Archeological evidence indicates that during the Paleolithic era, hunting-foraging bands of humans gradually migrated from their origin in East Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas, adapting their technology and cultures to new climate regions.• Economic structures focused on small kinship groups of

hunting foraging bands that could make what they needed to survive. However, not all groups were self-sufficient; they exchanged people, ideas, and goods.

A. Hunter-Gathering 1. Locations: East Africa to Eurasia – Australia –

Americas2. Technologies / Cultures individual3. Kinship groups4. Exchange (people – ideas – goods) Cultural

Diffusion

I. Paleolithic Era

Broad Themes of the Paleolithic / Neolithic Period• Hunter and gatherers gradually migrated around

the world adapting their technology and cultures to the new

• Interactions were limited to groups that were geographically nearby but cultural diffusion did occur.

• Agriculture is the second great human process after settlement of the globe. The Neolithic (New Stone Age) / Agricultural Revolution started about 12,000 years ago.

• Agriculture brought new relationships between humans and other living things. Humans actively changed nature, instead of using what they found. They shaped the landscape and selectively bred animals.

1. Migration/Adaptation2. Cultural Diffusion3. Agriculture

a. second great processb. new relationship changes naturec. bred animals

B. Themes

OPTIC: Tassili-n-Ajjer rock art is at least 9000 years old, Algerian section of the Sahara desert.

Neolithic Revolution: The changeover from food gathering in human history to food producing and the resulting transformation of human society and the natural environment. • Global Warming 16,000 – 10,000

B.C.E.• Settling down occurred 12,000 –

4,000 B.C.E. among some populations• Population:

70,000 yrs. Ago: 10,000 humans30,000 yrs. Ago: 500,000 humans10,000 yrs. Ago: 6 million humans5,000 yrs. Ago: 50 million humans101 yrs. Ago: 250 million humans

1. Gathering to producing 2. Global Warming = Settling

a. 16,000- 12,0003. Rapid population rise with agriculture

a. increase birth rates = catalytic cycle

C. Neolithic Revolution

Possibly as a response to climatic change, permanent agricultural villages emerged first in the lands of the eastern Mediterranean. Agriculture emerged at different times in Mesopotamia, the Nile River Valley and Sub-Saharan Africa, the Indus River Valley, the Yellow River or Huang He Valley, Papua New Guinea, Mesoamerica, and the Andes.

1. Eastern Mediterranean: MesopotamiaTigris/ Euphrates

2. Egypt: Nile River3. Sub-Saharan Africa: Niger River4. India: Indus River5. East Asia: Yellow/Huang He River6. Southeast Asia: Papua New Guinea7. Mesoamerica: swamplands8. Andes: Intermountain zones

D. Agricultural Villages

• Between 7,000 B.C.E. and 4,000 B.C.E. villages had grown into towns. These aren’t quite cities, but they are foreshadowing what’s to come.

• Jericho on Jordan river – mud/brick houses surrounded by a big wall

• Catal-Huyuk, in Turkey – joined houses together so that people couldn’t invade them

• Organized – start trading from other towns, as far as Sinai for Turquoise (Jericho)

• Villages practiced relative gender equality and a mix of matrilineal and patrilineal social structures

• Chiefdoms develop: 6,000 B.C.E.: descent from some ancestor. Tribute collected for redistribution. Division of labor and surpluses created.

1. Fertile Crescent: Mesopotamia (The Land between two Rivers)

a. This was the first region to develop agriculture around 11,000 B.C.E. b. Catal-Huyuk: Southern Turkey: 7,000 B.C.E.

1. pueblo style architecture c. Jericho: Jordan River: 7,000 B.C.E.

1. mud brick round houses 2. twelve foot wallsd. Both cities relied on agriculture and trade 1. gender equality 2. matrilineal/patrilineale. Chiefdoms 6,000 B.C.E. 1. ancestor connection 2. Tribute 3. Division of labor 4. Surpluses

E. Earliest organized cities

Cultural Hearths: The areas where civilizations first began to radiate the ideas, innovations, and ideologies that culturally transformed the world.

Features of Civilization- monumental architecture - large population- powerful state – able to wage war- economic and social inequality

II. River Valley CivilizationsA. Features of Civilization

1. monumental architecture – large pop. 2. powerful state – able to wage war3. economic and social inequality

B. Urban Revolution 1. cities 2. specialized industries

C. Social Classes and inequalities 1. Upper class: great wealth – no physical labor

– top positions in political, military, and religious life

2. Free commoners: artisans – low level officials – police – servants, and farmers, their surplus used to support upper class

3. Slaves: bottom – first generation = prisoners of war – criminals - debtors

TIGRIS-EUPHRATES

Mesopotamia (land between rivers) Harsh heat, drought; unpredictable floodsFew natural resources; no woodNo natural defensive areas such as hillsArea open to invasion by nomads

People in area mustProvide permanent food supplyRegulate, provide permanent water supplyProvide defense against invadersAcquire materials such as timber, minerals

TIGRIS-EUPHRATES “Necessity is the mother of invention” Sumer in S. Iraq: first civilization (5000 bce)

Create cuneiform, the first writingCity-states ruled by priests and kings

Wars over irrigated farmlandLand-owning aristocracy dominate; most of the

population were farmers or slavesPolytheistic religion tied to nature

LATER MESOPOTAMIANS

Cycle of CivilizationNomads come in and conquer sedentary peopleConquerors assimilate local sedentary cultureNew civilization blends cultures, thrives for a while“New” civilization grows old, invaded by nomads

Akkadian “First” First EmpireSargon conquered all of Sumer

Babylonian “First”City at junction of Tigris-EuphratesHammurabi’s Law Code

Epic of Gilgamesh

MESOPOTAMIA AS A CHART

THE NILE RIVERSociety very different from Sumer

Nile flooded regularly, predictablyProvided rich soil, Easy soil to farmCivilization regulated flooding, surveying

Location isolatedPharaoh was considered god-king

Theocracy, almost absoluteBuilt pyramid tombs for deadEgypt unified for most of historyQueen Hatsheput

Achievements Mathematics especially geometry; architecture Astronomy and medicine Hieroglyphics

HUANG-HE (YELLOW) RIVER

Developed in isolationAlong lower Yellow RiverRich loess soilConstantly flooding

First DynastiesControl of flooding criticalXia Dynasty (Mythical?)

God-like kingsTaught irrigation, silkmaking

Shang DynastyWarlike kings, landed aristocracy; few priestsMost people worked land as peasantsElaborate bronze workings; naturalistic art

CHINESE WRITINGOriginated during ShangIdeographic

Writing denotes ideasFirst used on Oracle Bones

Priests asked gods questionsWrote questions on bonesTossed into fireCracks read by priests (divination)

Elitist technique = scholar-bureaucratsExtremely difficult to readRequired well-educated class to useOnly elite had time to learn

Cuneiform, hieroglyphs had similar effects

MANDATE OF HEAVEN

Chinese political ideaRulers exercise power given by heavenRulers continue to rule if heaven pleasedHeaven will take back mandate to ruleHeaven will replace ruling dynasty

Indicators of a Lost MandateWars, invasions, military disastersOver-taxation, disgruntled peasantsSocial, moral decline of elite classesIncreased crime, banditry

DYNASTIC CYCLE

One ruling family replaces anotherThe Dynasty ChangesDue to the loss of the Mandate of Heaven

Stages in CycleNew dynasty arises, takes control of ChinaStrengthens rule, reestablishes prosperity, peaceWeakens, becomes lazy, problems ariseInvasions, revolts toss out reigning dynasty

Shang replaces Xia, Zhou replaces Shang

HOWTHE

CYCLE AND

MANDATEWORK

TOGETHER

INDUS VALLEY

Arose around 2,500 BCEMain Cities

Mohenjo DaroHarappaHundreds of other settlements

Independent city-states, strong governmentExtremely well-planned, coordinated citiesElaborate writing system (undeciphered)

Religion Worshipped mother goddessEvidence of priestly class and temples

CollapseLittle evidence of warfare until endDevastated by environmental upheavalsDestroyed by Indo-European (Aryan) nomadsCities abandoned

MEANWHILE, IN AMERICAS

Olmec around Gulf of Mexico, 1200bce Used rainfall for agriculture Cities are centers of trade, religion Priests and ruling class over others Giant stone heads (as tall as 2 Mr. Storcks!)

Chavin off coast of Peru, 900bce Two major regions:

mountains and coast Trade routes running

through mountains CONTRAST: Neither are river valleys

HERITAGES

First heritages Passed thru children Writing systems inheritedIntellectual systems, art copiedReligious, philosophical systems copiedUseful inventions rarely forgotten, easily spread

River valley civilizations decline by 1000BCEAll subject to nomadic invasionsIndo-Europeans and Semites were strongestGeographical centers shifted (all except China)

Political Structures often not continued

CIVILIZATION SPREADS

Phoenician Sailors in Lebanon City-states traded across Mediterranean Invented 22-letter alphabet

Asia Minor Hittites introduced Iron Lydians introduced coinage to area

Hebrews in Palestine Large Semitic migration in area There is only one God speaking through prophets, priests God made a covenant with the Jews, his Chosen people Ethical monotheism

Conduct determines salvation Man is not eternally damned if he follows God’s rules, repents

NOMADS: BARBARIANS?Pastoralism

Domestication of animals Way of life based on herding Often on fringes Bordered settled areas

Seen as savagesInteraction vs. conflict

Nomads traded, coexisted with settled areas Nomads warred on, conquered settled areas Often protected merchants, allowed trade

Prior to 1500 BCE little major threat Chariot Peoples (Central Asian Indo-Europeans)

Domesticated horse, invented chariot, iron weapons Pushed into SW Asia, S. Asia, E. Asia, Europe

Responsible for spread of ideas, trade

Greeks, Persians, Guptas, Mauryans, The Han, The Qin, Romans

Classical Civilization

8000 BCE – 600 BCE = ANCIENT6 0 0 B C E – 6 0 0 C E =

C L A S S I C A L

Classical Periodization

PHYSICAL MAP OF AREA

Ancient: 2000 BCE – 1100 BCEMinoansMycenaeans

Classical Greeks will inherit language, gods, technology, trade routes, early political and social structure from their two predecessors.

Cosmopolitan Mediterranean at this timeGreek Dark Age: 1100 BCE – 800 BCE

Iliad/Odyssey composed by Homer in this periodInvasion of TroyPhoenicians begin to reconnect Greece with the

rest of the MediterraneanResult: Greece trades again ~800 BCEResult: Greeks borrow the Phoenician alphabet &

make their own

Ancient & Classical Greece

ANCIENT GREECE

Oral tradition kept Greek culture alive Imagine keeping the Odyssey or Iliad alive through

memory and speech…disgusting, right?Polis (pl. poleis) – city-state. Autonomous. Geography!Colonization – Black Sea, Southern Italy, Sicily,

Anatolia, Aegean Islands, North Africa, Southern FranceEconomically motivatedTook fire from hearth of home city to hearth @ colony

Greeks = Hellenes. Non-Greeks = BarbaroiCouncils of nobles = pol. dominant, owned lots o’ land

Peasants/debt slaves worked landSmall middle class of merchants, craftsmen

Religion – anthropomorphic gods. Athena, Zeus, etc.Humanism – celebration of the individual

Greece slowly moving from monarchy/oligarchy to democracy

Archaic Greece: 800-480 BCE

RATIONITY AND PHILOSOPHY The formation of Greek cultural traditions

From the 8th century, drew inspirations from Mesopotamia and Egypt About 800 B.C.E., adapted the Phoenicians' alphabet to their own

language The Greek cultural feature: a philosophy based on human reason,

rationality Socrates (470-399 B.C.E.)

Athenian philosopher, determined to understand humans Encouraged reflection on ethics and morality

Integrity was more important than wealth and fame "The unexamined life is not worth living"

Critical scrutiny to traditional ethical teachings Condemned to death for corrupting Athenian youths

Plato (430-347 B.C.E.) A zealous disciple of Socrates The theory of Forms or Ideas His Republic expressed the ideal of philosophical kings

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) Plato's disciple, but distrusted theory of Forms or Ideas Devised rules of logic, scientific method, father of western science His Nicomedian Ethics became later basis in Christianity

Legacy of Greek philosophy Intellectual authorities for European philosophers until 17th century Intellectual inspiration for Christian and Islamic theologians. Provided a powerful intellectual framework for future generations

GREEK TRIBES

THE GREEK WORLD

Athens & Sparta = politically dominant poleis Sparta:

professional army, people existed to support Sparta Isolated mostly, few political alliances Women: raise strong children, voices welcomed in public debate

Athens: 4 classes of people, classes 1-3 = participated politically, class 4 = no

political participation. Really, only about 15% of people participated. Classes separated by amount of wealth/land holdings Pericles later will alter system to let lower classes hold office

Strong navy – secured trade routes, used to hold down Delian League members

Women: produce children, stay at home, no political rights Hoplite – Greek footsoldier. Fought in phalanx.

Persia comes into the picture Ionian Greek rebellion @ Mitelene. Persia squashes it.

Athens had supported Ionian Greeks. Persia goes after Athens. Darius’ Invasion

The battle of Marathon, 490 B.C.E. Greeks led by Spartans and Athens battled Persia to a draw

Xerxes Invasion To fight Persians, Athenians build a wall of wood, or a navy Xerxes seized, burned Athens Athenian navy destroys Persian in the battle of Salamis, 480 B.C.E. Persian army retreated back to Anatolia, 479 B.C.E.

Classical Greece: 480-323 BCE

POLIS OF ATTICA

LACONIA: SPARTA

MAPPING THE PERSIAN WARS

Peloponnesian War (431 ~ 404 BCE): everyone hates Athens.Athens = greedy, tyrannical towards Delian League.

Rebuilt by PericlesSparta, Delian League, money from Persia go to war w/Athens.Fighting rampant, even goes as far west as Sicily.Sparta wins, even w/lesser navy than Athens.

Plague in Athens helped, too.

Spartan rule was no better than Athenian rule.Political unrest in Greece continued.Spartan hegemony soon replaced by Theban hegemony.

Meanwhile, in Macedonia…King Philip II (359-336 BCE) – great military leader/strategist

Father of Alexander the GreatLonger spears, cavalry, catapultsDefeats southern Greece, tries to launch attack vs. PersiaHowever, is assassinated before he can see it through.

Classical Greece (cont.)

THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR

Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE)Avenges Persian attacks on Greece, conquers the known world.Conquered an empire that expanded from Greece, to Egypt, the

Levant, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Persia, and even into India.How do you manage a beast this big?

Put loyal Greek officials in charge of conquered poleis. Later, this changed to Persian officials, much resented by Greek soldiers.

Saw himself as the rightful heir to the Persian throneBegan dressing in Persian clothing, adhering to Persian culture

Again, this is VERY unpopular with his Greek friends and fellow soldiersDies at the age of 32.Other than the military conquests, why is he important?

Later kings, Caesars will develop an “Alexander complex” Julius Caesar is known to have cried on his 32nd birthday because his

achievements were nothing like Alexander’s.Tomb/body of Alexander – relic site long ago, unknown

whereabouts now.Greek Hellenistic age ends after Rome finally subjugates Greece.

Hellenistic Greece: 323-30 BCE

ALEXANDER’S EMPIRE

HELLENISTIC WORLD

TEMPLES AND THEATRES

THE PERSIAN EMPIRE

From modern Iran, largest empire to this date in historyTook over Neo-Assyrian empire

Medes: Persians who challenged Neo-Assyrian ruleEmpire: Greece to India, as far north as Caucasus Mntns, as

far south as North AfricaCyrus I: Founder – conquers Anatolia/Babylonia.

Lets Jews in OT go home. (end of Babylonian Captivity)Darius I: Organizer & Lawgiver Divides empire into 23

satrapies (satrap = governor related to royal family) satrap: collect taxes, oversee territory, lots of autonomy further from

the capitalConquered IndusDecentralized system. Conquered lived according to own traditions.Est. new capital @ PersepolisZoroastrianism – Heaven/Hell, 1 supreme god, reward/punishment,

“messiah.” Monotheistic polytheism – Ahura Mazda – supreme deity, over lesser deities.

Standardized coins, big empire, roads, stability brought forth good trade

Persian Empire: 550-330 BCE

PERSEPOLIS

Pre-classical IndiaIndus->Aryans, or Harappan Age-> Vedic AgeVarna: 4 social classes (castes)

Priests/scholars (Brahmin), warriors/govt officials (Kshatriya), merchants/artisans (Vaishya), peasants/workers (Shudra)5th class: untouchables, given demeaning jobs

Rigid social hierarchy threatened by 8th Cent BCEBrahmins – most powerful classJainism – nonviolence, self-denial, value of all living thingsBuddhism – Siddhartha (Kshatriya)

Four noble truths: life is suffering, suffering comes from desire, suffering will end if desire ends, way to end desire is the Eightfold path.

Reach nirvana at the end cycle of reincarnationWill spread to much of India, Asia after 483 BCE

Mahayanas – worshipped Buddha as a god & bodhisattvas (enlightened men and women who gave up nirvana to help lead others). Central/Western Asia.

Theravadas – no Buddha images, no worship of Buddha. Basics. SE Asia.

Classical India

Buddhism’s popularity forces Vedic religion to evolve to Hinduism Brahmins – still powerful, but gave people more personal connection to

gods. Hinduism borrowed much from Buddhism, even drove it from its land of

origin.Outside pre-Mauryan intrusions: Persians – 520 BCE(Indus satrapy),

Alexander – 327 BCE (left local rulers to their own)Political unification – tough in India

Geography, rigid social hierarchy, diverse languages, customs, varied economies, castes

324-184 BCE – Mauryan Empire – all of India except southern tip Founded by Chandragupta Maurya – Arthrashastra (political handbook) Coinage, govt controlled mines, large army, ¼ of peasant crops paid to king Spoils system – gave positions to allies/relatives Ashoka – most famous Mauryan. Est. new capital at Pataliputra

Brutal in warfare, extends Mauryan empire to its height Reflects on brutality, gives it up for nonviolence & tolerance of Buddhism (260)

Moral codes inscribed on pillars throughout empire Roads/maritime trade routes made India a hub for trade from SE/Central Asia/China

w/Mediterranean, Middle East, even the Philippines Collapsed due to outside invaders, high cost of empire/maintaining borders

Classical India (cont.)

SPREAD OF BUDDHISM

Mauryan Guptan

Gupta Empire (320-550 CE) – Golden Age of HinduismLeaders controlled agriculture/mining like MauryansSubjects donated labor for big projectsTrade/industry brought wealth to shudras/vaishyasMore decentralized than Mauryans

Local leaders were autonomous But, could keep some profits from trade

Gave them incentive to stay loyal to GuptasBig army helped keep order, but wasn’t enough

Invented concept of ‘0’ (zero). Invented “Arabic” numeralsCollapsed after Huns attacked in 550 CE. Result: fragmentation

Women in Classical India: role changed w/economic changes Increased trade->urban middle class->value on property-> women

couldn’t own propertyExpected, like under Confucianism, to obey male family membersSati –throwing one’s self on your husband’s funeral pyreBuddhism/Jainism – gave women a little more freedom than

HinduismUpper class women could be educated

Classical India (cont.)

End of Zhou: Warring States PeriodPolitical fragmentation, feudalism, warlords!

Qin (350-206 BCE) – led by Shi Huangdi defeat ZhouChina’s first empire – unification!Legalism – strict rule, little care for subjectsTotalitarianism – state/leader is the end of all things.

Controls political life, economics, military, religion, etc.Slavery abolished to create free labor/taxable

citizens/military conscriptsStandard coinage, laws, 1000’s of miles of road, canals,

wallsHelped secure & consolidate power @ home & vs. outsiders

Also held noble sons hostage, destroyed noble castlesHad 460 Confucian scholars buried alive for opposing the Qin.

Iron technology. Used in warfare, agriculture.After Shi Huangdi dies, people revolt vs. oppressive QinsQin royal afterlife: Terracotta soldiers protected Shi

Huangdi’s tomb. All individual faces.

Classical China – more Qins than a Chinese phonebook

Han dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE)Located by eastern river valleysTax system: based on cropsMen donated 1 month of labor to build infrastructure & 2

years military serviceConfucianism – clear hierarchy, ppl saw themselves

having a role in the family/societyExpansionist: conquered modern Vietnam & KoreaEmperor: Son of Heaven. Just like the Zhou.Local leaders: taxed, organized labor, defended empireGovernment meritocracy: young men went to universities

in order to get gov’t positions. Really, only the wealthy had time/money to send sons to university. They then became part of a massive bureaucracy.Result: Peasants, alienated by high-ranking Confucianism, turn

to Daoism, which was principally opposed to Confucianism.

Classical China (cont.)

MAPPING HAN CHINA

Women under the Han: subjugatedBan Zhao – Admonitions for Women

Achievements of Han: crossbow, cavalry, horse collar, road system, watermill, paper, silk & the silk road!

Fall of Han: empire was too costly. Too much frontier, too much corruption in government, too few troops left to garrison, too many regional warlords, & peasant rebellions.Expansionist expeditions wasted gov’t coffers,

defense money spent fighting outside nomadsWide gulf between rich and poor.Land possessed by few people, unlike early Han.

China fragments once again after the Han

Classical China (cont.)

THE ROMANS

FROM KINGDOM TO REPUBLIC TO

EMPIRE

EARLY ROMEThe Etruscans

Probably migrated from Anatolia Dominated Italy from the 8th to 5th centuries B.C.E.

City-states were constantly at warSimilar in own way to Greek society

Arch, religion, alphabet, early traditions given to Rome Declined, attacked by Gaul and defeated by Greek fleets

Romulus and Remus Legend: twins rescued by a she-wolf Founded Rome in 753 B.C.E. Indo-European migrants settled in Italy from 2000 B.C.E. Came from Latins, a tribe of the Italics

The kingdom of Rome A small kingdom on the Tiber River, ruled by monarchies Easy access to the Mediterranean, trade routes led to

Rome Agriculture, warfare were typical Society dominated by aristocracy called patricians

THE WORLD OF EARLY ROME

EARLY ROMAN REPUBLIC

Establishment of the Republic Rome nobility deposed the last Etruscan king in 509 B.C.E. Republican constitution

Included two consuls: civil and military Consuls elected by an assembly dominated by the patricians The Senate advised the consuls and ratified major decisions Senate and consuls represented the interests of the patricians

Conflicts between patricians and plebeians Plebeians' threat to secede from Rome Patricians granted plebeians the tribunes Tribunes' power to intervene and veto decisions Tribunes dominated Roman politics, early 3rd century

B.C.E. In times of crisis, ruled by short-term dictatorship

Elected for six month term Given unlimited power

ROMAN REPUBLICAN GOVERNMENT

Monarchical Aristocratic Democratic

2 Consuls and Magistrates

Senate(Senators)

Assembly of Tribes(10 Tribunes)

Directed government Control army

Acted as judgesCould issue edicts

Acted as chief priest

Controlled state budget

Could pass laws

Approved/rejected laws; Decided on War

Tribune could veto actions of magistrateActed as final court

Basis of power:possess imperium,

the right to ruleneed for leadership

Basis of power:members were richest

men in Rome.

Basis of power:provided most of the

soldiers

Limits on power:one year term

each could veto

Limits on power:could not control

army; needed majority as soldiers.

Limits on power:Could not suggest

laws;often paid as clients by

the elite

EXPANSION OF REPUBLIC The Legion gave Rome incredible power

Roman military formation of 5,000 men Extremely organized; all officers well trained Shields, swords (two edged) were revolutionary Subunits could operate on own without central commands

Consolidated position in Italy BY 4th centuries B.C.E. Conflict with Italics and Greeks in S. Italy New Roman colonies founded – with Roman rights Created alliances with Italics – given Latin rights Expanded Roman territory to include choice lands Makes local aristocrats Roman citizens, allow to retain

their lands The Punic Wars (264-146 B.C.E.)

Battled descendants of Phoenicians for control of Sicily, Spain

Built navy to challenge Carthage Defeated Carthaginians and conquered Africa

Conflicts with Antigonids and Seleucids, Five major wars Created alliances as with Italy, colonies of Roman settlers

Rome became a preeminent power in the Mediterranean

ROMAN LEGION

THE PUNIC WARS

Hannibal’s Elephants Hannibal

Scipio Africanus

THE END OFTHE REPUBLIC

Social Tension Long wars ruined most small farmers

During war could not plant or harvest, debts increased Forced to sell land to patricians, move to city as day laborers Poor often sold into slavery

Increased slavery more profitable than hiring Roman poor Migration of poor to cities produced lawlessness

The Gracchi brothers Tiberius Gracchus represented interests of Rome's lower classes

Served as a tribune, passed a law that set limits for landholding Assassinated in 132 B.C.E.

The younger brother, Gaius Gracchus, continued the reform Was branded as a outlaw, killed by mercenaries Republican government could no longer maintain power balance

Marius and Sulla Gaius Marius recruited a private army from landless residents Conservative aristocratic class supported Lucius Cornelius Sulla Both raised troops illegally under Roman law

Civil War Marius seized Rome in 87 B.C.E. Sulla seized Rome in 83 B.C.E. after Marius died, 5 years of terror

EXPANSION OF THE REPUBLIC

FOUNDATION OF EMPIRE

Julius Caesar Marius's nephew Favored liberal policies and social reform Gained fame by sponsoring public spectacles Conquered Gaul, became more popular

First Civil War Seized Rome in 49 B.C.E. Claimed the title "dictator for life," 46 B.C.E. Social reforms and centralized control Assassinated in 44 B.C.E.

Second Civil War to Avenge Caesar’s murders Augustus

Octavian, nephew of Caesar, brought civil conflict to an end The Senate bestowed upon him the title Augustus, 27 B.C.E.

Augustus's administration A monarchy disguised as a republic

Preserved traditional republican forms of government Took all the power into his own hands

Created a new standing army under his control The imperial institutions began to take root

EMPIRE AT ITS HEIGHT

THE PAX ROMANA Roman expansion had effects in Gaul, Germany, Britain, Spain

Romans sought access to resources Built legionary camps to defend; Roman officials ran provinces Provincial elite began to build estates and control resources

Came from two sources: Roman colonists, local ethnic elites Elites became largely Romanized

Cities emerged, roads built, common currency, laws Allowed locals to retain customs, traditions if paid their taxes

The pax romana Meant "Roman peace," lasted for two and half centuries Facilitated trade and communication World linked from Mesopotamia to Atlantic Ocean

Roman roads Roman engineers as outstanding road builders Roads and postal system linked all parts of the empire

Roman law Tradition: Twelve Tables enacted in 450 B.C.E. Principle: innocent until proven guilty Judges enjoyed great discretion

ROMAN ROADS

TRADE & URBANIZATION Commercial agriculture

Owners of latifundia focused on production for export Commercial agriculture led to economic specialization, integration Slavery preferred over labor saving devices and paid labor

Mediterranean trade Sea-lanes linked ports of the Mediterranean Roman navy kept the seas largely free of pirates The Mediterranean became a Roman lake

The city of Rome Wealth of the city fueled its urban development Statues, pools, fountains, arches, temples, stadiums First use of concrete as construction material Rome attracted numerous immigrants City attractions

Public baths, swimming pools, gymnasia Enormous circuses, stadiums, and amphitheaters

Other Cities Most large cities were in Eastern part of empire Eastern cities largely dominated by Greeks Cities include Alexandria, Antioch, Athens, Pergammum,

Thessalonika

CLASSICAL ROME

ROMAN FAMILY, SOCIETY

The pater familias Roman family: all household members living together Pater familias or "father of the family" ruled Women wielded influence within their families Many women supervised family business, estates

Wealth and social change Rich classes built palatial houses, lavish banquets Cultivators, urban masses lived at subsistence level Poor classes became a serious problem in Rome and other cities No urban policy developed, only "bread and circuses“ Merchants tolerated but not given much social recognition

Slavery Slaves - 1/3 of Roman population Chained together in teams, worked on latifundia Spartacus's uprising in 73 B.C.E. Working conditions for city slaves were better Epictetus, an Anatolian slave, became a prominent Stoic

philosopher Urban slaves could hope for manumission The gladiator or a slave trained to fight in the arena was popular

ROMAN WORLD VIEW Veritas and Gravitas

Honesty and Seriousness Symbolized Roman cultural values

Roman Polytheism Early deities: Jupiter, Mars, Ceres, Janus, Vesta Newly adapted deities: Juno, Minerva Borrowed, co-opted foreign deities into pantheon Religion was agricultural, state oriented, important to family Very little emotional attachment to gods

Greek influence represented by Philosophy Stoicism appealed to Roman intellectuals Cicero (106-43 B.C.E.) established Stoicism in Rome Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius wrote extensively

Religions of salvation and Cults Flourished in Rome and the Mediterranean basin Roman roads served as highways for religious spread Mithraism

Mithras, a god of sun and light in Zoroastrian mythology Roman soldiers adapted it, associated it with military value Moral teaching of Mithraism, only for men

Goddess Cybele and goddess Isis were also popular

JUDAISM & CHRISTIANITY

The Jews and the empire Jews considered state cults to be blasphemy Romans ruled through Jewish elites, tolerant of Judaism Constant rivalry between Pharisees, Sadducces, Zealots Roman Jewish provinces ruled by client kings such as Herod

The Essenes A new sect of Judaism, founded in Palestine during the 1st century

B.C.E. Strict moral code, baptism, and ritual community meals

Jesus of Nazareth Charismatic Jewish teacher, taught devotion to God, love for human

beings The teaching "the kingdom of God is at hand" alarmed the Romans Crucifixion in early 30s C.E.; Became "Christ," or "the anointed one" New Testament and the Old Testament became the holy book of

Christianity Paul of Tarsus

A Jew from Anatolia, zealously preached his faith beyond Jewish communities

Was Roman citizen by birth in a Greek city; from Pharisee family Paul who spread the faith in Mediterranean through missions Was finally executed by Roman officials

66 – 70 CE The Jewish War (66-70 C.E.) Roman forces defeated the Jewish rebels Jews expelled Christians from the temple (from Judaism)

EARLY CHRISTIANITY

Roman repression Peter and Paul both executed in Rome by Nero in 67 CE Romans followed very tolerant policy: pay taxes, do not revolt Christians refused to worship emperor, state gods = treason Romans worried that Christians were anti-social Some emperors persecuted Christians to increase patriotism

Christianity grew rapidly in the empire Strong appeal to lower classes, urban population, and women

Accorded honor and dignity to lower standing individuals Provided a sense of spiritual freedom Taught the spiritual equality of the sexes Promised future glory for true believers

All converts were equal Most influential faith in Mediterranean by the 3rd century

C.E Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece heavily Christian including many

aristocrats Influence in west limited to cities, especially Africa Armenia, Ethiopia, Egypt were first truly Christian countries

Rome became traditional head of church but not only leader Primus inter pares = first among equals Petrine Doctrine = Peter the first pope and head of the Church

CHRISTIANITY & ROME