bbc research paper final 3
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Running head: TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE 1
Full Steam Ahead: Technologies that Encourage Public Transportation Use
Julia L. Needham
Elon University
![Page 2: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
Abstract
Because most people in the United States have become accustomed to the privacy,
independence, and convenience of private vehicles, public transportation use has drastically
declined. This paper looks at new advancements in the field of mass transit to bring in new users
and keep existing ones. Three currently-available technologies should be integrated now to
increase ridership: first, location-tracking mobile applications are easy to implement and increase
passengers’ confidence in using public transit; second, on-demand transportation increases route
efficiency; and third, smart cards/contactless payment alleviate the complications associated with
cash transactions. In the long run, transit companies should work towards replacing conventional
transport vehicles with options like bike share programs, driverless automation, and personal
rapid transit (e.g. high-speed monorails). All of the technologies discussed will make mass transit
in the United States and elsewhere easier to use, more environmentally friendly, and optimally
efficient.
Keywords: public transportation, mobile applications, location tracking, smart cards, bike
share, on-demand transportation, personal rapid transit
2
![Page 3: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
Full Steam Ahead: Technologies that Encourage Public Transportation Use
Introduction
Although the declining health of the environment from pollution and plundering is now a
very common topic, humans are still continuing on a path of reckless indulgence. That is not to
say environmental policies and attitudes are not improving, but major problems still exist. One of
the largest problems stems from the role of transportation in society. From the late 1800s to the
1920s, urban mass transit was a booming enterprise, but public transportation has been
continuously declining since the advent of the personal automobile and because of the suburban
exodus that ensued (Young, 2015). In 2013, transportation contributed half of the carbon
monoxide and nitrogen oxides that were emitted into the air and also a fourth of the
hydrocarbons (“Vehicles, Air Pollution, and Human Health,” n.d.). This means that vehicles are
a major contributor to global warming and other problems that come from pollution, like acid
rain and groundwater contamination.
Besides the environment, Americans’ health is also suffering greatly due to respiratory
illnesses from air pollution and because of a mainly sedentary lifestyle (Brownson, Boehmer, &
Luke, 2005). The resulting effects, including bronchitis, heart disease, and obesity, harm not only
individual health, but also the government and economy because of health care costs.
Furthermore, people have grown used to the immediate access that cars provide to get exactly
where they want to go. While public transportation may not provide exactly that, its sizable
benefits include reducing traffic congestion (and saving time as a result), saving money that
would otherwise be spent buying and maintaining a car, and of course, reducing greenhouse
emissions (Prashanth, Geetha, & Sundaram, 2011).
Unfortunately, people in the United States are discouraged from using public transit
3
![Page 4: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
because it can be complex to map a route and find stop locations and times. Most people also do
not want to wait for a bus, and they must deal with the possibility that their train or other transit
mode could be running late or be crowded.
New advancements in transportation technology that can encourage public transportation
use include vehicle location-tracking applications, on-demand transport, and smart cards. Firstly,
location-tracking apps are cheap to implement since they do not require new infrastructure but do
need some modification for underground transit where wireless connections are not strong. Also,
there are ways to ensure that people who cannot enough to afford a smartphone can utilize
location-tracking services, including text message applications that accommodate all mobile
phones. The second topic discussed, on-demand transport, has a lot of promise to increase route
efficiency. Finally, smart cards’ main benefit is the ease-of-access they enable for passengers and
the information they provide to transport companies so that they may improve on riders’
experiences. Overall, these technologies push people to move past their belief that the public
transportation system is one that is complicated and unreliable.
I will also examine the possible future of transport vehicles themselves, like bike share
programs, driverless transport, and personal rapid transit. Much of this topic in transportation is
theoretical, but radically improving public transit vehicles should be the end goal of transport
companies. Actually seeing transportation’s very nature change could be the push that
Americans need to accept public transit into their lives once again. In the meantime, technologies
like location-tracking apps, on-demand transport, and smart cards can start to draw passengers in.
Transportation Technologies
Location-Tracking Applications
The most popular type of technology related to public transportation usability is
4
![Page 5: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
applications used for location tracking. OneBusAway is one of those location-based apps that
provides real-time data about bus routes, destinations, and the time remaining until
arrivals/departures via the web, SMS (Short Message Service, i.e. text messages), interactive
voice-response, and iPhone web interfaces (Ferris, Watkins, & Borning, 2010). Demonstrating
the success of the app, 92% of the respondents said they were more or much more satisfied with
public transportation because of it. Other benefits that were reported were decreased (perceived
or actual) wait times, increased public transit trips that were not work-related, and an increase in
the amount of walking that people did (to get to a quicker route, pass the time, or because they
knew that it would take less time to walk to the destination than to wait for a bus). Finally, some
people, especially women, reported increased feelings of safety. One person said, “Onebusaway
[sic] makes riding the bus seem more accessible and safe. I can plan when to leave the house
better and spend less time waiting at dark or remote stops” (Ferris et al., 2010, p. 1812).
Location-tracking apps are becoming more popular in many cities around the world. In
Japan, for instance, researchers from Tottori University created a system that sends location data
from passengers to a central computer that matches the vehicle to a specific timetable so that the
actual schedule can be predicted (Ito, Sasama, Kawamura, & Sugahara, 2011). This is useful
because most official timetables are unreliable and inaccurate. The system works by having users
volunteer to provide the data through their smartphones to help other passengers looking at travel
times. People can potentially be incentivized to provide the data through rewards like coupons
for stores along the way.
Another example of tracking apps can also be found right here in North Carolina. First
employed by Triangle Transit, Durham-based TransLoc has developed a mobile application
called TransLoc Rider that is similar to OneBusAway, as well as TransLoc Traveler (Wallace,
5
![Page 6: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
2014). Rather than directly benefiting passengers, the Traveler app provides important data from
TransLoc Rider to transit companies, such as where people came from before their stop, where
they went after their trip, if they changed modes (e.g. took a train and then a taxi), what they
thought of the service, etc. In many other sources, it was mentioned that companies need
information other than just when and where people get on and off a bus so that they can better
service the consumer. TransLoc Traveler is a prime solution to this because it can provide data
but still keep people’s identities private by compiling the information from TransLoc Rider
anonymously. Undoubtedly, location-based transportation applications are becoming more
prevalent in the United States and abroad, and the information that they provide can benefit not
only the passengers but also the transit companies.
One complication that arises from location-tracking apps is the need to have a wireless
connection in order to use GPS. In particular, many people are unable to use applications like
TransLoc Rider or OneBusAway in subways because of their depth underground (Stockx, Hecht,
& Schöning, 2014). If a person does manage to connect, the location shown is usually inaccurate
and can result in missing a stop. As a response to this, SubwayPS, a system that uses a
smartphone’s built-in accelerometer and gyroscope to tell when a subway is stopped or moving,
was developed. From there, Stockx et al. (2014) made an app called MetroNavigator, which uses
the location detection from SubwayPS to map the route in real-time and also show “event cards,”
like a notification of when the destination has been reached, points-of-interest, and unplanned
stops between stations. This dual-system is a very economical option for transit organizations
because they do not require any new infrastructure, wireless connectivity, or information
crowdsourcing. For many new public transportation users, underground transit can be more
daunting because they cannot see their surroundings or infer when their stop is coming up.
6
![Page 7: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
Keeping that in mind, SubwayPS and MetroNavigator would allow commuters to have
confidence in knowing exactly what to expect for the location of the vehicle and its arrival times.
Another problem with many of these apps is that they do not allow people who cannot
afford a smartphone to benefit from this information. This smartphone barrier was addressed by
the Detroit Department of Transportation with a totally SMS-based system, called TextMyBus,
where a person texts a number with either their address or the closest intersection them
(“TextMyBus”, n.d.). In return, they get back a list of bus routes that are closest, must select
which bus they would like, and then receive information back on the closest bus stop, the bus
route, and arrival times for the buses that will arrive at that stop. Because more than 90% of
Americans have a cell phone, many more people would able to utilize this program than they
would if it was an app for smartphones (“Mobile Technology Fact Sheet,” n.d.).
On-Demand Transportation
Another new topic in the area of transportation technology is the idea of on-demand
transport. In Amrita University’s campus in southern India, researchers tested the idea of demand
responsive transportation, where anyone who needs transportation from a bus stop uses a built-in
alert system to connect with a central server, which processes the information and reroutes the
closest bus using an algorithm to determine the most efficient path (Prashanth, Geetha, &
Sundaram, 2011). The experiment succeeded, but Prashanth et al. (2011) said that the system
works very well in small-scale areas that have fewer routes, but for a large city there would need
to be a more complex algorithm for vehicles to choose between shorter paths or shorter travel
times. In simpler terms, the system would need a lot of work to be implementable in a large city.
Expanding on this idea, Helsinki’s public transit authority has already established
Kutsuplus (Finnish for call plus) that is built on the concept of on-demand transport. The system
7
![Page 8: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
is specifically trying to attract people who do not normally partake in public transportation by
providing an alternative to the standard bus system, which may not fit in with their schedule
(Barry, 2013). Basically, Kustuplus works like a government-run taxi system where people can
share a minibus (which has nine seats) with others or take a private trip. Also, the route and
scheduling is completely automated, meaning that operational costs are low. In a case such as
this, demand-responsive transit should complement already existing bus systems rather than
replace them because it might get too complicated to service so many people who all want to go
to different places in a large city. It is great for people who are willing to pay more, but like
program director at the Helsinki Regional Transport Authority, Kari Rissanen, says, people who
are satisfied with standard public transportation should continue using it (Barry, 2013, para. 7).
There are many benefits to demand-responsive transportation that can be reaped both by
US transit companies and citizens. As the head designer of Phillips Electronics Company, Cheaw
Hwei Low mentions in Dowling’s interview (2013), positives of an on-demand system range
everywhere from the reduction of traffic and congestion during peaks hours to transit companies’
saving money over time from reduced waste (e.g. time, gas, etc.). The biggest benefit of a system
like the one tested in Amrita University is that massive amounts of pollution are kept from
entering the environment (Prashanth, Geetha, & Sundaram, 2011).
Smart Cards
Another technology that is becoming more important in the transit industry is smart
cards. Smart cards are basically devices, about the size of a credit card, that are designed to store
and usually process data; they are currently used in many areas to store information on
everything from biometrics, fingerprints and medical data, to religious affiliation and banking
data (Pelletier, Trépanier, & Morency, 2011). Currently, most public transportation smart cards
8
![Page 9: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
are utilized in Europe and Asia and are usually employed for the main purpose of revenue
collection. However, Pelletier, Trépanier, & Morency (2011) argue that smart cards can be used
for much more, especially because of the massive amounts of data that they can collect. As a
result, the data can be used to, say, track the effects of new policies or ensure that there are no
defective pieces of equipment. The researchers note that although initial costs and
implementation can be difficult, many transit authorities are already using smart cards to replace
traditional magnetic cards and tickets.
Lathia and Capra (2011) used smart card data to analyze how perceived and actual
behaviors of public transit users differ, and found that people overestimate both how much they
use public transportation and how much they pay for it. Their experiment compared data from an
online survey of Oyster card users to actual data from Transport for London’s (TfL) database.
The study found that many people overestimate how much they use public transport, which
means that they do not realize how little they are utilizing public transit, and 20.7% of
respondents also overestimated how much they were paying for fares. Disseminating the
information that people overestimate the cost of fares and the frequency that they use public
transit could encourage readers to take advantage of the transport systems already in place. The
researchers also note that ridership could increase with rewards programs where loyal customers
eventually earn free travel. “Free” rewards are already very popular in the United States, and
smart cards could allow transit companies to tap into that kind of a loyalty benefits system.
In general, smart cards would be an effective way to attract new public transportation
users and to keep current ones because of the ease-of-access that they provide. The cards are
very durable, result in quicker boarding times since cash transactions are eliminated, and can
help transit authorities better service passengers by optimizing routes and the overall passenger
9
![Page 10: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
experience (Blythe, 2000). They were domestically put to the test in 2010, when the
Metropolitan Transportation Authority of New York, the Port Authority of New York and New
Jersey, and New Jersey Transit began a pilot program that looked at the effectiveness of
MasterCard’s PayPass system in subways and buses (Nichols, 2010). At the time, the new
contactless credit card would replace the old system, MetroCards, which were basically gift
cards (prepaid debit cards) for transportation. MTA Chairman and CEO Jay H. Walder
succinctly remarked, “It makes life easier for our customers, helps us board our buses more
quickly and saves us money.” New Jersey Transit has since employed the Tap>Ride Program
which utilizes smart card/contactless payment technology, demonstrating that they are quite
feasible for use in the United States (New Jersey Transit, n.d.).
Bike Sharing
Although mobile and web-based technologies are important in the future of public
transportation, there are also some interesting developments happening with the transportations
themselves. The most common of these is the implementation of bike share programs, where a
person rents a bike at one location and then drops it off at the docking station closest to their
destination. Advantages of bike sharing include flexible mobility, pollution reduction, health
benefits from physical activity, lower traffic levels, reduced fossil fuel use, and financial savings
(Fishman, Washington, & Haworth, 2013). Unfortunately, many programs are not doing as well
as anticipated or are stagnating due to a few problems. Fishman et al. (2013) found that things
that can deter people from renting a bike are those that can prevent spontaneity, like helmet laws
(80% of bike share users do not wear helmets, compared to 48.6% of private cyclists), overnight
closures, and the inability to use credit card swipes. Safety is also a concern due to unaware
automobile drivers and a lack of bicycling infrastructure. Lastly, “rebalancing,” in which
10
![Page 11: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
bicycles are strategically redistributed throughout a city to meet customer demand, is a large
problem in current programs because it requires transit authorities to use more resources
(Fishman, Washington, & Haworth, 2014).
One case study, also by Fishman, Washington, and Haworth (2012), looked specifically
at Brisbane, Australia’s “CityCycle” and analyzed barriers and facilitators of partaking in the
program based on the responses of focus groups. The most important motivation for using public
bikes was convenience for being close to home or work. One recommendation from participants
was to integrate Brisbane’s public transit smart card, “Go Card,” for easier access to bicycles.
The groups also thought that the biggest way to increase membership would be for people to see
others using the bikes; one person commented, “If people start seeing people using it – you see
someone going down the street, they might think, ‘hmm, maybe I’ll give that a try” (p. 692).
Finally, many people liked the idea of incentivizing rentals to get initial ridership up by reducing
membership prices or giving two-for-one deals so that friends can join. In summary, if cities
were to provide helmets, make use of contactless payment (smart cards), improve infrastructure
to ensure cyclist safety, and better advertise the program, bike shares could become the
sustainable, efficient transportation mode that they were meant to be.
One final way that transportation planners can better promote bike sharing was explored
by Chen et al. (2015), who developed an algorithm that locates the best places to put bicycle
docking stations. The algorithm is an important advancement because in the past, cities would
send out surveyors to understand local bike demand. This clearly requires time and labor. With
help from the massive amount of available data, a computer-based way of choosing bike station
locations like the one proposed in their paper, would be much more efficient. As a consequence,
the problem that was posed in Fishman et al.’s paper (2014) about rebalancing could be solved if
11
![Page 12: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
cities were to judicially place stations at the inception of a bike share program. While this
technology affects city and transit planners the most, bike share users would also indirectly
benefit from an algorithm of this nature because bike sharing could actually become a viable
option with better-placed or more docking stations.
Bike sharing looks to be in need of major improvements but could be a great option to
entice people looking for a way to help the environment and also provide physical activity.
According to Brownson, Boehmer, and Luke (2005), most U.S. households have more cars than
they do drivers, and people’s willingness to walk or bike decreases inversely with the number of
cars. As rates of heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and other health problems increase from
sedentary lifestyles, bicycling is a good way to improve physical fitness. In addition, bike
sharing is an effective way to promote the use of pre-existing buses, trains, etc. because it
provides a means to fill distance gaps between stops and destinations (Fishman et al. 2013).
Self-Driving Vehicles
Outside of shared bicycles and conventional vehicles, there are many concepts and
prototypes of modes of public transportation that are radically different from the current fleet.
These ideas may be what are necessary to create sizable growth in public transit because of their
perceived novelty. First, many people have heard of self-driving cars but may not have thought
of them as a potential public commodity. Freemark (2015) claims that driverless cars may be the
closest things that humans can get to personal rapid transit. They are attractive because they can
be used by anyone without having to walk, without knowing how to drive, and without waiting
for a bus or train. According to the article, this kind of system does not harm standing public
transit and can actually boost it by giving people the confidence that they will be able to
completely reach their destination without any gaps. The automated automobile technology itself
12
![Page 13: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
could be adopted by buses and trains, as some trains and subways in Copenhagen and Paris have
done (Jaffe, 2015). This would be profitable for transit companies due to the lack of driver labor
and means that they could spend money instead on improving infrastructure and routing.
Personal Rapid Transit
The most common type of vehicle today, those with internal combustion engines (ICE),
are so popular because of the “power, personalization, and modularity” that they provide
(Roberts, 2015, para. 2). Roberts (2015) argues that those cars have already passed the point of
where drawbacks (pollution and climate change, traffic) have surpassed advantages. Because of
this, the new concept of personal rapid transit (PRT) could spur people in the United States to
accept public transportation into their lives. For one thing, PRT is very private by nature. The
vehicles can also be extremely fast; for example, a system called skyTran makes use of two-
person pods that can reach speeds of up to 100 mph (Roberts, 2015). Destinations could be
controlled using a smartphone app, and because the system is so spatially compact, it can work
around already existing infrastructure, or even be designed to go through buildings. skyTran’s
company says that building the system would be relatively cheap and could be self-financed (a
ride would be about the price of a taxi). This is attractive both to transportation companies who
would build the new infrastructure and the potential costumer who would pay to use it.
There are also PRT systems that are environmentally friendly. Geoffrey Barnett’s
Shweeb monorail system is currently only a park ride in New Zealand, but it shows great
potential as highly efficient, zero-emission transportation system (Martin, 2008). The monorail is
made up of pedal-powered pods on low resistance tracks, and most people can get up to at least
30 mph. One major benefit to the Shweeb system is safety because unlike bikes or motorcycles,
there is no danger of crashing. Also, if a faster Shweeb comes up behind a slower one on a track,
13
![Page 14: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
they combine and link together to form one unit, which will then travel faster than either person
could alone. With large-scale implementation, a technology like this monorail could be a
substantial way for cities to become more efficient, not just time-wise and spatially, but also
because of improved infrastructure (that will not corrode as easily over time) and environmental
sustainability. The Shweeb pods would be a great way to encourage Americans to use
transportation because the system includes all of the health and environmental benefits of a bike
share program without the safety problems.
Conclusion
As has been noted, public transportation has many benefits, both for society and the
environment. Economically, the industry currently employs over 400,000 people and helps many
more get to and from work, especially those who could not otherwise maintain a job because
they cannot afford a car (“Facts at a Glance”, n.d). Mass transit clearly reduces pollutants that
would otherwise be coming from individual cars and also reduces traffic congestion from the
lack of vehicles on the road. However, transportation companies need to improve passenger
service so that those people will continue to use the service and so that the companies attract new
customers. Location-tracking apps are relatively cheap, and they give people the confidence to
plan their routes while knowing exact arrival times. On-demand transport, if implemented
effectively, could be one way to remove empty transport vehicles and inefficient routes from the
equation. Additionally, smart cards can make paying for trips quick and hassle-free. The last
topic discussed here, the future of transportation, like bike sharing, PRT systems, and driverless
technology, are all ways that the transport technologies themselves can be improved.
In addition, when looking at civic technology, it is important to think about whether all
kinds of people, regardless of race, gender, or age, can use and benefit from the technology. The
14
![Page 15: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
Detroit Department of Transportation did this well with the SMS-based TextMyBus service,
because although most adult Americans own a cellphone, there are many people who cannot
afford a smartphone and therefore are not able to use mobile apps. Unfortunately, this review
reveals a large gap in the research and attention that is given to those with financial struggles.
Because those without wealth are often the people that need to use public transportation the
most, more time and consideration should be devoted to looking at gaps in the public
transportation system so that public transit can be made more accessible to and inclusive of
everyone. Besides access for the non-wealthy, other areas of improvement in transportation
technology include reducing overall costs so that the economy is not burdened and improving
efficiency in order to save money, increase reliability, and decrease the environmental impact.
Luckily, there is hope for the future of public transit. In Arizona, travel via personal
vehicles has decreased (gone down 11.8% from 2008 to 2013) and the use of public
transportation has increased in its stead (Brown, 2015). This is mainly because of the rising
number of millennials in Arizona who are more open to taking public transit. The American
Public Transportation Association (2013) agrees with this, as it notes that the Millennial
Generation is more likely to consider many different ways of traveling besides just driving, and
also that young people are more attracted to using public transportation because it allows them to
seamlessly continue using their digital devices. However, millennials would still like to see
improvements in public transportation, like more reliable systems, real-time updates, and a more
intuitive travel experience. These results complement the ideas discussed in this paper about how
to encourage Americans to use mass transit: make it simpler, more accessible, and up to date
with new technology. If transit companies take heed, the valuable commodity that is public
transportation may yet become as important to society as it used to be.
15
![Page 16: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
References
American Public Transportation Association. (2013). Millennials & mobility: understanding the
millnenial mindset. APTA. Retrieved from http://www.apta.com/resources/
reportsandpublications/Documents/APTA-Millennials-and-Mobility.pdf
Barry, K. (2013). New Helsinki bus line lets you choose your own route. Wired. Retrieved from
http://www.wired.com/2013/10/on-demand-public-transit/
Blythe, P. (2000). Transforming access to and payment for transport services through the use of smart
cards. ITS Journal - Intelligent Transportation Systems Journal, 6(1), 45–68.
http://doi.org/10.1080/10248070008903682
Brown, D. (2015). Decline in driving, increase in public transit in Arizona. Scottsdale Independent.
Retrieved from http://www.scottsdaleindependent.com/opinions/decline-in-driving-increase-in-
public-transit-in-arizona/
Brownson, R. C., Boehmer, T. K., & Luke, D. A. (2005). Declining rates of physical activity in the
United States: What are the contributors? Annual Review of Public Health, 26(1), 421–443.
http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144437
Chen, L., Zhang, D., Pan, G., Ma, X., Yang, D., Kushlev, K., … Li, S. (2015). Bike sharing station
placement leveraging heterogeneous urban open data. In Proceedings of the 2015 ACM
International Joint Conference on Pervasive and Ubiquitous Computing (pp. 571–575). New
York, NY, USA: ACM. http://doi.org/10.1145/2750858.2804291
Dowling, B. S. (2013). Radically rethinking the bus system. BBC. Retrieved from
http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20130327-new-bus-stop-for-flexible-travel
Facts at a Glance. (n.d.). APTA. Retrieved from
http://www.publictransportation.org/news/facts/Pages/default.aspx
16
![Page 17: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
Ferris, B., Watkins, K., & Borning, A. (2010). OneBusAway: results from providing real-time arrival
information for public transit. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in
Computing Systems (pp. 1807–1816). ACM. Retrieved from http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?
id=1753597
Fishman, E., Washington, S., & Haworth, N. (2012). Barriers and facilitators to public bicycle scheme
use: A qualitative approach. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour,
15(6), 686–698. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2012.08.002
Fishman, E., Washington, S., & Haworth, N. (2013). Bike Share: A synthesis of the literature.
Transport Reviews, 33(2), 148–165. http://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2013.775612
Fishman, E., Washington, S., & Haworth, N. (2014). Bike share’s impact on car use: Evidence from
the United States, Great Britain, and Australia. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and
Environment, 31, 13–20. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2014.05.013
Freemark, Y. (2015). Will autonomous cars change the role and value of public transportation? The
Transport Politic. Retrieved from http://www.thetransportpolitic.com/
2015/06/23/will-autonomous-cars-change-the-role-and-value-of-public-transportation/
Ito, M., Sasama, T., Kawamura, T., & Sugahara, K. (2011). An effective tracking technique of public
transportation toward passenger generated vehicle location system. In Proceedings of the 13th
international conference on Ubiquitous computing (pp. 551–552). ACM. Retrieved from
http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2030208
Jaffe, E. (2015). Why subway trains should be driverless, by the numbers. CityLab. Retrieved from
http://www.citylab.com/tech/2015/04/the-case-for-driverless-trains-by-the-numbers/390408/
17
![Page 18: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
Lathia, N., & Capra, L. (2011). How smart is your smartcard?: measuring travel behaviours,
perceptions, and incentives. In Proceedings of the 13th international conference on Ubiquitous
computing (pp. 291–300). ACM. Retrieved from http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2030152
Martin, J. (2008). The Shweeb human-powered monorail. Gizmag. Retrieved from
http://www.gizmag.com/the-shweeb-human-powered-monorail/9678/
Mobile Technology Fact Sheet. (n.d.). Pew Research Center. Retrieved from
http://www.pewinternet.org/fact-sheets/mobile-technology-fact-sheet/
New Jersey Transit. (n.d.). Tap on and tap off. NJ Transit. Retrieved from
http://www.njtransit.com/var/var_servlet.srv?hdnPageAction=TapRideTo
Nichols, R. (2010). Smart cards tap into future of city transit systems. Digital Communities. Retrieved
from http://www.digitalcommunities.com/articles/Smart-Cards-Tap-Into-Future-of.html
Pelletier, M.-P., Trépanier, M., & Morency, C. (2011). Smart card data use in public transit: A
literature review. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 19(4), 557–568.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2010.12.003
Prashanth, S., Geetha, S., & Sundaram, G. S. (2011). Demand responsive public transportation using
wireless technologies. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Wireless
Technologies for Humanitarian Relief (pp. 449–453). ACM. Retrieved from
http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2185332
Roberts, D. (2015). Personal rapid transit: The future of public transportation, maybe. Grist. Retrieved
from http://grist.org/business-technology/personal-rapid-transit-the-future-of-public-
transportation-maybe/
18
![Page 19: BBC Research Paper Final 3](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022083102/588a4d9c1a28abd3088b64f9/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
TECHNOLOGIES & PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION USE
Stockx, T., Hecht, B., & Schöning, J. (2014). SubwayPS: towards smartphone positioning in
underground public transportation systems (pp. 93–102). ACM Press.
http://doi.org/10.1145/2666310.2666396
TextMyBus. (n.d.). Code for America. Retrieved from
http://codeforamerica.org/apps/text-my-bus/index.html
Vehicles, Air Pollution, and Human Health. (n.d.). Union of Concerned Scientists. Retrieved from
http://www.ucsusa.org/clean-vehicles/vehicles-air-pollution-and-human-health
Wallace, D. (2014). Durham-based TransLoc’s tool targets agencies for transit improvement. Triangle
Business Journal. Retrieved from http://www.bizjournals.com/triangle/
news/2014/11/11/transloc-durham-nc-new-tool-for-transit-agencies.html
Young, J. (2015). Infrastructure: Mass transit in 19th- and 20th-century urban America. Oxford
Research Encyclopedias. Retrieved from http://americanhistory.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/
acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-28
19