© 2011 brooks/cole, a division of cengage learning chapter 2 developmental and cultural...

© 2011 Brooks/Cole, A Division of Cengage Learning

Chapter 2

Developmental and Cultural Considerations

To have one’s individuality completely ignored is like being pushed quite out of life. Like being blown out as one blows out a light.

Evelyn Scott


Chapter objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

• Discuss ways to understand the needs of children

• Outline theories and other explanations of physical, cognitive, and social development

• Define culture

• Demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and awareness of cultural competence


Children's well being

“A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease”(http://www.who.int/topicsmental_health/en/).


The Personal World of the Child

SELF-ACTUALIZATION(Fulfillment of Potential)_________________

SELF ESTEEM(Feeling good about oneself)____________________________

LOVE AND BELONGING(Feeling accepted as a part of a group)____________________________________

SAFETY NEEDS (Personal and psychological)________________________________________________

PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS(Food, shelter, water, warmth)


Child Development

• Physical

• Cognitive

• Social


Brain development

• Structure of the brain

• Processes of the brain

• Implications for counseling


Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage Type of Development Age

Infancy Sensorimotor(learns through senses)

0-2

Childhood Preoperational(egocentric thinking)

2-7

Pre-Adolescence Concrete(need concrete aids for learning)

7-11

Adolescence through

Adulthood

Formal(are capable of abstract thought)

11+


Erikson’s Stages of Social Development

STAGE I: BIRTH TO AGE 1 1/2• Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust

STAGE II: AGES 1 1/2 to 3• Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt

STAGE III: AGES 3 to 6• Initiative versus Guilt

STAGE IV: AGES 6 to 12• Industry versus Inferiority

STAGE V: AGES 12 to 18• Identity versus Role Confusion

STAGES VI, VII, and VIII• Adult Stages


Developmental PerspectivesApproximate Age Normal Achievements

Common Behavior Problems Clinical Disorders

0-2 Eating, sleeping, attachment

Stubbornness, temper, toileting difficulties

Mental retardation, feeding disorders, autistic spectrum disorders

2-5 Language, toileting, self-care skills, self-control, peer relationships

Arguing, demanding attention, disobedience, fears, overactivity, resisting bedtime

Speech and language disorders, problems stemming from child abuse and neglect, some anxiety disorders such as phobias

6-11 Academic skills and rules, rule-governed games, simple responsibilities

Arguing, inability to concentrate, self-consciousness, showing off

ADHD, learning disorders. School refusal behavior, conduct problems

12-20 Relations with opposite sex, personal identity, separation from family, increased responsibilities

Arguing, bragging Anorexia, bulimia, delinquency, suicide attempts, drug and alcohol abuse, schizophrenia, depression

From Abnormal child psychology (4th Ed.), (p. 34), by E. J. Marsh and D. A. Wolfe, (2010), Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Copyright 2010 by Wadsworth Publishing. Reprinted with permission


Culture

(Culture is) a way of life of the totality of the individual artifacts, behaviors, and mental concepts transmitted from one generation to the next in a society. It is visible and invisible, cognitive and affective, conscious and unconscious, internal and external, rational and irrational, and coercive and permissive at the same time…..generally out of sight and out of mind….People take it for granted

(Vontress, 1995)


Challenges

According to Baruth and Manning these are challenges:• Communication difficulties• Misunderstanding the culture and the impact of

the culture on the process of counseling• Mistaken assumptions about cultural assimilation• Different social class values and orientations• Stereotypical generalizations• An assumption of cultural bias• Inability to understand the worldview of the client


Cautions

Pederson also includes:• Diagnoses differ across cultures• Cultural beliefs influence diagnosis and treatment• Clients express symptoms differently across

cultures• Diagnosis may vary according to categories found

most often in the majority population• Most counselors are members of the majority

population, whereas most clients are members of the minority


Training to be Culturally Competent

• Increase awareness of culturally learned attitudes, beliefs, and values.

• Knowledge of culturally relevant facts.

• Develop skills for interventions that are culturally appropriate.


Cultural Competence: Awareness


Cultural Competence: Knowledge

Knowledge: Cultural context of behavior• Social class• Gender• Ethnicity• Race• Religion• Language• Age• Exceptionalities• Worldview• Ethnic identity development• Acculturation


Common Factors of Effectiveness

• Positive, trusting, therapeutic relationship.

• Shared worldview or a common framework from which the counselor and the client can work together.

• Client’s positive expectation that counseling will be helpful.

• Rituals or interventions that are effective techniques that both the counselor and the client believe will lead to positive outcomes.

Fischer, Jome and Atkinson


Cultural Competence: Skills

Must acknowledge the reality of the cultural influences

• Recognize differences as differences, not as deficiencies

• Avoid stereotyping and an ethnocentric perspective



Differences among cultures:

• Boundaries and physical space

• Emotional boundaries

• Kinship terms

• Hierarchy of needs

• Trust issuesKincade and Evans



Suggested Guidelines:• Make no assumptions—gather information and re-

evaluate personal biases often;• Learn about the client’s culture from sources other

than the client;• Admit ignorance about the culture—be willing to ask

questions and to learn;• Look for similarities in order to connect—find common

ground to share;• Be sensitive to client expectations and needs—

together define counseling.


Children’s Ethnic Identity Development

• Ethnic self-identification

• Ethnic constancy

• Ethnic role behavior

• Ethnic knowledge

• Ethnic feelings and preferences

Bernal, Knight, Garza, Ocampo, and Cota


African American Children

Locke suggested that the counselor should:•encourage young people to talk about themselves, their families and their experiences•focus on strengths•ask about social class status rather than making assumptions•ask for descriptions of holiday celebrations, kinship networks, and the role of religion in their lives•solicit their concerns, and consider using music and dance as areas of special interest.


American Indian and Alaskan Native Children

Knowledge of and respect for the Native American worldview is essential, with special attention given to the social contexts and roles that helpers play, because an individual’s problem is seen as a problem of the community.


American Indian and Alaskan Native Children

Herring recommended that the counselor:•sensitively and openly address issues of ethnic dissimilarity•take into consideration ethnic identity and the degree of acculturation of the young person•consider having open-ended sessions free from time constraints•include family members and tribal elders or have sessions in the home•consider the use of art, dance, music, storytelling, story reading, puppetry and games•and include natural healing practices


Asian American Children

Counselors should:• recognize the difficulty in self-disclosure and the meaning of

restraint as an attribute of emotional maturity• recognize that an individual’s problems may be seen as

shaming the family• keep questions relevant to the problem and avoid asking too

many personal questions• minimize confrontation• keep the focus on present time and on resolutions• learn common concerns of Asian-American children• ask about the culture• and work to gain an understanding of nonverbal

communication.


Latino/a Children

Gloria and Rodriguez list the following questions to use with Latino clients:• How do you identify yourself?

• What does that word mean to you?

• How hard has it been to maintain your cultural values?

• What is your primary language?

• Who are your friends?

• What holidays and traditions do you celebrate?

• What does your family expect of you?

• Who helps you at home?


Biracial and Multiracial Children

Herring emphasized the importance of:•developing a trusting relationship in counseling•understanding that the presenting problem may mask a deeper ethnic identity concern•being aware that biracial students will often identify with the minority culture•being familiar with the customs of all students•permitting children to ventilate their feelings about their identity and its meaning in society•assisting in building self-esteem•understanding the link between ethnic confusion and other developmental concerns•and involving the family

© 2011 brooks/cole, a division of cengage learning chapter 2 developmental and cultural...

Documents

warmth slide

counseling slide

language disorders

evelyn scott slide

anxiety disorders

doubt stage

autistic spectrum disorders

basic mistrust stage