© 2011 brooks/cole, a division of cengage learning chapter 2 developmental and cultural...
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© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Chapter 2
Developmental and Cultural Considerations
To have one’s individuality completely ignored is like being pushed quite out of life. Like being blown out as one blows out a light.
Evelyn Scott
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Chapter objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Discuss ways to understand the needs of children
• Outline theories and other explanations of physical, cognitive, and social development
• Define culture
• Demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and awareness of cultural competence
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Children's well being
“A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease”(http://www.who.int/topicsmental_health/en/).
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
The Personal World of the Child
SELF-ACTUALIZATION(Fulfillment of Potential)_________________
SELF ESTEEM(Feeling good about oneself)____________________________
LOVE AND BELONGING(Feeling accepted as a part of a group)____________________________________
SAFETY NEEDS (Personal and psychological)________________________________________________
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS(Food, shelter, water, warmth)
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Child Development
• Physical
• Cognitive
• Social
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Brain development
• Structure of the brain
• Processes of the brain
• Implications for counseling
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage Type of Development Age
Infancy Sensorimotor(learns through senses)
0-2
Childhood Preoperational(egocentric thinking)
2-7
Pre-Adolescence Concrete(need concrete aids for learning)
7-11
Adolescence through
Adulthood
Formal(are capable of abstract thought)
11+
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Erikson’s Stages of Social Development
STAGE I: BIRTH TO AGE 1 1/2• Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust
STAGE II: AGES 1 1/2 to 3• Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
STAGE III: AGES 3 to 6• Initiative versus Guilt
STAGE IV: AGES 6 to 12• Industry versus Inferiority
STAGE V: AGES 12 to 18• Identity versus Role Confusion
STAGES VI, VII, and VIII• Adult Stages
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Developmental PerspectivesApproximate Age Normal Achievements
Common Behavior Problems Clinical Disorders
0-2 Eating, sleeping, attachment
Stubbornness, temper, toileting difficulties
Mental retardation, feeding disorders, autistic spectrum disorders
2-5 Language, toileting, self-care skills, self-control, peer relationships
Arguing, demanding attention, disobedience, fears, overactivity, resisting bedtime
Speech and language disorders, problems stemming from child abuse and neglect, some anxiety disorders such as phobias
6-11 Academic skills and rules, rule-governed games, simple responsibilities
Arguing, inability to concentrate, self-consciousness, showing off
ADHD, learning disorders. School refusal behavior, conduct problems
12-20 Relations with opposite sex, personal identity, separation from family, increased responsibilities
Arguing, bragging Anorexia, bulimia, delinquency, suicide attempts, drug and alcohol abuse, schizophrenia, depression
From Abnormal child psychology (4th Ed.), (p. 34), by E. J. Marsh and D. A. Wolfe, (2010), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Copyright 2010 by Wadsworth Publishing. Reprinted with permission
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Culture
(Culture is) a way of life of the totality of the individual artifacts, behaviors, and mental concepts transmitted from one generation to the next in a society. It is visible and invisible, cognitive and affective, conscious and unconscious, internal and external, rational and irrational, and coercive and permissive at the same time…..generally out of sight and out of mind….People take it for granted
(Vontress, 1995)
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Challenges
According to Baruth and Manning these are challenges:• Communication difficulties• Misunderstanding the culture and the impact of
the culture on the process of counseling• Mistaken assumptions about cultural assimilation• Different social class values and orientations• Stereotypical generalizations• An assumption of cultural bias• Inability to understand the worldview of the client
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Cautions
Pederson also includes:• Diagnoses differ across cultures• Cultural beliefs influence diagnosis and treatment• Clients express symptoms differently across
cultures• Diagnosis may vary according to categories found
most often in the majority population• Most counselors are members of the majority
population, whereas most clients are members of the minority
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Training to be Culturally Competent
• Increase awareness of culturally learned attitudes, beliefs, and values.
• Knowledge of culturally relevant facts.
• Develop skills for interventions that are culturally appropriate.
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Cultural Competence: Knowledge
Knowledge: Cultural context of behavior• Social class• Gender• Ethnicity• Race• Religion• Language• Age• Exceptionalities• Worldview• Ethnic identity development• Acculturation
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Common Factors of Effectiveness
• Positive, trusting, therapeutic relationship.
• Shared worldview or a common framework from which the counselor and the client can work together.
• Client’s positive expectation that counseling will be helpful.
• Rituals or interventions that are effective techniques that both the counselor and the client believe will lead to positive outcomes.
Fischer, Jome and Atkinson
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Cultural Competence: Skills
Must acknowledge the reality of the cultural influences
• Recognize differences as differences, not as deficiencies
• Avoid stereotyping and an ethnocentric perspective
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Cultural Competence: Skills
Differences among cultures:
• Boundaries and physical space
• Emotional boundaries
• Kinship terms
• Hierarchy of needs
• Trust issuesKincade and Evans
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Cultural Competence: Skills
Suggested Guidelines:• Make no assumptions—gather information and re-
evaluate personal biases often;• Learn about the client’s culture from sources other
than the client;• Admit ignorance about the culture—be willing to ask
questions and to learn;• Look for similarities in order to connect—find common
ground to share;• Be sensitive to client expectations and needs—
together define counseling.
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Children’s Ethnic Identity Development
• Ethnic self-identification
• Ethnic constancy
• Ethnic role behavior
• Ethnic knowledge
• Ethnic feelings and preferences
Bernal, Knight, Garza, Ocampo, and Cota
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
African American Children
Locke suggested that the counselor should:•encourage young people to talk about themselves, their families and their experiences•focus on strengths•ask about social class status rather than making assumptions•ask for descriptions of holiday celebrations, kinship networks, and the role of religion in their lives•solicit their concerns, and consider using music and dance as areas of special interest.
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
American Indian and Alaskan Native Children
Knowledge of and respect for the Native American worldview is essential, with special attention given to the social contexts and roles that helpers play, because an individual’s problem is seen as a problem of the community.
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
American Indian and Alaskan Native Children
Herring recommended that the counselor:•sensitively and openly address issues of ethnic dissimilarity•take into consideration ethnic identity and the degree of acculturation of the young person•consider having open-ended sessions free from time constraints•include family members and tribal elders or have sessions in the home•consider the use of art, dance, music, storytelling, story reading, puppetry and games•and include natural healing practices
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Asian American Children
Counselors should:• recognize the difficulty in self-disclosure and the meaning of
restraint as an attribute of emotional maturity• recognize that an individual’s problems may be seen as
shaming the family• keep questions relevant to the problem and avoid asking too
many personal questions• minimize confrontation• keep the focus on present time and on resolutions• learn common concerns of Asian-American children• ask about the culture• and work to gain an understanding of nonverbal
communication.
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Latino/a Children
Gloria and Rodriguez list the following questions to use with Latino clients:• How do you identify yourself?
• What does that word mean to you?
• How hard has it been to maintain your cultural values?
• What is your primary language?
• Who are your friends?
• What holidays and traditions do you celebrate?
• What does your family expect of you?
• Who helps you at home?
© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning
Biracial and Multiracial Children
Herring emphasized the importance of:•developing a trusting relationship in counseling•understanding that the presenting problem may mask a deeper ethnic identity concern•being aware that biracial students will often identify with the minority culture•being familiar with the customs of all students•permitting children to ventilate their feelings about their identity and its meaning in society•assisting in building self-esteem•understanding the link between ethnic confusion and other developmental concerns•and involving the family
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