barry golding school of education, university of ballarat · australia, in which several tertiary...

Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 50, Number 1, April 2010

The big picture on men’s (and boys’) learning

Barry GoldingSchool of Education, University of Ballarat

This paper focuses on what is known internationally from research about some aspects of men’s learning. It explores the similar and different factors that shape men’s attitudes towards learning in diverse national and cultural contexts. It also identifies some possible parallels (and differences) between the experiences, participation and outcomes in education of men and boys. The paper proceeds to make a case for recognising and addressing the factors that affect gender parity in educational contexts, including Australia, in which several tertiary outcome measures tend to be skewed towards girls and women. The paper forms part of background research for Phase 1 (in several Anglophone nations) of a major international research project into men’s learning in community settings that includes several Australian study sites.

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Introduction

Genderparity,achieving‘thesameproportionofgirlsandboysthatenterandcompleteschooling’(Aikman&Unterhalter2007:2),isanidealsharedbymostworldnations.Andyetschool-basededucationischaracterisedbyextensivegenderinequalitiesinmanyworldnations.Thispaperbeginsbyrecognisingthatthegenderparticipationpenduluminschools,worldwideandonbalance,remainsstuckwelltowardsboys.IttakesupJhaandKelleher’s(2006:10)argumentthat‘genderequalitycannotbeviewedinisolationfromotherformsofinequalities’thatarguablyexistinAustralia.Italsopresupposesthatgendereddifferences‘oftengetsharpenedbyotherdimensionssuchasrace,ethnicity,location,classandothersocialoreconomicgroupings’(p.10)thatarguablydivideAustralianandothersocieties.

Anopeningexplanationisrequiredtoexplainhowthisnecessarilybriefbutcomplexpaperisdeveloped.Afterexaminingthediverseandcomplexgenderdisparitiesinupperschooltovocationaleducationandtrainingtransitionsinternationally,Itentativelyidentifygendersegmentation(separateanddifferentgenderrolesinthelabourmarket)asoneofseveralmissinglinks.Ialsotentativelyexploregenderdisparitiesineducationandtraining(andpossibleremedies)injustonenation,Australia.Mypaperreturns,intheDiscussion,tocautionagainstcomplacencyinrelationtoevidenceofgenderinequityinsomepost-schoolandadultandcommunityeducation(ACE)educationalaspirationsandoutcomesinAustralia.

Inbrief,myinterestisinhowtoday’smenexperiencedlearningatschool,withthepurposeofthinkingabouthowtheseexperiencesmightbeimprovedforfuturemen.Myparticularfocusisonhowmen’sattitudestowardslifelonglearningappeartobeshapedtocausewhatMcGivney(2004:55)describesasthe‘significantandsometimeslastingimpactonsubsequentattitudestowardseducationandpatternsofpost-compulsorylearning’.MyargumentissupportedbyevidenceinMcGivney’s(1999,2004)researchintheUK,baldly

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butaccuratelyencapsulatedinher2004booktitle,Men earn, women learn.MyclaimisthatmostAustralianeducationsystems,andparticularlyworkplaces,arealreadyhighlygender-segmented.Thisgendersegmentationremainslikely,in2010,tocontinuetoplacemoremenonunbroken,lifetimeworkingtrajectoriesandmorewomenonbroken,lifelonglearningtrajectories.

Myrecentandongoingresearchinterest,withcolleagues,iswhathappenstomenwhenthework‘treadmill’stops(Golding,Brown,Foley,Harvey&Gleeson2007).Whileboysarebrieflyconsidered,thefocusofmybroaderconcernisnotwithgenderedschoolingper se.Iconsiderittoosimpleandeasytoblameeducationprovidersformirroringandreproducingtheexisting,gender-segmentedinequitiesinthecommunity,familiesandworkplaces.ItisunrealistictoexpectschoolsinAustraliatosingle-handedlyachievegenderequitywhiletheworkplace,familiesandcommunitycannot.

Myparticularconcern,beyondthescopeofthispaper,iswithevidenceoflonger-termeffectsofgender-relatedoutcomesfromschoolonmen’slifeoutcomesandwellbeing(Golding,Foley,Brown&Harvey2009).IshareJhaandKelleher’s(2006:56)argumentthat‘…[b]oys’achievement,measuredaseitherparticipationorperformance,istheresultofacomplexinterplayofforces;itisnotacreationofschoolprocessesalone’.Ialsosharetheircontentionthatsolutionsmustliebeyondschoolspacesandfacilities.Thesolutions‘…havetoincludechallengingestablishednotionsofgenderroles,relationsandstereotypesusingallpossibleinterventionsinsideandoutsidetheschool’(Jha&Kelleher2006:63).

The big picture of gender inequality

A brief look at gendered participation across nations

Inthebigpicture,itiswomenandgirlswhoaremostexcludedfromeducationacrosstheworld.AikmanandUnterhalter(2007:4)note:

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Atatimeofenormouslyexpandedaccesstoalllevelsofeducation,ofhighaspirationsforpoliticalparticipationandhugegrowthofknowledgeeconomies,77millionchildrenarestilloutofschool,57percentofwhomaregirls(UNESCO2006:30).Seven-hundredandeighty-onemillionadultsareilliterateand64percentofthesearewomen(UNESCO2006:59).Nearlyonebillionpeople,onesixthoftheworldpopulation,havelittleornoeducation.…Twothirdsofthesepeoplearewomenandgirls.

Anotherwayofmeasuringparticipationis‘schoollifeexpectancy(SLE),representingtheaveragenumberofyearsofschoolingthatindividualscanexpecttoreceiveindifferentregions’(Jha&Kelleher2006:4).AglobalglanceatSLEdatapointstosomeintriguingtrendsthatcutacrossthebigpicturepaintedabove.Whenthesedatawereanalysedbyworldregion,JhaandKelleher(2006:4)concluded:

…whileSLEishigherforboysinsub-SaharanAfrica,EastAsiaandthePacificandSouthandWestAsia,itishigherforgirlsinLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean,NorthAmericaandWesternEurope.

AcloseranalysisbyJhaandKelleher(2006:5)ofallworldregionsbynationrevealsthat‘thistrendinboys’under-participationislargelyconfinedtoareasthathaveexperiencedhighergrowthineducationalattainmentrates’.Sowhyisitthatcountriesthathaveachieveduniversalaccessandhighparticipationratesforbothboysandgirls,atleasttotheprimaryageofschooling,areexhibitinggenderdisparitiesinfavourofgirls?Inparticular,whatisthesituationinAustralia?

A brief glimpse at gendered achievement and post-school outcomes in Australia

Australiahasfewobvious,statutoryimpedimentsorotherfactorslimitingaccesstoeducationandtrainingbygender.Themostobviousfactorsatschoolarelikelytobestudentfamilybackground,locationandcost.Onemightintuitivelyanticipatethatthesefactorswouldoperatesimilarlyforboys’andgirls’achievementsandoutcomes

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atschool.Onemightalsoexpect,inaneducationalenvironmentcommittedtogenderequity,thatschoolsmightmakeadifferenceinflatteningoutexisting,gender-relatedtrendsinachievementandpost-schooloutcomes.Inanideal,inclusiveandequitableeducationsystem,otherexistinginequalities,includingsocio-economicstatusofcommencingstudents,mightnotbeexpectedtobereproducedatexit.ThereisconsiderableevidencefromAustraliathatmanyofthesedifferencesarereinforcedandbecomeintergenerational.Onlytwodatasourcesareexaminedanddiscussedinthisbriefpaper.OneinvolvesAustralianschoolachievementdata;theotherinvolvespost-schooltertiaryenrolmentdatafromtheAustralianstateofVictoria.

JhaandKelleher(2006)examinedcasestudydataonboys’underachievementfromfourdiversenationsincludingAustralia.Theyexaminedandcarefullydismissedsomeofthe‘usual,simplesuspects’inschoolgenderanalyses,includinghavingmaleteachersandall-maleclassrooms(p.64).Theyalsodismissedsomeotherfactorslikelytoaffectbothgenders,suchasthepaucityofqualifiedteachersandschoolplaces(p.42),JhaandKelleheridentifiedthreebroadcategoriesoffactorsasexplanatory.TwocategoriesoffactorsareseentoapplyparticularlytoAustralia.Thesearesocial,economicandoccupationalpractices,aswellasconformitytomasculinegenderidentityandfeminisationofschools.Thethirdcategory,paucityofschoolplacesandfacilities,arguablyapplieslessgenerallytotheAustraliancontext.JhaandKelleher(2006,p.67)arguethat‘…[t]hereisalmostnogenderdisparityatprimaryschoollevelinAustralia’.Nevertheless,itiscertainlyafactorinsomesocio-economicallydisadvantaged,rural,remoteandAustralianIndigenouscommunities.

InestablishingthenationalcontextforJhaandKelleher’s(2006)verylimitedAustraliancasestudy(ofonegovernmentprimaryschoolinQueensland),PISA(2000–2006)datawereexaminedontheabilitytoapplyknowledgeandskillstoreading,mathematics

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andscience.Thedata,collectedfromAustralian15-year-oldschoolstudents,identifiednoevidenceofboys’underachievementinthelatter,butdifferencesforreading,‘thoughthelevelofdifferencewaslowerforAustraliathanmostOECDcountries’(p.68).Asinothercountries,whatwasparticularlystrikingwasthewaythat‘…socio-economicstatuscompoundsthedifferencebetweenboysandgirlsintermsoftheirreadingliteracy’(p.69).InAustralia,‘boysfromlowsocio-economicbackgroundswerefoundtobealmosttwiceaslikelytobeinthelowestquarterofreadingliteracyresultsthangirlsfromsimilarbackgrounds’.Havingidentifiedthat‘…[t]heenvironmentoutsideschoolappearstoplayanimportantroleinbuildingreadingliteracy’,JhaandKelleher(2006:69)concludedthatinAustralia,theoverlappingeffectsofsocio-economicstatusandthedifferentsocialisationofboysandgirlswerethemain,explanatoryfactorsinthegenderdifferencesinPISAscores.Whiletheyconcludedthat‘[s]choolscanplayaroleinchangingthis,…itisnotcleartowhatextenttheycanmakeadifference’(p.71).

Thereisotherevidence,fromthestateofVictoria,Australia,ofsignificantlygenderedtransitionsforpost-compulsory18yearoldsinboththeMelbourne(capitalcity)regionandeachofVictoria’stennon-metropolitaneducationregions.Thedataontertiary(universityandTAFE[technicalandfurthereducation])enrolmentsinVictoriafor2006(VTAC&ABS2007)byAustralianBureauofStatisticsStatisticalDivision(SD)showthatintheMelbourneSD,80.4percentofgirlsenrolledintertiarystudyin2006,comparedwith62percentofboys.IntheWimmeraSD(northwesternVictoria)itwas46.3percentforgirlsand23.4percentforboys;intheGippslandSD(southeasternVictoria),itwas41percentand21.1percent.Insummary,thelikelihoodofstudentsenrollingintertiarystudyinruralregionsisaroundonehalfofthatofstudentsinMelbourne.Whenuniversity-onlyenrolmentoutcomedataareexaminedbygenderforthesameSD’s,thesamegeneraltrendsareevident:male18-year-oldsinruralareasareagainapproximatelyonehalfaslikelytoenrolatuniversity

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asthesamefemalecohort.EvenwhereaccesstouniversitywaslesslikelytoaffectenrolmentinmetropolitanMelbourne,male18-year-olduniversityenrolmentwasonly75percentoffemaleenrolment.

Respondingtothesedatainrelationtoyoungcountrystudentenrolments,theVictorianNationalPartyLeader,effectivelyrepresentingacountrypoliticalconstituency,isquotedinThe Weekly Times(2007)assayingthat‘theproblemreflectedtheimpactofthedrought,theirdesiretohelpthefamilyandgetoutintotheworkforce.’Howeverlocationaside,theother,concerningconclusioninallVictorianregionsisthatthelikelihoodof18-year-oldboysenrollinginatertiarycourseisbetweenthreequarterstoonehalfofthelikelihoodofgirlsofthesameage.Whyisthereauniversityandvocationaleducationandtraining(VET)enrolment‘drought’ofyoungmeninanationwherethereisuniversalaccessandhighparticipationratesforbothboysandgirlsinsecondaryschools?Whyareyoung,ruralwomeninVictoriatwiceaslikelytomakethetriptoattendaregionalorcityTAFEoruniversity?Aresimilartrendsintertiaryparticipationobservedelsewhere,andforwhatreasons?

The international data on gender

Theinternationaldataonpost-schooltransitionsaredifficulttomeasuremeaningfullyandcompare,largelybecausedataarecollectedinsomewhatdifferentwaysacrossawiderangeofschoolandpost-compulsorysectorsindiversenations,culturesandlabourmarkets.Withinthisbriefpaper,thescopeforexaminingallpost-compulsorypathwaysbygenderislimited.Forthisreason,onlyVET(vocationaleducationandtraining)outcomes(calledTVET:TechnicalandVocationalEducationandTrainingprogramsintheinternationalliterature)willbeconsidered,andthen,becauseofbrevityandcomplexity,onlysuperficially.Despitethecomplexityandmeasurementissues,itisimportanttoexamine(anddebunk)someofthemythsaboutthesimplicityofnumericalgenderinequityin

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participationbysector,andparticularlytheideathattherearesimple,education-basedsolutionstoaddressingit.

Thelongandcomplex,statisticalargumentmountedinUNEVOC(2008)aboutgenderdisparityinTVET,summarisedbelow,ispresentedasasalutarylessonfortworeasons.Firstly,evenwiththebestdataintheworldonthephenomena,thereisnosimpleorgeneral,internationalrelationshipbetweengenderparityatschoolorpost-schooloutcomes,thatcanbesimplyextrapolatedtoAustralia.Secondly,itisimportanttounderstandthatthegenderinequityobviousintheVictoriantertiaryenrolmentdataabovearemorelikelytobeexplainedandsolvedbycircumstancesandactionsinsitesbeyondschoolsinAustralia.Thesesitesparticularlyincludethefamily,communityandwork,wheremostlearning,includingaboutgenderroles,arguablyoccursinformally(Golding,Foley&Brown2008).

UNEVOC(2008)undertookananalysisbygenderofthebestavailableinternationalTVETdatafrom162countries.WhiletheygrimlyconcludedthattheprovisionofTVETreachesonlyasmallpartoftheschoolagepopulationglobally,theyobservedthatthepicture‘isevengrimmerforgirls’(p.34).TheylookedspecificallyatTVETenrolmentbygenderattheuppersecondarylevel,byfirstlyplottingaGenderParityIndex(GPI)foreachofthesecountries.GPI(UNEVOC2008:77)isdefinedasameasureoftheratioofthefemale-to-malevaluesofagivenindicator,againstthepercentageoftheuppersecondaryenrolment.AGPIofunitywouldindicateparitybetweensexes(UNESCOInstituteofStatistics,2006:183).AGPIabove1.3wouldusuallyberegardedasanindicatorofgenderdisparity(UNEVOC2008:59).TheresultsareshownbynationinFigure1.Innationswhereaccesstosecondaryeducationwasmostlimited,thegenderequalitiesinTVETwerehigh,leadingUNEVOCtohypothesisethatthegreateracountry’spercentageofTVETattheuppersecondarylevel,thegreaterwouldbeitsGPI.

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Figure 1: Percentage of Technical/Vocational Education Enrolment in upper secondary education, by Gender Parity Index, 2002(fromUNEVOC2008,Figure14,p.60;DataSource:UNESCOInstituteforStatisticsdatabase,2005)

Figure1revealedsomehighGPIs(fornationssuchasBrazilandBurkinaFaso,ontherightofthegraph),withalowpercentageofenrolmentsinTVETthatrancountertotheirhypothesis.Theythereforecreatedandgraphedanewmeasure,TransformedGenderParityIndex(TGPI)bynation,asshowninFigure2.Intheirwords,

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FortheTransformedGenderParityIndex,wheretheGenderParityIndexishigherthan1,theusualfemale-to-maleformulais,ineffect,inverted(UNEVOC2008:77)tomale-to-female(UNESCO2004b,p.241).Asaresult,theupperboundaryforTGPIbecomes1,whichrepresentsperfectgenderparity.ATGPIbelow0.97indicatesdisparityeitherinfavourofmalesorfemales(UNEVOC2008:77).

Figure 2: Transformed gender parity index for the Percentage of Technical/Vocational Education Enrolment in upper secondary education, by Gender Parity Index, 2002(fromUNEVOC2008,Figure15,p.61;DataSource:UNESCOInstituteforStatisticsdatabase,2005)

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OnthebasisofananalysisofthedatainFigure2,UNEVOC(2008)concludedthatanygenderdisparity,regardlessofwhetheritwasmalesorfemalesthatwereoutnumbered,hinderedTVETexpansion.

UNEVOC’s(2008)finalgenderanalysisinFigure3bringsusclosesttodatathatmight(ormightnot)informorhelpexplainthegenderednatureoftheAustraliansituation,approximatedbyVictoriantertiaryenrolmentdata.Theyplottedthepercentageoftechnical/vocationalenrolmentagainsttherespectiveGenderParityIndices,toprovideavisualrepresentationofapossibleassociationbetweenthegenderednatureofsecondaryandTVETparticipation.UNEVOC,ineffect,lookedtoseewhetherandhowgenderdisparityinuppersecondarylevelsmight(ormightnot)berelatedtogenderdisparityatthesamelevelsinTVET.

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Figure 3: Gender parity index for the Percentage of Technical/Vocational Education Enrolment in upper secondary education, by the Gender Parity Index for the total Gross Enrolment Ratio, 2002 (fromUNEVOC2008,Figure16,p.62;DataSource:UNESCOInstituteforStatisticsdatabase,2005)

GenderequityinbothsectorswouldproduceaclusteringaroundthecentreofFigure3.IfgenderdisparitiesatschoolwereconsistentlytranslatedintosimilargenderdisparitiesinTVET,onemightexpectadirect,approximatelylinearrelationship,withmostvaluesplottingintheNEandSWquadrants.PlotsawayfromthecentreofthegraphintheSEquadrantwouldindicatemoreboysatschoolandlessinTVET,withthereversebeingthecaseintheNWquadrant.

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Figure3,withitsscatteredplotsacrossallfourquadrants,identifiednogeneralrelationship.RelevanttotheAustraliansituation,theyfoundthatgenderparityinuppersecondaryeducationwasnotnecessarilyrelatedtogenderparityinTVET.Theyconcludedthat‘therelationshipbetweengenderandTVET[enrolment]isshowntobecomplexandlikelytovaryconsiderablyacrossregionsandcountries’(UVEVOC2008:63).

Discussion

UNEVOC’s(2008)complexbutsystematicnumericanalysisofschoolandTVETparticipationbygender,outlinedabove,wasunabletoidentifyageneral,inter-sectoral,internationaltrend.However,byfocusingonlyonasub-setofCommonwealthnationsincludingAustralia,whereboystendedtounder-performinhigherlevelsofschool,JhaandKelleher(2006:43)concludedthat…

Conformityto‘masculine’genderidentitythatclasheswiththedemandsofso-calledfeminized‘education’emergesasthemostimportantandcommonreasongiventoexplainunderperformanceofboysingeneral…Despiteminorandsometimesmajordifferencesinthesenotionsacrossdifferentsocieties,certainaspectsofwhatdefinemasculinityandfemininityappeartobefairlyuniversal.Menareuniversallyviewedaswarriorsandprotectorsandwomenascaregivers.….‘Notbeingfeminine’assumesspecialimportancewhenonetriestotracetherelationshipbetweenmasculinityandboys’underachievementineducation.

Myownconclusion,complementedbymyresearchintomen’slearningresearchinVictoria(Golding&Rogers2002;Golding,Harvey&Echter2004),isthatthesignificantgenderdisparitiesobservedamongstVictorian18-year-oldtertiarystudentenrolmentsmightalsoapplytomany(butnotall)Australianmenlockedinto‘adominantformof[hegemonic]masculinity:themeasurebywhichallmenarejudged,theculturalidealizedformofmasculine

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characterthatembodiesmalepower’(Crawford2002:5),thatincludetoughness,competitiveness,determinationandself-sufficiency.Thisformofhegemonicmasculinity,formany18-year-oldmenfromlowersocio-economicbackgrounds,presumablypromisesmoreimmediategratificationofpowerandprestigefromearningandwork(andreleasefromlackofsuccessandprestigeatschool)ratherthangratificationfrommorelearning.Thenatureofmenandmasculinities,asHearn,Muller,Oleksyet al.(2003:95)observe,isnowlesslikelytobetaken-for-grantedandmorelikelytobesubjecttoacademicandpolicydebatesincludingineducation‘…inmoreexplicit,moregendered,morevariedandsometimesmorecriticalways’.Untilquiterecently‘[g]enderwaslargelyseenasamatterofandbywomen;menweregenerallyseenasungendered,naturalornaturalized’(p.95).

Notonlyaremenincreasinglyrecognizedasgendered,butthey,orrathersomemen,areincreasinglyrecognizedasagenderedsocialproblemtowhichwelfaresystemsmay,orforavarietyofreasonsmaynot,respond(Hearn,Muller,Oleksyet al.2003:96).

Insteadofgettingmoreeducation,Hearn,Muller,Oleksyet al.(2003:103)concludethatinmanyareasofEurope,

…someyoungmenbecomemarginalizedfromworkandfamilylife.Workingclassmenareconsideredmostvulnerable.Thereisalackofattentiontomenengagedincreatingandreproducingsocialexclusion.

AsMcGivney(2004:130)concludedintheUnitedKingdom,increasingmaleparticipationandaddressingsocialexclusiongoeswellbeyondthepracticalandculturalbarriers.Itisalso‘…amatterofovercomingwidespreadindifferenceandlackofinterestarisingfromtheperceptionthatlearningisofnouseorrelevancetothem’.McGivneysuggeststhatitwilltake‘…alotofconvincingthatparticipatingwillhavepracticalpay-offsandwillnotstigmatisethem

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intheeyesoftheirmalepeers’(p.130).Theconvincingprocessfacessomesignificanthurdles,nottheleastofwhicharedata,fromboththeUnitedKingdomandAustralia,thatconfirmthatmanyyoungmenareright:‘qualificationsdonotalwaysmakeagreatdealofdifferencetoaperson’searnings’,manyjobsrequirenoqualificationsandmanyemployeesholdqualifications‘higherthanthoseactuallyrequiredfortheirjobs’(McGivney2004:131).

Revertinginsteadtoataken-for-granted‘discourseofnaturalism’,that‘boyswillbeboys’andthat‘girlsarejustnaturallythemorecivilizedhalfofhumanity’(Allard2004:359),isaslipperyanddeterministic,butalternative,conceptualslope.Itwouldcall‘…intoquestiontheroleofagencyandchoiceforteachersandstudents’(p.359).Allard’salternativeproposalistoacknowledgethat‘…boyswillbetheboystheychoosetobeon the basis of the discursivepositionsofferedtothem’(p.359,Allard’sitalics).

Attemptshavebeenmadeinrecentdecades,inallpost-compulsoryeducationsectorsinAustralia,particularlyinadultandcommunityeducation,toensurethatwomenhavebeenabletoredresseducationaldisadvantageexperiencedasgirls.AsJhaandKelleher(2006:43)observed:

Educationhasbeenandisseenasameansofattainingotherrightsforwomenandeducationisitselfviewedasanachievement.Assuch,oneofthefactorsthatexplainthebetterperformanceofgirlsisthesenseofaccomplishmentthatisattachedtoeducationforwomen.

Partofthatsenseofaccomplishmenthascomefromwomenenteringtraditionally‘men’ssubjects’ormen’sprofessions’.However,asJhaandKelleher(2006:44)observe,theoppositeisnotthecaseforboysandmen.Sincemasculinitycontinuestobeassociatedwith‘notbeingfeminine’,someactivitiesconsidered‘feminine’,arguablyincludinglearningandeducationbutalsoincludingnursing,welfare,agedand

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childcare,areconsiderednotmasculineenough.ThisexplanationisparticularlypowerfulinAustraliawhenthemasculinitiesassociatedwithruralityandlowersocio-economicstatusarefactoredin.

Anin-progressinternationalstudyoflearningincommunitycontexts,thatincludestwelvesitesacrossfourAustralianstates(Golding,Brown,Foley&Harvey2009;Golding,Foley,Brown&Harvey2009)givesussomeoftheanswers.Oneofthefindingsinourresearchisthatmentendnottobeasinvolvedasadult,enrolledstudentsineducation(particularlyinadultandcommunityeducation).However,manymenarelearningwhattheyneedtoelsewhere,insiteswherelearningislessformalandhands-on:particularlywherelearning,work-likeexperiencesandmasculinitycangohand-in-hand.Onesuchsiteisthroughpaidworkandwork-relatedtraining.Theothersuchsiteisinsocial,communityandvoluntaryactivitiesandorganisationsthataremorelikelytobeconstruedasmasculine.PedagogieswhichworkformeninAustraliaincludesportingorganisations,fireandemergencyservicesorganisations,andveryrecentlyforsomeoldermen,communitymen’ssheds.

Conclusion

Thedroughtofyoungmenundertakinglearningpost-schoolinAustraliaislikelytopersistuntilallpost-compulsoryeducationsectors,fieldsofstudyandprofessionsrecogniseandaddresstheextentofthechangethatmightberequired.Mycontentionisthatthereissignificantgendersegmentationandgenderblindness,inpedagogyandpractice,inbothworkandeducationinAustralia.Australia,basedonOECDstatistics,hasoneofthemosthighlygendersegmentedlabourforcesintheworld:‘[I]ndustriesandoccupationsinAustraliaremainhighlygendersegregatedandwomen’sworkisstillundervalued’(HREOC2008:69).Itmaywellbethattheneedforwomentolearnmorethanmenpost-schoolisrelatedtotheirneedtohaveabroaderrangeofrangeofvocationalandoccupational

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skillsthanmen,totakeupwork‘…whichaccommodatestheirfamilycaringresponsibilities’(HREOC2008:69),insteadofwork‘whichfullyrewardstheirskillsandexperiences’.Anyoneinvolvedinthefieldsandprofessionsofhealth,welfare,retail,hospitalityandeducation(particularlypre-school,primaryandadulteducation)knowsthatthereisadroughtofmeninthesetertiarycoursesandprofessions,andthathairdressingaside,menaremuchmorelikelytogointoahands-ontrade.

IalsoconcludethatthereisaneedforcautionagainstcomplacencyinrelationtoAustraliannationaleducationalaspirationsandgoalsonanumberofotherworrying,andarguablyrelated,educationalmeasurementbenchmarks.Thesebenchmarksinclude,butgobeyond,genderinequityinadultandcommunityeducation.Australia,asarecentOECD(2008)reportshowed,isoneofahandfulofnationsthathasforcedtertiarystudentstotakeonmoreofthecosts.Theneo-liberalmessage,fromstateandnationalgovernmentsinAustralia,isclearandconsistent.Learningthatisnotwork-related,inanypost-compulsorysector,isapersonalandunnecessaryluxury.Learnerswilleitherpayordosubsidised,accredited,workplacetraining.Australianadultandcommunityeducation(ACE)beyondtertiaryinstitutionsandprivateprovidersatneighborhoodlevelto2009is,withsomeexceptions,inaweakandfragmentedstate.ItnowhaslittleornocoverageinmostpartsofruralAustraliaoutsideofVictoria,andhasahighlyfeminisedworkforce,cateringmainlyforwomenaslearners.

Thetypicalexplanationofgendereddisparitiesinworkgenerally,includinginACE,isthatfemale-genderedsectorsareinsecure,poorlypaidandpart-timecomparedwithmaleprofessionsandtrades.‘WomeninAustraliabearprimaryresponsibilityformanagingfamilylife[that]doesnotfiteasilywiththestructureoftheworkplace’(HREOC2005:13),while‘mentypicallybearthe

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greatestresponsibilityforfinanciallyprovidingfortheirfamilies’.Totheextentthatthisistrue,itmaybetimelytoconsiderhowwageandprofessionalparitymightbeachieved.Thereisanargumentthataso-called‘knowledgesociety’inAustralia,whereonethirdofadultsarefunctionallyilliterateandwhereeducationalachievementhasmosttodowithwhereyouareborn,desperatelyneedsaproperlyfunded,nationaladulteducationsectorsimilartothesystemsinplaceinScandinavia.AikmanandUnterhaleter(2007)identifyageneralnationalneglectoftheadultbasiceducationsector,despiteitscriticalroleinaddressinggenderequalityforwomenandmenindiversecountries:

Governmentsstatethattheyarecommittedtoadultbasiceducation—butinrealitytheyarealowpriorityformost.Adultbasiceducationhasremainedunder-fundedandmarginalizedwithinministries,resultinginpoorcohesionandcoordination.Currentgovernmentneglectofthesectorneedstobereversed(p.44).

AustralianACEmightthenbeliftedinparityfromastrugglingandbenevolentcharityinahandfulofstates,toaproperlysupportedandfundedsectorthatpromoteslifelongandlifewidelearningforall.Beyondthatunlikelyprospectliestheneedforabetterunderstandingandafundamentalreformofgenderedserviceprovisionforalladults.Thetaskofeducationcannotallbelaidatthefeetofschools.ThemostrecenttertiaryenrolmentdatafromVictoriasuggestanurgentneedinAustraliatoprovidepedagogiesandlearningcontextsthatmatchtheneedsofpeoplewithidentities(includingmasculinities)otherthanthosetoleratedatschool.Thisparticularlyappliestothoseadultmaleidentitiesassociatedwithruralityandlowersocio-economicstatus.

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This paper was presented in an earlier version to the Adult Learning Australia Conference in Perth, Western Australia, 30 October–1 November, 2008.

About the author

Dr Barry Golding is an experienced Australian researcher in adult, vocational and community education with a specialisation in learner-centred, field-based research into equity and access.

74 Barry Golding

His growing research interest in men’s learning has led to him facilitating an ongoing, collaborative, international research project investigating men’s learning in community contexts.

Contact details

School of Education, University of Ballarat, PO Box 663, Ballarat Victoria 3353 Tel: +61 3 53279733 Fax: +61 3 53279717 Email: b.golding@ballarat.edu.au