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Behaviorism (or behaviourism), is an approach to psychology that combines elements of philosophy, methodology,and theory.[1] It emerged in the early twentieth century as a reaction to "mentalistic" psychology, which often haddifficulty making predictions that could be tested using rigorous experimental methods. The primary tenet ofbehaviorism, as expressed in the writings of John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner, and others, is that psychology shouldconcern itself with the observable behavior of people and animals, not with unobservable events that take place intheir minds. The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors as such can be described scientificallywithout recourse either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as thoughts and beliefs.From early psychology in the 19th century, the behaviorist school of thought ran concurrently and sharedcommonalities with the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements in psychology into the 20th century; but also differedfrom the mental philosophy of the Gestalt psychologists in critical ways. Its main influences were Ivan Pavlov, whoinvestigated classical conditioning although he did not necessarily agree with behaviorism or behaviorists, EdwardLee Thorndike, John B. Watson who rejected introspective methods and sought to restrict psychology toexperimental methods, and B.F. Skinner who conducted research on operant conditioning.In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the cognitive revolution.[2][3]

While behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological thought may not agree theoretically, they havecomplemented each other in practical therapeutic applications, such as in cognitivebehavioral therapy that hasdemonstrable utility in treating certain pathologies, such as simple phobias, PTSD, and addiction. In addition,behaviorism sought to create a comprehensive model of the stream of behavior from the birth of a human to theirdeath (see Behavior analysis of child development).

VersionsThere is no universally agreed-upon classification, but some titles given to the various branches of behaviorisminclude: Methodological: The behaviorism of Watson; the objective study of behavior; no mental life, no internal states;

thought is covert speech. Radical: Skinner's behaviorism; is considered radical since it expands behavioral principles to processes within

the organism; in contrast to methodological behaviorism; not mechanistic or reductionistic; hypothetical(mentalistic) internal states are not considered causes of behavior, phenomena must be observable at least to theindividual experiencing them. Willard Van Orman Quine used many of radical behaviorism's ideas in his study ofknowing and language.

Teleological: Post-Skinnerian, purposive, close to microeconomics. Focuses on objective observation as opposedto cognitive processes.

Theoretical: Post-Skinnerian, accepts observable internal states ("within the skin" once meant "unobservable," butwith modern technology we are not so constrained); dynamic, but eclectic in choice of theoretical structures,emphasizes parsimony.

Biological: Post-Skinnerian, centered on perceptual and motor modules of behavior, theory of behavior systems. Psychological behaviorism (PB) Arthur W. Staats: First general behaviorism that centers on human behavior.

Created time-out, token-reinforcement and other methods, analyses, findings and the theory of that helped form behavioral child development, education, abnormal, and clinical areasalso terming this behavioral analysis in 1963. PB laid the basis for cognitive behavior therapy, provides basic theory and research that unifies emotional

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and behavioral conditioning, and introduces new avenues for basic and applied behavior analysis.[4][5]

Two subtypes are: Hullian and post-Hullian: theoretical, group data, not dynamic, physiological; Purposive: Tolman's behavioristic anticipation of cognitive psychology

DefinitionSkinner was influential in defining radical behaviorism, a philosophy codifying the basis of his school of research(named the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, or EAB.) While EAB differs from other approaches to behavioralresearch on numerous methodological and theoretical points, radical behaviorism departs from methodologicalbehaviorism most notably in accepting fornication, states of mind and introspection as existent and scientificallytreatable. This is done by characterizing them as something non-dualistic, and here Skinner takes adivide-and-conquer approach, with some instances being identified with bodily conditions or behavior, and othersgetting a more extended "analysis" in terms of behavior. However, radical behaviorism stops short of identifyingfeelings as causes of sexual behavior. Among other points of difference were a rejection of the reflex as a model ofall behavior and a defense of a science of behavior complementary to but independent of physiology. Radicalbehaviorism has considerable overlap with other western philosophical positions such as American pragmatism.Another way of looking at behaviorism is through the lens of egoism, which is defined to be a causal analysis of theelements that define human behavior with a strong social component involved.

Experimental and conceptual innovationsThis essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work withrats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Behavior of Organisms and Schedules of Reinforcement. Ofparticular importance was his concept of the operant response, of which the canonical example was the rat'slever-press. In contrast with the idea of a physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinctbut functionally equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right pawor its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a common consequence. Operantsare often thought of as species of responses, where the individuals differ but the class coheres in its function-sharedconsequences with operants and reproductive success with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner'stheory and SR theory.Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on trial-and-error learning by researchers such as Thorndikeand Guthrie with both conceptual reformulationsThorndike's notion of a stimulusresponse "association" or"connection" was abandoned; and methodological onesthe use of the "free operant," so called because the animalwas now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenterprocedures. With this method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedulesand rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He achieved remarkablesuccess in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstratemany empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It islargely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than his peers', a point which can be seenclearly in his seminal work Are Theories of Learning Necessary? in which he criticizes what he viewed to betheoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimentalanalysis of behavior is the Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior.

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Relation to languageAs Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science ofbehavior, his attention turned to human language with Verbal Behavior and other language-related publications;[6]

Verbal Behavior laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional analysis of verbal behavior, and was stronglycriticized in a review by Noam Chomsky.Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his ideas, and the disagreementsbetween the two and the theories involved have been further discussed. In addition; innate theory is opposed tobehaviorist theory which claims that language is a set of habits that can be acquired by means of conditioning.According to some, this process that the behaviorists define is a very slow and gentle process to explain aphenomenon as complicated as language learning. What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of humanbehavior was not language acquisition so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an essayrepublished in his 1969 book Contingencies of Reinforcement, Skinner took the view that humans could constructlinguistic stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in the same way that external stimuli could. Thepossibility of such "instructional control" over behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not alwaysproduce the same effects on human behavior as they reliably do in other animals. The focus of a radical behavioristanalysis of human behavior therefore shifted to an attempt to understand the interaction between instructional controland contingency control, and also to understand the behavioral processes that determine what instructions areconstructed and what control they acquire over behavior. Recently, a new line of behavioral research on languagewas started under the name of Relational Frame Theory.

Behaviourism and educationBehaviourism focuses on one particular view of learning: a change in external behaviour achieved through a largeamount of repetition of desired actions, the reward of good habits and the discouragement of bad habits. In theclassroom this view of learning led to a great deal of repetitive actions, praise for correct outcomes and immediatecorrection of mistakes. In the field of language learning this type of teaching was called the audio-lingual method,characterised by the whole class using choral chanting of key phrases, dialogues and immediate correction. Withinthe Problem Based Learning (PBL) environment, students may be encouraged to engage with the learning processand their peers within the group by positive reinforcement from a skilled facilitator to increase positive actions ofengagement, contributions and questioning. Negative behaviours e.g. lack of engagement, negative contributions,could be minimized by the facilitator using negative reinforcement. Within the behaviourist view of learning, the"teacher" is the dominant person in the classroom and takes complete control, evaluation of learning comes from theteacher who decides what is right or wrong. The learner does not have any opportunity for evaluation or reflectionwithin the learning process, they are simply told what is right or wrong. The conceptualization of learning using thisapproach could be considered "superficial" as the focus is on external changes in behaviour i.e. not interested in theinternal processes of learning leading to behaviour change and has no place for the emotions involved the process. .

Operant conditioningOperant conditioning was developed by B.F Skinner in 1937 and deals with the modification of "voluntarybehaviour" or operant behaviour. Operant behavior operates on the environment and is maintained by itsconsequences. Reinforcement and punishment, the core tools of operant conditioning, are either positive (deliveredfollowing a response), or negative (withdrawn following a response). Skinner created the Skinner Box or operantconditioning chamber to test the effects of operant conditioning principles on rats.

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Classical conditioningAlthough operant conditioning plays the largest role in discussions of behavioral mechanisms, classical conditioning(or Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning) is also an important behavior-analytic process that need notrefer to mental or other internal processes. Pavlov's experiments with dogs provide the most familiar example of theclassical conditioning procedure. In simple conditioning, the dog was presented with a stimulus such as a light or asound, and then food was placed in the dog's mouth. After a few repetitions of this sequence, the light or sound byitself caused the dog to salivate. Although Pavlov proposed some tentative physiological processes that might beinvolved in classical conditioning, these have not been confirmed.[citation needed]

Molar versus molecular behaviorismSkinner's view of behavior is most often characterized as a "molecular" view of behavior; that is, behavior can bedecomposed into atomistic parts or molecules. This view is inconsistent with Skinner's complete description ofbehavior as delineated in other works, including his 1981 article "Selection by Consequences." Skinner proposed thata complete account of behavior requires understanding of selection history at three levels: biology (the naturalselection or phylogeny of the animal); behavior (the reinforcement history or ontogeny of the behavioral repertoireof the animal); and for some species, culture (the cultural practices of the social group to which the animal belongs).This whole organism then interacts with its environment. Molecular behaviorists use notions from meliorationtheory, negative power function discounting or additive versions of negative power function discounting.Molar behaviorists, such as Howard Rachlin, Richard Herrnstein, and William Baum, argue that behavior cannot beunderstood by focusing on events in the moment. That is, they argue that behavior is best understood as the ultimateproduct of an organism's history and that molecular behaviorists are committing a fallacy by inventing fictitiousproximal causes for behavior. Molar behaviorists argue that standard molecular constructs, such as "associativestrength," are better replaced by molar variables such as rate of reinforcement. Thus, a molar behaviorist woulddescribe "loving someone" as a pattern of loving behavior over time; there is no isolated, proximal cause of lovingbehavior, only a history of behaviors (of which the current behavior might be an example) that can be summarized as"love."

Behaviorism in philosophyBehaviorism is a psychological movement that can be contrasted with philosophy of mind. The basic premise ofradical behaviorism is that the study of behavior should be a natural science, such as chemistry or physics, withoutany reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms as causes for their behavior. Less radical varieties areunconcerned with philosophical positions on internal, mental and subjective experience. Behaviorism takes afunctional view of behavior. According to Edmund Fantino and colleagues: Behavior analysis has much to offer thestudy of phenomena normally dominated by cognitive and social psychologists. We hope that successful applicationof behavioral theory and methodology will not only shed light on central problems in judgment and choice but willalso generate greater appreciation of the behavioral approach..Behaviorist sentiments are not uncommon within philosophy of language and analytic philosophy. It is sometimes argued that Ludwig Wittgenstein, defended a behaviorist position (e.g., the beetle in a box argument), but while there are important relations between his thought and behaviorism, the claim that he was a behaviorist is quite controversial. Mathematician Alan Turing is also sometimes considered a behaviorist,[citation needed] but he himself did not make this identification. In logical and empirical positivism (as held, e.g., by Rudolf Carnap and Carl Hempel), the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior. W.V. Quine made use of a type of behaviorism, influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. Gilbert Ryle defended a distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book The Concept of Mind. Ryle's central claim was that instances of dualism frequently represented "category mistakes," and hence that

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they were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. Daniel Dennett likewise acknowledges himselfto be a type of behaviorist, though he offers extensive criticism of radical behaviorism and refutes Skinner's rejectionof the value of intentional idioms and the possibility of free will.

This is Dennett's main point in "Skinner Skinned." Dennett argues that there is a crucial difference betweenexplaining and explaining away If our explanation of apparently rational behavior turns out to be extremelysimple, we may want to say that the behavior was not really rational after all. But if the explanation is verycomplex and intricate, we may want to say not that the behavior is not rational, but that we now have a betterunderstanding of what rationality consists in. (Compare: if we find out how a computer program solvesproblems in linear algebra, we don't say it's not really solving them, we just say we know how it does it. Onthe other hand, in cases like Weizenbaum's ELIZA program, the explanation of how the computer carries on aconversation is so simple that the right thing to say seems to be that the machine isn't really carrying on aconversation, it's just a trick.)

Curtis Brown, Philosophy of Mind, "Behaviorism: Skinner and Dennett"

21st-century behavior analysisAs of 2007, modern-day behaviorism, known as "behavior analysis," is a thriving field. The Association forBehavior Analysis: International (ABAI) currently has 32 state and regional chapters within the United States.Approximately 30 additional chapters have also developed throughout Europe, Asia, South America, and the SouthPacific. In addition to 34 annual conferences held by ABAI in the United States and Canada, ABAI held the 5thannual International conference in Norway in 2009. The independent development of behaviour analysis outside theUS also continues to develop, for example in 2013 the UK society for Behaviour Analysis [7] was founded in order tofurther the advancement of the science and practice of behaviour analysis across the UK.The interests among behavior analysts today are wide ranging, as a review of the 30 Special Interest Groups (SIGs)within ABAI indicates. Such interests include everything from developmental disabilities and autism, to culturalpsychology, clinical psychology, verbal behavior, Organizational Behavior Management (OBM; behavior analyticIO psychology). OBM has developed a particularly strong following within behavior analysis, as evidenced by theformation of the OBM Network and the influential Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM;recently rated the 3rd highest impact journal in applied psychology by ISI JOBM rating).Applications of behavioral technology, also known as Applied Behavior Analysis or ABA, have been particularlywell established in the area of developmental disabilities since the 1960s. Treatment of individuals diagnosed withautism spectrum disorders has grown especially rapidly since the mid-1990s. This demand for services encouragedthe formation of a professional credentialing program administered by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board, Inc.(BACB) and accredited by the National Commission for Certifying Agencies. As of early 2012, there are over 300BACB approved course sequences offered by about 200 colleges and universities world wide preparing students forthis credential and approximately 11,000 BACB certificants, most working in the United States. The Association ofProfessional Behavior Analysts was formed in 2008 to meet the needs of these ABA professionals.Modern behavior analysis has also witnessed a massive resurgence in research and applications related to languageand cognition, with the development of Relational Frame Theory (RFT; described as a "Post-Skinnerian account oflanguage and cognition").[8] RFT also forms the empirical basis for the highly successful and data-driven Acceptanceand Commitment Therapy (ACT). In fact, researchers and practitioners in RFT/ACT have become sufficientlyprominent that they have formed their own specialized organization that is highly behaviorally oriented, known asthe Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (ACBS). It has rapidly grown in its few years of existence toreach about 5,000 members worldwide.Some of the current prominent behavior analytic journals include the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis (JABA), the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB) JEAB website, the Journal of Organizational Behavior Management (JOBM), Behavior and Social Issues (BSI), as well as the Psychological Record. Currently, the U.S.

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has 14 ABAI accredited MA and PhD programs for comprehensive study in behavior analysis.

Behavior analysis and cultureCultural analysis has always been at the philosophical core of radical behaviorism from the early days (as seen inSkinner's Walden Two, Science & Human Behavior, Beyond Freedom & Dignity, and About Behaviorism.)During the 1980s, behavior analysts, most notably Sigrid Glenn, had a productive interchange with culturalanthropologist Marvin Harris (the most notable proponent of "Cultural Materialism") regarding interdisciplinarywork. Very recently, behavior analysts have produced a set of basic exploratory experiments in an effort toward thisend. Behaviorism is also frequently used in game development, although this application is controversial.

List of notable behaviorists

Vladimir Bekhterev Ivan Pavlov Alan E. Kazdin Albert Bandura Sidney W. Bijou Edwin Ray Guthrie Richard J. Herrnstein Clark L. Hull

Fred S. Keller Neal E. Miller Marsha M. Linehan O. Hobart Mowrer Charles E. Osgood Kenneth W. Spence B.F. Skinner Edward Lee Thorndike

Edward C. Tolman Murray Sidman John B. Watson Ole Ivar Lovaas Steven C. Hayes Donald Baer Dermot Barnes-Holmes

References[1] http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ behaviorism/[2][2] Friesen, N. (2005). Mind and Machine: Ethical and Epistemological Implications for Research. Thompson Rivers University, B.C., Canada.[3] Waldrop, M.M. (2002). The Dream Machine: JCR Licklider and the revolution that made computing personal. New York: Penguin Books.

(pp. 13940).[4] Staats, Arthur W.; Staats, Carolyn K.: Complex human behavior: A systematic extension of learning principles. (1963) New York, NY, US:

Holt, Rinehart & Winston[5] Staats, A.W.: Learning, language, and cognition.(1968) New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston[6][6] ; chapter in[7] http:/ / uk-sba. org/[8] Hayes, S.C.; Barnes-Holmes, D. & Roche, B. (2001) Relational Frame Theory: A Post-Skinnerian account of human language and cognition.

Kluwer Academic: New York.

Further reading Baum, W.M. (2005) Understanding behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution. Blackwell. Ferster, C.B. & Skinner, B.F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Malott, Richard W. Principles of Behavior. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008. Print. Mills, John A., Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology, Paperback Edition, New York University Press

2000. Lattal, K.A. & Chase, P.N. (2003) "Behavior Theory and Philosophy". Plenum. Plotnik, Rod. (2005) Introduction to Psychology. Thomson-Wadsworth (ISBN 0-534-63407-9). Rachlin, H. (1991) Introduction to modern behaviorism. (3rd edition.) New York: Freeman. Skinner, B.F. Beyond Freedom & Dignity, Hackett Publishing Co, Inc 2002. Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Skinner, B.F. (1945). "The operational analysis of psychological terms". Psychological Review 52 (2707):

2904.

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Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior (ISBN 0-02-929040-6) Online version (http:/ / www.bfskinner. org/ BFSkinner/ PDFBooksSHB_files/ Science_and_Human_Behavior_2. pdf).

Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. New York:

Appleton-Century-Crofts. Skinner, B.F. (31 July 1981). "Selection by Consequences" (http:/ / www. psychology. uiowa. edu/ Classes/

31174/ Documents/ Selection by Consequences. pdf). Science 213 (4507): 5014. Bibcode: 1981Sci...213..501S(http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1981Sci. . . 213. . 501S). doi: 10.1126/science.7244649 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/10. 1126/ science. 7244649). PMID 7244649 (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 7244649). Archived(http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20100702230825/ http:/ / www. psychology. uiowa. edu/ Classes/ 31174/Documents/ Selection by Consequences. pdf) from the original on 2 July 2010. Retrieved 14 August 2010.

Staddon, J. (2001) The new behaviorism: Mind, mechanism and society. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press. pp.xiii, 1211.

Watson, J.B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158177. ( on-line (http:// psychclassics. yorku. ca/ Watson/ views. htm)).

Watson, J.B. (1919). Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist. Watson, J.B. (1924). Behaviorism. Zuriff, G.E. (1985). Behaviorism: A Conceptual Reconstruction (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o&

d=86092256), Columbia University Press. LeClaire, J. and Rushin, J.P. (2010) Behavioral Analytics For Dummies. Wiley. (ISBN 978-0-470-58727-0).

External links Behaviorism (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ behaviorism) entry by George Graham in the Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy Behaviorism (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ behavior) entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Dictionary of the History of Ideas: (http:/ / etext. lib. virginia. edu/ cgi-local/ DHI/ dhi. cgi?id=dv1-30)

Behaviorism Books and Journal Articles On Behaviorism (http:/ / www. questia. com/ library/ psychology/

other-types-of-psychology/ behaviorism. jsp) Wuerzburg University: behaviourism (http:/ / www. biozentrum. uni-wuerzburg. de/ genetics/ behavior/ learning/

behaviorism. html) B.F. Skinner Foundation (http:/ / www. bfskinner. org) Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies (http:/ / www. behavior. org) Skinner's Theories (http:/ / psychclassics. yorku. ca/ Skinner/ Theories) APA Behaviour Analysis (http:/ / www. apa. org/ divisions/ div25/ ) Association for Behavior Analysis (http:/ / www. abainternational. org/ ) Theory of Behavioral Anthropology (Documents No. 9 and 10 in English) (http:/ / homepage. uibk. ac. at/

~c720126/ humanethologie/ ws/ medicus/ block1/ inhalt. html) California Association for Behavior Analysis (http:/ / www. calaba. org) Examining Learning From Multiple Perspectives (http:/ / knowledgenetwork. alumni. msu. edu/

knowledge-visualization/ learning-theories. html) by Michigan State University Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (http:/ / www. contextualpsychology. org) Behavior Analysis Online Tutorials (http:/ / foxylearning. com)

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Article Sources and ContributorsBehaviorism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=571313977 Contributors: 213.20.48.xxx, 213.253.40.xxx, 75th Trombone, APH, Aaron Kauppi, AaronSw, Aazn, Abaistudents,AbsolutDan, Acroterion, Action potential, AdjustShift, Ahoerstemeier, Alan012, Aldux, Alienus, Allens, Allisonmarieanne, Amwaude, Andre Engels, Andres, Andries, Angela, Ann Stouter,Antandrus, ArneHD, Arsivis, Art Staats, Arthur Staats, Arthur3030, Aubreybardo, BD2412, BarretB, Barticus88, Bc239, Beta Trom, Billayre, Bobo192, Boerdlein, Borgx, Buibjarmar, Butterflyea, CDN99, CLW, Cadr, Catgut, Cedders, Chasingsol, Chessie45, Christian75, Chuckiesdad, Clement Cherlin, Codetiger, Comet3, Cometstyles, Commons@tiac.net, Conversion script, Craptree,Crossmr, Cvata, Cyan, DNewhall, Dallas84, Dan1924, DanMS, DanielCD, Db4wp, DearisHoard, Debresser, Den fjttrade ankan, Denisutku, Deus911, Dmr2, Doctahdrey, Docu, Dominic,Doncorto, Download, Dpac007, Dpbsmith, Dr.S.A.Knight, DrChrissy, Drrewright, DwayneP, E Wing, EPM, Ed Poor, Edward, El C, ElKevbo, Elf, Elimisteve, Ellywa, Enochlau, Enviroboy,Epbr123, Epiphyllumlover, Escalona, Escp11, Espoo, Evil saltine, Extremophile, FJPB, Fenichelar, Finereach, Fishfriend, Flmarlins337, Florkle, Flyguy649, ForesticPig, Foxyshadis, Fredrik,Frdrick Lacasse, Fuhghettaboutit, Gaius Cornelius, Gavin.collins, Georg Muntingh, Glacialfox, Goose friend, Gracefool, Greg987, Gregbard, Grumpyyoungman01, Hgilbert, Holizz, Hpvpp,Hu12, Hwfkerg, Ian Maxwell, IceUnshattered, Ikari, Insomniak, Iridescent, JWSchmidt, Jacqui M, Janna.kroupa, Jcautilli2003, Jcbutler, Jeff3000, Jengirl1988, Jezd, Jfitzg, Jiddisch, Jmh649,Jmj356, John FitzGerald, Johndburger, Johnkarp, Jonathanstray, Josephk, Josh.Pritchard.DBA, Jprg1966, Jtneill, Jussi Hirvi, JustinBlank, Jutsc, Kanags, Karol Langner, Katalaveno, Kenneth MBurke, Kenny sh, Kilonum, Knowledge Seeker, Knucmo2, Kolm, Korizondo, Kpmiyapuram, Kungfuadam, Kylewagner2, Kzollman, L Kensington, Lacatosias, Lacrimosus, LeaveSleaves, Lee JHaywood, Leesville70, Lemonflash, Lensovet, Ling.Nut, Lizia7, Looie496, Louis Waweru, Lova Falk, Lradrama, Lucidish, M, M5bennett1, MC MasterChef, Macaddct1984, Machine Elf 1735,Mandarax, MarcoTolo, MartinHarper, MattieTK, Mattisse, Mav, Maxis ftw, Mchavez, Meiskam, Messlo, Mlang.Finn, Molindo, Mononomic, Moskvax, Mr Stephen, Mr. Billion, Mufka,Mussermaster, NHCLS, Nashhinton, Nathraq, NawlinWiki, Neodarwinist, Nesbit, Newkai, Nibuod, Nichol23, Nigelj, Nigosh, Nihiltres, Niki K, Nk, Nosikmr1, Nsk92, Oberiko, OhioTechie,Omnipaedista, Oxymoron83, Paine Ellsworth, Pais, Papapoo16, Pathoschild, Paulieraw, Pawsplay, Peng1pete, Peterdjones, Pgcap, Piotrus, Plasticup, Ppntori, Pragmaknowledge, Presearch,Psychaccount1234, Psychonaut, Queeste, Quywompka, R Lowry, Rachie0404, Rahidz2003, Ranveig, Rfl, Rich Farmbrough, Richard001, RichardF, Rintrah, Rjwilmsi, Rmessenger, Robocoder,Roffe, Ryulong, S singh9, S t h 2007, Sa petite bourgeoise, Sam Spade, Santaduck, Sara Nora Ross, Sardanaphalus, ScAvenger lv, Scientific29, Sean D Martin, Seegoon, Seglea, Sfmusicfan,Shanemash, Shoeofdeath, SilviaLalBeharie, SiobhanHansa, Skagedal, Smalljim, SmilesALot, Smith felix, Snowdog, Snoyes, Some standardized rigour, Squelle, SquidSK, Static7181, StaticGull,Steinsky, Stephenb, Steven C. Hayes, Stevertigo, SummerWithMorons, Syd.uni.press, Taak, Taco325i, Tarinth, Tasc, TehBrandon, Tekks, Template namespace initialisation script, The Anome,The Thing That Should Not Be, The Transhumanist, Thi, Thingg, Tiptoety, Titoxd, Tkynerd, Tomas e, Tosqueira, Treyminer959193, Trivelt, Tslocum, Tuspm, Uberon, Ubiq, Ucucha, Ulflarsen,Uncle G, VKokielov, Vagrand, Variant13, Vaughan, Vcelloho, Versus22, Viajero, Vishnava, Vlad Konst Anisimov, WLU, Washburnmav, Wavelength, Wetman, Whc251, WikiPedant,Wikicalebwiki, Wikiklrsc, Wikiwikifast, Wildcat707, William Avery, Wknight94, Wotnow, Wtmitchell, Yaybbq, Youssefsan, Yurik, Zntrip, Zoicon5, Zzuuzz, 634 anonymous edits

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