band level of integration
DESCRIPTION
Deacribes the General Characteristics of Foragers and the Band Level of Integration.TRANSCRIPT
Band Level of IntegrationBand Level of Integration
Family and Multifamily GroupsFamily and Multifamily Groups
Band Level of IntegrationBand Level of Integration Band in recent history are found in Band in recent history are found in
marginal areasmarginal areas Inuit (Eskimo) in cold climates of Inuit (Eskimo) in cold climates of
North America (upper left)North America (upper left) !Kung San of the Kalahari in !Kung San of the Kalahari in
southern Africa (lower left)southern Africa (lower left) Aborigines in Australia, who Aborigines in Australia, who
adapted to a dry climate for 40,000 adapted to a dry climate for 40,000 or more or more
Mbuti “pygmies” of the Ituri Mbuti “pygmies” of the Ituri rainforest in Congorainforest in Congo
Bands: Main FeatureBands: Main Feature
They comprise a few families at mostThey comprise a few families at most Populations: 40-100Populations: 40-100 They tend to be nomadicThey tend to be nomadic Leadership is informal and not permanentLeadership is informal and not permanent Their property is communalistic; private Their property is communalistic; private
ownership is rare or nonexistentownership is rare or nonexistent Subsistence base: simple foragingSubsistence base: simple foraging
Simple Foraging: Main Simple Foraging: Main FeaturesFeatures I I
Food is where you find itFood is where you find it Direct dependence on naturally Direct dependence on naturally
available plants and animalsavailable plants and animals Plant foods (like the mongongo nuts Plant foods (like the mongongo nuts
this !Kung woman just gathered) are this !Kung woman just gathered) are the most abundant the most abundant
They form 80% of the diet among They form 80% of the diet among most foragersmost foragers
Animal food is hard to come byAnimal food is hard to come by
Simple Foraging: Main Features IISimple Foraging: Main Features II
Near total reliance on hunting is Near total reliance on hunting is rare (as among the seal-hunting rare (as among the seal-hunting Inuit here)Inuit here)
Fluctuation of food sources by Fluctuation of food sources by place, season, and yearplace, season, and year
Means of meat storage rare or Means of meat storage rare or nonexistent—except in the nonexistent—except in the NorthNorth
Foragers do have wide variety Foragers do have wide variety of food, howeverof food, however
Foraging: Carrying CapacityForaging: Carrying Capacity
Population limited by the environmentPopulation limited by the environment Its carrying capacity is the population that Its carrying capacity is the population that
resources can supportresources can support Liebig’s Law of the Minimum defines carrying Liebig’s Law of the Minimum defines carrying
capacity. capacity. According to this law, a population may not According to this law, a population may not
increaseincrease Beyond the minimum amount of critical Beyond the minimum amount of critical
resources of a given environmentresources of a given environment
Liebig’s Law of the Minimum Liebig’s Law of the Minimum IllustratedIllustrated
The lowest stave of a barrel limits The lowest stave of a barrel limits its capacityits capacity
Plants can yield only as muchPlants can yield only as much As the amount of a critical nutrient As the amount of a critical nutrient
is available. is available. This principle applies to carrying This principle applies to carrying
capacity limitscapacity limits When the lowest stave is When the lowest stave is
lengthened,lengthened, The next lowest stave sets the limitThe next lowest stave sets the limit
Foraging: Sharing and Property: Foraging: Sharing and Property: Netsilik Inuit (Eskimo)Netsilik Inuit (Eskimo)
Sharing ethic: rules govern meat Sharing ethic: rules govern meat sharingsharing
Netsilik Inuit: Partnerships by the Netsilik Inuit: Partnerships by the anatomical part of the sealanatomical part of the seal
A hunter’s partner may be his A hunter’s partner may be his “shoulder”“shoulder”
If he kills the seal he gives his If he kills the seal he gives his partner the shoulderpartner the shoulder
If the partner bags the seal, then he If the partner bags the seal, then he gives the shoulder to the first man gives the shoulder to the first man
Foraging: Sharing and Property: !Foraging: Sharing and Property: !Kung HuntersKung Hunters
!Kung: Hunters and owner of !Kung: Hunters and owner of arrow “own” the gamearrow “own” the game
Ownership is only stewardship; Ownership is only stewardship; An “owner” keeps the animal An “owner” keeps the animal
until the time comes to shareuntil the time comes to share Game is shared by definite Game is shared by definite
obligationsobligations Property: communalism—land Property: communalism—land
may be used by all in the bandmay be used by all in the band
Effects of Contact with Effects of Contact with Industrialized SocietyIndustrialized Society
Individual families may own food or other Individual families may own food or other objectsobjects
Nuts, roots, and other plant foods are property Nuts, roots, and other plant foods are property of a woman and her familyof a woman and her family
Land itself is accessible to allLand itself is accessible to all Conflict arises when “white” society imposes Conflict arises when “white” society imposes
private ownership of landprivate ownership of land Walkabout Walkabout demonstrates this conflictdemonstrates this conflict
Foraging: Other Derived Foraging: Other Derived CharacteristicsCharacteristics
EgalitarianismEgalitarianism No incentive to hoardNo incentive to hoard Social class differences minimalSocial class differences minimal Work timeWork time Average: 15-20 hours/weekAverage: 15-20 hours/week Nonintensive labor with other activitiesNonintensive labor with other activities Domestic mode of production: work done until Domestic mode of production: work done until
needs are metneeds are met
Complex Foraging: Primary Complex Foraging: Primary CharacteristicsCharacteristics
Food source dependence is still directFood source dependence is still direct Food sources now are richerFood sources now are richer Contemporary example: Salmon complex in NW Contemporary example: Salmon complex in NW
Coast societies, Inuit of Alaska’s North SlopeCoast societies, Inuit of Alaska’s North Slope Variance still occurs by season and locationVariance still occurs by season and location Carrying capacity of environment is higherCarrying capacity of environment is higher Minimum specified in Liebig’s Law is higher than in Minimum specified in Liebig’s Law is higher than in
simple foragerssimple foragers
Complex Foraging: Derived Complex Foraging: Derived CharacteristicsCharacteristics
Settled communities form Settled communities form They depend on stable, rich resourcesThey depend on stable, rich resources Groups need not rely only on plant or animal Groups need not rely only on plant or animal
domesticationdomestication Assemblage of tools and artifacts will:Assemblage of tools and artifacts will: Multiply in number;Multiply in number; Multiply in type (specialization)Multiply in type (specialization)
Social and Cultural Features of Social and Cultural Features of Complex ForagersComplex Foragers
As populations increase, societies As populations increase, societies become more complexbecome more complex
In Mesolithic, settled communities In Mesolithic, settled communities were common without agriculturewere common without agriculture
Monte Verde, Chile, was one Monte Verde, Chile, was one example (upper left)example (upper left)
Recent examples: Kwakiutl of Recent examples: Kwakiutl of Northwest coast (lower left)Northwest coast (lower left)
Main food: salmon, which was Main food: salmon, which was plentiful and preserved by smokingplentiful and preserved by smoking
Band EconomiesBand Economies
Bands do exchange goodsBands do exchange goods Nevertheless, they rarely have marketsNevertheless, they rarely have markets Exception: Trade with the outside worldException: Trade with the outside world Trading posts portrayed in Trading posts portrayed in Nanook of the Nanook of the
NorthNorth Shops in !Kung territoryShops in !Kung territory Outside trade with whites, rules of reciprocity Outside trade with whites, rules of reciprocity
govern exchangegovern exchange
Imperatives of Exchange: Imperatives of Exchange: Background Background
Marcel Mauss: Marcel Mauss: The Gift The Gift (upper left)(upper left) Preface: “When two groups of men meet, Preface: “When two groups of men meet,
they may move away orthey may move away or in case of mistrust they may resort to armsin case of mistrust they may resort to arms or else they may come to terms”or else they may come to terms” Coming to terms, he called “total Coming to terms, he called “total
prestations” orprestations” or an obligation that has the force of lawan obligation that has the force of law in the absence of lawin the absence of law As shown here by this New Guinean man As shown here by this New Guinean man
(lower left)(lower left)
Obligations of the GiftObligations of the Gift
Obligation to giveObligation to give To extend social ties to other person or groupsTo extend social ties to other person or groups Obligation to receiveObligation to receive To accept the relationshipTo accept the relationship Refusal is rejection of offered relationshipRefusal is rejection of offered relationship Induces hostilitiesInduces hostilities Obligation to repayObligation to repay Failure to repay renders one a beggarFailure to repay renders one a beggar
Types of Reciprocity: Types of Reciprocity: GeneralizedGeneralized
The obligations underlie the principles The obligations underlie the principles of reciprocityof reciprocity
Reciprocity:Reciprocity: Direct exchange of goods Direct exchange of goods and servicesand services
Generalized reciprocity:Generalized reciprocity: altruistic altruistic transactions.transactions.
Gifts are freely given without Gifts are freely given without calculating value or repayment duecalculating value or repayment due
Example: meat distribution among !Example: meat distribution among !Kung (left)Kung (left)
Types of Reciprocity: BalancedTypes of Reciprocity: Balanced Balanced reciprocity: Direct exchangeBalanced reciprocity: Direct exchange Value of gift is calculatedValue of gift is calculated Time of repayment is specifiedTime of repayment is specified Selling surplus food (upper left)Selling surplus food (upper left) Kula ring, Trobriand IslandsKula ring, Trobriand Islands One trader gives partner a white armband One trader gives partner a white armband
(see map, lower left)(see map, lower left) Expects a red necklace of equal value in Expects a red necklace of equal value in
returnreturn Promissory gifts are made until return is Promissory gifts are made until return is
mademade
Band Level of Integration: Band Level of Integration: EgalitarianismEgalitarianism
Individuals depend on ability alone for Individuals depend on ability alone for prestigeprestige
No one individual “Lords it over“ the othersNo one individual “Lords it over“ the others Indeed, there are sanctions against such Indeed, there are sanctions against such
behaviorbehavior See what happened when Richard Lee gave an See what happened when Richard Lee gave an
ox to his Dobe hosts (next slide)ox to his Dobe hosts (next slide)
By Way of Introduction: Case StudyBy Way of Introduction: Case Study
““Eating Christmas in the Eating Christmas in the Kalahari” by Richard LeeKalahari” by Richard Lee
Lee conducted an ethnographic Lee conducted an ethnographic study of the Dobe !Kung or study of the Dobe !Kung or Ju/’hoansi (left)Ju/’hoansi (left)
He gave the band a fattened ox to He gave the band a fattened ox to thank themthank them
Reaction: Dobe ridiculed this giftReaction: Dobe ridiculed this gift Lesson: the !Kung Lesson: the !Kung typically typically
ridicule valuable game.ridicule valuable game. This is “insulting the meat” This is “insulting the meat”
Why This Bizarre Behavior?Why This Bizarre Behavior?
Tomazo’s answer: “Arrogance.”Tomazo’s answer: “Arrogance.” ““When a young man kills much meat,When a young man kills much meat, He thinks himself as a chief or big manHe thinks himself as a chief or big man And the rest of us as his servants.And the rest of us as his servants. We cannot accept this. We cannot accept this. Someday his pride will make him kill somebody.Someday his pride will make him kill somebody. So we always speak of his meat as worthless.So we always speak of his meat as worthless. That way, we cool his heart and make him gentle.”That way, we cool his heart and make him gentle.”
Lessons from This TaleLessons from This Tale
Even bandsmen know about inequalityEven bandsmen know about inequality They fear domination by one manThey fear domination by one man Unusual gifts always involve some ulterior Unusual gifts always involve some ulterior
motivemotive So they denigrate this giftsSo they denigrate this gifts The reaction conforms to a model of The reaction conforms to a model of reverse reverse
dominance hierarchydominance hierarchy
Reverse Dominance Hierarchy: A Reverse Dominance Hierarchy: A DefinitionDefinition
Primary Source: Boehm’s Primary Source: Boehm’s Hierarchy in the Hierarchy in the ForestForest
Definition: a collective reaction toDefinition: a collective reaction to anyone’s attempt to dominate his fellowsanyone’s attempt to dominate his fellows Summary: “All men seek to ruleSummary: “All men seek to rule but if they cannot rulebut if they cannot rule they seek to be equal.” they seek to be equal.” ——Harold Schneider, Economic AnthropologistHarold Schneider, Economic Anthropologist
Reverse Dominant Hierarchy: Reverse Dominant Hierarchy: Band/Tribal EgalitarianismBand/Tribal Egalitarianism
The group consciously suppresses The group consciously suppresses individuals trying to dominate the bandindividuals trying to dominate the band
““Upstart” Individuals Try to Dominate Upstart” Individuals Try to Dominate the Band/Tribethe Band/Tribe
Coalitions Suppress Every Such AttemptCoalitions Suppress Every Such Attempt Ridicule (!Kung “Insulting the Meat”)Ridicule (!Kung “Insulting the Meat”) Song Duels (Inuit/Eskimo—left photo)Song Duels (Inuit/Eskimo—left photo) Extreme Case: Homicide by Group-Extreme Case: Homicide by Group-
Selected ExecutionerSelected Executioner
Bands: A DefinitionBands: A Definition
Small group of related households Small group of related households occupying a particular regionoccupying a particular region
People often come and goPeople often come and go Bands do not yield sovereignty to Bands do not yield sovereignty to
larger group such as a chiefdomlarger group such as a chiefdom Leadership is conducted by persuasion Leadership is conducted by persuasion
rather than use of force. rather than use of force. There are no permanent leader status or There are no permanent leader status or
officesoffices Examples: !Kung, Inuit, Mbuti (left)Examples: !Kung, Inuit, Mbuti (left)
Supernatural Beliefs: MagicSupernatural Beliefs: Magic
Sir James Frazier’s distinction: Sir James Frazier’s distinction: Magic versus ReligionMagic versus Religion
Magic: manipulation of Magic: manipulation of supernatural beings and/or forcessupernatural beings and/or forces
Sympathetic vs. contagious magicSympathetic vs. contagious magic Usually addresses an immediate Usually addresses an immediate
problemproblem Left: a jealous husband raising a Left: a jealous husband raising a
tupiliktupilik (monster) in Greenland to (monster) in Greenland to attack his rivalattack his rival
Supernatural Beliefs: ReligionSupernatural Beliefs: Religion
Religion: Recognition of unseen Religion: Recognition of unseen worldworld
Focus: explanation based on mythFocus: explanation based on myth Supplication emphasizedSupplication emphasized Considerable overlap in distinction Considerable overlap in distinction
between magic and religion between magic and religion Left: St. Jude, the Patron Saint of Left: St. Jude, the Patron Saint of
Lost Causes, is often invoked to Lost Causes, is often invoked to intercede for the hopelessintercede for the hopeless
Supernatural Beliefs: AnimismSupernatural Beliefs: Animism
Most band and tribal societies believe Most band and tribal societies believe in in animismanimism
This is the belief that spirits inhabits This is the belief that spirits inhabits all thingsall things
The faces carved in trees comprise one The faces carved in trees comprise one example (left) example (left)
The False Face society of the Iroquois The False Face society of the Iroquois carved masks from trees carved masks from trees
Believing the spirits would be infused Believing the spirits would be infused into the masks.into the masks.
Band Level Societies: Conclusion Band Level Societies: Conclusion and Case Studiesand Case Studies
The features of band are ideal typesThe features of band are ideal types These features are what one expects of These features are what one expects of
informal groupsinformal groups Your task: compare the ideal types Your task: compare the ideal types
presented herepresented here With actual case studies:With actual case studies: The Inuit of Alaska (upper left)The Inuit of Alaska (upper left) The Shoshone of the The Shoshone of the The !Kung San of the Kalahari (lower The !Kung San of the Kalahari (lower
left)left)