attitudes chapter 6 gordon allport on the importance of attitudes the attitude is the most...
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Attitudes
Chapter 6
Gordon AllportOn the Importance of Attitudes
The attitude is the most distinctive and indispensable concept in contemporary American social psychology.
Defining Attitudes Definition
“Positive or negative evaluation of an object” (e.g., person, activity, group, object).
Psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor. (Eagly & Chaiken, 1998)
Elements of Attitudes (tripartite view) Cognition (beliefs) Evaluation (like vs. dislike) Behavioral predisposition
Contemporary View Attitudes are positive or negative (affective) evaluations of an
attitude object
Cougars
Huskies
Attitude Models
Fishbein and Ajzen’s Theory of Reasoned Action
Attitude toward Behavior (or Object)
n
i
iiB ebA1
bi = Strength of belief that behavior has attribute i
ei = evaluation of behavior on attribute iAB = Overall attitude
toward behavior
n = # of attributesΣ = add up the (b x e) products
This consumer would prefer 7UP to Diet Pepsi
Subjective Norm
m
jjjB MCNBSN
1
NBj = Normative Belief of person j
MC = motivation to comply to person jSNB = Subjective Norm
regarding behavior
m = # of people
Σ = add up (NB x MC) products
Theory of Planned Behavior:When Do Attitudes Guide Behavior?
PerceivedBehavioralControl
PerceivedBehavioralControl
AttitudeAttitude
SubjectiveNorms
SubjectiveNorms
IntentionIntention BehaviorBehavior
Problems:• Doesn’t explain spontaneous or habit driven
behavior very well.• May be better to think of BC as a moderator
of att-intention relationship
Attitude Formation Mere Exposure Classical Conditioning Reward and Punishment
Direct and Observational Learning Self-Perception
When attitude is weak Face, Head, and Body Movements… Attitudes Formed to Serve Various Functions
Utilitarian (rewards, approval) Knowledge (make sense of world) Ego Defense (self-protection) Value Expression
PavlovClassical Conditioning
UCS UCR
CSCR
+
Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?
Alan Wicker’s (1969) Conclusion
It is considerably more likely that attitudes will be unrelated or only slightly related to overt behaviors than that attitudes will be closely related to actions. It may be desirable to abandon the attitude construct.
A Puzzling Finding:La Piere’s (1934) Study
Traveled with Chinese couple in early 30’s Visited > 250 restaurants & hotels Follow-Up Questionnaire
90 % of owners said wouldn’t let Chinese in
but, only 1 actually refused
Highlights weak att-beh relationship
When Do Attitudes Guide Behavior? A & B “match” in specificity A & B measured close in time A linked with intention to act A based on direct experience High Ego Involvement & Vested Interest Low Self-Monitors High Private Self-Awareness A is extreme and accessible
mere thought, involvement enhance extremity direct exp. & knowledge enhance accessibility recently primed
Karremans et al. (2006, JESP, Study 1)Priming Preference for Lipton Ice Tea
Als
o ra
ted
Inte
ntio
n to
dri
nkC
oke
and
Spa
Ro
od
Berger & Fitzsimons (2008, JMR)Pen Color Study
# P
rod
uct
s C
ho
sen
MethodSubjects selectbetween orangeand green products
In another study,subjects more likelyto recall orange productsweek before Halloweenthan 1 week later
Measuring Attitudes
Measuring Attitudes• While attitudes not perfect predictors, still important
• We need to understand how to measure attitudes accurately
• Sometimes we need creative approaches, because people are either unable
or unwilling to tell us the truth (Nisbett & Wilson; Rapaille)
Nisbett & Wilson (1977, Psych Review)Telling More Than We Can Know:
Verbal Reports on Mental Processes
• Cited 1478 times (that’s a lot!) – big impact• Three Main Conclusions. We are often…1. Not aware of a response (snake phobics)2. Not aware of a stimulus (the cord puzzle)3. Not aware of a connection between stimulus and
response (nylons)
Valins & Ray (1967) - Snake Phobics
SHOCK
Stimulus On Screen
Does SubjectReceive Shock?
Yes
No
“Heart Rate”Sound After Stimulus
Increases
Doesn’t Change
• Subject in experimental condition “learns” that he is afraid of shocks, but not snakes.
• Later, he approaches a boa constrictor more closely than those in control condition.
• BUT, when asked to verbally report on their attitudes, those in the experimental group still
said they were as scared as those in control condition.
• They were unaware that they had made an actual behavioral response (less fear).
EXPERIMENTAL CONDITION CONTROL CONDITION
Same procedure, but led to believe that the sound they hear isjust extraneous noise. Don’t believe it’stheir heart rate.
Maier’s (1931) – Cord Puzzle
• Subjects in a room must connect two cords hanging from ceiling.
• Need to come up with 3 solutions.
• Two solutions were easy (e.g., tie an extension cord to one and use it to pull
toward the other), the third was harder.
• After a few minutes of struggling to find right solution, experimenter casually
swings one of the cords.
• Within 45 seconds, subject “figures out” solution (ties a weight to one cord,
swings it, runs to other cord, catches swinging cord).
• When explaining how they solved it, they said “It just dawned on me” etc.
• Less than a third, after careful probing, recognized effect of the experimenter
• Conclusion? People were largely unaware of the stimulus (the swinging cord)
Nisbett & Wilson - Nylons Study
• Four pairs of nylons on a table
• Ask passersby in a mall to evaluate the nylons
• Strong preference for nylons on the right: rightmost nylons
preferred to left most nylons by almost a 4:1 ratio
• When asked why, nobody said it was because the nylons were
on the right
• Even when told it might be a position effect, subjects denied it
• Conclusion? People were unaware of the connection between
the stimulus (position) and the response (preference for nylons
on the right)
Nisbett & Wilson (1977, Psych Review)Telling More Than We Can Know:
Verbal Reports on Mental Processes
1. Not aware of a response (snake phobics)2. Not aware of a stimulus (the cord puzzle)3. Not aware of a connection between stimulus and
response (nylons)4. So what? So this: we may need more creative
techniques to assess people’s attitudes5. Enter Dr. Clotaire Rapaille
Archetype Discoveries Worldwidehttp://www.rapailleinstitute.com/
I don’t care what you’re going to tell me intellectually.
I don’t care. Give me the reptilian. Why?
Because the reptilian always wins.
Dr. Clotaire Rapaille
The Reptilian Brain
Paul D. MacLean (1913 - 2007)American physicianNeuroscientist Yale, NIMH
Triune Brain Theory•Reptilian brain (instincts)•Limbic system (emotion)•Neocortex (higher order thought)
ReptilianOldest part of brainfrom an evolutionaryperspective
• Internationally known expert in Archetype Discoveries and Creativity
• Archetype: In psychology, according to the theory of psychologist Carl Jung, an idea or way of thinking that has been inherited from the experience of the race and remains in the consciousness of the individual, influencing his perception of the world. (Webster’s)
• Dr. Rapaille's technique for market research based on his work in the areas of psychiatry, psychology, and cultural anthropology.
• Dr. Rapaille searches for the “code” behind certain words and ideas (e.g., luxury), and uses these insights to help marketers promote their products.
Dr. Clotaire Rapaille
• On the Limitations of Traditional Marketing Researchers:
• “They are too cortex, which means that they think too much, and then they ask people to think and to tell them what they think. Now, my experience is that most of the time, people have no idea why they’re doing what they’re doing. They have no idea, so they’re going to try to make up something that makes sense. Why do you need a Hummer to go shopping? “Well, you see, because in case there is a snowstorm.” No. Why [do] you buy four wheel drive? “Well, you know, in case I need to go off-road.” Well, you live in Manhattan; why do you need four wheel drive in Manhattan? “Well, you know, sometime[s] I go out, and I go—” You don’t need to be a rocket scientist to understand that this is disconnected. This is nothing to do with what the real reason is for people to do what they do. So there are many limits in traditional market research.”
• Dr. Rapaille in action: Finding the code for “luxury”
Dr. Clotaire Rapaille
Creative Measures of Attitudes
• Projective techniques (partially structured)
• Physiological (GSR; Heart Rate; Blood Pressure)
• Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
• Flushing toilets
• Bogus pipeline
• Lost letters and emails*
• Implicit association test (IAT)*
You’ve Got Mail!(Method)
• Bushman & Bonacci (2004, JESP)
• Pretested on Arab-American Prejudice
• 2 weeks later, receive email intended for a different person
• 2 IVs
• Intended recipient had European-American (Peter Price) vs. Arab-American name (Mohammed Hameed)
• Intended recipient won or didn’t win a scholarship (4 years support)
• DV = willingness to return the email to the sender to indicate it was incorrectly delivered (must be done in 2 days)
You’ve Got Mail!
Dear Peter Price,
Thank you for applying for a Glassner Foundation Scholarship. As you know, these scholarships are highly competitive and are given only to a few select students. They cover tuition for four years at a state-funded university. There is also an additional $500 per year for academic supplies.
Because of the large number of applicants this year we are late in sending out these notices. Because of the time sensitive nature of this material, we wanted to immediately inform you of the committee’s decision regarding your application.
We are happy to inform you that you have been selected to receive a Glassner Scholarship.
We ask that you respond within 48 hours. Due to the high number of applicants, we would like to extend the scholarship to others applicants if you do not accept the scholarship.
You’ve Got Mail!
Dear Mohammed Hameed,
Thank you for applying for a Glassner Foundation Scholarship. As you know, these scholarships are highly competitive and are given only to a few select students. They cover tuition for four years at a state-funded university. There is also an additional $500 per year for academic supplies.
Because of the large number of applicants this year we are late in sending out these notices. Because of the time sensitive nature of this material, we wanted to immediately inform you of the committee’s decision regarding your application.
We are happy to inform you that you have been selected to receive a Glassner Scholarship.
We ask that you respond within 48 hours. Due to the high number of applicants, we would like to extend the scholarship to others applicants if you do not accept the scholarship.
You’ve Got Mail!
Dear Mohammed Hameed,
Thank you for applying for a Glassner Foundation Scholarship. As you know, these scholarships are highly competitive and are given only to a few select students. They cover tuition four four years at a state-funded university. There is also an additional $500 per year for academic supplies.
Because of the large number of applicants this year we are late in sending out these notices. Because of the time sensitive nature of this material, we wanted to immediately inform you of the committee’s decision regarding your application.
We regret to inform you that you have not been selected to receive a Glasser Scholarship.
We ask that you respond within 48 hours. Due to the high number of applicants, we would like to extend the scholarship to others applicants if you do not accept the scholarship.
You’ve Got Mail!(Results)
00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.8
Low Med High Low Med High
Arab-American Prejudice
Od
ds
of
Re
turn
ing
Em
ail
European Name Arab Name
Good News! Bad News
You’ve Got Mail!(Results)
00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.8
Low Med High Low Med High
Arab-American Prejudice
Od
ds
of
Re
turn
ing
Em
ail
European Name Arab Name
Good News! Bad News
You’ve Got Mail!(Results)
00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.8
Low Med High Low Med High
Arab-American Prejudice
Od
ds
of
Re
turn
ing
Em
ail
European Name Arab Name
Good News! Bad News
Implicit Association Task - IAT• An implicit attitude is an attitude which people are not conscious
of (or would not want to admit to) but which can be assessed via the associations people have in their minds
• The IAT is a reaction time (RT) task in which subjects categorize words (positive, negative) and attitude objects (McCain, Obama) on the left or right side of screen
• Some trials involve categorizations that are consistent with an implicit attitude, others are inconsistent with the attitude
• If there is an implicitly negative attitude toward Obama, then reaction times should be slower to the inconsistent trials
The following set of trials is consistent
with an implicitly negativeattitude toward Obama
Reaction times should be
relatively fast if thereis an implicitly negative attitude
toward Obama
Good Word orMcCain
Bad Word orObama
If you see a good word or McCain, hit “e” (left)
If you see a bad word or Obama, hit “i” (right)
Good Word orMcCain
Bad Word orObama
Good Word orMcCain
Bad Word orObama
Dirt
Good Word orMcCain
Bad Word orObama
Good Word orMcCain
Bad Word orObama
Happy
Now Change Categorization(Inconsistent with Implicit Negative
Attitude Toward Obama)
Reaction times should beslower than before if there
is an implicitly negative attitudetoward Obama
Bad Word orMcCain
Good Word orObama
If you see a bad word or McCain, hit “e” (left)
If you see a good word or Obama, hit “i” (right)
Bad Word orMcCain
Good Word orObama
Bad Word orMcCain
Good Word orObama
Joy
Bad Word orMcCain
Good Word orObama
Death
Bad Word orMcCain
Good Word orObama
IAT EffectIAT Effect
RT Inconsistent – RT Consistent• It’s a bit more complicated than this, but overall, this
captures the idea.
• A bigger (positive) difference score between these reaction times (RT) suggests an implicitly negative attitude toward Obama
• IAT tends to be better predictor of spontaneous behavior