they actually have names errors in reasoning so common … · 2019-11-25 · adolf hitler relate to...

LOGICAL FALLACIESErrors in reasoning so common

they actually have names.

How can we improve our critical thinking skills?

What is wrong with this

advertisement?

What is this

message asking

people to do?

How does

carpooling and

Adolf Hitler relate

to each other?

Fallacies are commonerrors in reasoning thatwill undermine the logicof your argument.

Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points, and are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their claim.

Fallacies are commonly used in◼ Advertising◼ Politics

● Abusive Ad Hominem● Accent● Accident● Ad Baculum● Ad Consequentiam● Ad Crumenum● Ad Hoc Rescue● Ad Hominem● AdHominem,

Circumstantial● Ad Ignorantiam● Ad Misericordiam● Ad Novitatem● Ad Numerum● Ad Populum● Ad Verecundiam● Affirming the

Consequent● Against the Person● All-or-Nothing● Ambiguity● Amphiboly● Anecdotal Evidence● Anthropomorphism● Appeal to Authority● Appeal to Consequence● Appeal to Emotions● Appeal to Force● Appeal to Ignorance● Appeal to Money● Appeal to Past Practice● Appeal to Pity● Appeal to Snobbery● Appeal to the Gallery● Appeal to the Masses● Appeal to the Mob● Appeal to the People● Appeal to the Stick● Appeal to Traditional

Wisdom● Appeal to Vanity● Appeal to Unqualified

Authority● Argument from

Ignorance● Missing the Point● Mob Appeal● Modal● Monte Carlo● Name Calling● Naturalistic● Neglecting a Common

Cause● No Middle Ground● No True Scotsman● Non Causa Pro Causa● Non Sequitur● Obscurum per

Obscurius● One-Sidedness● Opposition● Outrage, Argument

from● Over-Fitting● Overgeneralization● Oversimplification● Past Practice● Pathetic● Peer Pressure● Perfectionist● Persuasive Definition● Petitio Principii● Poisoning the Well● Popularity, Argument

from● Post Hoc● Prejudicial Language● Proof Surrogate● Prosecutor's Fallacy● Quantifier Shift● Question Begging● Questionable Analogy● Questionable Cause● Questionable Premise● Quibbling● Quoting out of Context● Rationalization● Red Herring● Refutation by

Caricature● Regression● Reification● Reversing Causation● Scapegoating● Scare Tactic● Scope● Secundum Quid● Selective Attention● Self-Fulfilling Prophecy● Self-Selection● Sharpshooter's● Slanting● Slippery Slope● Small Sample● Smear Tactic● Smokescreen● Sorites● Special Pleading● Specificity● Stacking the Deck● Stereotyping● Straw Man● Style Over Substance● Subjectivist● Superstitious Thinking● Suppressed Evidence● Sweeping

Generalization● Syllogistic● Texas Sharpshooter's● Tokenism● Traditional Wisdom● Tu Quoque● Two Wrongs do not

Make a Right● Undistributed Middle● Unfalsifiability● Unrepresentative

Sample● Unrepresentative

Generalization● Untestability● Vested Interest● Victory by Definition● Willed ignorance● Wishful Thinking● You Too

● Argument from Outrage● Argument from

Popularity● Argumentum Ad ....● Argumentum

Consensus Gentium● Avoiding the Issue● Avoiding the Question● Bad Seed● Bald Man● Bandwagon● Begging the Question● Beside the Point● Biased Generalizing● Biased Sample● Biased Statistics● Bifurcation● Black-or-White● Cherry-Picking the

Evidence● Circular Reasoning● Circumstantial Ad

Hominem● Clouding the Issue● Common Belief● Common Cause.● Common Practice● Complex Question● Composition● Confirmation Bias● Confusing an

Explanation with an Excuse

● Conjunction● Consensus Gentium● Consequence● Converse Accident● Cover-up● Cum Hoc, Ergo Propter

Hoc● Curve Fitting● Definist● Denying the Antecedent● Digression● Disregarding Known

Science● Distraction● Division● Domino● Double Standard● Either/Or● Equivocation● Etymological● Every and All● Exaggeration● Excluded Middle● False Analogy● False Cause● False Dichotomy● False Dilemma● Far-Fetched Hypothesis● Faulty Comparison● Faulty Generalization● Faulty Motives● Formal● Four Terms● Gambler's● Genetic● Group Think● Guilt by Association● Hasty Conclusion● Hasty Generalization● Heap● Hedging● Hooded Man● Hyperbolic Discounting● Hypostatization● Ignoratio Elenchi● Ignoring a Common

Cause● Ignoring Inconvenient

Data● Incomplete Evidence● Inconsistency● Inductive Conversion● Insufficient Statistics● Intensional● Invalid Reasoning● Irrelevant Conclusion● Irrelevant Reason● Is-Ought● Jumping to Conclusions● Lack of Proportion● Line-Drawing● Loaded Language● Logic Chopping● Logical● Lying● Maldistributed Middle● Many Questions● Misconditionalization● Misleading Vividness● Misplaced Concreteness● Misrepresentation

● Mob Appeal● Modal● Monte Carlo● Name Calling● Naturalistic● Neglecting a Common

Cause● No Middle Ground● No True Scotsman● Non Causa Pro Causa● Non Sequitur● Obscurum per Obscurius● One-Sidedness● Opposition● Outrage, Argument from● Over-Fitting● Overgeneralization● Oversimplification● Past Practice● Pathetic● Peer Pressure● Perfectionist● Persuasive Definition● Petitio Principii● Poisoning the Well● Popularity, Argument

from● Post Hoc● Prejudicial Language● Proof Surrogate● Prosecutor's Fallacy● Quantifier Shift● Question Begging● Questionable Analogy● Questionable Cause● Questionable Premise● Quibbling● Quoting out of Context● Rationalization● Red Herring● Refutation by Caricature● Regression● Reification● Reversing Causation● Scapegoating● Scare Tactic● Scope● Secundum Quid● Selective Attention● Self-Fulfilling Prophecy● Self-Selection● Sharpshooter's● Slanting● Slippery Slope● Small Sample● Smear Tactic● Smokescreen● Sorites● Special Pleading● Specificity● Stacking the Deck● Stereotyping● Straw Man● Style Over Substance● Subjectivist● Superstitious Thinking

EVADING THE ISSUE (RED HERRING )

⦿ An argument that focuses on an irrelevant or not important issue to detract attention from the real issue.

Classic Teen Favorite!

CIRCULAR REASONING (BEGGING THE QUESTION)⦿ An argument in

which the writer, instead of providing evidence, simply restates the point in other language.

◼ “Students do not have the same rights as teachers in this school because teachers get to make the rules.”

Kind of like saying “This is true because it’s true.”

FALSE CAUSE (POST HOC)⦿ The assumption that because one event

follows another, the first is the cause of the second.

⦿ (Because this happened, that happened)⦿ Event A, Event B

◼ “Test scores went down right after they put Pepsi machines in the foyer. That’s what you get for guzzling Pepsi—it reduces your I.Q.”

Also the source of

many superstitions

FALSE ANALOGY⦿ The assumption that because two things are

alike in some respects, they are alike in others.

◼ “Hot pockets are so bad for you--kids who would eat the cafeteria hot pockets might as well eat poison.”

A favorite of media personalities who love to compare everything they

don’t like to Nazi Germany

“EITHER… OR” FALLACY

⦿ The suggestion that only two alternatives exist when in fact there are more.

A four-year-old’s

Either/or Fallacy

might go “Either you

buy me this toy or

I’ll die of a broken

heart!”

HASTY GENERALIZATION (STEREOTYPING)⦿ A generalization based

on insufficient evidence

◼ “Maria acts that way because she is red-headed. You know what they say about red-heads and their tempers.”

◼ “You’re from Idaho . . .so you love potatoes, right?”

Stereotypes can be funny—unless you’re the one

being stereotyped

PRACTICE!Journal # 1 - Logical Fallacies

With a neighbor (or neighbors), identify the following examples as a specific logical fallacy.

Remember! This is a practice and is designed to get you thinking!

IDENTIFY THE TYPE OF FALLACY

⦿ Pregnant women shouldn’t smoke, because it is important for women expecting a baby to avoid smoking.

⦿

⦿ Failing your driver’s ed test is about the same as losing your lunch money, so it’s no big deal.

⦿ Why should we be concerned about bullying in school when breaking the dress code is a more common problem?

⦿ We have the choice of eliminating pizza from the cafeteria menu or face the prospect of everyone becoming unhealthy eating school lunch.

⦿ Yeah, I’m not surprised she backed the car over the garbage can. She is a girl, after all.

⦿ You shouldn’t do that because you shouldn’t do that.

⦿ Smoking might be dangerous. But first, did you see that gorilla that was killed in the zoo last week?

⦿ I saw Mr. Hernandez walking past my locker yesterday. Then I found my gym shoes were missing. Coincidence?

THE TAKE AWAY. . .

Avoid fallacies in your arguments and you will be more persuasive.