charity scribner

gender, culture, and militancy

afterthe red army faction

Shortly aft er September 11, when Berlin curators announced plans for a blockbuster exhibition of art about the Red Army Faction, or RAF, alarms went off across Germany. Masterminded by women, the Rote Armee Fraktion had splintered off from the New Left in 1970, turning from pro-test to armed resistance. The group’s misguided take on Marxism and its fl awed eff orts to redress Nazi crimes devolved into a campaign of terror in the German Autumn of 1977. This season was darkened by hijackings and suicides, the proliferation of wanted posters, and the reinforcement of state surveillance. More than thirty years later, many asked whether the public was ready to revisit this explosive period. Memories of these events still trigger powerful reactions. Whereas the broadcast media fi rst answered to the demand that the RAF “revolution” be televised, artists and writers from around the world have recoded this past episode and raised urgent questions about agency and art in a time of political vio-lence. Many of these questions are infl ected by gender.

The Red Army Faction rose up in the middle of the Cold War and fell soon aft er its end. Renouncing both parliamentary procedure and public protest, the RAF’s women and men wanted to advance social justice by any means necessary. They saw their interventions as acts of “emancipation

introduction Beyond Militancy

2 introduc tion

and defense” against corrupt state powers. 1 At the start, the group was led by Ulrike Meinhof, Gudrun Ensslin, and Andreas Baader. Two more “generations” of militants succeeded them, and many Germans—from both sides of the formerly divided country—assented to their ideals, if not their methods. Baader-Meinhof militancy veered into terrorism in the early 1970s. By 1998, when the group formally disbanded, they had killed thirty-four people. 2 This death toll is relatively low, but the aft er-shocks of the RAF seem to have had an inordinately deep resonance. The German Autumn left its mark in public policy, law, and media, but it has had its longest half-life in the spheres of art, literature, and criticism.

In his study of revolutionary violence in the United States and West Germany in the 1960s and 1970s, Jeremy Varon argues that the meaning of the German Autumn lies not in its “body count” or “roster of destruc-tion,” but rather in how it functions “as a symptom of larger political, social, and historical tensions.” 3 These lines of tension cut across sex and gender. Expanding the inquiry of Varon and other historians, the present book analyzes the literature and art that have appeared since the RAF’s rise and fall, seeking to measure the symbolic impact of left ist militancy and terror within contemporary culture. To this end, it examines the RAF’s claims for revolt and liberation, holding them up against shift s in socialist and feminist politics that have come about in the past several decades. Some of the writers and artists who emerged aft er 1977 off er in-sights about sexual equality that the RAF remained curiously blind to, despite the fact that its tactics were directed largely by women. Toward a critique of this cultural formation, I ask how literature and art might help us look beyond militancy to fi nd new modes of resistance.

A rifl e on a red star was the RAF’s iconic emblem. Its armed struggle, or bewaff neter Kampf , gave political praxis absolute priority, yet there was always a certain aesthetic or style to the organization. 4 RAF communi-qués craft ed a new subdialect of the German language; the group’s ac-tions off ered arresting photo opportunities and prime media feed. The RAF captured the attention of artists, writers, and critics, not only in Germany, but also abroad. Beginning with the militants’ ascendance in 1970 and continuing up to the present, central fi gures such as Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Guy Debord, and Slavoj Žižek have addressed the German armed struggle in their works. In a striking number of cases, these works focus on the women who led the RAF. Oft en at odds with

introduc tion 3

militancy and terror, this art and writing seek out some lesson from the German Autumn, a surplus value that the RAF itself never realized.

As a series of events, the German Autumn occurred in September and October 1977. As a cultural moment, it has lasted far longer: we see ele-ments of continuity that extend up into the present. More than a single episode, the German Autumn is a trope for Germany’s confrontation with political violence. The topics of militancy and terrorism and their rap-port with culture must be understood within the larger historical frame-work of the twentieth century. The German Autumn took place in the shadow of the Holocaust, and much scholarship on the Far Left is con-cerned to analyze its relationship to fascism. As research moves forward, the picture of the past becomes clearer. It shows that many aesthetic re-sponses to terrorism are attempts to come to terms with both the traumas of the German 1930s and 1940s and the limits on representation that were perceived to manifest as a result of the Holocaust. 5 But when we concen-trate only on the rhetorics of memory and forgetting, we can lose sight of the degree to which literature and art about the German Autumn are em-phatically gendered. Again and again we see images of women in the work that responds to the RAF. Likewise, critical accounts of the armed struggle accentuate gender assignments and rely on genealogical conven-tions in their narration. We have come to know the RAF as a succession of three “generations,” we ask if members of the Far Left were “Hitler’s chil-dren,” and we call the German Autumn a “family history.” 6 Artists and writers display a keen interest in the confl icts engendered within this domain.

Analyzing this formation, Aft er the Red Army Faction draws from recent scholarship to open up a new line of investigation. Beyond the RAF’s mil-itant aesthetic, beyond the historical repercussions of fascism, the cul-tural response to the German Autumn reveals aspects of gender and power that link German history to a number of contemporary antago-nisms, both within Europe and outside it.

The fi rst literary narratives and artworks that contemplated the Baader-Meinhof “phenomenon” were infl ected by sexual politics. In the 1970s, when the RAF and other Far Left groups like the Revolutionary Cells and the June 2 Movement were parting ways from the more moder-ate New Left , German society was undergoing fundamental changes. 7 New social movements came to the fore. The antinuclear Bürgerinitiativen

4 introduc tion

and immigrant rights organizations established strong foundations for the Green Party to build upon, and German feminists broke new ground in public and private life. Men and women collaborated to realize this transformation, but the face of these changes was feminine. Marking a diff erence between Germany’s dark past and its possible futures, this fresh countenance promised, for many, a departure from the violence and authoritarianism that had characterized the nation for so long. It pointed to new techniques of power, new ways of making meaning.

With the postwar economic boom, German mass media fl ourished. Scores of brightly colored magazines and television programs widened the public arena and heightened the demand for news content. Titles like Stern , Bild , and Quick were available at every newsstand. In the 1970s circu-lation of Der Spiegel approached one million copies a week. With its self-proclaimed mission of intelligent, objective reporting, the newsmaga-zine positioned itself as a platform for a new society. Spiegel issues from the 1970s are fi lled with pictures of women—in the stories, in the adver-tisements, and especially on the covers. When RAF actions hit the head-lines, the eff ect was sensational. Any photograph of the militants would draw a second look, but it was the women of the Far Left , especially Mein-hof and Ensslin, whose images worked the deepest into the collective imagination. 8 Mass media primed the public sphere for a convergence between two watchwords of German late modernity: the liberated woman and the terrorist. Writers and artists, in turn, have expressed their deep and lasting fascination with RAF women. “Say what you will,” the theo-rist Alain Badiou writes about Meinhof, she had “the passion of the ille-gal united with the ferocious.” 9 But the most perceptive responses to the RAF don’t romanticize these fi gures or idealize their actions. Instead they put into relief the failures of left ist militancy in the 1970s and dis-close the radical potential that RAF women actually forfeited.

The armed struggle was to be fought by the urban guerrilla, or Stadt-guerilla , as Meinhof called it, borrowing the term from Latin American insurgents and pointedly leaving out any article— der , die , or das —that would designate a gender for the word in German. 10 The RAF’s primary interests lay outside the scope of feminism, but Meinhof and the others knew that gender, too, could be used as a weapon. The fi rst works of art and literature about the RAF accentuated the volatility of the urban guer-rilla; they activated channels between gender and power that have yet to be fully examined.

introduc tion 5

More recently, artists and writers have tended to steer clear of the his-torical complexity of what has been called West Germany’s little cultural revolution. Many later renderings of the German Autumn play up the RAF’s “radical chic,” leveling crucial diff erences between aesthetics and politics, both within and surrounding the Far Left . Concomitant with these developments in art and literature, critics have begun to weigh the cultural signifi cance of left ist militancy and terror in Germany. Some have linked the RAF’s direct actions to the impulses of the Situationists, surrealism, and Dada, venturing a parallel between terrorism and per-formance art. Others have contested these returns, warning against a mythology of militancy.

Debates about the aestheticization of politics were central to both critical theory and German self-understanding in the decades that im-mediately preceded and followed World War II. 11 Walter Benjamin and Bertolt Brecht initiated this discussion; Theodor Adorno, Alexander Kluge, and Peter Weiss expanded upon their accounts of commitment, resistance, and reconciliation. How have these debates shift ed with the strikes of the Far Left in the 1970s and 1980s and, more recently, with the return of terrorism to European cities?

To answer this question, this book undertakes an analysis of postmili-tant culture—the charged fi eld of literature, art, and criticism that re-sponds to militancy and political violence. In this case, the focus is on the response to the West German armed struggle. I am introducing the term “postmilitant” as a provisional tool. The prefi x “post-” comes from the Latin for “aft er,” “behind,” or “beyond.” As I use it here, “post-” has two diff erent meanings. In some cases it simply denotes the temporality of the writing and art that come aft er a militant intervention; in others it specifi es a practice that seeks to redefi ne militancy and break its ties to terrorism. The strongest of the works examined here align with this latter tendency. This writing and art prompt us to think beyond the mili-tant. They censure violence and reactivate the tensions between the aes-thetic and the political, revealing the social forces that keep them engaged with each other.

The works I analyze are postmilitant, but they are not postpolitical. In fact some of them open channels for new forms of militancy, especially when it comes to feminism. With reference to earlier theories of post-modernism, these works might be considered examples of a resistant postmilitancy: instead of just reacting to militancy or repudiating it, this

6 introduc tion

literature and art investigate its historical conditions of possibility. Thus, the language I’m introducing is not only provisional; it is also provoca-tive, volatile. With this in mind I will aim to defi ne my terms, fi rst hypo-thetically in the book’s introduction, and then through application to the works I take up in each chapter. Tracing the cultural history of militancy and terrorism and envisioning the horizons of postmilitancy are prime topics for critical theory. This project refreshes the problem of politics and its aestheticization that Marxists fi rst articulated.

Postmilitant culture has reached critical mass, extending across Eu-rope and into the Americas. The French director Olivier Assayas stands out in this regard. His memoir Une adolescence dans l ’ après-Mai (fi rst pub-lished in 2005 and later translated into English as A Post-May Adolescence in 2012) and his fi lm Après-Mai ( Something in the Air , 2012) both take stock of the melancholy that set in aft er the upheavals of 1968 in France. 12 As-sayas’s internationally acclaimed television series and fi lm Carlos (2010) dramatizes the life and times of Ilich Ramírez Sánchez, or Carlos the Jackal, the polyglot Venezuelan militant who led the terrorist attack on OPEC leaders in Vienna in 1975. In the United States we have had American Pastoral (1997), Philip Roth’s novel that, in part, is a reconsideration of the Newark riots and the “sexual revolution,” and, more recently, Rachel Kushner’s The Flamethrowers (2013), a fi ctional account of an American woman who gets caught up in the late 1970s fl ash point between the New York art world and Italian operaismo . 13 But the cultural productions that refl ect upon the German armed struggle have attained an unparalleled degree of density. The RAF’s fallout has registered in novels, poetry, plays, dance pieces, music, exhibitions, fi lms, and paintings. 14 Joseph Beuys was one of the fi rst to connect the Far Left to the contemporary art world. His artwork Dürer, ich führe persönlich Baader + Meinhof durch die Dokumenta V ( Dürer, I will personally guide Baader + Meinhof through Documenta V ) was on view at documenta in 1972. Since then, Gerhard Richter, Don DeLillo, and Fatih Akın have looked back at the margins of terror, draft ing an out-line of militancy that links the fi gures of RAF women to the contours of contemporary suicide bombers. Meanwhile, another wave of writers and artists has produced a hagiography of the German Autumn that risks col-lapsing politics into art, a danger that the Frankfurt School had already warned against when militancy began to ratchet up in the 1960s and 1970s.

Joseph Beuys, Dürer, ich führe persönlich Baader + Meinhof durch die Dokumenta V (Dürer, I will personally guide Baader + Meinhof through Documenta V), 1972.

Installation (chip board, wood, felt, fat, planks). © 2014 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn.

8 introduc tion

The Baader-Meinhof group actually helped set the stage for this col-lapse, as they waged deadly maneuvers, disavowed German cultural and intellectual traditions, and severed ties with the new social movements. Left -oriented intellectuals, especially those working in the areas of criti-cal theory and feminism, have developed sustained analyses of this pre-dicament. Adorno and Jürgen Habermas were among the fi rst to detect a lack of dialectical tension in the radicals’ agenda. In the 1960s, when RAF violence was still only a possibility, they thought back to the Third Reich’s corruption of cultural politics and called the new militancy “left -ist fascism.” 15 In October 1977, when RAF operations were reaching a fe-ver pitch, Habermas published a prescient article that condemned both the theatrical terrorism of the Baader-Meinhof group and the state’s equally dramatic backlash. 16 If the RAF was threatening to commandeer German society into a one-dimensional order of revolutionary violence, he argued, the best counterstrategy was not necessarily to heighten in-ternal security, but rather to cultivate and diff erentiate distinct spheres of political and aesthetic autonomy.

Feminists worked out their own accounts of the Far Left . Given the prominence of women in the RAF—following Meinhof and Ensslin, doz-ens of young women joined their ranks—the West German women’s movement took an early and close interest in the group. So did govern-ment offi cials, the media, and, in due course, the academy. The German Federal Police estimated that women composed sixty percent of the RAF membership, a much-cited fi gure. Indeed, many of the wanted posters that were plastered about public spaces in the 1970s and 1980s showed more women’s photographs than men’s. But early reports of the “over-representation” of women in the armed struggle were countered by stud-ies that have shown more complicated gender dynamics within the Far Left . 17 Lebenslaufanalysen: Analysen zum Terrrorismus , a long-range investiga-tion commissioned by the Ministry of the Interior, indicated that the ma-jority of the militants were men. 18 Recent studies suggest that the image of the “anarchist Amazon” or the “phallic woman” as the driving force of RAF terror was more a primal fantasy of magazine editors and television executives than it was something that social scientists could prove with numbers. 19 However, criminologists demonstrated early on that women took on roles of greater leadership and risk within the Far Left , and histo-rians have likewise established that Meinhof and Ensslin authored the defi nitive documents of the RAF’s fi rst generation.

German Federal Police, Anarchistische Gewalttäter (Criminal Anarchists), 1972. Wanted Poster, Plak 006–001–058, German Federal Archive, Koblenz.

10 introduc tion

If in reality women made up only one-third of the Far Left , as Gerhard Schmidtchen maintained in Lebenslaufanalysen , we still have to ask why the image of the woman-guerrilla has loomed so large in the arts and media. 20 It wasn’t just the press that trained the public’s gaze onto women. The artists and writers who have made work on the RAF consistently position female fi gures at the forefront of the armed resistance. This possible “misrecognition” or “misprision” of German militancy tells us something that historical documents and statistics can’t fully convey. The protracted aesthetic response to the German Autumn has plotted out a terrain upon which gender relations continue to be negotiated.

In the 1970s links between RAF women and the second-wave feminist movement that was sweeping West Germany were held suspect. Some pointed out the perception of an equivalence within West German society—“ Feminismus = Terrorismus ”—and at least one federal offi cial cau-tioned against a dangerous “excess of women’s emancipation.” 21 This anxiety, noted in numerous accounts of the period, was met with a range of responses from women on the Left . Although a subset of them, nota-bly the splinter group Rote Zora (Red Zora), recognized the legitimacy of political violence within a revolutionary program, most feminists pub-licly condemned it and strove to distinguish their agenda from the Far Left ’s. 22 They saw the armed struggle as an attempt to revalidate struc-tures of domination and violent strategies that undermined the project of sexual equality. 23 In fact, looking back at the RAF years, several schol-ars have pointed out how, already by the mid-1970s, Far Left writings and actions had eff ectively disconnected from both the women’s movement and the class-based campaigns and other democratic initiatives that were transforming the Federal Republic. 24 When the RAF went under-ground and turned in upon itself, the militants lost any claim to actual social agency. Soon aft er, when authorities arrested the Baader-Meinhof leaders and incarcerated them at the Stammheim Prison in Stuttgart, a facility conceived and built to punish enemies of state, the RAF’s demise appeared to be all but inevitable.

Precisely at this time, sexual politics emerged as a major concern for the German Left . The year 1977 didn’t just mark the fi rst breakdown of the armed struggle. It also ushered in a set of texts that enlivened femi-nist politics and critique: several journals devoted special issues to gen-der and sexuality, Klaus Theweleit’s classic Männerphantasien ( Male Fanta-sies ) appeared, and Alice Schwarzer launched the successful feminist

introduc tion 11

magazine Emma . Lines of feminist inquiry that originated at this time thread through postmilitant culture, intertwining in key works of art and literature. As my readings demonstrate, the terror and counterterror of the German Autumn became a crucible within which to test out new sexual sensibilities. The RAF was not a women’s movement, but it is re-markable how many artists and writers have recast the group’s legacy within a feminist imaginary.

Such refl ections on the RAF diff er from the way that critical theorists have regarded left ist militancy. Whereas the Frankfurt School saw the Baader-Meinhof group as a symptom of the collapse between the political and the aesthetic, German feminists perceived in the RAF program a blindness to the social hierarchies that were enacted in everyday life. Doubts about the place of militancy within these three orders—the politi-cal, the aesthetic, and the social—remain unreconciled. The writing and art that respond to the German Autumn are poised to investigate this apo-ria, but some of the weaker and more reactionary examples of postmilitant culture repeat the RAF’s conceptual errors and elide historical contexts that are crucial to a left ist analysis. This tendency fi nds several mistaken expressions. They range widely from feature fi lms that depict the RAF as the “rock band” that Germany never had, to fi ctions that construe the en-tire nation as victims of the Far Left , and on to serial routines in documen-tary replication. Indeed, much of the cultural response to the German Au-tumn seems to sustain the condition that Don DeLillo has described in which “the more clearly we see terror, the less impact we feel from art.” 25

To challenge this anti-aesthetic, the sharpest minds of postmilitancy aim to open up the space between art and politics in order to reveal the social dynamics that fi gure within, dynamics that are oft en emphatically gendered. Drawing from their incisive works, this study aims to amplify and analyze the dissonance between the RAF’s attack and its long decay in cultural productions. What comes forth is the diff erence between the reality of the German Autumn—both the political violence and the early representations of it—and the aesthetic treatment that has become such a dominant practice today.

From Militant to Postmilitant: Defi ning Two Concepts

Before outlining the book’s individual chapters, I’d like to consider the means we have to elaborate the idea of postmilitant culture. Any defi nition

12 introduc tion

of this concept rests on an understanding of a pair of related terms, “mili-tancy” and “terrorism.” Arguments about how to defi ne “terrorism” have continued to intensify since General Secretary Kurt Waldheim put it at the top of the United Nations’ agenda in 1972, shortly aft er the Palestin-ian attacks on Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympic Games. Scholars and policy-makers have probed deeply into the ramifi cations of the signi-fi er “terrorism,” tracing its development from the French Revolution to the present moment of geopolitical confl ict. 26 Although the term’s mean-ing is not self-evident, most would agree that terrorism is the deliberate and illegal use of violence against civilians by nonstate actors in order to advance political objectives. 27 The majority of the RAF’s direct actions fi t these parameters.

Other interventions staged by the group fall outside of this scope. Ul-rike Meinhof’s extensive reportage and essay writing, which were central to the RAF’s identity and agenda, are more accurately deemed militant, not terrorist. Likewise, the hunger strikes staged by incarcerated mem-bers while in solitary confi nement at Stammheim. These moves signaled the group’s rigor and self-sacrifi ce. RAF members understood themselves to be militants, guerrillas, revolutionaries. It was the media and govern-ment that called them criminals, terrorists, and, on occasion, feminists. 28

Compared to terrorism, the meaning of militancy is perhaps more dif-fi cult to pin down. In this project I use the term to refer to individuals or groups engaged in acts of political resistance, both symbolic and armed. The Oxford English Dictionary defi nes “militancy” as “having a combative attitude in support of a cause.” 29 Documents of the United Nations and the Geneva Conventions distinguish militant from terrorist actions in several regards. For example, the 1987 UN General Assembly Resolution on Terrorism, which remains a standard reference for international pol-icy, protects the militant defense of the right to “self-determination, freedom, and independence,” particularly “peoples under colonial and racist regimes and foreign occupation or other forms of colonial domina-tion.” 30 Despite their currency and salience, a literature review shows that the terms “militant” and “militancy” have received little analysis. The his-tory of this concept invites our attention. 31

The etymology of “militancy” and its German cognate ( die ) Militanz reaches back through the Middle French militaire and into its classical ori-gins. From Latin we have militaris , meaning “of soldiers” or “of war,” and miles , which is “soldier.” Miles probably relates to the ancient Etruscan

introduc tion 13

word meaning “one who marches in a troop,” and so is understood to derive from the Greek homilos —“crowd” or “throng”—and ultimately from the Sanskrit mela , “assembly.” In English and German the concept attains some frequency in ecclesiastical writings around the time of the Reformation, for example, in the expression ecclesia militans (church mili-tant, streitende Kirche ), which refers to the battles waged by Christians against earthly sins. Then, as the languages modernize, the term shift s into a more general understanding, connoting extremism, aggression, and revolutionary violence. By the late nineteenth century, militancy will be associated with nihilism and bolshevism. Sergei Nechaev’s Revolution-ary Catechism (1869) becomes an infl uence, fi rst for Lenin, and then later for the Black Panther Party. 32 Just aft er the turn of the twentieth century, Emmeline Pankhurst will describe the British Women’s Social and Politi-cal Union as a “militant suff rage organization.” 33 In 1963 Martin Luther King Jr. will call the American civil rights movement a “new militancy” in his speech at the March on Washington. 34 Against reform and gradu-alism, activists like these were attuned to “the fi erce urgency of Now.” 35

In the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), during the process of post-war reconstruction, the principle of militancy was invoked for a broader range of political ends. It was not only actors on the Far Left ( die Linksradi-kalen ) who saw the potential of militancy, but also liberals and conserva-tives who were working to establish and maintain stable institutions in the new state. Aware of the vulnerability of the Weimar system and fully committed against any recurrence of fascism, they framed the constitu-tion of 1949 to uphold and protect the republic as a wehrhaft e and streitbare Demokratie : in other words, a fortifi ed, uncompromising, and militant de-mocracy. 36 This legislation would be brought to crisis in the so-called leaden times that surrounded the German Autumn, when the nation found itself caught in the crossfi re between two strains of militancy: on one side, defenders of the constitution; on the other, the urban guerrillas of the RAF. Within the Left as well, quarrels arose in the 1970s about where to draw the line between militancy and terrorism. Closer exami-nation of these confl icts comes in the rest of this book, but for this intro-ductory refl ection on the language of militancy, I want to note its web of associations in contemporary German society.

This complex history makes the German encounter with militancy particularly interesting for the fi elds of critical theory and cultural stud-ies. As the second part of this book will demonstrate, it also establishes

14 introduc tion

a productive tension from which the question of postmilitancy can be launched. Militant , which occurs as both a noun and an adjective in Ger-man, as in English, is oft en underwritten by a sense of struggle for justice and equality. Common examples of its usage are militantes Auft reten (a militant stance or attitude) and militante Gruppen (militant groups). To-gether with its many synonyms— gewalttätig (violent), kampfb ereit (ready to fi ght), and rabiat (raving, furious)— militant appears frequently in Ger-man literature and the popular press.

References to the concept of militancy function in various ways; de-pending on the speaker’s stance, they can connote solidarity or condemna-tion. Some of these references function refl exively, signifying the politics of the speaker who invokes it. For instance, an Israeli national who identifi es him- or herself as “militantly pro-Palestinian” might refuse to do military service. Pejorative examples of the term are more com-mon. When a misogynist calls feminists “militant,” this refl ects his (or her) own disregard for women’s rights. Meanwhile it has become the practice of some news organizations to report on “militancy” rather than “terrorism” in order to present an objective account of an incident. Thus Anwar al-Awlaki, the Yemeni-American targeted by the American CIA for his alleged involvement in al-Qaeda and killed in a drone strike in 2011, is described by the Reuters Agency as “a militant,” not a terrorist. 37 The Berlin-based tageszeitung , similarly, has called Hamas a militant organization. 38

Moving from the present back into the German literary tradition, we see the considerable extent to which writers have drawn upon the lexicon of militancy in their descriptions of women and feminine characters. 39 A line of fi liation runs from Jordanes’s history of the Goths, De origine acti-busque Getarum (circa 551 a . d . ), to contemporary novels and fi lms, and in-cludes the stories of Judith beheading Holofernes, the spear-wielding Valkyrie Brünnhilde, and dramas by major authors like Schiller, Hebbel, and Brecht. Among the warrior women who animate the literary imagi-nation, it is Heinrich von Kleist’s tragic heroine Penthesilea who most forcefully prefi gures the representation of RAF women. She is the pro-tagonist of his play from 1808 that dramatizes the battle of the sexes, a play that serves as an allegory of the confl ict between the French Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia. Penthesilea, a daughter of Mars, drops down from the heavens “clad for war” ( kampfgerüstet ). 40 Kleist’s Amazon queen storms wildly across the landscape of the Iliad in pursuit of Achil-

introduc tion 15

les, who is both her enemy and her true love. She is an arsenal of passion and destruction. Penthesilea fl ies as if “shot straight from an iron bow”; 41 when Odysseus addresses her, she retorts that he will have her “arrows for reply.” 42 Historians have shown that Kleist’s writing was informed by his interest in militancy and a historical conscience that contrasted with the pacifi sm of Goethe and many of his other contemporaries. 43 Indeed, a subversive impulse courses through Penthesilea and keeps the narrative clear of any fi nal resolution.

In an essay from 1987, the writer Christa Wolf aptly called Penthesilea the “militant feminine” heroine of this Romantic tragedy, but Kleist be-comes our contemporary when we see the whole drama as an early ex-ample of postmilitant literature. 44 Like Michael Kohlhaas (1811), Kleist’s novella about an extreme quest for justice, Penthesilea continues to re-sound with its clanging, dissonant chords. The drama draws the reader into the force fi eld of its characters’ actions and speech, letting us thrill at the Amazonian battle cry. But Kleist also marks out the deadlocks of Penthesilea’s fury, for he shows that the queen is actually denied real agency, since her only option is to fi ght a perpetual war. “What choice has she,” Odysseus asks in the fi rst scene, “except to side with one against the other?” 45 In the last pages of the play, Penthesilea has vanquished Achilles, but she doesn’t know what to live for. Although her bow is “vic-torious,” when a princess asks her what she has done, she has “no an-swer” and stares out “as if upon an empty page.” 46 Penthesilea fuses her quiver of arrows into a single dagger, plunges it into her breast, and dies, leaving the others to contemplate her actions. Kleist envisions a stage of postmilitant inquiry: he moves us beyond Penthesilea’s own impasse by producing a radically open-ended work. Presenting us with a blank page, he gives the reader the choice—and the responsibility—to determine the play’s meaning. More than two hundred years later, its enigmas still in-spire heated contests of interpretation. To this extent Penthesilea is an early paradigm of postmilitant literature: it enters the reader into the tempest of revolutionary violence, yet also points toward other modes of resistance, both political and aesthetic.

Aft er the Red Army Faction uses critical theory to analyze postmilitant writing and art since the 1970s. Each of the works that I examine con-nects to the legacy of militancy that I have surveyed above, but the indi-vidual writers and artists take diff erent directions from this point. As my readings will show, my thinking about postmilitancy operates in

16 introduc tion

two dimensions, descriptively and normatively. Coverage of the RAF in the media and documentaries, for example, has relayed countless im-ages of the German confrontation with militant and terrorist actions. Although some of the literature and art that I examine adds little beyond this—merely cataloguing the German Autumn as a series of events—other examples transform the residues of these events into something else: a site for assessment and refl ection. As my analyses of these works unfold, I get traction from their insights. Through them I develop a con-cept of a critical postmilitancy that might travel further than the study of the German 1970s to fi nd as-yet-untested means of resistance.

From Plot to Text: The Attack and Decay of the RAF

This book is divided into two parts. The fi rst, “Militant Acts,” links the evolution of the RAF to important developments in postwar politics and society, including the emergence of second-wave feminism. The second part, “Postmilitant Culture,” connects the response to the RAF’s actions to a number of theoretical exchanges. Together, these two parts cut an alternative path in German and European Studies. Instead of the increas-ingly common practice of surveying popular culture and tabulating me-dia representations of the Far Left , this project reframes questions about politics and advanced art that have engaged some of the greatest minds of modern Europe. In the section that follows, I will introduce the main lines of inquiry that link the book’s individual chapters.

I begin by recounting the development of the armed struggle in Ger-many aft er World War II, especially the “red decade” that spanned from the public protests of the late 1960s to the events of 1977. 47 An overview of the RAF’s origins and a summary of the factors that precipitated the German Autumn relate the armed struggle to several historical transi-tions. They include the nation’s entry into a postwar democratic system, Germans’ attempts to grapple with their history of violence, and the emergence of the new social movements. The evolution of German radi-calism was guided by a range of intersecting discourses, such as public policy, popular media, and intellectual life. Each of these is recalled here.

Most publications on the RAF narrate the German Autumn and its af-termath as part of the larger continuum of European postwar history. Yet the proliferation of art and literature about the RAF merits closer atten-tion. This book posits postmilitancy as a crucial turn in late modernity, a