anatomy introduction and cells
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Anatomy and Physiology Introduction
(Marieb 5th Edition)
Anatomy
To cut (tomy) and ana (apart).
Study of the shape and structure of the body & body parts and their relation to one another.
Studies of Anatomy
1. Gross Anatomy
Study oflarge, easily observable body structures.
Ex. Our own body; heart, bones
2. Microscopic Anatomy
Study ofvery small body structures seen through a microscope
Ex. Cells and tissues
Physiology
nature (Physio); study of (ology)
Study how the body and its parts work or function.
Studies of Physiology
1. Neurophysiology - workings of nervous system.2. Cardiac physiology workings of the heart.
Relationship of Anatomy and Physiology are always related
Structure determines what functions can occur; therefore if the structure changes, the function
must also change.
Ex. Lungs cant pump blood like the heart. But because the walls of their air sacs are very thin,
gaseous exchange happens.
Layers of Structural Organization
1. Chemical Level Atoms (tiny building blocks of matter) combine to form Molecules (Organic and Inorganic
Molecules)
2. Cellular Level
Cells, basic or smallest unit of life are made up of molecules
3. Tissue Level
Group of similar cells that has a common function.
4 Tissues: Epithelial, Connective, Smooth Muscle, and Nervous Tissue.
4. Organ Level
Different types of tissues that perform together with one or more common functions.
Ex. Stomach
5. Organ System Level
Group of Organswith a common function or set of functions.
Must have an Integration of Organ System for an organism to survive.
6. Organism Level (Highest Level)
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Human Organism is a complex of organ systems that are mutually dependent on one
another (11 Organ Systems)
The 11 Organ Systems
1. Integumentary Systema. Structure: Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands.b. Functions:
Receives stimuli (changes in the environment; temperature, pressure, and pain)
Protection against pathogens (disease causing microorganism from environment) andchemicals
Protection against injury on deeper tissues.
Regulates body temperature
Prevents water loss
Excretes salts and urea in perspiration
Synthesize Vitamin D (from UV Rays)
2. Skeletal System
a. Structure: 206 Bones, Cartilages, Joints, Ligamentsb. Functions:
Protects and support the body
Provides Framework to allow movement
Protects internal organs (skull protects the brain)
Produces RBCs(Hematopoiesis)within the cavities
Storage of minerals and fats (calcium deposits on the hard substance of bones)
3. Muscular System
a. Structure: Skeletal Muscle, Cardiac Muscle, and Smooth Muscleb. Functions:
To contract or shorten = Produce Body movements
Maintains posture and brings facial expression
Produces body heat
Protection (contain nerves)
4. Lymphatic / Circulatory / Immune System (Defense System)
a. Structure: Lymphatic Vessels, Lymph Nodes, Spleen, Tonsils, Thoracic Ductb. Functions:
Removes foreign substances from the blood and lymph
Combats diseases (Vitamin C boosts up immune system)
Regulates tissue fluid balance
Absorb fats from GI tract
Lymphatic Vessels returns fluid leaked from the blood and blood vessels for
continuous blood circulation.
Lymph Nodescleans blood; protects WBCs
5. Respiratory System
a. Structure: Nose, Lungs, Pharynx / Throat, Larynx / Voice Box, Trachea, Bronchial Tubes
b. Function: Gaseous exchange (Oxygen in; Carbon Dioxide out)
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6. Digestive System
a. Structure: Mouth / Oral Cavity, Esophagus, Stomach, SI, LI, Rectum, Liver, Pancreasb. Functions
Breakdown of food, absorption of nutrients and elimination of wastes through the anus
as feces or stool to reclaim water.
Liver produces bile that helps to break down fats
Pancreas delivers digestive enzymes to SI
7. Nervous System (Fast Acting Control System)
a. Structure: CNS (Brain and Spinal Cord), Nerves, Sensory Receptorb. Functions
Major regulatory system that responds to stimuli; reaction is direct to the organ
Sensory Receptors detects stimulus and sends info thru nerve impulses to CNS. CNS
responds by activating appropriate muscles and glands
8. Endocrine System (Major Metabolic System; Slow Acting System)a. Structure: Glands (Pituitary Gland, Pineal Gland, Thyroid Gland, Hypothalamus, Thymus Gland,
Adrenal Gland, Pancreas, Testis, Ovary
b. Functions:
Major regulatory system; secrete HORMONES to regulate target organs.
Growth and Sexual Development
Metabolism
Reproduction
Regulates Water and Minerals
9. Cardiovascular System
a. Structure: Heart, Blood Vessels, Bloodb. Functions
Transporting Fluid, Blood transports O2, nutrients, wastes, hormones
Blood Pump, Heart
Cleans Immune System
Regulates Body Temp
WBCs protects body from foreign invaders (bacteria, tumor, toxins)
10. Urinary Systema. Structure: Kidney, Ureter, Urinary Bladder, Urethra
b. Functions
Excretes Nitrogen wastes eliminated thru Urine.
Maintains Water and Salt Balance
Regulates Electrolyte and Acid Base balance (Blood Ph)
Production of RBCs
11. Reproductive System (Organ of Copulation)
a. Structures in Men: Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, vas deferens, penis, testis, scrotumb. Functions
Production of offspring
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Production of Male Sex Hormone(Testosterone)
Testis produces sperm cells
a. Structures in Women: Mammary glands (breasts), uterine tubes, ovary, uterus, vaginab. Functions:
Produce Oocytes(Largest Cell; Site of Fertilization)
Fetal Development(Uterus)
Production of Female Sex Hormone (Estrogen)
Life Processes of Humans to Sustain Life
Humans must maintain its boundaries, move, respond to stimuli, digest nutrients, carry
metabolism, reproduce it self and grow.
1. Movement
2. Responsiveness or Irritability
3. Digestion of Food
4. Excretion of Wastes
5. Metabolism sum of all chemical reactions in the bodya. Catabolism provides the energy needed to sustain life by breaking down food.
b. Anabolism uses the energy from catabolism to make various substances that formbody structures and enable them to function.
6. Reproduction
7. Growthand Development
8. Respiration and Circulation
9. Absorption
Interrelationship of Organ Systems
Integumentary System protects body from external environment. The GI and Respiratory System, in
contact with the external environment, take in nutrients and O2, which are transported by the blood
to all cells. Elimination of metabolic wastes is accomplished by Urinary and Respiratory System.
Environmental Factors for Maintenance of Life and Survival Needs
1. Food / Nutrients2. Water3. Oxygen releases energy from food for metabolic processes.4. Body Temperature and Heat
Product of Metabolic Reactions
Normal BT: 36.5 37.5 C
Both High and Low Temperature is dangerous
a. Temp Body proteins break down.
b. Temp Metabolic reactions becomes slower; results in Hypothermia5. Atmospheric Pressure or Levels of O2
Necessary for Breathing during Gaseous Exchange.
High Altitudes Places = O2
Homeostasis
Dynamic State of Equilibrium (bodys ability to maintain stable internal condition and respond
appropriately to stimulus)
Ex. Maintenance of V/S, Adequate Nutrients, and Wastes must not accumulate.
Homeostatic Imbalance
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Abnormal Condition,organs becomes less efficientand internal condition becomes less stable
Risk for Illness
Produce changes associated with aging.
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Used to maintain stable internal condition accomplished by Nervous and Endocrine System.
3 Elements of Components of Control System
Variable - factors that are regulated in Homeostasis (V/S, Blood Glucose Level, Electrolytes)
1. Stimuli environmental changes (temperature, pressure, pain); imbalance in variables.
2. Sensory Receptors detects and responds to stimuliINPUT: Info flows from receptor to the control center along Affarent Pathaway to 2nd Element.
3. Control Center CNS (Brain and Spinal Cord) analyzes the changes and receives informationand gives appropriate action by activating the 3rd element
OUPUT: Info flows from control center to 3rd element along Efferent Pathway to 3rd element
4. Effector response or feedback to stimulus.
Types of Response or Feedback
1. Negative Feedback (Most Common Feedback) Reduce or Stop initial stimulus.
Deviation (difference) from the set point to resist changes
Function: Regulates V/S, Blood Glucose Levels, Electrolytes
2. Positive Feedback(Rarer in the body) Original Disturbance from the original value.
Control infrequent events that occur explosively and dont require continuous adjustments.
Ex. Birth of Baby, Blood Clotting, Loss of Blood
Ex. Accident BP due to blood loss (detected by receptor) needed to BP to Heart Rate
(POSITIVE FEEDBACK CONSTANTLY BP)
Anatomical Positions (Standard Position)
1. Body is Erect and Standing Still
2. Face is facing forward
3. Arms are lying on the sides
4. Palms are facing forward
5. Thumb pointing outwardly
6. Feet is parallel
Directional Terms
Explains exactly where one body structure is related to another.
Regional Terms (Anterior and Posterior Body Regions)
Body Planes or Body Sections
A section or cutis made through the body or organ along an imaginary line (PLANE) to look at
internal structures.
1. Sagittal Section
Longitudinal Cut that separates left and right parts
Midsagittal or Median Planecut made at the middle of the body; left = right
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2. Frontal or Coronal Section
Lengthwise Cut that separates posterior and anterior parts
3. Transverse or Cross Section
Horizontal Cut that separates superior and inferiorparts
Body Cavities or Trunk Cavities
Lines and sets the organs.
1. Posterior / Dorsal Body Cavity Small and well protected by the bone
Continuous (No Separation)
a. Cranial Cavity space inside skull; protects the brain.b. Spinal Cavity protects spinal cord, which is protected by the vertebrae; extends from cranial
to the end of vertebral column.
2. Anterior / Ventral Body Cavity Larger and less protected
Separated (thoracic and abdomen is separated by the Diaphragm)
a. Thoracic Cavity
Contains and lungs; protected by the rib cage
b. Abdominopelvic Cavity
Contains Digestive, Urinary, and Reproductive organs.
a. Superior Abdominal Cavity (stomach, liver, intestines)b. Inferior Pelvic Cavity (reproductive organs, bladder, rectum)
Cells (Chapter 2)
Cell is the Basic Unit of Life
Composed of CHON(Protein is the major building material),small amounts of Na, K, Fe, and60% Water
Humans have 75 trillion cells and belong to Prokaryotic type.
Bathed in Extracelullar orInterstitial Fluid.
Different in size & shape (often reflects the function of the cell)
The 3 Main Regions of a Generalized Cell
1. Nucleus
2. Cytoplasm
3. Plasma or Cell Membrane
Nucleus Location:Often near center of the cellsurrounded by cytoplasm
Control Center of the Cell
Contains genetic material (DNA), a blueprint that carries instructions for protein synthesis.
Site of Ribosome and Messenger of RNA Synthesis
Directs cell activity and necessary for cell reproduction
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3 Parts of Nucleus
1. Nuclear Membrane or Envelope
Double barrier membranewithfluid filledspace within called Nucleoplasm
Where nucleoli and chromatin are suspended and nuclear pores penetrate.
Selectively Permeable because of its large pores.
2. Nucleoli / Nucleolus Ribosomal Subunit Assembly
Site of Ribosomal RNA Synthesis
3. Chromatin
When cell is not dividing, its DNA is combined with Protein and forms chromatin.
When cell is dividing to form 2 daughter cells,chromatin forms Chromosomes.
Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane
Outermost component of cell; encloses cell and supports cell contents. Boundary between intracellular and extracellular substances.
Selective barrierto the movement of substances into and out of the cell.
Lipid Bilayer containing Proteins
1. Phospholipidsa. Polar Heads (Hydrophilic or Water Loving)
b. Non Polar Tails (Hydrophobic or Water Hating or Fearing)
c. Bimolecular Lipid Layer Containing Proteins (Glycoproteins or Sugar Proteins).
2. Cholesterol
Has Stabilizing effect and helps keep the membrane fluid.
Specializations of Plasma Membrane
Displayed by epithelial cells that form linings of hollow organs (ex. Small Intestine)
1. Microvilli
Location: Extensions of cell surface with many on each cell.
cells surface area for more absorption
2. Membrane Junctionsa. Tight Junctions
Impermeable; bind cells together to prevent substances go inside out the cell.
Ex. In SI, it prevents digestive enzymes to leak into bloodstream
b. Anchoring Junctions or Desmosomes
Prevent cells from being pulled apart or mechanical stress (ex. Skin Cells)
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3. Gap Junctions
Location: and between embryonic cells
Allow Communication; nutrients and ions can pass from one cell to another; neighboring
cells are connected by CONNEXONS.
Cytoplasm Location: Outside nucleus and inside plasma membrane.
Factory Area of Cell; Site of Most Cellular Activities
3 Major Elements of Cytoplasm
1. Cytosol
Intracellular fluid that suspends other elements and dissolved substances
2. Inclusions
Stored or Inactive materials of cytoplasm
Ex. Nutrients, Fat droplets, glycogen granules, melanin, mucus, crystals
3. Cytoplasmic Organelles Metabolic machinery of the cell; Little Organs
a. Mitochondria (Powerhouse of Cell)
Major Site of ATP Synthesis
Site of Aerobic Respiration
Abundant in: Liver and muscle cells
b. Ribosomes
Major Site of Protein Synthesis
Made up of Proteins and 1 variety of RNA called Ribosomal RNA.
c. Endoplasmic Reticulum (Network within the cell)
Network of channels that carries proteins from one part of cell to another.
2 Types:
1. Rough ER
Many Ribosomes; Site of Protein Synthesis
Abundant in: Pancreas
2. Smooth ER
Little Ribosomes; Site of Lipid / Cholesterol / Steroid Synthesis
Fat metabolism
Detoxification of drugs.
Abundant in: Liver, Male testes for the male hormone testosterone
d. Golgi Apparatus (Traffic Director)
Modifies protein structure and packages protein in secretory vesicles
e. Secretory Vesicles
Contains materials produced in the cell and formed by Golgi apparatus
Secreted by Exocytosis
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f. Lymosomes (Cells Demolition Site)
Lymosomal Enzymes digests damaged cells and foreign substances (contains WBC)
Homeostatic Imbalance (LYMOSOMAL RUPTURE) self digestion of cell; damaged
and deprived of 02; excessive amounts of Vitamin A is present.
g. Peroxisomes (Peroxide Bodies)
Oxidase enzymes detoxify Free Radicals (highly reactive chemicals that mix up protein and
nucleic acids)
h. Cytoskeleton (Cells Bones and Muscles)
For cellular support and motion.
Determines cells shape, supports other organelles, and for intracellular transport and
movement.
a. Intermediate Filaments
Helps form Demosomes
b. Microfilaments (Actin and Myosin) Involved in Cell Motility
Produce changes in cell shape
c. Microtubules
Determines the overall shape of cell
Distribution of organelles.
Supports cytoplasm
Assists in cell division
Forms component of cilia and flagella
i. Centriole
Location:Close to the Nucleus
Directs the formation ofMITOTIC SPINDLE during cell division
Form the bases of cilia and flagella
h. Cilia (Eyelashes)
Location: On the cell surface with many on each cell
Moves cell substances away
Ex. Ciliated Cells of Respiratory System moves mucus away from lungs.
i. Flagella
Location:On sperm cell with one per cell
Flagellum or Tail propels sperm cells.
Cell Diversity / Types of Cells
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1. CONNECT BODY PARTSa. Fibroblast
Shape:Elongated
Function:Makes the protein building blocks of fibers.
b. Erythrocyte (RBC)
Shape: concave disk
Function:Carries O2 into the blood.
2. COVER AND LINE BODY ORGANS
a. Epithelial Cell
Shape: Hexagonal (allows cells to pack together in sheets)
Function:Many intermediate filaments that resist tearing when epithelium is pulled
apart.
3. MOVE BODY ORGANS AND PARTS
a. Skeletal Muscle and Smooth Muscle Cell
Shape: Elongated
Function:Produce movement of bones and muscles; change size of internal organs.
4. STORES NUTRIENTS
a. Fat Cell
Shape: Huge Spherical
Produced by fat droplet in its cytoplasm
5. FIGHTS DISEASES
a. Macrophages (Phagocytic cell)
Has Pseudopods orLong Feet to reach infection sites
Has Lysosomes
6. GATHERS INFORMATION AND CONTROLS BODY FUNCTIONS
a. Nerve Cell or Neuron
Receives and transmits information to body structures (CNS).
7. REPRODUCTION
a. Oocytes (female egg cell; largest cell)
b. Sperm (male egg cell)
Shape: Long and Stream Lined built for swimming to the egg for fertilization
Its flagellum propels the sperm.
Various Types of Mixtures
1. Solution Homogeneous mixture of 2 or more components
Solvent + Solute
Ex. Air is a mixture of gases; alcohol is a mixture of alcohol and water
2. Solvent (Dissolving Medium)
Substances present in largest amount in a solution.
Ex. Water is the universal solvent of the body
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3. Solutes
Substances present in smaller amounts in a solution.
Ex. Rock of Salt
2 Types of Fluid
1. Intracellular Fluid (Inside the Cell)
Nuceloplasm and Cytosol
Includes small amounts of gases, nutrients, and saltsthat are dissolved in water.
2. Extracellular or Interstitial Fluid (Outside the Cell; Watery)
Bathes the cells.
Includes nutrients, hormones, neurotransmitters, salts, and waste products.
Homeostatic Imbalance
Cell is Damaged / Died = membrane is PERMEABLE to almost everything (Ex. Severe Burns)
Selectively Permeable Barrier that allows some substances to pass into cell while excluding others.
Transport System (Movement of Substances / Molecules across Plasma Membrane)
1. Passive Transport
Movement of substances across the membrane without ATP from the cell.
a. Diffusion
Movement of substances across membrane where they are MORE CONCENTRATED
(numerous)to a LESS CONCENTRATED (fewer) because of KINETIC ENERGY.
Speed of diffusion is affected b
1. Size of molecules (the smaller the faster)
2. Temperature (the warmer the faster) Molecules will move passively by diffusion if they :
1. Molecules are small enough to pass into membrane pores.
2. Molecules can be dissolved in the fat portion of membrane (Lipid Soluble) Types of Diffusion
1. Simple Diffusion
Unassisted diffusion of substances across the membrane.
Moves Lipid Soluble Substances (Fats, ADEK,O2, CD)
Moves Small Ions (Chloride Ions)
2. Facilitated Diffusion
Moves Large, Lipid Insoluble (GLUCOSE) substances w/c requires protein carrier.
b. Osmosis Diffusion of Water through a selectively permeable membrane.
Osmotic Pressure
Solute concentration of a solution
Determines whether cells lose or gain water.
Ability of Osmosis to lift a volume of water.
1. Hypertonic Solutions
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More solutes (and less water) than do cells.
Cells lose water by osmosis and burst or crenate.
2. Hypotonic Solutions
Fewer solutes (and more water) than do cells.
Cells swell and may rupture (lyse) as water rushes in by osmosis.
3. Isotonic Solutions Solute = Solvent
No changes in cell size and shape.
c. Filtration
Movement of substances across membrane from an area of High Hydrostatic Pressure to an
area of Lower Fluid Pressure exerted by blood. (Pressure Gradient)
Ex. Kidney Filtration
2. Active Transport
Movement of substances across membrane with the use of ATP from the cell.
Substances are large to pass into pores
Substances cant be dissolved in the fat portion of membrane (Lipid Insoluble)
Concentration: Lower to Higher
a. Solute Pumping
Movement of substances across membrane against a concentration gradient by protein carriers
called Solute Pumps
Transport of Amino Acids, Sugars, and Ions
Ex. Sodium Potassium Pump- move sodium ions out and potassium ions into the cell for
normal transmission of nerve impulses
b. Bulk Transport
Substances that cannot move across the membrane are transported with the use of ATP
OUT of or INTO cells.
1. Exocytosis (Out of the Cell)
Moves substances out of the cell (hormones, mucus, and eject wastes)
Secretory Vesicle fuses with membrane, ruptures, and eject its contents outside cell.
2. Endocytosis (Into the Cell)
Moves substances into the cell.
Uses ATP that engulfs extra cellular substances by enclosing them in secretory vesicles.
a. Phagocytosis (Cell Eating) Uptake of Solids
Ex. WBCs and Phagocytes act as scavengers to protect body from foreign invaders.
b. Pinocytosis / Bulk Phase Endocytosis (Cell Drinking)
Uptake of fluids or liquids
Ex. Cells for absorption (Cells that forms lining of SI and Kidney Tubule Cells)
Cell Life Cycle Phases (Interphase and Cell Division)
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Series of changes a cell goes through from the time it is formed until it divides.
1. Interphase or Metabolic Phase
Longest phase; cell grows and carries normal metabolic activities.
DNA Replication occurs at the end of this period.
DNA Replication DNA is composed of building blocks called NUCLEOTIDES, each consisting of Deoxyribose
Sugar, Phosphate Group, and Nitrogen containing base
DNA Replication begins as DNA HELIX COILS and SEPARATES into 2 NUCLEOTIDE
STRANDS. Each Nucleotide strand serves as TEMPLATE (set of instructions) for BUILDING
NEW NUCLEOTIDE STRAND. ***
Nucleotides join in a complementary way:
* Adenine (A) - Thymine (T)
*Guanine (G) - Cytosine (C)
The order of the Nucleotides on the template determines the order one the new strand .
Ex. TACTGC sequence on a template strand will bond to new nucleotides w/ order of ATGACG.
2. Cell Division Produce cells for growth and repair process
Events of Cell Division
1. Mitosis
Division of Nucleus that results the formation of 2 daughter nuclei with exactly the same
genes as mother nucleus.
Begins after the DNA Replication
Stages of Mitosis
1. Prophase
1st Chromatin coil and shorten andChromosomesappear.Each chromosome is made up of 2 strandscalledChromatid, held together by Centromere.
2ndCentrioles separate from each other and move toward opposite sides of the cell, directing formation
ofMitotic Spindle orSpindle Fibers which provides scaffolding for attachment and movement ofchromosomes during the end of mitosis.3rdNuclear envelope and nucleoli are broken down and disappeared4th Chromosomes attached to Mitotic Spindle by their centromeres.
2. Metaphase1stChromosomes gather and become aligned at the center of mitotic spindle.
3. Anaphase
1st Chromosomes begin to move toward opposite ends of the cell.2nd When chromosome movement ends Anaphase period is over.
4. Telophase
1stChromosomes at the opposite end of the cell uncurl to become chromatin again.2nd Mitotic Spindle spindle breaks down and disappears
3rd Nuclear envelope forms around each chromatin and nucleoli appear in each of the daughter nuclei.
2. Cytokinesis - Division of cytoplasm; begins during late anaphase and completes during Telophase.
Role of DNA in Protein Synthesis
DNA: in Nucleus; serves as the master blueprint for Protein Synthesis.
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GENE is a DNA segment that carries instructions for building 1 protein. Proteins are the key
substances for all aspects of cell life.
DNAs information is encoded in the sequence of bases in the nucleotide strands. Each
sequence of 3 bases (triplet) specifies one Amino Acid in the protein. (Example. A DNA sequence
of AAA specifies an amino acid called PHENYLALANINE, while CCT is GLYCINE.) Variations in
the arrangements of A, C, T, and G in each gene allow cells to make different kinds of protein)
Role of RNA in Protein Synthesis
RNA: In Cytoplasm
RNAacts as a messenger to achieve DNAs task of specifying the structure of Proteins to be built
at Ribosomes.
3 Varieties of RNA
a. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Transports Amino Acids to Ribosomes
b. Ribosomal RNA (rRRNA)
Forms part of the Ribosomal structure and coordinates protein building process.
c. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Carries instructions for Protein Synthesis from DNA gene to Ribosomes.
2 Major Phases of Protein Synthesis
1. Transcription
Transfer of info from DNAs based sequence into complementary base sequence of mRNA.
Site: Nucleus
Involves DNA and mRNA.
Each 3 base sequence specifying a particular Amino Acid is called TRIPLET. The
corresponding 3 base sequences on mRNA are called CODONS. The form is different but
the same information is conveyed. (If the partial sequence of DNA Triplets is AAT CGT
TCG, the related codons on mRNA would be UUA GCA AGC)
2. Translation
Nucleic acids (base sequence) are translated into proteins (amino acid sequence).
Site: Cytoplasm.
Involves 3 Varieties of RNA (tRNa, rRRNA, mRNA)
Events in Translation (see picture)
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BODY TISSUES
TissuesGroup of cells that is similar in structures and function.The 4 Primary Body Tissues
1. Epithelial Tissue orEpithelium (covering)
2. Connective Tissue (support)3. Nervous Tissue (control)
4. Muscle Tissue (movement)
Epithelial Tissue or Epithelium
Lining , covering, and glandular tissue of the body.
Acts as a boundary that separates us from the external environment.
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
1. Protection protects skin against pathogens and chemicals; lining of respiratory tract contains ciliathat sweeps dust and debris from lungs; lines digestive tract such as stomach and small intestine
2. Absorption absorbs nutrients from food.
3. Filtration filters kidney4. Secretion (Glandular Tissue) secrets perspiration and oil, digestive enzymes, mucus
Special Characteristics Epithelial Tissue
Fit closely together to form continuous sheets.
Has one free surface or edge called Apical Surface.
Lower surface rests on a basement membrane
Avascular (No Blood Supply)
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Regenerates themselves easily if well nourished.
Classification of Epithelial Tissue according to Cell Shape
1. Squamous Cells (thin and flattened)2. Cuboidal Cells (cube shape)
3. Columnar Cells (column shape)
Classification of Epithelial Tissue according to Cell Layers or Arrangement
1. Simple Epithelium
Single layer of Cellsresting on a basement membrane
Functions: Absorption, Secretion, and Filtration.
a. Simple Squamous Epithelium
Gaseous exchange in the Lungs.
Filtration occurs in the Kidneys
Forms Serous Membranes that lines Ventral Body Cavities (Thoracic and Abdominoplevic)
b. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Common in glands and ducts(Salivary Glands and Pancreas)
Forms walls in Kidney Tubules
Covers surface of Ovaries
c. Simple Columnar Epithelium
Has Goblet Cells that secretes mucus to trap dust and debris
Forms Mucous Membranes that lines external cavities (entire digestive tract from stomach to
anus, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tract)
d. Pseudostratified (Ciliated) Columnar Epithelium
Gives a pseudo or false impression that its stratified.
Lines Respiratory Tract (Has Goblet Cells; Cilia propels mucus away from lungs)
2. Stratified Epithelium Contains 2 or more cell layers; at the free edge
Function:Protection
o Stratified Squamous Epithelium (Most Common Stratified Epithelium)
Found in sites that receives abuse or frictionEx. Mouth, Throat, Esophagus, Epidermis
o Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
Found in Ducts of Large Glands
LinesMammary Glands, Sweat Glands, Salivary Glands, Pancreas
o Stratified Columnar Epithelia
Found in Ducts of Large Glands
Found in Vas Deferens, Parts of Male Urethra, Parts of Pharynx
o Transitional Epithelium / Highly Modified Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Lines Urinary System
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Has ability to slide past one another and change cell shape (Allowsuterine wall to stretch as
a greater volume of urine flows; allows more urine to be storedin the urinary bladder)
Glandular Epithelium
Gland consists of 1 or more cells that secrete a particular product called Secretion.
a. Endocrine Gland Ductless Gland; Ductless = Blood
Secrete Hormones (Thyroid Gland, Adrenal Gland, Pituitary Gland)
b. Exocrine Gland
Empty their secretions through their ducts in epithelial surface .
Ex. Sweat and oil glands, liver, and pancreas
Connective Tissues
* The most abundant of all Tissues.
Functions
1. Main Function: Connects Body Parts / Binds body tissues.2. Protection
3. Support
Common Characteristics of Connective Tissues
1. Variations in Blood Supply
Mostly Vascular except Tendons and Ligaments have a poor blood supply. Cartilages are
Avascular. All these structures heal slowly when injured
2. Extracellular Matrix
Non living substance found outside the cells that contains ground substance and fibers.
Because of this, connective tissues are able to withstand stretching and other abuses such asabrasions that no other tissue could endure.
Types of Connective Tissues
1. Bone or Osseous Tissue
Most hard connective tissue; protects and supports body organs (ex. Skull protects the brain)
Composed of bone cells sitting in cavities called Lacunae and surrounded by hard matrix
that contains Calcium Salts and Collagen Fibers.
2. Cartilage
Less hard and more flexible than bone.
a. Hyaline Cartilage
Most abundant type of cartilage and has abundant collagen fibers
Found in larynx (voice box), attaches ribs to the breastbone, and covers the ends of bones
where they form joints.
Ex. Skeleton of Fetus, but by time the baby is born most of this cartilage is replaced by bone.
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b. Fibrocartilage
Between vertebrae of the spinal column
c. Elastic Cartilage
Found where elasticity is desired; Supports External Ear
3. Dense Connective Tissue
Have collagen fibers as its main matrix.
b. Tendons attach skeletal muscles to bones
c. Ligaments connect bones to bones at jointsd. Epidermis
4. Loose Connective Tissue
Softer and has fewer fibers than all other tissues except blood.
a. Areolar Tissue
Universal Packaging Tissue; helps hold internal organs together in their proper
positions.
Act as a sponge when theres edema
Contains Phagoctyes
b. Adipose Tissue (Fat)
Forms subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin, where it insulates body and protects it from
temperature extremes.
Protects some organs individually (Kidneys, eye balls in their sockets, hips, breast)
c. Reticular Tissue
Consist of reticular fibers
Forms the stroma mattress
Supports Lymphocytes in Lymphoid Organs such as Lymph Nodes, Spleen and BoneMarrow.
5. Vascular Tissue or Blood
Consists of blood cells surrounding by a non living fluid matrix calledBLOOD PLASMA.
TRANSPORTING FLUID for nutrients, respiratory gases, wastes, etc
MUSCLE TISSUE
1. Skeletal Muscle
Location: Attached to bones or for some facial muscles to skin
Cell Shape and Appearance: Long, cylindrical, and multinucleate; With very obvious
Striations
Regulation of Contraction: Voluntarily (consciously)
Function: Movement
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2. Cardiac Muscle
Location: Heart
Function: Blood Pump
Cell Shape and Appearance: Branching chains of cells; Uninucleate; With Striations
Regulation of Contraction: Involuntary, Has a pacemaker; controlled by Nervous System
3. Smooth Muscle or Visceral Muscle
Location: Hollow Visceral Organs (Stomach, bladder, uterus, blood vessels)
Function: When they contract, the cavity of an organ becomes smaller (constricts) or
enlargen (dilates) so that substances are propelled through an organ. (Ex. Persistalis a wave
like motion that keeps food moving through the small intestine)
Cell Shape and Appearance: Fusiform or Spindle Shape, Uninucleate, No Striations
Regulation of Contraction: Involuntary controlled by Nervous System
Nervous TissueNeuron Cells
Receives and conduct nerve impulses from one part of the body to another
Major Functions: Irritability and Conductivity
Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)
Stimulates the ff:
a. Inflammation
Generalized body response that attempts to prevent further injury.
b. Immune Response
Extremely specific and mount a vigorous attack against recognized foreign invaders.
Tissue Repair or Wound Healing occurs in 2 Ways:
1. Regeneration
Replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind of cells.
2. Fibrosis
Repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue by the formation of scar tissue
Series of Events in Tissue Repair
1. Capillaries becomes permeable
Clotting proteins seeps into the injured area to form a clot which stops the loss of blood and holds
the edges of the wound to prevent bacteria from spreading. When clot is exposed to air, it dries
quickly and hardens, forming a SCAB
2. Granulation Tissue Forms
Pink tissue composed of new capillaries grows into the damaged area; fragile and bleed when scab
is picked from the wound; contains phagocytes that eventually dispose blood clot and connectivetissue cells (fibroblasts) that produce collagen fibers (scar tissue) to permanently bridge the
3. Surface Epithelium Regenerates
Granulation tissue detaches; final result is a fully regenerated surface epithelium that covers
underlying are of fibrosis (the scar)
Body Membranes
Functions
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Covers body surfaces
Lines Body Cavities
Forms protective (often) lubricating sheets around the organs
2 Major Body Membranes
1. Epithelial Membrane
2. Connective Membrane
Epithelial Membranes
1. Cutaneous Membrane
The Skin; Dry Membrane
Composed of keratinizing squamous epithelium (epidermis) underlain by dense fibrous
connective tissue.
Function: Protects and Covers Body Surfaces
2. Mucous Membrane
Composed ofepithelial tissue resting on areolar connective tissue calledLamina Propria.
Wet or Moist; Secretes protective lubricating mucus.
Function:Line body cavities open to the exterior (respiratory tract mucosa of mouth, mucosaof nasal cavity, mucosa of esophagus, mucosa of lung bronchi; digestive tract; urinary tract;
reproductive tract)
3. Serous Membranes
Composed ofsimple suamous epithelial tissue resting on areolar connective tissue.
Function:Lines body cavities closed to exterior.
2 Pairs of Serous Membranes:
a. Parietal Layer lines ventral cavities (abdominopelvic & thoracic); folds itself to formvisceral layer
b. Visceral Layer covers outside of the organs of ventral cavities* Separated by Serous Fluid secreted by both; allows organs to slide with each other w/o
friction.
Peritoneum
a. Parietal Peritonium lines abdominoplevic cavitgyb. Visceral Peritonium covers abdominopelvic cavity organs
Pleura
a. Parietal Pleura lines thorax
b. Visceral Pleura covers lungs
Pericardium covers the heart
Connective Tissue Membrane
1. Synovial Membranes
Composed ofareolar connective tissue and no epithelial tissues.
Function:Lines the joint cavities (ex. Bursae and Tendons)
Secretes Synovial Fluid that lubricates the end of bones during muscle activity.
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Integumentary System (Skin)
Integument = covering
Functions of the Skin1. Protects deeper tissues from
a. Mechanical Damage (bumps)
contains keratinthat toughens cells
contains pressure receptors that alerts Nervous System from possible damage
Skin should be intact.
b. Chemical Damage (acids and bases)
Contains keratin and pain receptors that alert Nervous System from possible damage.
c. Bacterial Damage (pathogens)
Has unbroken surface and acid mantle(Skin secretions are acidic thus inhibit bacteria).
Phagocytes ingest foreign invaders and pathogens.
d. Ultraviolet Radiation
Melanocytes cellsproduce Melaninfor protection against sunlight.e. Thermal (Heat or Cold) Damage
Contains heat / cold / pain receptors. (Cutaneous Sensory Receptors)
f. Desiccation (drying out)
Contains waterproofing substances (Lamena Granules)
2. Aids in Heat Loss or Heat Retention (Regulates Body Temperature)
Heat Loss by activating sweat glands; allowing blood to flush into skin capillaries.
Heat Retention not allowing blood flush into capillaries.
3. Aids in Excretion of Salts and Nitrogen Waste Materials (Urea and Uric Acid)
Contained in perspiration by sweat glands
4. Synthesizes Vitamin D
Modified Cholesterol molecules in skin converted to Vitamin D by sunlight.
Stimulates Calcium and Phosphate absorption.
Structures of the Skin
1. Epidermis
2. Dermis
Epidermis
The more superficial part of the skin is formed of Stratified Squamous Keratinizing Epithelium
and is Avascular. Composed ofKeratinocytes Cells which produces Keratin, a fibrous protein that makes epidermis
a tough protective layer.
Keratinization cells change shape and chemical composition
Epidermis is composed of 5 Layers called Strata
1. Stratum Corneum
Superficial or Outermost Layer of Epidermis is 20 to 30 layers thick. The dead cell
remnants, are filled with keratin, are referred to as Cornified or Horny Cells.
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Keratin allows the layer to be tough and protect deeper cells from external environment, water
loss, and biological, chemical, and physical assaults.
Cells are dead and flakes off and is replaced by Cell Division in Stratum Basale Cells.
Indeed, we have a NEW EPIDERMIS every 25 45 days.
2. Stratum Lucidum in thick skin and no hairs (palms of hand and soles of feet)
3. Stratum Granulosum4. Stratum Spinosum
5th Stratum Basale / Germinativum
Deepest Layer that lies closest to the dermis
Contains Epidermal Cells that receive adequate nutrients and oxygen (blood supply) from
dermis and undergo Mitosis (Cell Division). The daughter cells move away from dermis and
become part of Stratum Spinosum and Stratum Granulosum wherein they keratinized and
finally die, forming Stratum Lucidum, this layer occurs only where skin is thick and has no hair
(palms of the hand and soles of the feet). Because of Keratin and distance from the Dermis,
Stratum Lucidum and Superficial Epidermal Cells dooms because of inadequate nutrients and
oxygen.
Melanin
Skin Pigment that changes in color from yellow brown blackproduced by MelanocytesCells in Stratum Basale.
When skin is exposed to sunlight, Melanocytes are stimulated to produce more Melanin, and
tanning occurs.
Stratum Basale cells phagocytize (eat) the pigmentand as it accumulates within them, melanin
forms a protective pigment over the superficial side of their nuclei, that shields their genetic
material (DNA) from the damaging effects of the Sun.
Freckles and Moles are seen where melanin is concentrated in one spot.
Homeostatic Imbalance due to Overexposure to Sun
Depresses immune system (ex. Persons with Herpes Simplex or Cold Sore are more likely to have
an eruption after sunbathing)
Alters DNA Skin Cells and may lead to Cancer. Black people seldom have skin cancer.
Dermis
Helps to hold the body together.
Made of Dense (Fibrous) Connective Tissue and Varies in Thickness (ex. Thick on Palms of the
Hands and Soles of feet)
Abundant with Blood Supply that Maintains Homeostasis of Body Temperature.
a. When BT is , capillaries of dermis becomes dilated or swollen, with heated blood andbecomes reddened and warmed that allows body heat to radiate in surface.
b. If environment is cool and body heat must be conserved, the blood bypasses the dermis
capillaries temporarily, allowing internal BT to stay
2 Major Regions of Dermis
1. Papillary Layer
Upper dermal region that have fingerlike projections from its superior surface called Dermal
Papillae, whichcontains:
a. Capillaries that furnish nutrients to epidermis.
b. Pain Receptors (Free Nerve Endings)
c. Touch Receptors (soft touch) called MEISNERRS CORPUSCLES.
On the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, the papillae are arranged in definite patterns
that increase friction and enhance gripping ability of the fingers and feet.
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Ridges of fingertips are provided with sweat pores and leaves films of sweat called
FINGERPRINTS.
2. Reticular Layer
Deepest Skin Layer that contains blood vessels, sweat, oil glands, and DEEP PRESSURE
RECEPTORS called PACINIAN CORPUSCLES.
Contains Phagocytes
Contains Collagen Fibers for the toughness of dermis and helps skin hydrated.
Contains Elastic Fibers that give elasticity of the skin.
As we age, the number of collagen fibers and elastic fibers decreases and the subcutaneous
tissue loses fat. As a result the skin becomes less elastic and begins to sag and wrinkle.
Homeostatic Imbalance
Decubitus Ulcers or Bed Sores
Occur in bedridden patients who are not turned regularly or dragged or pulled across the bed repeatedly.
The weight of the body puts pressure on bony projections. Because this restricts blood supply and skin
becomes pale or blanched. The skin reddens when pressure is released, but if not, the cells die and smallcracks or breaks in the skin appear at compressed sites. Permanent damage to the superficial blood vessels
and tissue eventually results in degeneration and ulceration of theskin.
3 Pigments that Contributes to Skin Color
1. Amount and kind (yellow, reddish brown, and black) of Melanin in Epidermis.
People who produce a lot of melanin have brown toned skin.
In Caucasians (light toned skin), who have less melanin, the crimson color of Oxygen rich
hemoglobin in the dermal blood supply flushes gives skin a rosy glow.
2. Amount of Carotene (Orange yellow pigment found in carrots and other orange, deep yellow, or leafygreen vegetables)
3. Amount of Oxygen bound to Hemoglobin (pigment in RBC) in the dermal blood vessels.
Homeostatic Imbalance
1. Cyanosis Hemoglobin is poorly oxygenated, blood and skin becomes bluish (Caucasians)
Common during failure and severe breathing disorders .
In Black People, skin doesnt appear cyanotic because of melanin
Apparent in nail beds and mucous membranes.
2. Erythema or Redness
Reddened Skin signifies blushing, fever, hypertension, inflammation or allergy.
3. Pallor or Blanching
Signifies Emotional Stress, Anemia, Low BP, or Impaired blood flow into the area.
2. Jaundice or Yellow Cast
Abnormal Yellow Skin Tone that Signifies Liver Disorder which in excess bile pigments are
absorbed in the blood.
3. Bruises or Black & Blue Marks
Sites where blood has escaped from the circulation and clotted in tissue spaces.
HEMATOMASare clotted blood mass.
Signifies Vitamin C deficiency orHemophilia (Bleeders Disease)
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Appendages of the Skin
1. Cutaneous Glands
2. Hair
3. Hair Follicles4. Nails
Cutaneos Glands
Exocrine Glands that release their secretions to the skin surface via ducts.
1. Sebaceous (Oil) Glands
Found all over the skinexcept Palms of Hands and Soles of feet
Active when Male Sex Hormones (Progesterone) are produced in amounts (both sexes)
during adolescence
Produces SEBUM
a. Keeps the Skin Soft and Moistb. Prevents Hair Brittle
c. Contains chemicals that kill bacteria..
Homeostatic Imbalance
1. Whitehead when sebaceous gland becomes blocked by sebum.
2. Blackhead if the material oxidizes, dies, and darkens
3. Acneinfection of sebaceous glands accompanied by pimples.
4. Seborrhea cradle cap in infants; over activity of sebaceous glands. Begins on the scalp asPink, raised lesion that gradually form a yellow to brown crust that sloughs off as oily dandruff.
Careful washing to remove excessive oil.
2. Sweat Glands or Sudoriferous (Sudor = Sweat)
a. Eccrine Sweat Gland
Numerous and found all over the body. Produce SWEAT (water, salts, vitamin C, metabolic wastes (ammonia, urea, and uric
acid), and lactic acid that attracts mosquitos
Acidic from PH 4 6 that inhibits growth of bacteria
Bodys heat regulating system . They are supplied with nerve endings that cause them to
secrete sweat when temperature is high.
b. Apocrine Sweat Gland
Confined in Axillary and Genitals
Their ducts empty into hair follicles.
Secretions contain fatty acids and proteins and all the substances present in eccrine .
Produces Body Odor when bacteria lives on skin and uses its fats as a source for their
growth.
Functions during puberty under the influence of ANDROGENS.
Activated by nerve fibers during pain and stress and sexual foreplay.
Hair and Hair Follicles
Functions:
1. Guards head against bumps
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2. Shields eyes via eyelashes
3. Keeps out foreign substances out of Respiratory Tract via nose hairs
4. Provides insulation in cold weather
Hair
Produced by HAIR FOLLICLE.
Part of the hair enclosed in the follicle is ROOT
Part projecting from the surface of the scalp or skin is SHAFT. The Bulk of the Shaft is dead
material and entirely Protein.
Formed by the division of the Stratum Basale in the growth zone called HAIR BULB MATRIX
located at the inferior end of follicle.
Each hair consists of central core called MEDULLA surrounded by CORTEX which is enclosed
by CUTICLE.
The arrangement ofCUTICLE helps keep the hair apart and keep them from matting. It is the
most heavily Keratinized Region that provides strength and helps keep inner layers compact.
Because it is subject to abrasion, it tends to wear away at the tip of the shaft allowing keratin in
the inner hair regions to frizz out called SPLIT ENDS
Hair Pigment is made by MELANOCYTES in the Hair Bulb and varying types of Melanin
(Yellow, Rust, Brown, and Black) combine to produce all varieties of hair color.
Comes in variety of sizes and shapes.
a. If Hair shaft is oval, Hair is SMOOTH and SILKY and the person has WAVY HAIR.
b. If Hair Shaft is flat and Ribbonlike, Hair is CURLY or KINKY.c. If Hair Shaft is Round, Hair is Straight and Coarse.
Hair Follicles
1. Inner Epidermal Sheath composed of epithelial tissue and forms the hair.
2. Outer Dermal Sheath dermal connective tissue; supplies blood vessels to the epidermal portionand reinforces it. Its papilla provides the blood supply to the matrix in hair bulb.
Arrector Pilli Muscle small band of smooth muscle cells; when these muscles contract if we are
cold or frightened, this hair is pulled upright and produces GOOSEBUMPS.
Nails
Each nail has a FREE EDGE, BODY and ROOT
Borders of nails are overlapped by skin folds called NAIL FOLDS.
CUTICLE is the thick proximal nail fold.
Stratum Basale of the epidermis extends beneath the nail as the NAIL BED. Its thickened
proximal area is NAIL MATRIX which is responsible for NAIL GROWTH. As the nail cells are
produced by the nail matrix, they become keratinized and die.
Nails PINK in color because of the rich blood supply of the dermis.
LUNULA is the white crescent .
When the Oxygen is low, NAIL BED becomes CYANOTIC.
Homeostatic Imbalance (Allergies and Infections)3. Athletes Foot or Tinea Pedis
Itchy, red, and peeling condition between toes that results in fungal infection.
4. Boils and Carbuncles
Inflammation of Hair Follicles and Sebaceous Glands
Common on the Dorsal Neck
Caused by Bacterial Infection (often Staphylococcus Aureus)
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5. Cold Sores or Fever Blisters
Small fluid filled blisters that itch and sting caused by HERPES SIMPLEX infection.
The virus localizes in a cutaneous nerve when it remains dormant until activated by
emotional upset, fever, UV Radiation.
Occurs usually around the LIPS and Mucosa of the Mouth
5. Contact Dermatitis Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin, progressing to blistering caused by exposure of
skin to chemicals (ex. Poison Ivy)
6. Impetigo
Pink, water filled, raised lesions that develop a yellow crust and eventually rupture.
Commonly around the mouth and nose
Caused by Staph
Common in Elementary School Aged Children
7. Psoriasis
Chronic condition characterized by reduced epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery
scales
Maybe disfiguring when severe. Cause is UNKNOWN but hereditary in some.
Attacks triggered by TRAUMA, INFECTION, HORMONAL CHANGES and STRESS.
BURNS
Tissue damage and cell death caused by:
a. Intense Heat
b. Electricity
c. UV Radiation (Sunburn)
d. Chemicals (Acids)
When skin is burned, 2 life threatening problems result:
c. Loss Of Body Fluids that contains proteins and electrolytes
d. Dehydration and Electrolyte Imbalance follows and can lead to Shutdown of Kidneys andCirculatory Shock (inadequate circulation of blood caused by Low Blood Volume)
To save the patient, lost fluids must be replaced ASAP.
The volume of fluid lost can be estimated by determining the how much body surface is burned
(extent of burns) using the RULE OF NINES. This method divcides the body in 11 areas, each
accounting 9% of the total body surface area surrounding face area, plus surrounding the
genitals 1%.
INFECTION is the most important threat and the LEADING CAUSE OF DEATH in burn
victims
Burned Skin is STERILE for 24 hours but after that, pathogens invade areas and multiply in the
destroyed skin
IMMUNE SYSTEM BECOMES DEPRESSED within 1 2 days after SEVERE burn injury
Burns are classified according to their severity (depth)
1. 1st degree burn
2. 2nd degree burn
3. 3rd degree burn
A. PARTIAL THICKNESS BURNS
1st Degree Burn
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Epidermis is damaged (area becomes RED and SWOLLEN)
Are not usually serious and generally heal 2 3 days without any special attention.
Ex. SUNBURN
2nd Degree Burns
Epidermis and Upper Region of Dermis is damaged. (area becomes RED,
PAINFUL, and with BLISTERS) Regeneration can occur because of the epithelial cells are present.
B. FULL THICKNESS BURNS
3rd Degree Burn
Destroy the entire thickness of the skin
Burned area appears BLANCHED (gray white) and BLACKNED
Since the nerve endings are destroyed it is NOT PAJNFUL
REGENERATION IS IMPOSSIBLE.
Treatment is SKIN GRAFTING to cover exposed tissues
In General, Burns are considered CRITICAL if:
1. 25% OF THE BODY HAS 2ND DEGREE BURNS2. Over 10% of the BODY HAS 3rd DEGREE BURN
3. 3Rd DEGREE BURNS on FACE, HANDS, or FEET.
Facial Burns are dangerous because of the possibility of burned Respiratory Passageways which can
swell and cause SUFFOCATION.
Joint Injuries are troublesome because the scar tissue that forms can severely limit JOINT
MOBILITY.
SKIN CANCER
Most skin tumors are BENIGN and doesnt spread (metastasize) to other body areas. (ex. WART, a
neoplasm)
Basal Cell Carcinoma
1. Least Malignant and Most Common Skin Cancer
2. Cells of the Stratum Basale altered so they cant form Keratin.
3. Cancer Lesions occurs most often on SUN EXPOSED AREAS of the FACE and appear as shiny,dome shaped nodules that later develop a central ulcer with a pearly beaded edge.
4. Slow Growing and Metastasis seldom occurs before noticed.
5. Full Cure is the rule in 99 percent of cases where the lesion is removed surgically.
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Arises from the Stratum Spinosum
Lesions appear as scaly, reddened papule that gradually forms and shallow ulcer with a
firm raised border.
Appears on SCALP, EARS, DORSUM OF HANDS, and LOWER LIP. Grows rapidly and metastasize to adjacent Lymph Nodes if not removed.
SUN INDUCED
If caught early and removed surgically or by radiation, the chance of cure is high.
Malignant Melanoma
CANCER OF MELANOCYTES
Appears as spreading brown to black patch that metastasizes rapidly to surrounding lymph
node and blood vessels.
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ABCD RULE TO RECOGNIZE MELANOMA
a. ASSYMETRY 2 SIDES OF PIGMENTED MOLE DOESNT MATCH
b. BORDER IRREGULARITY BORDERS OF LESIONS ARE NOT SMOOTH BUT WITH
INDENTATIONS
c. COLOR DIFFERENT COLORS (BLACKS, BROWNS, TANS, AND SOMETIMESREDS)
d. DIAMETER SPOT LARGER THAN 6MM SIZE OF PENCIL ERASER.Treatmeant is wide surgical incision along with immunotherapy.
ALOPECIA Baldness or Thinning of Hair
MALE PATTERN BALDNESS men become obviously bald
CAUSES OF HAIR LOSS and GRAYING OF HAIR
1. Anxiety
3. Protein deficiency diet
4. Chemotherapy
5. Radiation
6. Excessive Vitamin A Intake
7. Ringworm
Baldness and Graying of Hair occurs with AGING.