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Introduction to Cinema Unit 1
Sikkim Manipal University Page No.: 1
Unit 1 Brief History of World Cinema
Structure:
1.1 Introduction
Objectives
1.2 The Beginnings of Cinema
1.3 Lumiere Brothers‟ Experiment
1.4 Silent Era
D. W. Griffith
Charlie Chaplin
1.5 The Advent of Sound
1.6 Color Movies1.7 Summary
1.8 Glossary
1.9 Terminal Questions
1.10 Answers
1.1 Introduction
What is World Cinema? If you sit back and recollect the number of movies
you have watched, you might roughly place them in two bags: films from
your own country, and „foreign films‟. Or you might take a step further and
classify them into tragedies, comedies, action movies, horror movies, goingby the film genres you must be familiar with by now from your reading of
unit-5 of the second semester SLM – History of Media . Possibly, you might
even group movies in terms of languages, dialects, attitudes and other
nuanced criteria.
World cinema in a general sense constitutes of Indian, Iranian, French,
American, Spanish, Japanese, Korean, Danish, Italian cinema...... the trail
goes on. Surely, you can add to the list! From a broader perspective, world
cinema spans across several genres, and in a multitude of languages, the
experience of which can be studied in terms of the nature of cinematic
technique used, and even the stance of viewership which differs from
audience to audience and specifically from viewer to viewer. So to say, you,
the viewer, are also a part of the integral framework of cinema. No matter
from which part of the world you stem from, your experience of world
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cinema is uniquely personal. And when the „personal factor‟ cannot be
evinced, there are certain tested ways of viewing cinema which may provebeneficial to you. Let us begin then with an understanding of „how to view
cinema‟ as a precursor to understanding the early beginnings of cinema
which are elaborated in this unit. Look up the following link to get an idea on
active viewership: [http://www.filmsite.org/filmview2.html ]
Objectives:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
discuss the origin of cinema
describe the silent era
highlight the chief aspects of the sound era
elaborate how color movies have developed.
1.2 The Beginnings of Cinema
As you learnt in the SLM entitled History of Media in the previous semester,
optical toys, shadow shows, magic lanterns, and visual tricks have existed
for thousands of years. Many inventors, scientists, manufacturers and
scientists have observed the visual phenomenon that a series of individual
still pictures set into motion created the illusion of movement – a concept
termed persistence of vision .
Fig. 1.1: Magic Lantern (Source: wernernekes.de)
Persistence of Vision is an ability of the human brain to retain images
perceived by the eye for a brief period of time after they disappear from thefield of vision. (This made the art of cinema possible.) The illusion of motion
was first described by British physician Peter Mark Roget in 1824, and was
the first step in the development of the cinema. In the mid 19 th century
entrepreneurs started to exploit this phenomenon for its entertainment
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value. Thereby, you see, cinema as we know it today had a very humble
beginning.Using multiple still cameras, which capture consecutive stages of
movement, Briton Eadweard Muybridge becomes the first man in history to
record continuous live action. In 1878, under the sponsorship of Leland
Stanford , Governor of California, Mayubridge successfully photographed a
horse named "Sallie Gardner" in fast motion using a series of 24
stereoscopic cameras. It came to be called Series Photography , the
precursor of „movie – pictures‟.
True motion pictures, rather than eye-fooling 'animations', could only occur
after the development of film (flexible and transparent celluloid) that could
record split-second picture shots. Some of the first experiments in this
regard were conducted by Parisian innovator and French physiologist
Etienne – Jules Marey in the 1880s. In 1882, Marey , replaced Muybridge ‟s
multiple camera setup with the Chronophotographic gun – a single camera
capable of taking consecutive pictures of live action.
Marey's chronophotographs (multiple exposures on single glass plates and
on strips of sensitized paper – celluloid film – that passed automatically
through a camera of his own design) were revolutionary. He was soon able
to achieve a frame rate of 30 images. Further experimentation was
conducted by French-born Louis Aime Augustin Le Prince in 1888. Le Prince used long rolls of paper covered with photographic emulsion for a
camera that he devised and patented.
The work of Muybridge, Marey and Le Prince laid the groundwork for the
development of motion picture cameras, projectors and transparent celluloid
film – hence the development of cinema.
In 1887, George Eastman appropriated the invention of celluloid roll film
from Reverend Hannibal Godwin. Eastman began to mass produce it in
1889. Meanwhile, Thomas Alva Edison ‟s laboratory had been developing a
motion picture system known as the Kinetoscope. William Kennedy Laurie
Dickson , a young Edison Laboratories assistant was assigned to develop a
camera, which would be able to capture movement by allowing for more
extensive sequences than the chronophotographic gun. He designed a
motion picture camera that used „Eastman celluloid‟ stock. Kinetoscope
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apparatus allowed only one person at a time to watch the short films through
a peephole.Self Assessment Questions
1. What do you mean by Persistence of Vision?
2. Who was the first man in history to record continuous live action using
the technique of multiple still cameras?
1.3 Lumiere Brothers’ Experiment
The Lumiere brothers, Auguste and Louis , were sons of well known Lyons
based portrait painter Antoine Lumiere . Antoine, noting the financial rewards
of new photographic processes, abandoned his art and set up a business,
manufacturing and supplying photographic equipment. Joining him in thisventure was Louis who began experimenting with the photographic
equipment his father was manufacturing.
During his experimentation, Louis discovered a process, which assisted the
development of photography. He developed a new 'dry plate' process in
1881 at the age of seventeen, which became known as the Etiquette Bleue
process, and gave his father‟s business a welcome boost. A factory was
built soon after to manufacture the plates in the Monplaisir quarter of the
Lyons Suburbs.
By 1894 the Lumieres were producing around 15,000,000 plates a year.Antoine, by now a successful and well known businessman, was invited to a
demonstration of Edison‟s Peephole Kinetoscope in Paris. He was excited
by what he saw and returned to Lyons . He presented his son Louis with a
piece of Kinetoscope film, given to him by one of Edison‟s concessionaires.
The brothers worked through the winter of 1894, Auguste making the first
experiments. Their aim was to overcome the limitations and problems, as
they saw them, of Edison‟s peephole Kinetoscope. They identified two main
problems with Edison‟s device: first, its bulk – the Kinetograph – the camera,
was a colossal piece of machinery and its weight and size resigned it to the
studio. Secondly – the nature of the Kinetoscope – to the viewer, meant thatonly one person could experience the film at a time.
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By early 1895, the brothers had invented their own device combining
camera with printer and projector and called it the Cinématographe.Patenting it on February 13th 1895, the Cinématographe much smaller than
Edison‟s Kinetograph, was lightweight (around five kilograms), and was
hand cranked. The Lumieres used a film speed of 16 frames per second,
much slower compared with Edison‟s 48 f rames per second – this meant
that less film was used and also the clatter and grinding associated with
Edison‟s device was reduced.
Perhaps most important was Louis’ decision to incorporate the principle of
intermittent movement using a device similar to that found in sewing
machines. This was something Edison had rejected as he struggled to
perfect projection using continuous movement. The brothers kept their newinvention a closely guarded secret with Auguste organising private
screenings to invited guests only.
The first of such screenings occurred on 22nd March 1895 at 44 Rue de
Rennes in Paris at an industrial meeting where a film especially for the
occasion, Workers leaving the Lumière factory , was shown. They caused a
sensation with their first film, although it only consisted of an everyday
outdoor image – factory workers leaving the Lumiere factory gate for home
or for a lunch break.
Unlike Edison, the Lumiere Brothers were quick to patent theCinématographe outside of their native France, applying for an English
Patent on April 18th 1895. The brothers continued to show their invention
privately, again on June 10th to photographers in Lyon. Such screenings
generated much discussion and widespread excitement surrounding this
new technology – in preparation for their first public screening.
As generally acknowledged, cinema (a word derived from Cinematographe )
was born on December 28, 1895, in Paris, France.
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Fig. 1.2: Lumiere Brothers (Source: nationalmediamuseum.org.uk)
The Lumieres presented the first commercial exhibition of a projected
motion picture to a paying public in the world's first movie theatre – the
Salon Indien , at the Grand Cafe on Paris' Boulevard des Capucines . The
20-minute program included ten short films with twenty showings a day.
They used a film width of 35mm, and a speed of 16 frames per second – an
industry norm until the talkies.
Aside from technological achievements, another Frenchman who was a
member of the Lumiere's viewing audience, Georges Melies , added to the
development of cinema with his own imaginative fantasy films. When the
Lumiere brothers wouldn't sell him a Cinematographe , he developed his
own camera (a version of the Kinetograph), and then set up Europe's first
film studio in 1897. An illusionist and stage magician, and a wizard at
special effects, Melies exploited the new medium with a pioneering
14-minute science fiction work, A Trip to the Moon (1902).
Melies called his filmed scenes Tableaux. The shots were static, but the
action within each tableaux was full of movement. Melies also introduced
the idea of narrative storylines, plots, character development, illusion, and
fantasy into film, including trick photography (early special effects),dissolves, wipes, 'magical' super-impositions and double exposures, the use
of mirrors, slow-motion and fade-outs/fade-ins.
Highly impressed with the story telling ability of Melies, a former
Kinetoscope operator Edwin Stanton Porter developed parallel action- telling
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stories in a simultaneous, overlapping fashion. In Porter‟s most successful
film, The Great Train Robbery (1903), parallel action becomes thefoundation of narrative film making. In an effective, scary, full-screen close
up (placed at either the beginning or at the end of the film at the discretion of
the exhibitor), a bandit shot his gun directly into the audience. The film also
included exterior scenes, chases on horseback, actors who moved toward
(and away from) the camera, a camera pan with the escaping bandits, and a
camera mounted on a moving train. Porter also developed the process of
film editing – a crucial film technique that would further the cinematic art.
In the early 1900s, motion pictures were no longer innovative experiments.
They soon became an escapist entertainment medium for the working-class
masses, and one could spend an evening at the cinema for a cheap entryfee. Kinetoscope parlours, lecture halls, and storefronts were often
converted into nickelodeons , the first real movie theatres. The normal
admission charge was a nickel (sometimes a dime – hence the name
nickelodeon .) They usually remained open from early morning to midnight.
The first nickelodeon, a small store-front theatre or dance hall converted to
view films, was opened in Pittsburgh by Harry Davis in June of 1905,
showing The Great Train Robbery . Urban, foreign-born, working-class,
immigrant audiences loved the cheap form of entertainment and were the
predominant cinema-goers. The demand for films gradually boosted the
volume of films being produced, which resulted in higher profits for their
producers.
Self Assessment Questions
3. The first public screening of the Cinématographe by the Lumiere
Brothers was at ______________.
4. The first real movie theatres were called ________.
1.4 Silent Era
The art of motion pictures grew into full maturity in the "silent era" before
silent films were replaced by talking pictures in the late 1920s. One-reel
shorts, silent films, melodramas, comedies, or novelty pieces were usually
accompanied with piano playing, sing-along songs, illustrated lectures, other
kinds of magic lantern slide shows or skits.
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As silent films had no synchronized sound for dialogue, onscreen inter titles
were used to narrate story points, present key dialogue and sometimeseven comment on the action for the audience. Inter titles often became
graphic elements themselves, featuring illustrations or abstract decorations
that commented on the action.
Showings of silent films almost always featured live music, starting with the
pianist at the first public projection of movies by the Lumiere Brothers. From
the beginning, music was recognized as essential, contributing to the
atmosphere and giving the audience vital emotional cues.
Until the standardization of the projection speed of 24 frames per second for
sound films in 1926, silent films were shot at variable speeds anywhere from
16 to 23 frames per second.
1.4.1 D. W. Griffith
More than anyone in the silent era, D. W. Griffith saw the potential of a film
as an expressive medium, and exploited that prospect. Griffith‟s films
became part of history in the making – unleashing the power of movies as a
catalyst for social change.
Fig. 1.3: D. W. Griffith (Source: silent-movies.org)
As a young man he was determined to become a playwright and left home
to learn his craft as an actor. For twelve years he crisscrossed the country,
acting in minor productions, learning how to tell a story and how to sell it.
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Griffith played a number of roles as an actor before agreeing to move
behind the camera as a director at the Biograph Company. During his fiveyears at Biograph, Griffith took the raw elements of moviemaking as they
had evolved up to that time – lighting, continuity, editing and acting.
Made in 1915, Birth of a Nation directed by Griffith was the first masterpiece
of cinema, bringing to film the status accorded to the visual and performing
arts. A story of the Civil War, Birth of a Nation captured the violence, the
spectacle, and the excitement of the war. Using extreme and dramatic
camera angles and complexly interweaved edits, the film brought an event
to life unlike any film had done before. The film, however beautiful, was a
sad testament to the deep prejudice of the times, and black audiences were
outraged by its racist distortion of history.
Griffith‟s next film, Intolerance (1916) was, paradoxically, a plea for
brotherhood and understanding as well as a polemic against the radical
social reformers who had demanded that The Birth of a Nation be censored.
The film marked a new standard in film spectacle and in narrative
complexity, intertwining four separate stories from four different historical
eras. Following Intolerance with Broken Blossoms (1919) and Way Down
East (1920) Griffith solidified his reputation as America‟s preeminent
director. He continued to reinvent the language of film, astounding people
with epic stories, simultaneous narratives, sophisticated set design, and
extensive travelling shows, which accompanied his films city to city.
Broken Blossoms was the story of a tender love between a Chinese man
and a young girl with a brutish and bigoted father. The beautiful and
emotionally explosive film was the first from Griffith‟s new production
company, formed that same year. The company, United Artists, brought
Griffith together with the three greatest performers of the day; Douglas
Fairbanks, Charlie Chaplin, and Mary Pickford. Griffith spent the next ten
years making films with United Artists and Paramount, but could never again
reach the fame of The Birth of a Nation or Intolerance .
As the 1920s roared on, Griffith‟s films seemed more and more old – fashioned, and no longer appealed to the younger audiences. A Victorian
storyteller, he had become temperamentally and artistically out of sync with
his times. Though he had almost single-handedly invented the art of modern
cinema, Griffith spent the last fifteen years of his life unable to find work. On
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July 23, 1948 he died in a small Los Angeles hotel. In the wake of his death
and the coming of age of the movie industry, D.W. Griffith took his place inAmerican cultural history as one of the greatest filmmakers of all time.
1.4.2 Charlie Chaplin
Charlie Chaplin is most recognized as an icon of the silent film era, often
associated with his popular "Little Tramp" character; the man with the
toothbrush moustache, bowler hat, bamboo cane, and a funny walk. The
Little Tramp always found himself wobbling into awkward situations and
miraculously wobbling away. More than any other figure, it is this kind-
hearted character that we associate with the time before the talkies.
Born in London in 1889, Chaplin first visited America with a theatre
company in 1907. Appearing as “Billy” in the play “Sherlock Holmes”, the
young Chaplin toured the country twice. On his second tour, he met Mack
Sennett and was signed to Keystone Studios to act in films. In 1914 Chaplin
made his first one-reeler, Making a Living . That same year he made thirty-
four more short films, including Caught in a Cabaret, Caught in the Rain,
The Face on the Bar-Room Floor, and His Trysting Place. These early silent
shorts allowed very little time for anything but physical comedy, and Chaplin
was a master at it.
Chaplin‟s slapstick acrobatics made him famous, but the subtleties of his
acting made him great. For Chaplin, the best way to locate the humour orpathos of a situation was to create an environment and walk around it until
something natural happened.
Fig. 1.4: Charlie Chaplin (Source: myclassiclyrics.com)
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The concern of early theatre and film was to simply keep the audience‟s
attention through overdramatic acting that exaggerated emotions, butChaplin saw in film an opportunity to control the environment enough to
allow subtlety to come through.
With the advent of the feature-length talkies, the need for more subtle acting
became apparent. To maintain the audience‟s attention throughout a six-reel
film, an actor needed to move beyond constant slapstick. Chaplin had
demanded the need for depth long before anyone else.
After the arrival of sound films, Chaplin made The Circus (1928), City Lights
(1931), as well as Modern Times (1936) before he committed to sound.
These were essentially silent films scored with his own music and sound
effects. City Lights contained arguably his most perfect balance of comedy
and sentimentality. Chaplin's dialogue films made in Hollywood were The
Great Dictator (1940), Monsieur Verdoux (1947) and Limelight (1952).
Self Assessment Questions
5. The film The Birth of a Nation was directed by _________.
a) Edwin S Porter b) D. W. Griffith c) Charlie Chaplin
6. In 1914 Chaplin‟s first one-reeler film was __________.
1.5 The Advent of Sound
In the early years after the introduction of sound, films incorporatingsynchronized dialogue were known as "talking pictures," or "talkies." The
first commercial screening of movies with fully synchronized sound took
place in New York City in April 1923.
The first feature film originally presented as a talkie was The Jazz Singer ,
released in October 1927. The Jazz Singer directed by Alan Crosland
featuring the movie star Al Jolson was originally conceived as a silent
picture with musical interludes, but it accidentally developed several
spontaneous talking scenes. Al Jolson‟s improvised lines attracted large
audiences who had never heard informal dialogue on film before.
Supported by a rich orchestral score, Jewish music, and popular songsperformed by Jolson, The Jazz Singer became a huge international
success.
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By the early 1930s, the talkies were a global phenomenon. Most of the
early talkies were successful at the box-office, but many of them were ofpoor quality – dialogue-dominated play adaptations, with stilted acting (from
inexperienced performers) and an unmoving camera or microphone.
Screenwriters were required to place more emphasis on characters in their
scripts, and title-card writers became unemployed. The first musicals were
only literal transcriptions of Broadway shows taken to the screen.
Nonetheless, a tremendous variety of films were produced with a sense of
wit, style, skill, and elegance that have never been equalled – before or
since.
Self Assessment Question
7. The first feature film originally presented as a talkie was _________ .a) The Jazz Singer b) Intolerance c) The Kid
8. What were „talking pictures‟?
1.6 Color Movies
As with sound, experimentation with color film dates back to the early years
of cinema. The first hand-tinted movies appeared as early as 1896; with
each frame elaborately painted under a magnifying glass. As an alternative
to dyeing the already developed film, the Belgian company Gevaert
introduced colored celluloid to be used as a film base. This process gave
the effect of more evenly distributed hues.
The principles of „color photography‟, developed in 1855 by James Clerk
Maxwell , the Scottish physicist, were gradually applied to cinematography.
Maxwell proved that practically all natural colors may be reproduced by
mixing red, green and blue light. By 1899, F. Marshall Lee and Edward R.
Turner patented a color camera with rotating red, green and blue filters
placed in front or behind the lens.
In 1922, the Boston based Technicolor Company invented a camera
capable of splitting the incoming light into two beams with two negatives.
After a complex chemical procedure, two film positives were developed: onedyed orange-red, the other, green. The positives were cemented together
for projection resulting in good quality color images. Some of the prominent
movies shot in this fashion were, The Ten Commandments (1923) and
Merry Widow (1925).
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One of the drawbacks of early „technicolour‟ was the shifting registration of
colors. By 1932, however, a new three color camera was developed; it wasperfected by the end of the decade. The first three-colour technicolor film is
Disney‟s animation, Flowers and Trees (1932). Becky Sharp (1935) is the
first full-length live action feature film to use this technology. The Adventures
of Robinhood (1938), Gone with the Wind (1939) are some other great
movies, which benefited most from the three strips processing in color.
Cinema which was born in 1895 in Paris soon spread all over the world.
From being a mere visual entertainment in black and white, it transformed
into an audio visual colorful treat, appealing both to head and heart.
Self Assessment Questions
9. The first three color Technicolor film was Disney‟s ________ .
10. Who developed the principles of „colour photography‟?
1.7 Summary
In this unit, you got an overview of the early history of cinema; in particular
of the silent era, the sound era and the advent of color in movies. You may
now make a list of all the movies mentioned in this unit, watch and analyze
them in view of the link provided in the introduction, on „the art of active
viewership‟. You will no doubt be surprised to see history unfold in a new
light: of the beauty of early innovations in terms of cinematic technique, and
the thrill of being part of a yester-year audience exposed anew to the then
„modern‟ technology.
For instance, you might have watched Charlie Chaplin flicks a zillion times,
but watch them (in the historical perspective) by way of active viewership
and you will live through his movies afresh with a heightened cinematic
experience. Happy viewership!
1.8 Glossary
Magic Lantern: a 17th century apparatus designed to project images from
glass plates.Persistence of Vision: an ability of the human brain to retain images
perceived by the eye for a brief period of time after they disappear from the
field of vision.
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Continuity editing: an editing principle, which maintains a smooth and
chronological flow of action.Hand tinting – Manual coloring of film strip, which produces a desired mood
for the projected image.
1.9 Terminal Questions
1. What were the various inventions which contributed to the growth of
Cinema?
2. Write a note on the contributions of D. W. Griffith to the Silent movie era.
3. Describe the change of black and white films into color movies.
1.10 Answers
Self Assessment Questions
1. The ability of the human brain to retain images perceived by the eye.
2. Eadweard Muybridge
3. The Grand Cafe on Paris’s Boulevard de Capuchines in Paris, France.
4. Nickelodeons
5. B
6. Making a Living
7. The Jazz Singer
8. Films incorporating synchronized dialogues were called „talking
pictures‟.
9. Flowers and Trees
10. James Clerk Maxwell
Terminal Questions
1. Hints: Chronophotographic gun – Thomas Alva Edison ‟s Kinetoscope-
Lumiere Brother‟s Cinematographe – Color film – mass production of
Color film by Eastman – process of synchronization of Sound.
2. Hints: Extreme and dramatic camera angles – complexly interweaved
edits – narrative complexity – simultaneous narratives – sophisticated
set design.
3. Hints: Hand tinted movies – coloured celluloid – rotating primary colour
filters before the lens of the camera was inventing a camera capable of
splitting the incoming light into two beams which expose two negatives –
later a new three color camera is developed.
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