lab 11 respiration mammalian physiology
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Principles of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 11e 1
LAB 11
Respiratory System
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INTRODUCTION
The two systems that cooperate to supply O2 and eliminateCO2 are the cardiovascular and the respiratory system.
The respiratory system provides for gas exchange.
The cardiovascular system transports the respiratory gases.
Failure of either system has the same effect on the body:disruption ofhomeostasis and rapid death of cells from
oxygen starvation and buildup of waste products.
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Respiratory System Classification
Structurally
Nose
Pharynx = throat
Larynx = voicebox
Trachea = windpipe
Bronchi = airways
Lungs
Functionally
The Conducting System
Consists of a series of cavities and tubes - nose, pharynx,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchiole, and terminal bronchioles- that conduct air into the lungs.
The Respiratory Portion
Consists of the area where gas exchange occurs - respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, and alveoli.
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The Respiratory System
The respiratory system works with the cardiovascular system toaccomplish respiration which includes;
Ventilation (Breathing)-Movement of air in and out of the lungs.
Pulmonary (External) respiration-Exchange of gases between air andblood. Carbon dioxide out to the air, Oxygen into the lungs..
Tissue (Internal) respiration-Exchange of gases between blood andtissue fluids. Oxygen into the tissues and carbon dioxide out of thetissues
Cellular respiration- Production of ATP.
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The Respiratory Tract
It extends from the nose to the lungs As air moves towards the lungs it is cleansed, warmed, and moistened.
Accomplished by hairs, cilia and mucous which act as a screening
device.
Unwanted particles are released as expectorates.
As air moves out during expiration, it cools and deposits moisture on thelining of the trachea and the nose.
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External Nasal Structures
The external portion of the nose is made of cartilage and skin and is
lined with mucous membrane. Openings to the exterior are theexternal nares.
The bony framework of the nose is formed by the frontal bone, nasal
bones, and maxillae.
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Olfactory epithelium for sense of smell Pseudostratified ciliated columnar with goblet cells lines nasal cavity
Warms air due to high vascularity
Mucous moistens air & traps dust
Cilia move mucous towards pharynx
Paranasal sinuses open into nasal cavity
Lighten skull & resonate voice
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The Pharynx
The pharynx (throat) is a funnel-shaped passageway that connects thenasal and oral cavities to the larynx. It also enhances sound.
Three sections.
Nasopharynx - Nasal cavities open above soft palate.
Oropharynx - Oral cavity opens.
Tonsils-lymphoid tissue produce lymphocytes
Laryngopharynx - Opens into the larynx.
The nasopharynx functions in respiration. Both the oropharynx and
laryngoph
arynx function in digestion, respiration and speech
(servingas a passageway for both air and food).
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Pharynx
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The larynx (voice box) serves as a passageway for
air between the pharynx and the trachea..
Thyroid cartilage forms Adams apple Epiglottis---leaf-shaped piece of elastic cartilage
During swallowing, larynx moves upward to prevent food
from entering trachea
Epiglottis bends to cover glottis
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Larynx
The larynx also houses the vocal cords (voice box) whichare stretched across the glottis (opening)
When air passes through the glottis it causes these vocal
cords to vibrate and produce sound.
Tension of glottis determines the pitch High tension-narrow glottis-high pitch
Low tension-wider glottis-low pitchGlottis closed Glottis open
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Trachea
The trachea (windpipe) extends from the larynx to theprimary bronchi.
It is composed of smooth muscle and C-shaped rings of
cartilage and is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium.
The cartilage rings keep the airway open.
The cilia of the epithelium sweep debris away from the lungs
and back to the throat to be swallowed.
Smoking destroys th
ese cilia
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Trachea and Bronchial Tree
The trachea (windpipe) extends from the larynx to the
primary bronchi.
It is composed of smooth muscle and C-shaped rings of
cartilage and is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnarepithelium.
The cartilage rings keep the airway open.
The cilia of the epithelium sweep debris away from the lungs
and back to the throat to be swallowed.
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Tracheostomy and Intubation
Reestablish
ing airflow past an airwayobstruction
Crushing injury to larynx or chest
swelling that closes airway
vomit or foreign object
Tracheostomy is incision in trachea below
cricoid cartilage if larynx is obstructed
Intubation is passing a tube from mouth or
nose through larynx and trachea
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Bronchi and Bronchioles
-The trachea divides into the rightand left pulmonary bronchi
-The bronchial tree consists of the trachea, primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary
bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal bronchioles.
-Sympathetic NS & adrenal gland release epinephrine that relaxes smooth muscle& dilates airways
-Asthma attack or allergic reactions constrict distal bronchiole smooth muscle
-Nebulization therapy = inhale mist with chemicals that relax muscle & reduce
thickness of mucus
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Lungs
The lungs lie on either side of the heart within the thoracic cavity.
Right lung has three lobes and the left lung has two lobes. Each lobe is divided into lobules.
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Alveolar ducts surrounded by alveolar sacs & alveoli
sac is 2 or more alveoli sharing a common opening
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From Airways to the Lungs
Air enters or leaves the respiratory system through nasal cavitieswhere hair and cilia filter dust and particles, blood vessels warm, andmucus moistens, the air
Nose
Pharynx Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli.
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PULMONARY VENTILATION
Respiration occurs in three basic steps Pulmonary ventilation
External respiration
Internal respiration
The movement of air into and out of the lungs depends on
pressure changes governed in part by Boyles law, which
states that the volume of a gas varies inversely with
pressure, assuming that temperature is constant .
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Respiratory (Lung) Volumes
Measured using a spirometer.
Tidal volume-- the amount of air that moves in and out with each breathduring normal relaxed breathing.
Vital capacity--the maximum amount of air that can be moved in and out in
a single breath.TV +IRV +ERV
Inspiratory Reserve Volume- forced inhalation
Expiratory Reseve Volume--- forced exhalation
Residual Volume The air remaining in the lung after exhaling
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Vital Capacity
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Inspiration and Expiration
Ventilation
Moves of a continuous column of air into and out of lungs
from the pharynx to the alveoli.
Occurs in a cyclic pattern called the respiratory cycle
One respiratory cycle consists of inhalation and
exhalation
Lungs lie within sealed thoracic cavity.
Rib cage forms top and side of the cavity,
while the diaphragm forms the floor..
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Medulla oblongata sets main
rhythm; centers in pons fine-tune it
Magnitude of breathing depends on
concentration of oxygen and H+
Brain detects H+, increasesbreathing
Carotid bodies and aortic bodies
detect drop in oxygen, increase
breathing
brain stem
(pons and
medulla)receptors
detect
decreases in
pH of
cerebrospinal
fluid (due to
rising CO2 in
blood)
carotid bodies
(CO2 receptors)
aortic bodie
(O2 receptor
heart
lungs
spinal chord
Control of Breathing
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Negative feedback control of
breathing
Increase in arterial pCO2
Stimulates receptors
Inspiratory center Muscles of respiration contract
more frequently & forcefully
pCO2 Decreases
Negative Feedback Regulation
of Breathing
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Changes in Pressure
760
756
760
760
754
759
760
756
761
Atmospheric pressure:
Intrapleural
pressure:
Intrapulmonary
pressure:
Before
inhalation
During inhalation
(lungs expanded)
During
exhalation
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Inhalation-Inspiration
Medulla sends neurons tellingdiaphragm to contract and flattens
External intercostal muscles contract
Volume of t
horacic cavity increases Lungs expand
Air flows down pressure gradient intolungs
Negative pressure
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FORCED INHALATION
The diaphragm and external intercostals contract Also involves muscles in the anterior regions of the neck
and shoulders
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Normal (Passive) Exhalation
Lung volume decreases
Air flows out of lungs
Diaphragm and the external
intercostals relax Rib cage moves down and
inward
Positive Pressure
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Active Exhalation
Muscles in the abdomen (Rectus Abdominus) and theinternal intercostal muscles contract
This decreases thoracic cavity volume more than passive
exhalation
A greater volume of air must flow out to equalizeintrapulmonary pressure with atmospheric pressure
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Summary of Breathing
Alveolar pressure decreases & air rushes in
Alveolar pressure increases & air rushes out
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EXCHANGE OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE
To understand the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxidebetween the blood and alveoli, it is useful to know some gas
laws.
According to Daltons law, each gas in a mixture of gases
that exerts its own pressure as if all the other gases were
not present.
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Daltons Law
Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own
pressure
as if all other gases were not present
partial pressures denoted as p
Total pressure is sum of all partial pressures
atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg) = pO2 +
pCO2 + pN2 + pH2O
to determine partial pressure of O2-- multiply 760
by % of air that is O2 (21%) = 160 mm Hg
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Respiration
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Gas Exchanges in the Body
External respiration refers to gas exchange between air inthe lungs and blood in the pulmonary capillaries.
Blood entering the pulmonary capillaries has a higher
partial pressure of carbon dioxide than atmospheric air
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and red bloodcells into the lungs and released into the air.
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External Respiration
Most carbon dioxide istransported as bicarbonate
The H+ comes from hemoglobin
Bicarbonate formation isenhanced by the action ofcarbonic anhydrase inside red
blood cells
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External Respiration
Opposite for oxygen
Blood entering the pulmonary
capillaries has a lower PP than the
atmospheric air so it diffuses from
the air into the red blood cells and
capillaries
Oxyhemoglobin carries the oxygento the tissues
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External Respiration
O2
and CO2
diffuse fromareas of theirhigher partialpressures to areas of theirlower partial pressures
Diffusion depends on partialpressure differences
Compare gas movements inpulmonary capillaries totissue capillaries
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Internal Respiration
Internal respiration refers to gas exchange between theblood in systemic capillaries and the tissue fluid.
Oxygen diffuses out of the blood into the tissue because
the partial pressure of oxygen of tissue fluid is lower than
that of blood.
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Internal Respiration
Oxygen diffuses outof the blood into
the tissue
because th
epartial pressure of
oxygen of tissue
fluid is lower than
that of blood.
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Internal Respiration
Carbon Dioxide is opposite
It diffuses from tissue into blood
10% is dissolved in plasma
30% binds withhemoglobin to form
carbamino hemoglobin
60% percent is in bicarbonate form
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External Respiration vs Internal respiration
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Respiration and Health
Upper Respiratory
Tract
Infections
(Nasal Cavities, Pharynx and Larynx)
Sinusitus
Infection of cranial sinuses.
Congestion blocks the openings leading to pain & post nasaldischarge
Tx: spray decongestives, hot shower, sleep upright
Otitis Media -
Bacterial infection of middle ear.
Nasal infection spreads into auditory tube
Hearing loss, dizziness, fever
Tx: Antibiotics , special tubes
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Respiration and Health
Tonsillitis Inflammation and enlargement of tonsils.
Tx: If occurrence is often and swelling causes
trouble breathing, they are surgically
removed
Laryngitis Infection of larynx withhoarseness and inability to
talk.
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Respiration and Health
Lower Respiratory
Tract
Infections
Acute bronchitis -Irritation of the ciliated
epithelium that lines the bronchiole walls
Air pollutants, smoking, or allergies can
be the cause
Excess mucus causes coughing, canharbor bacteria
Chronic bronchitis scars and constricts
airways Infection of primary and
secondary bronchi.
T
x: antibiotics
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Respiration and Health
Lower Respiratory Tract Infections Pneumonia Viral or bacterial infection of the lungs.
Lungs fill with fluid
Tx: antibiotics
AIDSPneumocystis Carinii
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Respiration and Health
Restrictive Pulmonary Disorders Vital capacity is reduced because lungs have lost
elasticity.
Coal, sand, dust, asbestos and fiberglass
Pulmonary fibrosis improper inflammation of lungs due to
tissue build-up
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Respiration and Health
Obstructive Pulmonary Disorders - Air does not flow freely in t
heairways.
Chronic bronchitis
Degenerative breakdown of lungs
Due to pollutants
Tx: stop smoking to slow progression Emphysema
Incurable blockage of alveoli
Preceded by chronic emphysema
Lack of oxygen resulting in irritability & sluggishness
Tx: stop smoking, exercise will slow progression
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Respiration and health
Asthma Immune deficiency causing inflammation of the
bronchioles and bronchi
Wheeziness, breathlessness due to allergens likepollen, dust & smoke
Not curable, but treatable with inhalers
Lung cancer
One of the major causes of death
Generally due to smoking
Begins with the loss of cilia, tumors form &metastasizes
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Effects of Smoking
Shortened life expectancy
Increased rates of cancers
Increased rate ofheart disease
Impaired immune function and healing
Detrimental to fetus
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Smokers Lowered Respiratory Efficiency
Smoker is easily winded with moderate exercise
nicotine constricts terminal bronchioles
carbon monoxide in smoke binds to hemoglobin
irritants in smoke cause excess mucus secretion
irritants inhibit movements of cilia
in time destroys elastic fibers in lungs & leads to
emphysema
trapping of air in alveoli & reduced gas exchange
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Aging & the Respiratory System
Respiratory tissues & c
hest wall become more rigid
Vital capacity decreases to 35% by age 70.
Decreases in macrophage activity
Diminished ciliary action
Decrease in blood levels of O2
Result is an age-related susceptibility to pneumonia orbronchitis
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