Egyptian Slavery & Exodus

Course II in the Ancient Israelite History series, by Jacob Gluck

Biblical Story.• Patriarch Jacob and sons settle in Goshen -- Nile Delta region, due to

famine in Canaan.• A new Pharaoh arises who “does not know Joseph”.• Israelites are pressed into corvee service (forced labor) and build

Pithom and Raamses.• Midwives are ordered to kill newborn male babies. Abandonment in

Nile.• Moses in waterproof basket.• Moses kills and Egyptian who beats a Hebrew. He escapes to Midian.• Burning bush and his commission by God.• Ten plagues; Pharaoh relents.• Israelites travel from Raamses to Sukkoth.• Israelites take roundabout path to Canaan; not Via Maris. Pharaoh:

they are “lost”.• Egyptians pursue. Water parts for Israelites. Egyptians are drowned.

Song of the Sea.

The Exodus in a Historical Context.• Difficult to fit Exodus narrative into framework of known history.• On the other hand: events of this sort are not likely to have left marks in

the archaeological record or in contemporaneous monuments – Baruch Halpern.

• Archaeology sometimes contradicts but rarely confirms the Bible.Purpose of Narrative.• Biblical writers are not engaged in historiography. Rather, didactic use for

theological purpose.• Focus on literal historicity could obscure intent and message of text.Common Sense Argument.Such an inglorious, disreputable national origin tale must be authentic foundational narrative. Otherwise, why?

Providing a Context.Mudbricks, NOT stones (=material of choice in Jerusalem) were standard construction material in Nile Delta.15th Cent. BCE tomb (tomb of Rekhmire – slide 22) painting shows Semitic slaves making mudbricks at Thebes.A text complains of not enough straw (note: straw was not typically used in Canaan).Papyrus lists 40 female slaves with Semitic names, including Shiphrah (a midwife in Exodus narrative).Geography. The Instruction for Merikare: (c. 2000 BCE) “the east (=Nile delta) abounds with foreigners”, “the miserable, wretched Asiatic”, “food causes him to roam about”, “I plundered their inhabitants, having captured their cattle”.Admonition of Ipuwer: Egyptian border defenses designed to repulse the Asiatics, to trample the Bedouin.Papyrus Anastasi 5: Egyptian officer is trying to track down two runaway slaves. A scout has seen them near Migdol.

Beni Hasan painting (silde 23) depicts Asiatic traders in donkey caravan with their families and wares. c. 1900 BCE.Louvre Leather Roll reports shortfalls from assigned brick quotas. Also, workers are granted time off for their religious holidays.Why, then, deny it?No Egyptian source even hints at an Israelite presence.1. Hermeneutic of Suspicion. –Jon D. Levenson2. Israel’s own origin tradition is radically irrelevant to writing such a history.

– Thomas Thompson3. The writers of the Hebrew Scriptures knew little or nothing about the

origin of Israel… The period of the Exodus never existed. – Robert Coote• No synchronism between biblical events and extra-biblical events.• No indications that aforementioned conditions were absent in other

periods. Even if so, it does not confirm – only make it more plausible.

Questions of Chronology.1. 4 generations – Gen 15:162. 400 years – Gen 15:133. 430 years – Ex 12:40 4. 215 years -- Josephus5. 210 years – seder olam6. 1 generation; Machir’s sons participated in Conquest

• 1Kings 1:6 provides chronological hook: 480 years from Exodus to Temple• Seems symbolic rather than literal: 12x40• 40 years = 1 generation (judges, Eli, David, Solomon).• A schematized chronology: temple at the center of Biblical history.

15th or 13th cent. Exodus is proposed. 13th is more likely.

15th cent. Exodus• Pharaoh Thutmosis III conducted extensive campaigns in Canaan.• Egypt not even mentioned in Joshua.• Conflicts with archaeological evidence: Israel appears in hill country of

Canaan in 12th cent.

13th cent. ExodusEgyptian hegemony waning. Close of LBA and beginning of Iron Age: 1200 BCE. Landscape of central highlands undergoes major transformation:• Villages on hilltops• Extensive deforestation• Terracing of slopes for cultivation• Digging of cisterns with lime-plastered waterproof lining.

Pharaoh of the Oppression – Rameses IIIsraelites live in the region of Raamses. They also build the city of Raamses.Pharaoh Rameses II (1279-1213 BCE) shifts administrative center to Delta (Pi-Rameses). He is famous for massive construction programs utilizing slave labor.Pi-Rameses is Tell ed-Daba, formerly Avaris, Hyksos capital.Ramses instructs foreman to distribute rations to Apiru – Leiden Papyrus 348.Apiru is Habiru in cuneiform sources. In the bible Ibri/Ibrim. Regarded as:• Foreign population• Uprooted migrants• Mercenaries• People of low social status• Derogatory term (even in Bible).Conclusion: some Apiru made their way out of Egypt subsequently and Hebrew became an ethnic term through those proto-Hebrews.

Around 1200 BCE, XIXth dynasty ends amid anarchy and chaos – suitable background to the Exodus.Edom, Moab and Ammon – settled kingdoms did not exist before c. 1200 BCE.Chariots and horses extremely rare in 15th cent.Merneptah Stele – 1207 BCE; determinative sign used indicating Israel is a people. Could be a different Israel?

Other Exodus date: Abraham Malamat (Israeli historian) – a steady flow of Israelites from Egypt over hundreds of years. Peaked in 12th cent with collapse of Egyptian and Hittite empires.

Exodus is compatible with the multi-source hypothesis of Israelite origin: • Military conquest• Peaceful infiltration• Peasant revolt600,000 men is probably exaggeration. Essential story is true, however.

Another basis for denying historicity of Exodus: late composition (talk about JEPD documentary hypothesis). A myth created to provide Israel with a past that never occurred. Deniers date the text to Hellenistic period.Response: There may have been sources. Examples of sources:• Chronicles of Kings of Judah• Chronicles of Kings of Israel• Book of Jashar -- Josh 10-12• Book of the Wars of Yahweh -- Num 21

Why trust Manetho (third cent. BCE)?• Manetho extracts are found in Josephus’ and Eusebius’ writings.• Inscriptions bearing names of kings Manetho mentions have been found.• We would know almost nothing of the Hyksos if we relied on

contemporaneous Egyptian records (hence no mention of the Israelites).

Tracing the Route of the Exodus (slide 24)Israelites avoided the shortest route into Canaan, which was heavily defended with Egyptian forts.Reliefs by Thutmosis III on wall of Temple to Amun at Karnak (slide 13) display a chain of forts, way stations and wells along this route. Confirmed in excavations (all the way to Gaza).Numbers 33 itinerary: long list of place-names; most cannot be identified.Four of the names in Karnak can be identified in same order and general location as Num 33 (slide 23) . What about the others?

The Red Sea – from Septuagint “Eryhtra Thalassa”Sometimes Biblical Yam suf refers to the modern Red Sea or one of its two fingers. However, unlikely candidate for the parted Red Sea:• Body of water too large• No reeds

“The road through the Philistine country” (Ex 13:17) was specifically noted as not being the Exodus route. This well-fortified ancient road along Sinai’s northern coast, known as “the Way of Horus” to the Egyptians, was the main military road to the east. This highway is depicted in Seti I’s relief on the northern wall of Karnak’s Amon Temple. Seti I (1291–1279 BC) in his chariot is returning to Egypt. Before his chariot are prisoners approaching a canal separating the Sinai from Egypt (below). Egyptian citizens are depicted facing the victorious king and giving him homage. Other parts of the relief show four different forts on the canal’s Sinai side and another on the Egyptian side at the site of a bridge across the canal. This canal was an important feature in defending Egypt’s eastern border from the Mediterranean to Ballah Lake further south. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/312539/Karnak

Yam SufPi-hahiroth, Migdol and Baal-zephon cannot be identified.Suggested sites for the sea crossing:• Lake Bardwill (in the Delta)• Lake Menzaleh• Lake Timsah• The Bitter Lakes• Gulf of Eilat (no papyrus marshes?)• Gulf of Suez (no papyrus marshes?)

Bernardo Batto: Yam Suf= sea at the end of the world (i.e. mythological body of water associated with primordial chaos). Exodus is “second creation”.

Searching for Mt. Sinai• Traditional Mt. Sinai is Jebel Musa (from 4th cent CE) Slide 25• Other mountains in southern Sinai• A mountain in northwestern Saudi Arabia• A site near Israeli-Egyptian border

Sites are often chosen to conform with hypothetical Exodus route.Jebel Musa tradition stems from sense of sanctity of the monastery.Conclusion: some sort of religious experience relating to a mountain (Sinai or Horeb).

Kadesh Barnea.38 year encampment! Associated with Ein el Qudeirat, a tell in Negev, oasis.No excavated remains earlier than 10th cent. BCE

Dibon-gadConfidently identified as Tell Dhiban.Not in existence in LBA.However, it does occur in Thutmosis III wall painting in Temple to Amun in Karnak.

Conclusion: Exodus did exist! No major gaffes in the story; authentic Egyptian coloration (see next on Moses).

MosesMoses is Egyptian name -- means to give birth (ex. Rameses, Thutmosis, Amenmosis, Phtahmosis). Makes his existence more plausible.Seventh cent. BCE cuneiform text relating to Sargon of Akkad states that he was placed in reed basket waterproofed with bitumen and set adrift in Euphrates.Hyksos (“rulers of foreign lands”). • A motley population of Asiatics taking control of Lower Egypt (1670-1550);

“second intermediate period”.• Capital was Avaris in eastern Delta.• Provides relevant background to Joseph’s rise to power.• However, it could be mere inspiration for the Joseph story; it reads like a

novel – historical fiction.

400 year stele.

In bible: Israelites will be enslaved 400 years – Gen 15:13Interpolation In the spy scout story: Hebron was founded 7 years before Zoan of Egypt.Rameses II erected stele in Pi-Rameses “inaugurating the cult of the deity of Seth 400 years earlier”.Seth is equated with Hyksos God. Scene carved on stele portrays Seth as Asiatic.In 11th cent. Stele moved with the capital to Tanis (Hebrew Zoan, Egyptian Djanet, Greek Tanis)Biblical author (J) thought that stele marked anniversary of founding of Tanis. Author thought that Rameses built Tanis as well, using Asiatic slave labor.“Joseph story is a reinterpretation of the Hyksos period from an Israelite perspective” – Baruch Halpern.

Baruch HalpernFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaBaruch Halpern is the Chaiken Family Chair in Jewish Studies at Pennsylvania State University. He has been a leader of the archaeological digs at Tel Megiddo since 1992.[1] As an undergraduate at Harvard in 1972, he wrote a political analysis of the Bible, which subsequently influenced research into its authorship. [2]

Major publications include:David's Secret Demons: Messiah, Murderer, Traitor, King (2003)The Rise of Ancient Israel: Symposium at the Smithsonian Institution (1991, with Hershel Shanks, William Dever, and P. Kyle McCarterThe Emergence of Israel in Canaan (1983)The Constitution of the Monarchy in Israel (1981)The First Historians: The Hebrew Bible and History (1980)

Abraham Malamat (1922–2010)April 16, 2010Abraham Malamat, professor emeritus of Jewish history at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, passed away on January 21, 2010, just a few days before his 88th birthday.Malamat made important contributions to the study of the Hebrew Bible and the ancient Near East—particularly in our understanding of the emergence of Israel, the collapse of the kingdom of Judah, and the relationship of Mari and the Hebrew Bible. He wrote several articles for BAR on these topics.a

According to Professor Shmuel Ahituv, one of Malamat’s former students, Malamat was “a gifted lecturer and a charismatic teacher. His lectures—whether before a classroom of students or before the general public—were a masterpiece of rhetoric...students used to crowd in, sitting on the steps and window sills [of the lecture hall].”Malamat was born in 1922 in Vienna. In 1935, in the face of growing anti-Semitism, his family immigrated to Palestine and settled in Tel Aviv. He earned his M.A. and Ph.D. from the Hebrew University and also studied at the École Biblique et Archéologique Française in Jerusalem and later at the University of Chicago’s Oriental Institute. He began lecturing at the Hebrew University in 1954.Malamat’s publications, written in Hebrew, English, German and French, numbered more than 300. He served as editor of the Israel Exploration Society’s Hebrew bulletin Yediot from 1956 to 1967 and was on the editorial boards of the Israel Exploration Journal and the Zeitschrift für Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft.He was a member of countless international societies and academies, and was invited to many universities abroad as visiting professor and guest lecturer. His students and colleagues published a festschrift in honor of his 70th birthday, Eretz-Israel 24: The Abraham Malamat Volume.—D.D.R

Tomb of Rekhmire (Asiatics maing mudbricks)

Beni Hasan Painting

• Thutmose III (ca. 1504–1450 BC), who according to biblical chronology reigned just before the Exodus and 40 years of wilderness wandering and suggested by some to be a Pharaoh of the oppression or Pharaoh of the Exodus, had a topographical relief constructed on the sixth and seventh pylons that listed cities in the Levant that he conquered. Many of these cities are also recorded in the Old Testament, and in the proper order, including a set from Numbers 33:45-50. Inscribed on the wall are locations as part of a topographical list containing 119 place-names in Canaan, Transjordan, Lebanon and Syria. The Egyptian route from the Arabah to the Plains of Moab lists four locations: Iyyin, Dibon, Abel, and the Jordan River. Numbers 33 lists six locations they camp at: Iyyim, Dibon-gad, Almon-diblathaim, Mt. Nebo, Abel-shittim, and the Jordan River. By comparing the two lists, one can see the route taken by the Israelites through Transjordan matches correctly with the Egyptian topographical list. Thus, the travel account in Numbers 33 is not only accurate, but in accordance with data from around 1450 BC, just over 40 years before the Israelites made the journey on this route.

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  . , ; ��ְל- �ד ְג ִמ� �ָי ְל�ִּפ�ֵנ � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ִצ�ִּפּו�ן ְב��ֵע�ְל �ָי �ֵנ ִּפ� , חֵע�ְל  � ��ֵע�ְב�ַרּו �ָי ּו ה�ֹח�ָיַר�ָת �ָי �ֵנ ִּפ� �ִמ� עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו , , , ; -� ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ֹא�ָת�ם ְב��ַר ְב��ִמ�ד� �ִמ�ָים ָי ֶׁש��ְל�ֶׁש��ָת � ַר�ְך �� �ד ��ְל�ְכּו �ָי ּו ְב��ַר�ה ה�ִמ��ד� ��ם ה�ָי � ְב�ָתּו�ְך

; טְב��ִמ�ַר�ה.   , , ֵע�ָיֵנ�ָת, ֵע�ֶׁש��ַר�ה �ָים ֶׁש��ָת� �ְב�ֹא�ָיְל�ם ּו ֹא�ָיְל�ִמ�ה � ��ְב�ֹאּו �ָי ּו ִמ�ִמ��ַר�ה � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו  . - -- �ֶׁש��ם, ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו �ִמ�ַר�ָים ָת� �ֶׁש��ְב�ֵע�ָים ּו ִים , יִמ� ; ,  � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ִמ�ֹא�ָיְל�ם � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו

  . - �ף- ְסּו �ם ָי .  יאֵע�ְל - , ; - , ָין  ְס� ְב��ַר ְב��ִמ�ד� � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו �ף ְסּו ��ם ָי ִמ� � עּו ��ְס� �ָי , יבּו  � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו  . , ; ְב��ד�ִּפ�ַק�ה- � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ָין ְס� ְב��ַר , יגִמ�ִמ��ד� ; ,  � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ��ִּפ�ַק�ה ד ִמ� � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו

�ֶׁש�.   , ידְב��ֹא�ְלּו - , , ; , ְל�ֵע�ם  ִמ�ִים ֶׁש��ם �ה ה�ָי �ְל�ֹא ּו ְב��ַר�ִּפ�ָיד�ם � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו �ֶׁש� ִמ�ֹא�ְלּו � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו.  טוְל�ֶׁש��ָת�ּו�ָת.   , ; , �ָי  ָיֵנ ְס� ְב��ַר ְב��ִמ�ד� � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ִמ�ַר�ִּפ�ָיד�ם � עּו ��ְס� �ָי , טזּו ְב��ַר  ִמ�ִמ��ד� � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו

  . , �ה; �ֹא�ּו ה�ָת� ְב��ַק�ְב�ַר�ָת � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו �ָי ָיֵנ , יזְס� ; ,  � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו �ה �ֹא�ּו ה�ָת� ִמ�ַק��ְב�ַר�ָת � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו.  יחְב��ֹח�ִצ�ַר�ָת.   , ; , ְב��ַר�ָת�ִמ�ה  � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ִמ�ֹח�ִצ�ַר�ָת � עּו ��ְס� �ָי , יטּו ; ,  � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ִמ�ַר�ָת�ִמ�ה � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו

  . �ַר�ץ ִּפ� �ן .  כְב��ַר�ִמ� , ; , ְב��ְל�ְב�ֵנ�ה  � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו �ַר�ץ ִּפ� �ן ִמ�ַר�ִמ� � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ; כאּו , ��ְב�ֵנ�ה  ְל ִמ� � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו  . ְב��ַר�ְס��ה, � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי .  כבּו , ; ְב��ַק�ה�ְל�ָת�ה, � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ה ִמ�ַר�ְס�� � עּו ��ְס� �ָי , כגּו  � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו

  . - , ֶׁש��ִּפ�ַר; ְב��ה�ַר � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו , כדִמ�ַק��ה�ְל�ָת�ה ; - ,  � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ֶׁש��ִּפ�ַר ִמ�ה�ַר � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו.  כהְב��ֹח�ַר�ד�ה.   , ; , ְב��ִמ�ַק�ה�ְל�ָת  � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ִמ�ֹח�ַר�ד�ה � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ; כוּו , ִמ�ִמ��ַק�ה�ְל�ָת  � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו

  . ְב��ָת�ֹח�ָת, � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי .  כזּו , ; , ְב��ָת�ַר�ֹח  � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו �ֹח�ָת ִמ�ָת� � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ; כחּו , �ַר�ֹח  ִמ�ָת� � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו  . ְב��ִמ�ָת�ַק�ה, � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי .  כטּו , ; , ְב��ֹח�ֶׁש��ִמ�ֵנ�ה  � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ִמ�ִמ��ָת�ַק�ה � עּו ��ְס� �ָי , לּו  � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו

  . , ַרּו�ָת; ְב��ִמ�ְס� � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו �ה , לאִמ�ֹח�ֶׁש��ִמ�ֵנ ; , �ָי  ְב��ְב�ֵנ � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ַרּו�ָת ִמ�ִמ��ְס� � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו�ֵע�ַק�ן.   .  לבָי , ; , ��ד  ְג ��ד� ה�ְג ְב��ֹח�ַר � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו �ֵע�ַק�ן ָי �ָי ��ֵנ ְב ִמ� � עּו ��ְס� �ָי , לגּו ִמ�ֹח�ַר  � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו

  . , �ִט�ְב�ָת�ה; ��ָי ְב � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ��ד ְג ��ד� , לדה�ְג ; ,  � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ��ִט�ְב�ָת�ה ָי ִמ� � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו.  להְב��ֵע�ְב�ַר�ֵנ�ה.   , ; , ��ְב�ַר  ְג ְב��ֵע�ִצ�ָי�ן � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו �ה ִמ�ֵע�ְב�ַר�ֵנ � עּו ��ְס� �ָי , לוּו ִמ�ֵע�ִצ�ָי�ן  � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו

  . , - ֶׁש�; ַק�ד� ה�ּוֹא ִצ�ן ְב��ַר �ְב�ִמ�ד� ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ��ְב�ַר , לזְג ; , ה�ה�ַר  �ְב��ה�ַר ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ִמ�ַק��ד�ֶׁש� � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו  . ֹא*דּו�ם ֹא�ַר�ץ --לחְב��ַק�ִצ�ה - , - �ה  �הּו ָי �ָי ִּפ� ֵע�ְל ה�ה�ַר ה�ַר ֹא�ְל ��ה�ן ה�ְכ ֹא�ה�ַר�ן ��ֵע�ְל �ָי ּו

, - ,  : ֶׁש� ְב��ֹח�ד� ִמ�ִצ�ַר�ִים ִמ�ֹא�ַר�ץ ִיֶׁש��ַר�ֹא�ְל �ָי ��ֵנ ְב ְל�ִצ�ֹאָת ה�ֹא�ַר�ְב��ֵע�ָים �ָת ְב��ֶׁש��ֵנ ֶׁש��ם ��ִמ�ָת �ָי ּו  . ֶׁש�, ְל�ֹח�ד� ְב��ֹא�ֹח�ד ָיֶׁש��ָי , לטה�ֹח�ִמ� - , ֶׁש��ֵנ�ה  �ִמ�ֹא�ָת ּו �ֵע�ֶׁש��ַר�ָים ּו ֶׁש��ְל�ֶׁש� ְב��ן �ֹא�ה�ַר�ן ּו

} {  . ְס, ה�ה�ַר ְב��ה�ַר ְב��ִמ�ָתּו�• , מ -- , - , , �ָי  ��ֵנ ְב ְב��ְב�ֹא �ֵע�ן ��ֵנ ְכ ְב��ֹא�ַר�ץ ��ְג�ְב ��ֵנ ְב ָי�ֶׁש��ְב �ֹא �הּו ּו ֵע�ַר�ד � ִמ�ְל�ְך �ָי �ֵע�ֵנ ��ֵנ ה�ְכ ��ֶׁש��ִמ�ע �ָי ּו

.  מאִיֶׁש��ַר�ֹא�ְל.   , ; , ְב��ִצ�ְל�ִמ�ֵנ�ה  � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ה�ה�ַר ִמ�ה�ַר � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ; מבּו , ��ְל�ִמ�ֵנ�ה  ִמ�ִצ � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו  . �ֵנ�ן, ְב��ִּפּו � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי .  מגּו , ; , ְב��ֹא�ְב�ָת  � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו �ֵנ�ן ּו ִמ�ִּפ� � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ; מדּו ,  � ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו ִמ�ֹא�ְב�ָת � עּו ��ְס� �ָי ּו

  . , ִמּו�ֹא�ְב �ְל ��ְג�ְבּו ְב ה�ֵע�ְב�ַר�ָים ��ָי ,  מהְב��ֵע�ָי ; ן, ��ד�יב� ב � ��ח�נו �י ו ��ים מ�ִע�י � ��ְס�עו �י ו ,     . , ; ,     .� ��ְס�עו �י ו מז �מ�ה ��ב�ל�ָת�י ד ��ִע�ל�מ�ן ב � ��ח�נו �י ו ��ד ג ן ��יב� מ�ד � ��ְס�עו �י ו מו ��ד ג ,     . , ; � ��ְס�עו �י ו מח �בו� נ �י ל�ְפ�נ ים ה�ִע�ב�ִר� י ��ה�ִר� �ב ��ח�נו �י ו �מ�ה ��ב�ל�ָת�י ד מ�ִע�ל�מ�ן

, ; חו� �ִר� י ��ן ד �ִר� י ִע�ל מו�א�ב ָת ב� ��ִע�ִר� �ב ��ח�נו �י ו ים ה�ִע�ב�ִר� י �  מט.  מ�ה�ִר� ��ֹח�ֵנּו �ָי ּו} {  . , , , ְס- ִמּו�ֹא�ְב ְב��ֵע�ַר�ְב�ָת ה�ֶׁש���ִט��ָים ֹא�ְב�ְל ֵע�ד �ֶׁש��ִמ�ָת ה�ָי ְב��ָיָת ִמ� ן �� ��ַר�ד ה�ָי ֵע�ְל

Route of Exodus

St. Catherine Monastery and Jebel Musa

Burning Bush?

Me and Friends On Jebel Musa

Donald Redford being interviewed by Neil Asher Silbberman