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Basic Principles in

Science ResearchJessamyn Marie O. Yazon

OIC, PSHS Main Campus

Edited by: Marist Science Area

GUIDE QUESTIONS

in the Identification of a Research Problem:

• Is the topic interesting enough to read about, then work on for the next couple of months?

• Can you control other factors that might influence the variables, so that they do not interfere with your experiment?

• Can you find at least three sources of written information on the subject?

• Can you measure the important variables using quantifiable data such as counting numbers, length, width, weight, voltage, time, etc.?

GUIDE QUESTIONS

in the Identification of a Research Problem:

• Is it safe to perform?

• Do you have all the materials and equipment you need, or will you be able to obtain them quickly and at a low cost?

• Do you have enough time to do your experiment more than once before the science fair?

• Does the project meet all the rules and requirements for the science fair?

• Nutrition and food production

• Control of environmental pollution

• Flood control & warning devices

• Non-conventional sources of energy

• Process technology

• Microbiology

• Agricultural productivity

• Aquaculture

• Health and medicine

• Basic research

Some Areas/Topics for Research

Scientific Writing

Nature

It is a form of writing called expository

It involves a reporting and an interpretation of facts

Purpose

To inform or communicate new findings or discoveries

To allow readers to perceive what the author had in mind and be persuaded that the interpretation presented is the correct one

Style in Scientific Writing

• Accurate

• Brief

• Clear

• Objective

• Honest

• Direct

• Confident

• Efficient


• Honest: Successes, as well as failures and mistakes are reported

• Direct: explicit mention of what is important and expected, no room for various interpretations or meanings

• Confident: the writer is an authority on the subject since he is the one who has carried it out

• Efficient: through the use of a standard style and format


• Accurate: the facts are given without

distortion

• Brief: writer omits unnecessary words

• Clear: easily understood, no ambiguities,

misdirection or wandering

• Objective: the discussion and evaluation of

findings is made without bias

Research Paper

• Title

• Abstract

• Acknowledgements

• Table of Contents

• Introduction

• Review of Related Literature

• Materials and Methods

• Results and Discussion

• Summary and Conclusion

• Recommendations

SOURCES OF INFORMATIONPRIMARY SOURCES

(original object or document, a raw

material & first-hand information)

• historical documents

• legal documents

• eyewitness accounts

• results of experiments or

empirical studies

•statistical data found in scholarly

articles or conference papers

•interviews

•field work

•questionnaires

•surveys

SECONDARY SOURCES

(interpretation, an analysis,

comment, discourse or summary of

the original material/primary

source)

•Articles in newspapers or popular

magazines

•Documentaries

•Book or movie reviews

•Articles found in scholarly journals

that discuss/evaluate someone else’s

original study

•Online sources

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

TERTIARY SOURCES

(compilations or digests of factual

material, commonly understood as

reference sources)

• almanacs

• databases and indexes

• dictionaries

•Directories

•Encyclopedias

•Websites of general interest

•Book of abstracts that belong to

this category

Note: There is no clear distinction

between primary & secondary

sources.

A secondary source may be a

primary source depending on how

or why it is being used.

Tertiary sources are NOT

considered to be acceptable

material for academic researches.

Research Paper

• Title

Must reflect the factual content of the paper

Brief, accurate, and complete

• Abstract

Overviews of facts, results, conclusions and

recommendations of an article

May be written in 75 words

Research Paper

• Introduction Background of the Study

Statement of the Problem

Significance

Scope and Limitations

Provides the theoretical / historical background

States how work is different to those previously done

Background of the Study

• Provides a GENERAL overview of the topic of study (1st

paragraph) to introduce the main idea(s)

• Includes clear, focused, accurate and detailed

information to understand the science investigated

during the study in the middle paragraph(s)

• Provides cited support from external resources

• Previews the experiment in the last paragraph by

summarizing the purpose and method for data collection

NOTE: 3 to 4 paragraphs; 1st paragraph(broad & general look), then

getting increasingly more specific to your own experiment in the 2nd,

3rd or 4th paragraph. Remember NOT to use “I”, “we” “our”...

Title: Effectiveness of Garlic in Fighting Bacteria

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter includes the background of the study,

the statement of the problem, the hypotheses, the

significance of the study, the scope and limitation, and

the definition of terms.

Background of the study

Herbs and spices have traditionally been used in

cooking as they add flavor to our food. These herbs and

spices have also been known to many cultures for their

medicinal properties. The oils that are extracted from

these spices and herbs are found to be effective in killing

bacteria and viruses. (general view of herbs& spices)http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/project1098_39.html

Garlic is known to have the ability to fight bacteria

and viruses. It is known to be affective against a wide

range of bacteria and also has the ability to combat the

common cold. The antimicrobial substance in garlic is

called allicin. Allicin consists of approximately 0.3% -

0.5% of the garlic. To maintain the antibacterial

properties of garlic, it must be consumed or applied as

raw garlic because cooking will destroy the allicin.

(studies about garlic)

http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/project1098_39.html

Frequent use of antibiotics causes the microbes to

develop resistance against the drugs. Studies have

shown that garlic has proven its ability to fight against

bacteria that has developed resistance to antibiotics. The

use of garlic along with other forms medication has been

also known to enhance the effectiveness of these drugs.

(studies about antibiotics)

This project was done to find out if garlic is effective

in killing bacteria. This will help us understand the

effectiveness of home remedies such as the use of

natural herbs (including garlic) for medicinal purposes.

(your own experiment)



Statement of the Problem

This study determines the effectiveness of home

remedies for medicinal purposes.

More specifically, it seeks answer to the following

questions:

1. Can garlic be effective in eliminating or

killing bacteria?

2. Can it prevent the further growth of

bacteria?

Hypothesis

1. If garlic is applied to the bacteria, then the bacterial

colony would be killed off.

2. If there is no growth of bacteria, then garlic is effective

in preventing its further growth.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE

STUDY• Creates a perspective for looking at the

problem

• Points out how your study relates to the

larger issues

• Questions:

Why is your study important?

To whom is it important?

What benefit(s) will occur if your study is done?


Significance of the Study

This study was done to find out if garlic is

effective in killing bacteria. This will further help one

understand the effectiveness of home remedies

such as the use of natural herbs (including garlic) for

medicinal purposes.

SCOPE and

LIMITATIONS/DELIMITATIONS

• Includes the specific variables of the study

• the location of the study

• the samples

• the respondents

• weaknesses of the study which are

beyond the control of the researcher

Note: defines where and when the study is conducted and

who the subjects are


Scope and Limitations

This study focused on the utilization of the

extract from garlic as anti-bacterial agent on the

Escherichia Coli (E. Coli) bacteria.

Experimentation was done in the school

laboratory. Safety precautions were taken into

consideration like pouring some bleach into the

petri dishes to kill all the bacteria.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

• Defines the important terms included in

the study

Title: Effectiveness of Garlic in Fighting

Bacteria

Definition of Terms

1.Antimicrobial – capable of destroying or inhibiting the

growth of disease-causing microorganisms

2.Antibiotics – a medicine (such as penicillin or its

derivatives) that inhibits the growth of or destroys

microorganisms

3.Microbe – a microorganism, especially a bacterium

causing disease or fermentation

4.Bacteria – a member of a large group of unicellular

microorganisms lacking organelles and an organized

nucleus, including some that can cause disease.

5. Virus – an infective agent that typically

consists of a nucleic acid molecule in a

protein coat is too small to be seen by

light microscopy.

6. Petri dish – a shallow, circular,

transparent dish with a flat lid, used for

the culture of microorganisms

Research Paper

• Review of Related Literature Serves to review scientific literature

Explain choice of materials or methodology

Show rationale for investigation

Simply a compilation of results of studies on the SAME SUBJECT

MATTER as your research or subjects which is relevant to your topic.

MAIN PURPOSE: 1) analyze scientific works

2) find out how much research has been

done

3) justify the need for more studies on the topic

4) fill-in existing gaps

5) substantiate existing acts

6) get new ideas and approaches

Effectiveness of garlic in fighting bacteria.doc

Research Paper

• Review of Related Literature

Key to well written review of related literature: effective NOTE TAKING

• Read one source at a time highlighting the important parts

• Have a WORKING BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Use bibliography cards (library)

• Paraphrase all information in order not to commit plagiarism

• Avoid using abbreviations; take the information word for word

• Each note record the following: author’s name, title of

reference (book, article, interview, etc), publication

information (publisher, place, date of publication, volume

number, issue number), page number, personal comments

Effectiveness of garlic in fighting bacteria.doc


PRIMARY SOURCES

(original object or document, a raw

material & first-hand information)

• historical documents

• legal documents

• eyewitness accounts

• results of experiments or

empirical studies

•statistical data found in scholarly

articles or conference papers

•interviews

•field work

•questionnaires

•surveys

SECONDARY SOURCES

(interpretation, an analysis,

comment, discourse or summary of

the original material/primary

source)

•Articles in newspapers or popular

magazines

•Documentaries

•Book or movie reviews

•Articles found in scholarly journals

that discuss/evaluate someone else’s

original study


TERTIARY SOURCES

(compilations or digests of factual

material, commonly understood as

reference sources)

• almanacs

• databases and indexes

• dictionaries

•Directories

•Encyclopedias

•Websites of general interest

•Book of abstracts that belong to

this category

Note: There is no clear distinction

between primary & secondary

sources.

A secondary source may be a

primary source depending on how

or why it is being used.

Tertiary sources are NOT

considered to be acceptable

material for academic researches.

Research Paper (RRL)

CITATIONS (based on the Publication Manual of

American Psychological Association – APA)

• APA-style uses the parenthetical author-year

method of citation


Author’s surname followed by

the year of publication in

parenthesis is included in the

quotation or sentence.

• According to Montefalcon

(2011), the compressive

strength of hollow blocks

using green mussel shell

as partial substitute for

sand aggregate is not

directly proportional to

curing time.

Author’s name is not

included in the sentence.

Author’s name followed by

the year of publication

enclosed in parenthesis is

written AFTER the sentence.

• The comprehensive

strength of hollow blocks

using mussel shelll as

partial substitute for sand

aggregate is not directly

proportional to curing

time (Montefalcon 2011)


• The same format may be used if there are at

most five authors using the connective “and”

and the ampersand for the first and second

case, respectively.

Ex. The study conducted by Rustom, Badarnah, and

Barahma (2007) showed the possibility of utilizing the

recycled crushed aggregates of the construction and

demolition wastes in engineering applications in Gaza

Strip.


• If the work will be cited again, them mention

only the surname of the first author followed by

the word et.al.

Ex. The study conducted by Rustom et al (2007) showed

the possibility of utilizing the recycled crushed

aggregates of the construction and demolition wastes in

engineering applications in Gaza Strip.


• If the information is a DIRECT QUOTATION,

the page number must be indicated. Quotation

marks must also be used.

Ex. According to Montefalcon (2011), “the compressive

strength of hollow blocks using green mussel shell as

partial substitute for sand aggregate is not directly

proportional to curing time”. (p.25)

Note: Longer direct quotations exceeding 40 words must

be written double spaced in a free standing block

without quotation marks with the first line indented five

spaces.


Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter includes the review of related literature

and review of related studies.

Review of Related Literature

Garlic has been used for medicinal purposes since

ancient times, all over the world. Many cultures such as the

Egyptians and the Chinese have used garlic for these

purposes. Recently, many worldwide studies have

confirmed that garlic can reduce blood cholesterol levels.

Other studies have proven that it can shrink tumors from

cancer with diallyl disulfide (DADS), an element found in

garlic.

The substance in garlic that kills the bacteria is allicin. Allicin is

made up of about 0.3% - 0.5% of the garlic. In particular, allicin

destroys the growth of microorganisms that cause disease. These are

called pathogenic microorganisms. Garlic (Allium sativum Linn.) is one

of those plants that was seriously investigated over the years. It has

been used for centuries to fight infections (Onyeagba et al.,2006). The

early Egyptians used it to treat diarrhoea, the ancient Greeks used it to

treat intestinal and extraintestinal diseases, while the ancient Japanese

and Chinese used it to treat headache, flu, sore throat and fever. In

Africa, particularly in Nigeria, it is used to treat abdominal discomfort,

diarrhoea, otitis media and respiratory tract infections (Ankri and

Mirelman, 1999; Jaber and Al-Mossawi, 2007). The phytochemical

constituents of garlic have been established in previous studies

(Farbman, et al., 1993; Cavallito and Bailey, 1994; Ankri and Mirelman,

1999; Prados-Rosales et al., 2003). The antimicrobial properties of

garlic were first described by Pasteur in 1958, and since then, research

had demonstrated its effectiveness against bacteria, protozoa, fungi

and some viruses (Jaber and Al-Mossawi, 2007)

Review of Related Studies

Previous studies have also indicated that garlic has

anti-neoplastic,cardiovascular, immuno-stimulatory and

hypoglycaemic properties (Sato and Miyata, 1999). The

development of resistance to most of the antimicrobial

agents, the emergence of newer diseases and the

resurgence of older diseases thought to be brought under

control necessitate the search for newer agents. However,

in spite of the volumes of literature describing the

usefulness of garlic in treating infections, there is little or no

work done to assess the usefulness of garlic to fight

hospital based infections. The aim of this work was to study

the effecttiveness of garlic against some microorganisms

that frequently cause nosocomial infections in the 750-bed

referral hospital.

Many studies have implicated Staphylococcus aureus,

Escherichia coli, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Pseudomonas

aeruginosa as leading causative agents of both community and

hospital acquired infections (Amita et al.,2003; Branger et al.,

2005; Oteo et al., 2005). E. coli is found in the intestines of

humans and animals. It takes a long time to recover if one gets

sick from these bacteria. Millions of children in the world have

died from persistent diarrhea due to bacterial infections such as

E. coli. Food can be infected with E. coli due to unclean water.

Many people get sick from contaminated food. Typically,

bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics. However,

numerous bacteria are becoming resistant to antibiotics. As a

result, “superbugs” are being created. A superbug is a

pathogenic bacterium that has mutated, and develops resistance

to antibiotics. In order to prevent this from happening, nutritional

supplementation might assist in battling bacteria. This study was

conducted to see if garlic could prove to be beneficial when

fighting E. coli bacteria.

Research Paper

• Materials and Methods

Presentation must be in chronological order

Provide all needed details especially if new,

allows others to use your methodology

Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

This chapter includes the method of research, the

method of collecting data, materials and the procedure of

the study.

Method of Research

The study is characterized as method of testing a

home remedy that eliminates bacteria.

Materials

The study requires the following materials, 3 agar

petri dishes prepared with blood agar, 300 ml milk, 1

measurement cup (100 ml), 5 pieces garlic ground and

juice extracted (approximately 5 ml), 3 test tubes,

4 syringes, Escherichia coli (E. Coli) specimen, 2

toothpicks and 1 permanent marker pen.

Note: Safety concerns

The bacteria should be destroyed before disposal.

Pour some bleach into the petri dishes to kill all the bacteria

before disposing them in the trash.

Procedure

For this experiment, the independent variable is the

composition of the test specimen. The dependent

variable is the growth of the bacteria colony. This is

determined by measuring the size of the growth using a

ruler. The constants (control variables) are the room

temperature, the amount of sunlight and the ingredients

in the petri dish agar. The petri dish prepared with blood

agar must be stored in the refrigerator. Before the start

of the experiment, remove the petri dish from the

refrigerator to allow it to reach room temperature.

Three test specimens are made and labelled as

described below:

Specimen A – 100 ml milk is measured using the

measuring cup and poured into test tube

A. With the marker pen, label this test

tube A.

Specimen B - 100 ml milk is measured using the

measuring cup and poured into test tube

B. With the marker pen, label this test

tube B. Using a toothpick, add a small

amount of E. Coli specimen to test tube

B. Shake the test tube to mix the

specimen thoroughly.

Specimen C – 100 ml milk is measured using

measuring cup and poured into test

tube C. With the marker pen, label

this test tube C. Using a toothpick

add a small amount of E. Coli

specimen to test tube C. Next, add

the extracted garlic juice to test tube

C. The test tube is shaken to mix

the specimen.

The specimens in test tubes A, B and C are allowed

to incubate for 2 hours. Mark the 3 petri dishes – A, B

and C. Remove the lid and using the syringe, extract 10

ml of the sample mixture from test tube A and place it in

the center of petri dish A.

Use a new syringe to extract 10 ml sample from test

tube B and place it in dish B and repeat for test tube

C/dish C. Replace the petri dish lids and store the petri

dishes in a cool and shaded place. The diameter of the

E. Coli colony is measured everyday for 5 days and

recorded.

Research Paper

• Results

Presentation of overall description or

summary of the experiments are their results

Data can be organized into: tables,

photographs, drawings, or graphs

Research Paper

• Discussion

Say what the results mean

Emphasize interpretation of the data

Present the principles, relationships and

generalizations shown by the results

Point out any exceptions or lack of correlation

and to try to explain these observations

Show how work agrees/does not agree with

previous work

Chapter 4

PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION

OF DATA

This chapter of the study includes the presentation (i.e. table,

graph and narrative), analysis, and interpretation of data.

Presentation of Data

The following table and line graph presented show

the results gathered from the experiment.

Legend:

A – 100 ml milk

B – 100 ml milk & E. Coli

C – 100 ml milk, E. Coli & garlic extract

Interpretation of Data

The results show that test tube B with

milk & E. Coli specimen had the largest

colony of bacterial growth whereas test tube

C with milk, the E. Coli specimen and garlic

extract did not show any signs of bacterial

growth. Test tube A showed some small

signs of contamination probably due to

contamination during the incubation period.

Research Paper

• Summary and Conclusion/Generalization

Recaps the important highlights of the study

Describes the important findings

Links the findings to the objectives of the

study (I.e. Did you achieve your goals? Did

you answer your problem?)

Chapter 5

Generalization

The hypothesis that the presence of garlic

will kill bacteria and prevent its growth is proven

to be true.

The antimicrobial properties of herbs and

spices are useful for medicinal purpose and also

for the preservation of food. However, it is also

true that different spices are effective in

providing resistance and protection against

different types of microbes.

Research Paper

• Recommendations

Describes how the research study can be

further improved

Discusses other related studies that can be

done in the future

A TIP:

• The secret to good writing…

is in the RE-WRITING!

Chapter 6

Recommendation

The researchers would recommend the

following to those who would want to

repeat the experiment:

a) Boil the garlic before extracting the

garlic juice. Observe the differences

in your results.

b) Try to repeat the experiment using

onions instead of garlic

Research Paper

ABSTRACT

• 75-word-summary of your proposal

• Includes the rationale for the study, the

hypothesis, the method and the main

findings.

• The method can include the research

design, procedure, the experimental

subjects, and any instruments that will be

used.


Abstract

Many bacteria called “superbugs” are becoming

resistant to antibiotics. If garlic inhibits the growth of E. coli,

it might inhibit the growth of “superbugs.” This could save

lives because there will be less people dying from these

bacteria. The hypothesis was that if garlic were applied to

E. coli, then the bacteria colony would be killed off.

This study was done to find out if garlic is effective in

killing bacteria. This will further help one understand the

effectiveness of home remedies such as the use of natural

herbs (including garlic) for medicinal purposes. significance

of the study

This experiment was conducted to see if

garlic would stop the growth of E. coli. Three

separate trials were conducted. In each trial there

were three samples being tested and measured for

growth. The first sample was milk, the second

sample was milk and E. coli, and the third sample

was milk, E. coli and garlic. After about a 24 hour

period of incubation in test tubes, each sample

was transferred to a Petri dish containing blood

agar and put in a warm environment. For 5 days

the samples in the Petri dishes were measured for

growth. methodology

In trials 1 and 2, the Petri dish with the milk,

E. coli and garlic grew less rapidly than the other

Petri dishes (one contains milk, and the other

contains milk and E. coli). In trial 3, the Petri dish

with the milk, E. coli and garlic did not grow less

rapidly than the other Petri dishes. However, the

Petri dishes got infected, so the sample sizes

could have been affected. The result that garlic

has an inhibitory effect on E. coli supports the

original hypothesis. results of experiment

Writing the

Bibliography/References• Entries in the bibliography/refrences are

typed double-spaced and arrange

alphabetically according to authors’

surnames.

• Subsequent lines should be indented five

spaces from the margin.

• Each entry is separated by a double space

from the next entry.

Formats for common types of

sources of informationPRINTED SOURCES FORMAT EXAMPLE

BOOK

Author’s last name, first

initial. (Year of

publication). Title of

work:Capital letter also

for subtitle. (edition).

Location:Publisher

Silverio, A.A. (2011).

Exploring Life Through

Science:Physics. (2nd

ed.) Quezon City:

Phoenix Publishing

House.

JOURNAL/PERIODICAL


initial., Author’s last

name, first initial &


initial. (Year). Title of

article. Title of Periodical,

volume number (issue

number), pages

Bogert, L.W.J. and van

Lieshout, J.J. (2005).

Non-invasive pulsatile

arterial pressure and

stroke volume changes

from the human finger.

Experimental Physiology,

90, 437-446.

Formats for common types of

sources of informationPRINTED SOURCES FORMAT EXAMPLE

ENCYCLOPEDIA/

DICTIONARY


intial. (Date). Title of

Article. In Title of

Encyclopedia (Volume,

pages). City of

publication: Publishing

company.

Bodash, L.C. (1993).

Atom. In Grolier

Encyclopedia (2, 304-

310). Connecticut: Grolier

Incorporated.

UNPUBLISHED

DISSERTATION


initial (Year). Title of

dissertation.

(Unpublished doctoral

dissertation.) Name of

Intstitution, Location.

Montefalcon, K. (2011). A

preliminary study on the use

of Perna Viridis (Philippine

green mussel) waste as

aggregate for non-load

bearing hollow blocks.

(Unpublished undergraduate

thesis). University of Santo

Tomas, Philippines.

Formats for common types of sources of

informationONLINE SOURCES FORMAT EXAMPLE

e BOOK


initial., (Date of

publication). Title of work.

Retrieved from full URL.

Jarell, M.A. (2001). A course

in solid state physics.

Retrieved from

http://www.phys.lsu.edu/˜jarr

el/COURSES/SOLID_STAT

E_HTML/course_solid.html

PERIODICAL/

JOURNAL

Author’s name. (Date of

publication). Title of articl.

Title of Periodical, volume

number, Retrieved month

day, year from full URL

Rustom, R., Taha, S.,

Badarnah, A., & Barahma,

H. (2007). Properties of

recycled aggregate in

concrete and road pavement

applications. The Islamic

University Journal. (Series of

Natural Sciences and

Engineering), 1 5 (2),

Retrieved from

http://www.iugaza.edu.ps/ara

/research/

Preparations for the Science Fair

Preparations for the Science Fair

• Know contest rules (e.g. poster size,

time limit for presentation, etc.) and

deadlines

• Plan and prepare poster exhibit

• Prepare and practice oral presentation

– Anticipate answers to questions

• Be ready to accept and incorporate

constructive criticisms

Tips on Poster Presentation

ReferencesBurns R. 2000. Introduction to research methods. London. Sage

Publications.

Cruz, J. M. 1999. Scientific writing. Philippine Science High School.

Cruz, J. M and A. Chupungco. 2001. Science and technology research

manual. Philippine Science High School.

UP NISMED and DOST-SEI. 2005. Course notes in Training of trainors

in science and mathematics investigations. October 24 – 29, 2005,

UP NISMED, Diliman, Quezon City.

Silverio, A. 2011. Physics Investigatory Project. Exploring Life Through

Science. Second Edition.


http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/print_project_1098_39

Acknowledgement

Ms. Karen U. Hipol


http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/print_project_1098_39

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