.
Appendix 5 Page 1
APPENDIX 5: ROLES AND SKILLS FREQUENTLY FOUND IN
JOB ADVERTISEMENTS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS
There were 500 advertisements over a 4 month period from newspapers and web-site
within Australia.
Common Roles found in Marketing Job Applications
Occurrence in Job Advertisements
%
Relate to CIM Framework
Marketing mix applications 45 Implementation of
Marketing Programs
Results focused 45 Measure effectiveness
Communication strategies 45 Implementation of
Marketing Programs
Budget focused 40 Financials
Strategy 38 Strategy and Planning
Team orientated 35 Managing People
Brand development 35 Brands
Financial 35 Financials
Manage customers 35 Implementation of
Marketing Programs
Analyse market trends 35 Research and
Analysis
Industry specific knowledge 35
Management 30 Managing People
Product Strategy 25 Implementation of
Marketing Programs
Manage relationships with internal and external
stakeholders 20
Managing People
Project management 20 Implementation of
Marketing Programs
New Product Launch 20 Implementation of
Marketing Programs
Pricing 15 Implementation of
Marketing Programs
Sales Experience 15
Team dynamics 10
Internet Experience 7
Appendix 5 Page 2
ANALYSIS OF ROLES
The results suggest a liking for the 4P’s applications. This would be included in the
implementation and marketing programs within the CIM framework. These results are
consistent with the study by Schlee and Harich (2010) who also found a high
emphasis on these tasks in their study. Furthermore, the category of implementation
and marketing programs is considered to be associated with 35%, as distinct to the
CIM Professional Standard Framework of 47.8%. The difference perhaps associated
with the level of marketer under investigation in this research.
Budgets and financials were mentioned in 40% and 35% respectively of the common
roles found in the Job Advertisements. This provides more evidence for finance to be
included in the revised new revised CIM Professional Framework.
The results also suggest a higher number of tasks associated with managing people
with 15% of the tasks are associated with managing people, while the CIM
Professional Framework tasks were only 8.9%. The number of times Schlee and
Harich (2010) reported management related task was 41.6%, though this refers to
manage marketing functions, which could possibly be to other tasks than the
management of people
Appendix 6 Page 1
APPENDIX 6: SKILLS FREQUENTLY FOUND IN JOB
ADVERTISEMENTS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS
Common Skills found in Marketing Job Applications
Occurrence in Job Advertisements
%
Verbal communication
45
Superior marketing comprehension skills 40
Written communication 38
Decision making 35
People management 30
Negotiation 25
Analytical 25
Motivated 20
Creativity 20
Financial 20
IT 15
Relationship building with internal and external stakeholders 15
Leadership 10
Team 10
ANALYSIS OF JOB ADVERTISEMENTS
The analysis of the results suggests the importance of communication skills, both
written and verbal communication skills for marketing managers. This is consistent
with the research by Bennett, 2002; Gray, etal.,(2007); Schlee and Harich (2010).
Further evidence by Bennett (2002) ranked communication as the most important
skill. The results from the advertisements also confirm the importance of
communication skills with 45% of advertisements having verbal communication as a
necessary skill.
Decision making skills is also considered very important from the job advertisements
analysed as it was included 35% of the time. This is consistent with the research by
Appendix 6 Page 2
Bruce and Schoenfeld (2006); Dacko, (2006), and Chansa-ngavej and Sarawat,
(2008). The evidence supports its inclusion for the next phase; however, there are
studies that suggest an alternative view (Bennett, 2002). In any event, the need to
make accurate decisions by professionals is an essential skill of the established
marketer. As such, they are included in the skill set-under investigation.
Analytical skills are well acknowledged as important to a marketer. The study by
Bennett (2002) found they were mentioned in 22% of the advertisements surveyed.
Further evidence by Benett (2002) on managerial positions indicated analytical skills
were requested in 36% of all the advertisements. These results suggest the importance
of analytical skills to be included in the research.
Financial skills was included in 20% of the advertisements surveyed, supporting their
inclusion in the skills sets to be used in the expert interviews. Further evidence by
Melaia, et al., (2008) suggested that financial skills were ranked 12th out of 49
important competences. The significance of marketing measurement in terms of costs
and performance based indicators contributes to the importance of financial skills for
the established marketing professional. They are therefore included in the research.
Negotiation skills are often considered a multiple layered skill (Lewicki, 1977). In this
sense, it is quite possible they are linked to other skills considered in this research.
Marketers who often interact with staff and customers may consider these as different
needs for the skill. For that reason, negotiation will be split between internal
(negotiation with staff) and external (negotiation with suppliers). Its importance from
the studies by Maes, Weldy and Icenogle (1997); Duke (2002); Gray, et al., (2007)
support the inclusion of this skill into the survey for the next phase. Furthermore,
research by O’Callaghan (2002) suggests its importance may increase as the amount
of work increases. Negotiation skills were found in 25% of the advertisements
surveyed and it is important to include in the survey for further research in this thesis.
Leadership was noted in only 10% of the advertisements in the three month period. A
similar result in the research by Bennett (2002) appeared to have considerably support
for the results from the advertisements in this research. Dacko (2006) notes its
importance for post-graduate graduates as well as Maes, et al., (1997). Leadership
Appendix 6 Page 3
appears acknowledged as an important skill in the literature and is also included in the
research.
Creativity, even though many scholars have not included it in their research, other
studies by Gray, et al., (2007), found it was contained in 9% of the advertisements
surveyed. This is supported by Benett (2002) however the study by Schlee and Harich
(2010) suggested that creative problem solving skills were in 26.6% of the job listings
in their research. As markets continually change, the need for continual innovations
into company’s product offering may have to change. The need for creative skills may
become more apparent. Currently, there appears little evidence on whether this skill is
important for the professional marketer to become established in their career.
People management would appear to be very important for potential marketers. It was
observed to be in 30% of the marketing professional advertisements over the 3 month
period. In considering the role of a marketing manager, and their dependency of
getting work through other departments, the use of managerial skills would appear
paramount for their position. Managerial skill has been well researched, but not as a
marketing manager. Their inclusion therefore is determine the extent of how
marketing managers work through other people in various departments.
Appendix 7 Page 1
APPENDIX 7: ROLES FREQUENTLY FOUND IN JOB
DESCRIPTIONS FOR MARKETING MANAGERS
There were 500 advertisements over a 3 month period from newspapers and web-sites
within Australia.
Common Roles found in Marketing Job Descriptions Budget Business Development Communication with agencies and other cross functional personnel Corporate Communications Customer retention strategies Develop and Administer marketing database Develop business unit strategies developing customer acquisition Divisional marketing plans Financial accountability Industry experience Manage Marketing Department or Staff Manage media relations Manage Suppliers Management of team Monthly reporting Online marketing strategies Research and Develop brand strategies
Appendix 8 Page 1
APPENDIX 8: COVER SHEET OF SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE Date Name (field to include for mail merge) Position (field to include for mail merge) Company (field to include for mail merge) Address (field to include for mail merge) Dear Name (field to include for mail merge) An exploratory examination of the skills and competencies required by marketing professionals
We need your help I am currently a PhD student in the Faculty of Business and Enterprise at Swinburne University, under the supervision of Associate Professor Dr Linda Brennan. This thesis explores the type of skills and competencies that marketing professionals learn which aid in the development of a successful marketing career. Participation in this research is voluntary but your help will assist us in understanding what marketing educators need to provide in their subjects and programs that will help marketing professionals achieve the best career outcomes. For marketing professionals, knowledge of these skills will help them to plan their professional development and careers. Your name has been randomly selected from the List Bank database of marketing professionals. We hope you are in a position to help us identify the skills considered necessary for successful marketing professionals at various levels of career development. Completing this survey should take you about 20 to 30 minutes. There are no details on the survey that will enable the researchers to identify individuals. However, if you want a copy of the top line results sent to you, please include a business card which will be separated from the survey prior to data entry. You can also send a business card in a separate envelope to the reply paid address provided. All data collected will be protected according to the requirements of Swinburne University’s policies on the conduct of research. The only people who will have access to the data are the Principal Investigator and Mr John Boyd-Gerny. It is hoped that this research will lead to publications in journals and at conferences in addition to a thesis. You will not be identifiable from the results and therefore your privacy is assured. If you would like us to answer questions about this research, please feel free to contact John Boyd Gerny on 0419 369 114 or Associate Professor Brennan on 9214 4861 Yours Sincerely John Boyd-Gerny Dr. Linda Brennan PhD Student Associate Professor of Business and Enterprise Swinburne University of Technology If you have any complaints about the conduct of this research, please feel free to contact either:
Appendix 9 Page 1
APPENDIX 9: SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
Q1 Have you been employed in a marketing
position?
Please circle the appropriate box or boxes
Yes 1
No 2
If no, thank-you for your participation.
DEMOGRAPHICS
Q2 What is your current title?
Please circle the appropriate box or boxes
Marketing Director 1
National Marketing Manager 2
Marketing Manager 3
Product Manager 4
National Sales Manager 5
Sales Manager 6
State Manager 7
Brand Manager 8
Promotions Manager 9
Other please specify___________________ 10
Q3 How many years have you been employed
in a marketing role?
Please circle the appropriate box or boxes
Less than 1 year 1
1- 3 years 2
3-5 years 3
5 -10 years 4
Greater than 10 years 5
Appendix 9 Page 2
SKILLS
Q 4 Which of these skills have been important for your success in
your marketing career?
Very
Insignificant
Extremely
Significant
Please circle your response
Analytical skills 1 2 3 4 5
Communication skills 1 2 3 4 5
Comprehension of marketing skills 1 2 3 4 5
Creative thinking skills 1 2 3 4 5
Critical thinking skills 1 2 3 4 5
Decision making skills 1 2 3 4 5
Financial skills 1 2 3 4 5
Interpersonal skills( talking, listening, networking etc) 1 2 3 4 5
Leadership skills 1 2 3 4 5
Negotiation with staff 1 2 3 4 5
Negotiation with suppliers 1 2 3 4 5
People Management skills 1 2 3 4 5
Problem Solving skills 1 2 3 4 5
Verbal communication 1 2 3 4 5
Written communication 1 2 3 4 5
Q 5a What is your highest education level you
have completed or are now completing?
Please circle the appropriate box or boxes
Bachelor 1
Post Graduate Diploma 2
Post Graduate Certificate 3
Masters 4
PhD 5
Appendix 9 Page 3
Q 5b How many years since you have
graduated from your highest graduate degree?
Please circle the appropriate box
Still completing it 1
< 1 year 2
>1-3 years 3
>4-6 years 4
Greater than 6 years 5
Q 6 How would you rate the coverage of these skills in your post
graduate marketing education?
Very
Insignificant
Extremely
Significant
Please circle your response
Analytical skills 1 2 3 4 5
Communication skills 1 2 3 4 5
Comprehension of marketing skills 1 2 3 4 5
Creative thinking skills 1 2 3 4 5
Critical thinking skills 1 2 3 4 5
Decision making skills 1 2 3 4 5
Financial skills 1 2 3 4 5
Interpersonal skills( talking, listening, networking etc) 1 2 3 4 5
Leadership skills 1 2 3 4 5
Negotiation with staff 1 2 3 4 5
Negotiation with suppliers 1 2 3 4 5
People Management skills 1 2 3 4 5
Problem Solving skills 1 2 3 4 5
Verbal communication 1 2 3 4 5
Written communication 1 2 3 4 5
Appendix 9 Page 4
Q 7 How much importance has been given to the following skill sets in
your post graduate marketing programs?
Very
Insignifican
t
Extremely
Significant
Please circle your response
Analytical skills 1 2 3 4 5
Communication skills 1 2 3 4 5
Comprehension of marketing skills 1 2 3 4 5
Creative thinking skills 1 2 3 4 5
Critical thinking skills 1 2 3 4 5
Decision making skills 1 2 3 4 5
Financial skills 1 2 3 4 5
Interpersonal skills( talking, listening, networking etc) 1 2 3 4 5
Leadership skills 1 2 3 4 5
Negotiation with staff 1 2 3 4 5
Negotiation with suppliers 1 2 3 4 5
People Management skills 1 2 3 4 5
Problem Solving skills 1 2 3 4 5
Verbal communication 1 2 3 4 5
Written communication 1 2 3 4 5
Q 8 Have you ever had your generic skills level
evaluated?
Please circle the appropriate box
Yes 1
No 2
Appendix 9 Page 5
Q 9 When was the last time you assembled a
formal marketing plan?
Please circle the appropriate box
Never 1
< 1 year 2
1-2 years 3
3-4 years 4
Greater than 4 years 5
If you answer, please go to question 14.
Q 10 How many people including you were
involved in the development of the marketing
plan?
Please circle the appropriate box
Only you (1) 1
2-4 2
5-7 3
8-10 4
Greater than 10 5
Appendix 9 Page 6
This next question is concerned with the market plan. Please circle your response
Q 11 How important are the skill sets below in developing your
marketing plans?
Very
Insignificant
Extremely
Significant
Please circle your response
Analytical skills 1 2 3 4 5
Communication skills 1 2 3 4 5
Comprehension of marketing skills 1 2 3 4 5
Creative thinking skills 1 2 3 4 5
Critical thinking skills 1 2 3 4 5
Decision making skills 1 2 3 4 5
Financial skills 1 2 3 4 5
Interpersonal skills( talking, listening, networking etc) 1 2 3 4 5
Leadership skills 1 2 3 4 5
Negotiation with staff 1 2 3 4 5
Negotiation with suppliers 1 2 3 4 5
People Management skills 1 2 3 4 5
Problem Solving skills 1 2 3 4 5
Verbal communication 1 2 3 4 5
Written communication 1 2 3 4 5
Appendix 9 Page 7
Marketing Research
The understanding of how to analyse data and the concepts of marketing research are an important
skill. This section considers its importance
Q 12 Which of these statements do you consider important for
marketing research within your marketing position?
Very
Insignificant
Extremely
Significant
Please circle your response.
Understand the market research process 1 2 3 4 5
How to evaluate consumer research 1 2 3 4 5
How to interpret market research data 1 2 3 4 5
Ability to source information 1 2 3 4 5
Knowledge of marketing research 1 2 3 4 5
How to write a marketing research brief 1 2 3 4 5
How to liaise with marketing research agencies 1 2 3 4 5
The types of marketing research available to marketers 1 2 3 4 5
How to select the right marketing research agency 1 2 3 4 5
Apply marketing research to solve marketing problems 1 2 3 4 5
To interpret computer developed reports 1 2 3 4 5
Appendix 9 Page 8
The next section is concerned with the implementation and evaluation of your marketing plans
Q 13 Which of these statements do you consider important for the
implementation of your marketing plans?
Very
Insignificant
Extremely
Significant
Please circle your response
Allocation of resources 1 2 3 4 5
Analyse marketing information 1 2 3 4 5
Coordination of staff 1 2 3 4 5
Database development and maintenance 1 2 3 4 5
Internal marketing 1 2 3 4 5
Leadership 1 2 3 4 5
Liaise across departments 1 2 3 4 5
Project Management 1 2 3 4 5
Recruitment 1 2 3 4 5
Time frame 1 2 3 4 5
Training of staff 1 2 3 4 5
Appendix 9 Page 9
The aim of this question is to determine when you use these skills in the development, implementation and evaluation of your marketing plan. Thinking about the skills in the
columns and the tasks in the rows, please read each task and circle the skill (please select only one skill) that allowed you to complete the task. Please circle the box/boxes
below.
TASK SKILLS
Q 14 In order to implement
your marketing plans,
which of the following skills
do you use for the
components listed below?
Communication Critical
Thinking
Creativity Management Problem
Solving
Leadership Negotiation Marketing
Comprehension
1 = Communication, 2 = Critical Thinking, 3 = Creativity, 4 = Management, 5 = Problem Solving, 6 = Leadership, 7 = Negotiation, 8 = Marketing Knowledge,
Marketing Objectives 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Marketing Strategy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Situation Analysis 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Target Market and
Segmentation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Marketing Tactics (Marketing
Mix) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Financials 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Implementation 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Monitoring and control 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Appendix 9 Page 10
Q 15 Which of these tasks do you perform in your current
position? 1 2 3 4 2
Very
Insignificant
Extremely
Significant
1 = rarely do it the task, 2 = once a year, 3 = 2-4 times in a year,
4 = 5 – 11 times in a year, 5 = monthly or even more
Assess company performance and competitor analysis 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Contribute to the company's ability to manage change 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Co-ordinate marketing activities among sales and marketing divisions 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Determine the strategic direction of marketing portfolio (department 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Develop a marketing plan 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Develop branding strategy 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Develop effective channels to meet organisations objectives 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Develop pricing strategy 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Develop, monitor and control marketing budgets 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Direct and support for marketing intermediaries 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Establish the project management hierarchy in line with company’s
objectives 1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Implement communication mix for portfolio or company 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Implement pricing strategy consistent with corporate objectives 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Initiate new product development programs 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Q16 Which of these tasks do you
consider most important?
Appendix 9 Page 11
Instigate a customer relationship strategy 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Maintain a competitive product portfolio 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Manage customer analysis 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Manage the running of projects 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Management of staff 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Market reports to senior management 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Monitor actual results against planned performance 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Promote development of brands across the organisational portfolios 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Recommend market research projects 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Appendix 9 Page 12
The aim of this question is to determine which of these skills you use in the tasks of performing a marketing position. Thinking about the skills in the columns and the tasks
in the rows, please read each task and the circle the skill (please circle only one) that allowed you to complete the task. Please circle the box/boxes below
TASK SKILLS
Q 17 Which of these
skills allowed you to
accomplish these
task?
Communication Critical
Thinking
Creativity Management Problem
Solving
Leadership Negotiation Marketing
Comprehension
Assess company
performance and
competitor analysis
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Contribute to the
company’s ability to
manage change
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Co-ordinate marketing
activities among sales
and marketing
divisions
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Determine the strategic
direction of marketing
portfolio (department
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Appendix 9 Page 13
Q 17 Which of these
skills allowed you to
accomplish these
task?
Communication Critical
Thinking
Creativity Management Problem
Solving
Leadership Negotiation Marketing
Comprehension
Develop a marketing
plan
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Develop branding
strategy
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Develop effective
channels to meet
organisations
objectives
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Develop pricing
strategy
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Develop, monitor and
control marketing
budgets
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Direct and support for
marketing
intermediaries
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Establish the project 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Appendix 9 Page 14
Q 17 Which of these
skills allowed you to
accomplish these
task?
Communication Critical
Thinking
Creativity Management Problem
Solving
Leadership Negotiation Marketing
Comprehension
management hierarchy
in line with company’s
objectives
Implement
communication mix for
portfolio or company
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Implement pricing
strategy consistent with
corporate objectives
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Initiate new product
development programs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Instigate a customer
relationship strategy
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Maintain a competitive
product portfolio
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Manage customer
analysis
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Manage the running of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Appendix 9 Page 15
Q 17 Which of these
skills allowed you to
accomplish these
task?
Communication Critical
Thinking
Creativity Management Problem
Solving
Leadership Negotiation Marketing
Comprehension
projects
Management of staff 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Market reports to
senior management
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Monitor actual results
against planned
performance
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Promote development
of brands across the
organisational
portfolios
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Recommend market
research projects
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Appendix 9 Page 16
Demographics This section is about you. It will help us look at the difference between industries and size of company
with respect to the marketing plans and activities.
Approximately many full time employees in
your present company in Australia?
Please circle your response (Use Australia only)
< 10 1
10 – 50 employees 2
51-100 employees 3
Greater than 100 employees 4
What industry category are you currently
working in?
Please circle your response
Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing and Hunting 1
Mining 2
Manufacturing 3
Electricity, Gas and Water Supply 4
Construction 5
Wholesaling 5
Accommodation, Cafes and Restaurants 6
Transport and Storage 7
Communication Services 8
Finance and Insurance 9
Property and Business Services 10
Government Administration and defence 11
Education 12
Health and Community Services 13
Cultural and Recreational Services 14
Other______________________________ 15
Appendix 9 Page 17
The last section of the survey is concerned with the determining the career aspirations and values of a
successful marketing manager. Please circle the number that corresponds to your motive.
Anchor Meaning Completely
true
Completely
false
Managerial
Importance
1 2 3 4 5
The process of supervising, influencing, leading, and
controlling people at all levels are important.
To be in a position of leadership and influence.
To rise to a position of leadership and influence
across the business domains.
I would like to reach a level of responsibility in an
organisation where my decisions really make a
difference.
I want to achieve a position which gives me the
opportunity to combine analytical competence with
supervision of people.
Technical and
Functional
Competence
To build my career around some specific marketing
or technical area
Remaining in my specialised area as opposed to
being promoted out of my area of expertise.
Remaining in my area of expertise rather than being
promoted into general management.
I will accept a general management position only if it
is in my area of expertise.
I would leave my organisation rather than be
promoted out of my marketing area.
Autonomy
The chance to pursue my own lifestyle and not be
constrained by the rules of an organisation.
A career which is free from organisational
restrictions.
A career which permits a maximum freedom and
autonomy to choose my own work hours.
During my career I have been mainly concerned with
my own sense of freedom and autonomy.
I do not want to be constrained by either an
Appendix 9 Page 18
Anchor Meaning Completely
true
Completely
false
organisation or the business world.
Organisational
Stability
An organisation which will provide security through
guaranteed work, benefits, and good retirement
program.
An organisation which will give me long run
stability.
I prefer to work for an organisation which provides
lifetime employment.
Geographic
Security
Remaining in one geographic area rather than being
prompted into moving because of a promotion.
It is important for me to remain in my present
geographical location rather than to move because of
promotion or new job assignment.
I prefer to work for an organisation that will permit
me to remain within one country.
Sense of
Service
The use of my interpersonal and helping skills in the
service of others.
The process of seeing others changes because of my
effort.
Being able to use my skills and talents in the service
of an important cause.
I have always sought a career in which I could be of
service to others.
I want a career in which l can be committed and
devoted to an important cause.
Lifestyle
Integration
Developing a life cycle that balances my career and
family needs.
Developing a career that permits me to continue to
pursue my own lifestyle.
Appendix 9 Page 19
Anchor Meaning Completely
true
Completely
false
I have always tried to give equal weight to my family
and to my career.
A career is worthwhile only if it enables me to lead
my life in my own way.
Choosing and maintaining a certain lifestyle is more
important than is career success.
Entrepreneurial
Creativity
To be able to create or build something that is
entirely my own product or idea.
The use of my skills in building a new product
portfolio
I have been motivated throughout my career by the
number of ideas or products which I have been
directly involved in creating.
Entrepreneurial activities are an important part of my
career.
I have always wanted to start and build up a product
portfolio.
Pure Challenge
Working on problems that are almost insoluble.
Competing with and winning out over others.
The real challenge in my career has been confronting
and solving tough problems, no matter what area they
were in.
Competing and winning are the most exciting parts of
my career.
I feel successful only if l am constantly challenged by
a tough problem or a competitive situation.
Thank-you for your time and effort
Appendix 10 Page 1
APPENDIX 10 – ETHICS APPROVAL FOR STUDY
Appendix 11 Page 1
APPENDIX 11 – CIM PROFESSIONAL STANDARD
FRAMEWORK
RESEARCH & ANALYSIS
STRATEGY & PLANNING
BRANDS
SCOPE
Understand markets
Develop strategy and marketing plans
Develop and manage brands and reputation
BUSINESS COMPETENCY
Obtain information
about markets
Analyse information
Influence
strategy formulation
Produce marketing plans
Create effective brands
Manage brands
and brand reputation
SENIOR (direct/guide)
Define
intelligence requirements and lead the intelligence gathering process
Develop a
detailed understanding
of the organisation
and its environment
Promote a
strong market orientation
& influence strategy
formulation &
investment decisions
Specify and direct
the marketing planning process
Promote
organisation-wide innovation
/cooperation in the development of
brands
Distil the essence of
brands and direct/coordinate a portfolio of brands
CIM Professional Postgraduate Diploma in Marketing
MANAGER (manage)
Identify
information requirements and manage
research projects and the MkIS
Evaluate and present
information for business advantage
Contribute information and ideas to the strategy
process
Create competitive operational marketing
plans
Create and build competitive brands
Manage competitive
brands and coordinate brand support activities
CIM Professional Diploma in Marketing
PRACTITIONER
(do)
Collect information
Interpret and
present information
Contribute information and ideas to the strategy
process
Contribute to the
production of marketing plans
and budgets
Contribute to the
creation and building of brands
Manage a competitive brand
CIM Professional Certificate in Marketing
SUPPORT (support)
Support the information gathering process
Support the analysis process
Support
information gathering as part of the
strategy process
Contribute information to
marketing plans
Assist in the creation
and building of brands
Assist in the management of
brands
CIM Introductory Certificate in Marketing
Appendix 11 Page 2
IMPLEMENTING MARKETING PROGRAMMES
SCOPE
Communicate with stakeholders
Manage products and services Manage and set price
Manage channels
Manage customer relationships
Manage programmes and projects
BUSINESS COMPETENCY
Develop effective communications
Deliver effective communications
Develop
competitive products &
services
Manage
competitive products &
services
Develop
competitive pricing policies
Implement pricing
policies
Develop effective
channels to market
Provide support to channel members
Maintain and
improve customer
relationships
Deliver effective
customer service
Plan and prepare projects
Manage the running of
programmes and projects
SENIOR (direct/guide)
Develop and direct
an integrated marketing
communications strategy
Lead the
implementation of the integrated
marketing communications
strategy
Promote organisation-
wide innovation/ cooperation in
the development of products
and services
Direct and maintain competitive
product/service portfolios
Promote the strategic and
creative use of pricing
Lead the implementation of the strategic and
creative use of pricing
Select and monitor
channels to meet the organisation’s needs in a
changing environment
Direct and control support
to channel members
Promote and
create a customer orientation and infrastructure
for customer
relationships
Direct and control
information and activities that deliver customer
relationships and service
Establish/maintain a
project management
framework in line with strategic
objectives
Direct and control the
delivery of programmes and projects
CIM Professional Postgraduate Diploma in Marketing CIM Professional Postgraduate Diploma in Marketing
MANAGER (manage)
Create effective communications
plans
Manage communications
activities
Prepare business case for a product/service
and progress it to market
Manage and
maintain competitive products/
services or portfolio
Create competitive and sustainable
pricing strategies
Manage
implementation and monitor
the effectiveness of pricing strategies
Establish and develop effective support for channels to market
Manage and monitor support to channel members
Establish and
monitor activities and information for delivering effective
customer relationships
Manage and monitor provision of effective
customer service
Plan marketing projects and
prepare budgets
Manage and report on delivery against plan
and objectives
CIM Professional Diploma in Marketing CIM Professional Diploma in Marketing
PRACTITIONER
(do)
Develop indirect and
direct communications
Deliver direct or
indirect communications
Contribute to the development of
products and services
Manage and maintain
a competitive product/ service
Contribute to the development of pricing policies
Implement pricing
policies
Develop effective
channels to market
Provide support to channel members
Manage or
support customer
relationships
Deliver effective
customer service
Contribute to
planning and budget preparation
Monitor and report on
project activities
CIM Professional Certificate in Marketing CIM Professional Certificate in Marketing
SUPPORT (support)
Assist in the development of communications
Assist in the delivery of
communications
Assist in the
development of products and
services
Support the
management of products/ services
Support the development of pricing policies
Support the implementation of
pricing policies
Support the
development of effective
channels to market
Assist in supporting
channel members
Assist in managing
or supporting customer
relationships
Assist in delivering effective customer
service
Support project planning and
budget preparation
Assist in
monitoring, documentation and
reporting on projects
CIM Introductory Certificate in Marketing CIM Introductory Certificate in Marketing
Appendix 11 Page 3
MEASURE EFFECTIVENESS
MANAGING PEOPLE
Monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of marketing Managing marketing teams
Measure the effectiveness of marketing
activities
Explain the success or failure of marketing activities
Develop teams and individuals to enhance marketing performance
Work with other functions and disciplines
Enhance own performance
Manage change
Establish and promote the use of metrics to
improve marketing effectiveness
Create a system of critical review and appraisal to inform future marketing
activity
Provide professional leadership and develop a cooperative environment
Promote cross functional working linked
to brands & integrated marketing activities
Promote and create an environment for career and self- development
Contribute to organisational change &
define & communicate the need for change
within the dept
CIM Professional Postgraduate Diploma in Marketing
Define measurements appropriate to the plan or business case and ensure they are
undertaken
Evaluate activities and identify
improvements using measurement data
Manage a marketing team
Maintain relationships with other functions and disciplines within the organisation
Encourage and help others to develop
their competencies relevant to a marketing role
Embrace change others to modify behaviours and
attitudes
CIM Professional Diploma in Marketing
Collect, synthesise, analyse and report measurement data
Participate in reviews of marketing activities using
measurement data
Contribute to effective performance as a member of
a team
Exchange information with others inside and outside the marketing function
Review and develop one’s
competencies
Embrace change behaviours and attitudes
CIM Professional Certificate in Marketing
Support collection and reporting of measurement data
Support reviews of marketing activities
Contribute to effective performance as a
member of a team
Assist in the exchange of information with others inside & outside the marketing
function
Review and develop one’s competencies
Embrace change and modify behaviours
and attitudes
CIM Introductory Certificate in Marketing
Appendix 12 Page 1
APPENDIX 12: FULL ANALYSIS OF HYPOTHESIS 5.2.
H 5.2: The 23 tasks of the CIM Professional Framework model are completed in accordance
with their importance.
This section examines the frequency with which tasks are undertaken by marketing managers.
The participants were asked how often they completed the tasks according to the adapted CIM
Professional Standard Framework. The completion frequency of the tasks was measured based
on the scale of rarely do the task, once a year, 2-4 times per year, 5-11 times per year, and
monthly or more. The results are derived from Question 15 (Which of these tasks do your
perform in your current position?) and Question 16 (Which of these tasks do you consider most
important to your success?) of the survey instrument.
It is considered that an understanding of the frequency of undertaking marketing tasks would
contribute to the richness of information on the importance of marketing tasks. Accordingly, in
this section the important marketing tasks are examined in the context of the frequency of
occurrence of the task. Table 5.17 lists the tasks undertaken by a marketing manager by
importance and frequency of conduct. A review of the results will allow other marketers to
develop a good appreciation of the activities and tasks that are deemed to be of importance to a
marketing manager, and therefore aid them in career development and establishment.
The data analysis of task frequency substantiates the findings of the importance of the 23 tasks
that were examined. In all of the 23 tasks examined, the most common response was roughly
35% of the tasks (eight out of 23) were completed monthly or more, only 4% (one out of 23)
chose the completed their task 5-11 times per year as the most common response, 26% (six out
of 23) selected 2-4 times per year as the most common response, 26% (six out of 23) selected
monthly as their most common response, while only 9% (two out of 23) selected rarely do the
task as the most common response.
Appendix 12 Page 2
The two tasks that the respondents rarely complete the task were: “recommend market research
projects” (34.70%) and “develop effective channels” (32.18%). This finding again reinforces
the findings on task importance, where these tasks were not identified among the most highly
rated tasks, but were ranked 23 and 17 respectively. However, the three most important tasks;
“management of staff, “, “co-ordinate marketing activities among sales and marketing
divisions” and “assess company performance and competitor analysis”, the respondents most
common answer was monthly or more. The results suggest the important tasks needed for the
establishment of the marketing manager and the numbers of times they are attempted are
consistent. In other words, the marketing managers in this thesis understand which are the
important tasks and attempt these very regularly. The marketing tasks are next discussed
individually to obtain a more complete understanding of the interplay between perceptions of
task importance and frequency of conduct.
Research and Analysis
In considering the activity of research and analysis, two tasks are identified from the CIM
Professional Framework model: recommend market research projects, and assess company
performance and competitor analysis. The data reveals that only around 65% of respondents
recommend market research projects with some regularity, with around 34.7% of respondents
indicating that they rarely do the task. This finding indicates a substantial proportion of
participants are not involved in recommending marketing research. The result may reflect the
specialist nature of marketing research. An alternative explanation may be the respondents’
lack of interest in undertaking primary research, given the often cited explosion of customer
information available from internal sources. The result has implications for marketing
programs as these currently provide units in marketing research which focuses on primary
research techniques, but less often provide units which develop skills in data mining and
analysis. This outcome may point to the need for a review of the content of traditional
marketing research programs to place more focus on the development of skills in relation to
secondary data analysis.
The second task, “assess company performance and competitor analysis” would appear to be
undertaken by most respondents on a highly regular basis. The data shows only 1.27% of
respondents rarely undertake this task, and 56.13% conduct the task monthly, with another
Appendix 12 Page 3
22% conducting the task 5 to 11 times a year. This task had been very highly ranked as the
third most important task, and the high frequency of undertaking this task underscores the
finding of a high importance of the task. The importance of the task may be linked to the
outcomes of the analysis, rather than the task itself. The conclusions and the action this task
entails are what will influence the marketing manager’s career success. The high ranking of
this task confirms the importance of the marketing manager, not to understand how to do
marketing research, but their ability to analyse the results in an attempt to interpret and act on
marketing opportunities and threats.
Strategy and Planning
In considering the activity of strategy and planning, two tasks are identified: determine the
strategic direction of marketing portfolio, and develop a marketing plan. The data displays only
around 89.7% of respondents determine the strategic direction of a portfolio with some
regularity, with 38.4% or respondents conducting the task once a year, and the other
participants conducting the task more frequently. The determination of strategic direction of
marketing portfolio was rated as a very high level of importance, ranked third. The task would
generally be considered a very high level activity for a professional marketer, and possibly the
restriction of this activity to the most highly placed marketers in the study may explain the
moderate level of frequency for this task.
The results reveal that only around 90.0% of respondents develop a marketing plan, with
61.84% of respondents conducting the plan on an annual basis, and another 19.3% developing
the plan 2 to 4 times a year, and 8.8% developing the plan more frequently. This high level of
planning activity is certainly consistent with the importance of the task, which is ranked 8 in
terms of importance. It is unclear as to why around 10% of respondents rarely undertake the
task, given the priority of such a task in most marketing functional areas.
Brands
In considering the activity of Brand, two tasks are identified: develop branding strategy and
promote development of brands across the organisational portfolios. The data reveals that
13.6% of respondents rarely develop a branding strategy. Conversely, 73.94% of respondents
undertake the task between once and 4 times a year. The task was not seen as among the most
important tasks, ranked 11 of 23 tasks. The results suggest that brand development is not an
Appendix 12 Page 4
ongoing priority of the participants. The level of respondents may be the reason for the lack of
importance to the branding task. Many of the respondents are senior and the tasks for branding
perhaps are a functional task for the respondents in this research.
The promotion of the brand appears to be a more commonly undertaken task, with only 7.93%
of participants reporting that they rarely undertake the task. The task is conducted once a year
by 20.3% of respondents, and more frequently by the others (73.4%), this task was not seen as
among the most important tasks, ranked 18 of 23 tasks under investigation.
So, whist the development of branding strategy is seen as the more important task compared to
promoting development of brands across the portfolios, the task in rarely undertaken by 13.6%
of respondents. In seeking to explain this finding, it could possibly reflect that fewer marketing
professionals participate in strategy development because of their years of experience, or
alternatively because of their preference to undertake the task.
Implementation of Marketing Programs
In considering the activity of Implementation of marketing programs, 11 tasks are identified.
Most of the 11 implementation tasks were undertaken by over 80% of respondents. The tasks
that had a high degree of respondents rarely doing the task were as follows: develop pricing
strategy (25.79%), implement pricing strategy (24.34%), and develop effective channels
(32.18%).
These three tasks had previously been identified as having a relatively low level of importance
relative to other tasks, being ranked 19, 12 and 17, respectively. This finding of a relatively
high level of non-performance of these tasks would seem to imply that these tasks are seen as
more specialist in nature. As a result, perhaps they may not be seen to be generally performed
by a marketing manager. Hence, these three tasks have been rated at a lower level of
importance, which appears consistent with their lack of relevance to the functioning of a
marketing manager.
As noted above most implementation tasks are generally undertaken by at least 80% of
respondents, and the activities have a conduct frequency of more than once a year. An
Appendix 12 Page 5
interesting exception to this pattern was the task of manage the running of projects, which had
only 7.8% of respondents rarely doing the task, and a very high frequency of conduct of the
task among those marketers that undertook the task. Some 33.8% of respondents undertook the
task on a monthly or basis, with an additional 58.8% of respondents undertaking the task
between 5 and 11 times per year. This finding of an exceptionally high level of frequency of
conduct of the task of managing projects is consistent with the high ranking of importance of
the task at seventh, and its importance to the career establishment of a marketing professional.
Measuring Effectiveness
In considering the activity of Brand, two tasks are identified: monitor actual results against
planned performance, and market reports to senior management. Only a very small number of
respondents (2.87%) reported that they rarely undertook these tasks. Moreover, both these
tasks were undertaken with a very high degree of frequency with over 50% of respondents
conducting these tasks on a monthly basis or more often. So, these are tasks that are conducted
with a high level of frequency and common to the marketing function.
Interestingly, there is a considerable difference between the rankings of the importance of
these tasks, with the monitoring task ranked at five and the reporting task ranked at 16. This
difference in importance ranking would seem to be explained by the higher importance ranking
being linked to the higher level function of monitoring, rather than the lower level function of
reporting. In order for the marketer to be established, the completion of these tasks would be a
high priority.
Managing People
In considering the activity of Managing people, three tasks were identified: management of
staff, co-ordinate marketing activities, and contribute to change management. The majority of
respondents undertook all three tasks, with only 7.43% and 1.0% rarely undertaking
management of staff, and co-ordination of marketing activities, respectively. So, not only were
most respondents undertaking these tasks, but also 67.91% respondents were undertaking the
task of management of staff, and co-ordination of marketing activities (65.5%), as being
undertaken on a monthly basis or more. These high levels of engagement and frequency of
these two tasks are seen to contribute to a very high level of ranking of their importance. In
identifying the tasks seen as most important to the establishment of a professional marketer, it
Appendix 12 Page 6
first seems strange that marketing management tasks are identified as most important, rather
than marketing tasks.
All participants indicated that they contributed to the company’s ability to manage change, and
53.7% of respondents indicated that they undertook this task with a frequency of monthly or
more. This finding no doubt reflects clearly the perception of the importance of this task, being
ranked ninth in terms of importance, even though it is not clearly linked to a marketing
function. These results add more light to the understanding of why managerial skills are seen
as most important to a marketing manager.
Financial Management
H 4.3.1: The financial tasks were an important task for the present established marketing
manager.
The last task under investigation is the ability to develop, monitor and control marketing
budgets. The results show that most respondents undertake this task, with only 2.0% of
respondents indicating that they rarely do this task. But, not only is there a high level of
engagement by respondents in this task, but 42% of the respondents conducted this task on a
monthly or more. The high level of engagement and frequency of conduct of financial
management is reflected in the assessment of the quite high ranking of the importance of the
skill at six (of 23), a skills that is not marketing in nature, but nevertheless seen as important
for today’s marketing professional’s career.
The discussion in this section has established a link between perceptions of task importance
and the frequency of the conduct of marketing tasks.
Appendix 12 Page 7
Table 5.11 Importance and Frequency of Marketing Tasks with the CIM Professional Standard Framework
Activity Task
Importance
of
Task
Ranking
Frequency of Task
Rarely do
Task
Once a
year
2-4 times
/ year
5-11 times
/ year
Monthly
or more
Research and
Analysis
Recommend market research projects 23 34.70 21.73 31.64 8.40 4.18
Assess company performance and competitor analysis 3
1.27 10.3 9.45 22.00 56.13
Strategy and
Planning
Determine the strategic direction of marketing portfolio
(department)
4
10.27 38.40 20.53 16.00 15.27
Develop a marketing plan 7 10.00 61.84 19.30 3.80 5.00
Brands
Develop branding strategy 12 13.6 43.4 30.54 8.80 3.60
Promote development of brands across the organisational
portfolios
18
7.93 20.30 40.32 21.20 10.35
Implementation
of Marketing
Programmes
Implement communication mix for portfolio or company 13 8.43 35.35 33.20 8.10 15.00
Initiate new product development programs 19 17.36 16.7 42.723 11.45 11.09
Maintain a competitive product portfolio 14 15.48 28.25 29.36 19.78 6.90
Develop pricing strategy 20 25.79 37.65 25.77 6.70 3.8
Implement pricing strategy consistent with corporate objectives 10 24.34 32.43 13.60 22.23 6.44
Develop effective channels to meet organisations objectives 15 32.18 23.16 25.49 12.43 6.44
Direct and support for marketing intermediaries 22 5.30 25.47 27.00 10.02 32.09
Instigate a customer relationship strategy 11 15.33 16.02 26.03 31.54 11.18
Appendix 12 Page 8
Activity Task
Importance
of
Task
Ranking
Frequency of Task
Rarely do
Task
Once a
year
2-4 times
/ year
5-11 times
/ year
Monthly
or more
Manage customer analysis 17 15.45 30.33 27.00 20.30 7.70
Establish the project management hierarchy in line with
company’s objectives
21
13.780 27.88 39.64 10.01 8.57
Manage the running of projects 6 7.87 1.22 36.48 22.35 32. 08
Measuring
Effectiveness
Monitor actual results against planned performance 5 2.87 4.13 20.04 22.20 50.84
Market reports to senior management 16
3.59 10.67 14.57 20.45 50.61
Managing
People
Management of staff 1 7.43 8.77 7.89 8.14 67.91
Co-ordinate marketing activities among sales and marketing
divisions
2
1.00 7.87 9.51 16.00 65.55
Contribute to the company's ability to manage change 8 12.34 12.91 21.05 24.84 28.86
Financial
Analysis Develop, monitor and control marketing budgets
9
2.02 25.75 18.5.9 11.59 42.00
Appendix 12 Page 9