atmosfir - kuliah.ftsl.itb.ac.idkuliah.ftsl.itb.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/7-atmosfir.pdf ·...

ATMOSFIR

ATMOSFIR = L. UDARA

= UDARA YANG MELIPUTI PLANET BUMI

Sumber: Cunningham, 2004

Lapisan Atmosfir

LAPISAN SUHU (OC) ALTITUDE (KM)

UNSUR KI UTAMA

TROPOSFIR

STRATOSFIR

MESOSFIR

THERMOSFIR

15 – (-)56

(-)56 – (-) 2

(-2) – (-92)

(-92) – 1200

0 – 11

11 – 50

50 – 85

85 – 500

N2,O2,CO2,H2O

O3

O2,NO

O2,O,NO

TROPOSFIR: Udara tercampur baik homogen Semakin tinggi temperatur berkurang

Spesies serta zat kimia semakin bertambah

Revolusi Industri peningkatan CO2, CH4, dan N2O sebesar 31%, 151% dan 17%

Anthropogenic climate change

Hujan asam

Greenhouse Effect

KOMPOSISI ATM BAWAH, KERING, BEBAS PENGOTORAN :

Mayor : N2 78.08%

O2 20.95%

Minor : Ar 0.93%

CO2 0.03%

Trace : Ne, He, CH4, KR,

NOx, H2, Xe, SO2 0.01%

O3, NO2, CO, J

Kelompok Contoh Karbon oksida Karbon monoksida (CO), Karbon dioksida (CO2)

Sulfur Oksida Sulfur dioksida (SO2), Sulfur trioksida (SO3)

Nitrogen oksida Nitrit Oksida (NO), Nitrogen dioksida (NO2), Nitro oksida (N2O), NO dan NO2 dapat membentuk NOx

Senyawa Organik Volatil Metan (CH4), Propana (C3H8), Benzena (C6H6), kloroflorokarbon (CFCs)

Partikel tersuspensi Partikel solid (debu, jelaga, asbest, timah-Pb, garam2 nitrat dan sulfat), tetesan asam sulfat, PCBs, dioksin, pestisida)

Photochemical Oxidant Ozon (O3), Peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs), Hidrogen peroksida (H2O2), aldehida

Senyawa-senyawa radioaktif

Radon-222, iodine-131, Strotium-90, Plutonium-239

Senyawa-senyawa toksik Sejumlah kecil dari 600 senyawa toksik (volatil), 60 diantaranya karsinogenik pada hewan uji

Sumber: Miller 1998

Pencemar Sumber Efek thd kesehatan

CO Pembakaran tidak sempurna 250 ppm pingsan, 750 ppm kematian

H2S Kebocoran industri kilang minyak, gunung berapi, dekomposisi zat organik

Melumpuhkan pusat pernafasan kematian

Hidrokarbon Asap kendaraan bermotor Karsinogenik

Bencana Pencemaran Udara (Soemirat, 2002) Lokasi Sumber/jenis

pencemar Jumlah penderita/kematian

Kelainan

Meuse Valley, Belgia, 1930

Industri Baja, dll/ SO2, F, Oxida

6000/60

Respiratory pollutant

Menimbulkan dampak/efek terhadap jaringan pada sistem sal. pernafasan

Terbagi menjadi:

1. Pulmonary Irritans: SO2, Ozon, NOx

2. Debu

3. Agen penyebab granuloma: Berilium,

4. Agent penyebab demam: Mn, Cobalt, Zn,

5. Asphyxiants: CO2, H2S,CO, NH3, dan CH4

Systemic pollutant

Menimbulkan efek pada lebih dari satu organ tubuh, krn masuk ke sistem peredaran darah organ tubuh lain: lambung, sistem susunan syaraf pusat dan sal. air seni

Contoh:

Pb, Hg, Cadmium, Fluorida, Organofosfat

Chlorinated Hydrocarbon

Host specific pollutant

Menimbulkan reaksi seperti alergi, kanker dan mutan

Contoh:

Formaldehyde

Thiocyanat

Strontium

Nickel

Asbestos

Selenium

Arsenik

Methyl mercury

Lead

Chlorinated Hydrocarbon

EFEK PENCEMARAN UDARA TERHADAP KESEHATAN

Perhatikan partikel dengan ukuran:

• < 2,5 μm, karena dapat mengandung Cd, Pb dan PAH (Crosby, 1998)

• partikel dengan ukuran antara ~ 0,1 – 1 μm, hanya mewakili ~5

% dari jumlah total partikel udara tetapi 50% bagian darinya merupakan senyawa organik

• sulfat, SO2, NOx, dan O3 senyawa-senyawa pengoksidasi kuat menimbulkan iritasi dan merusak jaringan halus mata dan paru-paru.

• materi-materi halus, tersuspensi dan partikulat berpenetrasi sampai ke dalam paru2 menyebabkan iritasi, luka bahkan tumor

• Pb dan CO mengikat hemoglobin dan mengganggu aliran oksigen ke otak

0.001 0.01 100.0 10.0 0.1 1.0

Partikel halus Partikel medium

Partikel kasar

Paint pigmen pollen

Asap rokok

Debu insektisida

Photochemical smog

Asap minyak

Debu batubara

Debu semen

Metallurgical dust and fumes

Diameter partikel rata-rata (µm) (Miller, 1998)

SULFUR DIOKSIDA (SO2)

SUMBER Alamiah: Gunung berapi, pembusukan

Buatan: Industri minyak, gas alam, batu bara (ekstraksi, produksi, proses), Pembakaran bahan bakar mengandung sulfur

IDENTITAS

- Gas tidak berwarna , tdk berbau

- Precursor hujan asam

- Irritan terhadap kulit, selaput lendir

- Mudah diserap oleh selaput lendir; saluran pernapasan atas (tdk sampai larynx)

KONSENTRASI : - Rendah spasme temporer bronchioli t-dingin spasme lebih hebat - Sedang produksi lendir di s.p.b.a - Besar Peradangan hebat pada selaput lendir paralysis cilia,

kerusakan epithelium

Pemaparan yang berulang :

hyperplasia/metaplasia epithel

kanker ?

Terhadap hewan ~ manusia

Terhadap tumbuhan: kerusakan chlorofilchlorosis, nekrosis

NITROGEN OXIDA (NO, N2O, N2O5, NO2 atau NOx)

SUMBER : Industri perminyakan Pembakaran gas alam, batu bara Atmosfir

NO2 : Toksisitas tergantung: Waktu pemaparan Konsentrasi/dosis 50 – 100 ppm bbrp menit radang paru-paru 150 – 200 ppm bronchiolitis fibrosis obliterans kematian dalam 3-5 mg – pemaparan > 500 ppm kematian dlm 2 – 10 hari

“SILO FILLERS DISEASE” (akibat akumulasi NO2 pada gudang makanan ternak)

KARBON MONOKSIDA (CO)

* SUMBER Alamiah: - Reaksi-reaksi fotokimia dalam atmosfir

- Hydrozoa di laut

Buatan : Pembakaran tidak sempurna

* IDENTITAS & EFEK

- Tidak berwarna

- Mengikat hemoglobin

O2Hb + CO COHb + O2

- > 100 ppm: Kelainan fungsi syaraf pusat, jantung & paru2

250 ppm : Pingsan

750 ppm : Kematian

- Komplikasi : Penyakit paru merokok

HIDROGEN SULFIDA (H2S)

* SUMBER Alamiah : Gunung berapi, gas bumi, pembusukan zat organik Buatan : Industri (minyak, gas alam)

* IDENTITAS & EFEK

- Berbau busuk, lebih berat dari udara

- Korosif

- Melumpuhkan susunan syaraf pusat pernafasan kematian

HIDROKARBON (Metan)

* SUMBER

Alamiah : - Tanaman

- Dekomposisi zat organik

- Sumur minyak & gas bumi

Buatan : Pembakaran BBM

* IDENTITAS & EFEK

Tergantung: Jenis

Konsentrasi

Lamanya pemaparan

Chloracne due to Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) poisoning

Viktor Yushchenko, president candidate, Ukraina, September 6, 2004

OZON * SUMBER

Alamiah : Stratosfir, troposfir

Buatan : Instrumen voltage tinggi dibuat utk desinfeksi

* IDENTITAS

- Tidak stabil, warna biru

- Irritan terhadap saluran pernafasan

- Masuk > larynx

- Bereaksi dg zat-zat organik

- Mematikan makrofag

- Dinding arteri paru-paru menebal

* Pemaparan berulang-ulang/chronis : EMPHISEMA

Paru-paru Normal Paru-paru Emphysema

Sumber: Miller, 1996

PARTIKULAT

* SUMBER Alamiah : Debu

Buatan : Pembakaran

* IDENTITAS & EFEK

Tergantung jenis fi, ki, bi, bentuk, ukuran (aerdinamika)

Anorganik

Hidup

Tidak hidup Organik

SMOKE FROM BURNING REFUSE

Transportasi

PM2.5 MOBIL PRIBADI - A.C. Depok – Gatot Subroto

0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

6:07:

11

7:07:

11

8:07:

11

9:07:

11

10:07

:11

11:07

:11

12:07

:11

13:07

:11

14:07

:11

15:07

:11

16:07

:11

17:07

:11

18:07

:11

19:07

:11

20:07

:11

21:07

:11

22:07

:11

23:07

:11

0:07:

11

1:07:

11

2:07:

11

3:07:

11

4:07:

11

Open Fire, Rural China

Sumber dan jenis pencemar udara (Miller, 1998)

Photochemical Smog (Miller, 1998)

Greenhouse Gases Sumber: CO2, CH4, dan N2O

Bersifat menahan (menjebak) panas

menyebabkan perubahan iklim bumi.

Era industri meningkatkan konsentrasi CO2, CH4, dan N2O telah sampai 31%, 151% dan 17%.

CO2 penyebab utama perubahan iklim, akibat antropogenik, pebakaran fossil, pembuatan semen, pembakaran hutan dan grassland serta aktivitas manusia lainnya telah menghasilkan 30 juta CO2 setiap tahunnya.

Greenhouse Gasses CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) merupakan penyerap infrared terkuat

Carbon management:

Mengurangi limbah dari bahan bakar fosil, perhatian lebih difokuskan pada CO2 karena CO2 bertahan lebih lama dibandingkan senyawa lain, CO2 bertahan s.d. 120 th. Gas metan serta gas lainnya mempunyai kemampuan menyerab (absorbsi) infra red lebih kuat, tetapi berada di udara lebih cepat (pendek). Lifetime metan 12,23 tahun

FISIKA U. BEBAS

-Gelombang elektro magnetis : UV, IM

-Sinar-sinar pengion

-Kebisingan

-T, kelembaban, curah hujan

BIOLOGI Mikroba:

Tidak dapat hidup lama di udara bebas

Tidak dapat berkembang biak

Kecuali virus, telur2 cacing dan spora

lainnya: tidak bertahan lama dalam udara bebas

Penyakit Infeksi dari Lingkungan Udara:

Agent Penyakit Corynebacterium diphtheriae Mycobacterium tubercolosis Bordetella pertusis Diplococcus pneumoniae Parotitis epidemica virus Virus varicella Virus Morbilli Virus Influenza Enterobius vermicularis Histoplasma capsulatum

Diphteriae Tuberculosa Pertussis Pneumonia Parotitis epidemica Varicella Morbilli Influenza Oxyuriasis Histoplasmosis

Udara di dalam gedung-gedung : Rumah, pabrik, sekolah, dll.

Penyakit:

Fibrosis (pertumbuhan jaringan ikat)

Penyebab fibrosis:

Silica bebas, besi, cobalt, barium, berilium, asbes, karbon

UDARA TIDAK BEBAS

Pneumoconiosis (paru-paru berdebu)

Merupakan gejala utama fibrosis

Beriliumberiliosis

Banyak terjadi di pertambangan batubara

Prinsip Pengelolaan Kualitas Udara

Penanggulangan

Tujuan:

Kualitas udara yang sehat

Komponen yang diperlukan:

Baku mutu Udara : -Ambien

- Emisi

Inventarisasi Sumber

Baku mutu udara ambien:

Diberlakukan untuk udara, udara yang mengandung unsur melebihi baku mutu udara telah tercemar

Baku mutu emisi (standard emisi):

Diberlakukan bagi sumber-sumber pengotor

Emisi cerobong pabrik

Emisi kendaraan bermotor

Standar kualitas bahan bakar

No Parameter Baku mutu

1 SO2 0,01 ppm

2 CO 20,00 ppm

3 NOx 0,05 ppm

4 Ox 0,10 ppm

5 Debu 0,26 mg/m3

6 Pb 0,06 mg/m3

7 H2S 0,03 ppm

8 NH3 2,00 ppm

9 HC 0,24 ppm

Baku mutu kualitas udara ambien (KEP-2/MENKLH/I/1988)

Nilai Standar

Catu Udara Bersih Untuk Ruangan Parkir : 6 x Volume Ruangan / jam (SNI 03-6572-2001)

Karbon Monoksida : 25 ppm (SK Menaker No. SE 01/MEN/1997)

Hasil Pengukuran (Studi Kasus: BIP, 2004)

Ruangan CO (ppm) HC (ppm) Debit Udara

(m3/jam)

Basement Utama 25,15 5,4 141490

Lower Ground - - 314525

Basement 2 55,03 6,7 205448

Basement 3 221,71 3,3 51125

Penanggulangan:

Inventarisasi Sumber:

Klasifikasi:

Alamiah

Buatan

Sumber titik: cerobong

Sumber bergerak: kendaraan bermotor

Sumber area: pemukiman

Teknologi

Penyelidikan epidemiologi

Hukum

Sarana dan Prasarana yang diperlukan untuk Pengendalian Kualitas Udara

Badan/jawatan khusus

Tenaga ahli:

Rekayasa: perubahan/pemilihan bahan di industri

Pemantauan, fasilitas laboratorium

Pusat Penyimpanan Data

Penyuluhan

Pencatatan kondisi meteorologi, koordinasi dengan industri

Protokol Kyoto

Pembatasan emisi terkait dengan perubahan iklim global membatasi emisi CO2, CH4, N2O, CFCs, SOX . Indonesia: Ratifikasi Protokol Kyoto dengan UURI No.

17 Tahun 2004

Pembatasan pada sumber: Energi: Industri, Transportasi Industri: Kimia, Logam, dll Pertanian: Pengel. pupuk, Pembakaran residu pertanian, dll Limbah: Pembuangan limbah padat, pembakaran limbah, dll

INDONESIA TELAH MERATIFIKASI KONVENSI WINA DAN MONTREAL YANG MENGHAPUSKAN BAHAN-BAHAN PERUSAK OZON DAN MENETAPKAN PROGRAM IMPLEMENTASI SEJAK 1996/1997 DG KEPPRES 23/1992.

Contoh Kasus

Airborne Pathogens

Tuberculosis Influenza Avian Influenza Smallpox SARS

SARS

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome

The 2003 global SARS outbreak led to over 8,000 people becoming ill, and 774 deaths. It is estimated the panic caused by the disease cost Canada $1 billion in lost tourism and all of Asia over $28 billion. (BBC News)

Source: SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM

What is SARS? Center for Disease Control Definition

SARS is a respiratory illness of unknown etiology. It was first identified in February 2003. SARS was first noticed in Southeast Asia. To date more than 100 cases have been reported in the United States Public health experts think that SARS is spread by close contact between people


How SARS Spreads

SARS is most likely spread when someone sick from the disease coughs droplets into the air and someone else breathes the virus in It is possible that SARS may spread more broadly through the air or from touching an object that is contaminated


Who Is at Risk for SARS?

Individuals having close contact with someone sick from the disease Those sharing a household with someone sick from the disease Healthcare providers who do not use the proper infection control techniques when providing care for patients sick from the disease


Possible Causes of SARS

Scientists at the CDC and other laboratories have detected a previously unrecognized coronavirus in patients with SARS. While the new coronavirus is still the leading hypothesis for the cause of SARS, other viruses are still under investigation as potential causes.


What are Coronaviruses

These viruses are a common cause of mild to moderate upper-respiratory illness in humans and are associated with respiratory, gastrointestinal, liver and neurologic disease in animals. Coronaviruses can survive in the environment for as long as three hours.

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=www-instruct.nmu.edu/cls/lriipi/micro/coronavirus.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www-instruct.nmu.edu/cls/lriipi/micro/&h=1272&w=1942&start=3&prev=/images?q=coronavirus&svnum=10&hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8�

Tuberculosis Famous people who have had TB Fredric Chopin* Eleanor Roosevelt* Nelson Mandela Ringo Starr Tom Jones Tina Turner *Died of TB

SAINT BARNABAS HEALTH CARE SYSTEM

What is tuberculosis (TB)?

Disease caused by bacteria called Mycobacterium tuberculosis Chronic bacterial infection Was once the leading cause of death in US The number of cases declined in the 1940’s when drugs were developed to treat TB TB is still a problem worldwide (NIAID)

8 million people develop TB yearly 3 million die


How is TB spread? Through the air from person to

person by coughing Usually attacks lungs Two stages

Latent TB • asymptomatic and not contagious • can take medication to prevent development of disease

Active TB Disease • May spread to others • May have abnormal chest x-ray • Usually have positive skin test


Symptoms of TB

Chills Fever Weakness or fatigue Sweating while sleeping, Night sweats Cough that lasts longer than 2 weeks Pain in chest Coughing up blood or sputum


Risk Factors

Close contact with someone who is infected with TB Traveling to a country where TB is common Immune compromised Foreign-born individuals and minorities have a higher incidence of developing TB

2002: 50% of US cases were in foreign-born individuals (CDC) 2002: 80% of all US TB cases were in ethnic and racial minorities (CDC)


Multi-drug resistant TB (MDR TB)

Bacteria become resistant to antibiotics Arose from improper use of antibiotics in the treatment of TB Treatment of one case can cost up to $1.3 million (CDC) 45 states and Washington, DC have confirmed cases of MDR TB (CDC)


MDR TB continued

Treatment is difficult and costly Can develop from not taking proper course of antibiotics for TB MDR TB can be spread by an infected person

The Chain Model of Communicable Diseases

• Modes of transmission – Direct contact – Indirect contact

• Portals of entry

• Susceptible hosts

Presenter

Presentation Notes

The fourth link is modes of transmission: We’ll discuss more about these in the next slide. The fifth link is portals of entry: Same as exit portal or may differ. An finally, susceptible host(s) – susceptible either due to lack of immunity to the infectious agent or immune system compromised

Modes of Transmission • Direct Transmission

Direct Contact Droplet

• Indirect Transmission

Vehicle-borne Vector-borne Airborne

• Vertical transmission (mother to infant)

Presenter

Presentation Notes

Communicable Diseases can be transmitted by two different mechanisms: direct transmission and indirect transmission. Direct transmission occurs through: Contact with infectious body fluids of human/animal. For human to human transmission this is usually through direct contact (e.g. touching, kissing, biting, sexual intercourse). Direct contact is one important route of transmission for HIV and Hepatitis B. Humans can contract rabies by direct contact with infectious saliva through the bite of a rabid dog or bat. Large droplets produced by sneezing, coughing, or even talking (direct transmission). Transmission is by direct spray over a few feet before the droplets fall to the ground (e.g., Pertussis and meningococcal infection). Indirect transmission can occur through: Common vehicle that is contaminated (e.g., food, water, fomites or inanimate objects like the doorknob), or biologic products (e.g., blood). Vector-borne (e.g., malaria, WNV. Lyme disease) Airborne (e.g., inhalation route). Airborne transmission refers to spread of infectious aerosols, spores, contaminated dust through the air causing diseases primarily by inhalation. Most of us know that TB is transmitted by the airborne route. Hanta virus pulmonary syndrome is another disease transmitted by the airborne route. Small rodents can carry hanta virus and excrete the virus in their urine. Sweeping in enclosed areas with rodent infestations can stir up contaminated dust particles which, if inhaled, can cause a life-threatening acute respiratory disease syndrome in humans. Vertical transmission: This is from mother to child, often in utero or during childbirth (also referred to as perinatal infection). It occurs more rarely via breast milk. Example: HIV, Hepatitis B and Syphilis. Some diseases are transmitted by multiple routes: Malaria, West Nile virus- mosquito (vector), transfusions (vehicle; rare), transplacental (direct; rare)

Infectious Aerosols

Department of Medical Microbiology, Edinburgh University

Presenter

Presentation Notes

As we heard earlier today Infectious aerosols are generated when an some ill person sneezes, coughs or speaks. For some types of infections (such as chickenpox or measles), a person can be infectious even before the onset of symptoms.

Transmission of Infections by Respiratory Aerosols • Droplets: land directly on mucosal lining of nose,

mouth, eyes of nearby persons or can be inhaled. • Highest exposures within 3-6 feet.

• Airborne: aerosols become smaller by evaporation; small aerosols (≤ 10 microns) remain suspended for longer periods, if inhaled travel deep into the lungs.

• Contact: Aerosols/ secretions contaminate nearby surface. Touch surfaces can infect self or others.

Relative contribution of three routes varies with agent.

Presenter

Presentation Notes

Expulsion of infectious material into the air through sneezing, coughing or through aerosol-generating medical procedures such as sputum induction creates large droplets and smaller aerosols. Even speaking and breathing can generate smaller amounts of aerosols routes of transmission of respiratory infections Bacterial or viral laden droplets (10-100 ) can land on the mucous membranes of the nose, mouth eyes or nearby persons or inhaled Highest exposures within 3-6 feet. Once in contact with the mucosal surface, an infection can be established in an innocent bystander who is not immune. Airborne smaller aerosols created during cough or after evaporation of larger aerosols can remain suspended in the air for longer periods and can be inhaled deeply in the lungs. Respiratory secretions contaminate a surface and if transferred to the hands, may then lead to self-inoculation or infection of others For instance, TB is transmitted by the airborne route. Household contacts are the most susceptible, but those sharing the same airspace in close quarters (e.g. in airplanes) are also at increased risk of infection.

Modes of Transmission via Infectious Respiratory Secretions

• Airborne: tuberculosis, measles, varicella, smallpox, SARS, avian influenza

• Droplet: meningococcal meningitis, rubella, pertussis, common cold, SARS, influenza*

• Indirect contact: RSV, SARS

*Influenza traditionally droplet, increasing evidence for airborne component

Presenter

Presentation Notes

Measles is highly infectious. Transmission is primarily person to person by large droplets. However, airborne transmission has occurred in a closed area (e.g., doctor’s exam room) up to 2 hours after a person with measles has occupied the area. Some infections can be transmitted by multiple routes RSV – a common respiratory illness in early childhood that causes infant wheezing or bronchiolitis. The virus can survive on non-porous surfaces for hours and some studies have shown that direct transmission by contact with contaminated surfaces is the most common mode of transmission in health care settings Influenza: traditionally droplet; increasing evidence for airborne component. The flu virus can survive on hands for 15 minutes and 2-48 hours on surfaces depending on the surface material, temperature and relative humidity. Cal/OSHA ATD Standard, Appendix A for list of Aerosol Transmissible Diseases (ATDs) which require airborne and droplet precautions

atmosfir - kuliah.ftsl.itb.ac.idkuliah.ftsl.itb.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/7-atmosfir.pdf ·...

Documents