american agriculture is marked by several trends

7/28/2019 American Agriculture is Marked by Several Trends

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American agriculture is marked by several trends. The first is the continuing

decline of small family farms. Since 1979, 300,000 small farms have disappeared

in the United States, and since 1946 the number of people employed in

agriculture has been cut in half. Increasingly, large companies such as Archer-

Daniels Midland (ADM) have come to dominate American agriculture. In 2000,

ADM had worldwide sales of $12.9 billion. In the beef industry, 4 firms control

80 percent of the U.S. market. Almost 91 percent of U.S. farms are considered to

be small (less than 1,000 acres). Large farms (more than 1,000 acres) made up

just 9 percent of farms but received 51 percent of total agricultural revenues in

2000. The second trend is the increasing productivity of the sector. Agricultural

production in the United States has increased by an average of 5 percent each

year since 1990. In addition, the output of each agricultural worker has grown byan average of 0.84 percent each year. On average, one American farmer produces

enough food for 96 people. This improvement is partially as a result of the

consolidation of farms and partially a result of new technologies and farming

methods. The third trend is the growth in both exports and imports. In 1998 total

agricultural exports were $60.5 billion. That same year, total imports were $48.9

billion. The fourth and final trend is the loss of agriculturalsubsidies . Some of

these subsidies are in the form of outright payments in exchange for farmers not

growing certain crops and are provided to keep the price of crops high. Since the

early 1990s, Congress has gradually reduced these subsidies. However, support

and aid for certain types of farmers, including tobacco farmers, continues. After

declining to a low point of $9 billion in 1997, government spending on agriculture

increased to $23 billion in 1999 and $38.4 billion in 2000. The increases mainly

came from emergency aid to farmers because of natural disasters during these 2

years.

About 40 percent of the land in the United States is used for agriculture of some

form, including livestock grazing. This includes 431.1 million acres of cropland,

396.9 million acres of pasture, and 71.5 million acres of forests. In 1998, the total

crop output of the United States was 489,976,030 metric tons with a value of

$102.14 billion. The largest single crop was corn, which accounted for more than

half of the nation's crop output with 247,882,000 metric tons. The second largest


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crop was soybeans with 74,598,000 metric tons. Wheat is third with 69,327,000

metric tons. Other major crops include sugar cane, sugar beets, potatoes,

bananas, and coffee. Tobacco also provides substantial cash returns, although

yields are small when compared with many other crops. Total animal output in

1998 was $94.19 billion while forestry products, including timber, totaled $24.68

billion. Of the total American livestock, there were 101.2 million head of cattle,

56.2 million pigs, 8.3 million sheep, 6.15 million horses and 1.5 billion chicken.

The remaining livestock includes a variety of species such as bison, turkeys, and

geese.

Commercial fishing has declined significantly in the United States over the past

30 years. The majority of U.S. fish cultivation is used domestically, and about half

is for human consumption. There is a wide variety of species caught, including

cod, haddock, pollock, tuna, and salmon. Various shellfish such as lobster,

shrimp, or crab account for about 20 percent of the annual harvest, but provide

about one-half of the total revenues. Commercial fish farms are increasingly

common and used for species such as salmon, catfish, and shrimp. Total fish

harvests amounted to $3.7 billion in 1998, of which shellfish totals were $1.6

billion.

There have been dramatic improvements in agricultural technology in the United

States. Improvements include increased use of computers, scientific soil and crop

analysis, and more sophisticated machinery. Genetic engineering of seeds has

also increased crop yields but created controversy over the safety of genetically

altered products. There has subsequently been a decrease in soil erosion caused

by over-farming and an overall decline in the use of pesticides and fertilizers.

However, the pesticides used are much more powerful and lethal than earlier

chemicals. About two-thirds of the states have had deep reductions in agriculture.Agriculture has declined most significantly in the New England states and New

Jersey. In the West and southern plains, some states have had minor declines,

while others have had small increases. The only regions of the nation that have

seen major expansion of agriculture have been the middle-Atlantic area and the


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Pacific Northwest. The states with the largest increases in output were Arkansas,

Washington, Delaware, Florida, and Georgia.

Progress in technology and crop yields has made the United States among the

most productive agricultural producers in the world. The United States produces

about half of the world's corn and 10 percent of its wheat. It also accounts for 20

percent of the globe's beef, pork, and lamb. With such progress in increasing

output and the efficiency of agriculture, food prices for American consumers have

had little increase over the past 20 years. Americans spend less on food, as a

proportion of their income, than any other nation in the world. U.S. consumers

spent 10.9 percent of their income on food. In comparison, the average British

consumer spent 11.2 percent, the French 14.8 percent, the Japanese 17.6 percent,

and Indians spent 51.3 percent.

The United States is the world's largest producer of timber. About 70 percent of

the nation's forests are privately owned, but there is also limited logging allowed

in federally-owned or managed forests. Almost 80 percent of timber harvested is

soft woods such as pine or Douglas Fir. Hardwoods such as oak account for the

remaining 20 percent.

Major Crops Grown in the UnitedStates

In round numbers, U.S. farmers produce about $100 billion worth of crops and about $100

billion worth of livestock each year. Production data from the year 2000 for major agricultural

crops grown in this country are highlighted in the following table:

Major agricultural crops produced in the United States in 2000 (excluding root

crops, citrus, vegetable, etc).

CropHarvested Area

(millionacres)

Cash Receipts from Sales

($ billion)

Corn (grain) 72.7 15.1

Soybeans 72.7 12.5

Hay 59.9 3.4

Wheat 53.0 5.5
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Cotton 13.1 4.6

Sorghum(grain)

7.7 0.82

Rice 3.0 1.2

Corn: The United States is, by far, the largest producer of corn in the world. Corn is grown on

over 400,000 U.S. farms. In 2000, the U.S. produced almost ten billionbushels of the worlds

total 23 billion bushel crop. Corn grown for grain accounts for almost one quarter of the

harvested crop acres in this country. Corn grown for silageaccounts for about two percent of

the total harvested cropland or about 6 million acres. The amount of land dedicated to corn

silage production varies based on growing conditions. In years that produce weather

unfavorable to high corn grain yields, corn can be salvaged by harvesting the entire plant

as silage.

According to the National Corn Growers Association, about eighty percent of all corn grown inthe U.S. is consumed by domestic and overseas livestock, poultry, and fish production. The

crop is fed as ground grain, silage, high-moisture, and high-oil corn. About 12% of the U.S.

corn crop ends up in foods that are either consumed directly (e.g. corn chips) or indirectly

(e.g. high fructose corn syrup). It also has a wide array of industrial uses including ethanol, a

popular oxygenate in cleaner burning auto fuels.

Soybeans: Approximately 2.8 billion bushels of soybeans were harvested from almost 73

million acres of cropland in the U.S. in 2000. This acreage is roughly equivalent to that of corn

grown for grain. Over 350,000 farms in the United States produce soybeans, accounting for

over 50% of the worlds soybean production and $6.66 billion in soybean and product exportsin 2000. Soybeans represented 56 percent of world oilseed production in 2000.

Soybeans are used to create a variety of products, the most basic of which are soybean oil,

meal, and hulls. According to the United Soybean Board, soybean oil, used in both food

manufacturing and frying and sauting, represents approximately 79 percent of all edible oil

consumed in the United States. Soybean oil also makes its way into products ranging from

anti-corrosion agents to Soy Diesel fuel to waterproof cement. Over 30 million tons of soybean

meal are consumed as livestock feed in a year. Even the hulls are used as a component of

cattle feed rations.

Hay: Hay production in the United States exceeds 150 million tons per year. Alfalfa is the

primary hay crop grown in this country. U.S. hay is produced mainly for domestic consumption

although there is a growing export market. According to the National Hay Association, the

most common exports are timothy, some alfalfa, sudangrass, and bermudagrass hay. Hay can

be packaged in bales or made into cubes or pellets. Hay crops also produce seeds that can be

used for planting or as specialized grains.
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Wheat: Over 240,000 farms in the United States produce wheat. The U.S. produces about

13% of the worlds wheat and supplies about 25% of the worlds wheat export market. About

two-thirds of total U.S. wheat production comes from the Great Plains (from Texas to

Montana).

Wheat is classified by time of year planted, hardness, and color (e.g. Hard Red Winter (HRW)).

The characteristics of each class of wheat affect milling and baking when used in food

products. Of the wheat consumed in the United States, over 70% is used for food products,

about 22% is used for animal feed and residuals, and the remainder is used for seed.

Cotton: Fewer than 32,000 farms in the United States produce cotton. Cotton is grown from

coast-to-coast, but in only 17 southern states. Farms in those states produce over 20% of the

worlds cotton with annual exports of more than $3 billion. The nations cotton farmers harvest

about 17 million bales or 7.2 billion pounds of cotton each year.

Cotton is used in a number of consumer and industrial products and is also a feed and food

ingredient. Over 60% of the annual cotton crop goes into apparel, 28 percent into home

furnishings, and 8 percent into industrial products each year. Cottonseed and cottonseed meal

are used in feed for livestock, dairy cattle, and poultry. Cottonseed oil is also used for food

products such as margarine and salad dressing.

Grain sorghum: In the United States, grain sorghum is used primarily as an animal feed, but

is also used in food products and as an industrial feedstock. Industrial products that utilize

sorghum include wallboard and biodegradable packaging materials. Worldwide, over half of

the sorghum grown is for human consumption.

Some farmers grow sorghum as a hedge against drought. This water-efficient crop is more

drought tolerant and requires fewer inputs than corn. Kansas, Texas, Nebraska, Oklahoma,

and Missouri produce most of the grain sorghum grown in this country. The U.S. exports

almost half of the sorghum it produces and controls 70% to 80% of world sorghum exports.

As much as 12% of domestic sorghum production goes to produce ethanol and its various co-

products. With demand for renewable fuel sources increasing, demand for co-products like

sorghum-DDG (dry distillers grain) will increase as well due the sorghum's favorable nutrition

profile.

Rice: Just over 9,000 farms produce rice in the United States. Those farms are concentrated

in six states: Arkansas, California, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, and Texas. U.S. rice

production accounts for just over 1% of the worlds total, but this country is the second

leading rice exporter with 18% of the world market.


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About 60% of the rice consumed in the U.S. is for direct food use; another 20% goes into

processed foods, and most of the rest into beer.

The United States is blessed with more arable land than any other nation on earth. Still, only

about one-fifth of our land area (382 million acres) is used for crop production. Grazing land

for livestock accounts for about one-fourth of the privately held land in the U.S. (525 million

acres). In spite of a growing population and increased demand for agricultural products, the

land area under cultivation in this country has not increased. While advanced farming

techniques, including irrigation and genetic manipulation of crops, has permitted an expansion

of crop production in some areas of the country, there has been a decrease in other areas. In

fact, some 3,000 acres of productive farmland are lost to development each day in this

country. There was a 4% decline in the number of acres in farms that over the last decade. In

1990, there were almost 987 million acres in farms in the U.S., that number had been reduced

to just under 943 million acres by 2000.

Development pressure on farmland at the rural-urban interface is posing long-term challenges

for production agriculture and for the country as a whole. This is especially significant since

about two-thirds of the total value of U.S. agricultural production takes place in, or adjacent

to, metropolitan counties (NRCS). About 1/3 of all U.S. farms are actually within metropolitan

areas, representing 18% of the total farmland in this country.

Two significant trends occurring in the agricultural sector during the past century involved theincreased use of machines and government price supports. These factors combined to allow

operators to increase the size of their farms and gain efficiencies.


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Crop Production Systems

Of the seven crops listed, six are annual crops that

must be replanted each year (only hay crops would

be left in place from year to year). The process of

cultivating crops typically begins with tillage of the

soil. Although tillage can serve a number of

functions within a crop production system, the

most fundamental function is to create conditions

that will ensure good contact between seed and soil

at the time of seed planting and the ready

availability of water to the seed during

germination. The degree to which the soil is

disturbed by tillage prior to seed planting provides

a means of categorizing crop production within a range of tillage systems. These systems

range from no-tillage in which there is not soil disturbance in a field except during the

process of planting a crop to conventional tillage in which multiple tillage operations can

extend over many months and take place before, during, and after planting. Crop production

systems that involve pre-plant tillage but maintain residues from a previous crop on the soil

surface are referred to as conservation tillage practices.

For the major row crops produced in the United States, farmers use a range of production

practices. Conventional tillage (also known as intensive tillage) usually involves a series of

field operations that result in a residue-free soil surface at the time a crop is planted.Conventional tillage systems developed in this country to take advantages of the following

benefits:

Creation of a seedbed or root bed

Control of weeds or the removal of unwanted crop plants

Incorporation of plant residues into the soil profile

Incorporation of fertilizers and/or soil-applied pesticides

Establishment of specific soil surface configurations for planting, irrigating, drainage,

and/or harvesting operations

The major disadvantage of conventional tillage is the susceptibility of "unprotected" soil toerosion by water or by wind. Tillage is also energy-intensive, requiring large inputs of machine

work and numerous trips across a field during a single growing season. Conventional tillage

was "standard operating procedure" in the era before effective chemical weed and pest control

strategies were available to farmers.

Major agricultural crops produced in

the United States in 2000.

Crop

Harvested

Area(million

acres)

Cash

Receiptsfrom Sales

($ billion)

Corn (grain) 72.7 15.1

Soybeans 72.7 12.5

Hay 59.9 3.4

Wheat 53.0 5.5

Cotton 13.1 4.6

Sorghum(grain)

7.7 0.82

Rice 3.0 1.2
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Concerns about soil erosion led to the development of crop production strategies that retained

crop residues on the soil surface. Conservation tillage requires more sophisticated implements

that are capable of producing a seedbed while leaving a portion of surface residues

undisturbed. Reduced tillage usually leaves 15% to 30% residue coverage on the soil surface.

True conservation tillage is any tillage method that leaves at least 30% residue coverage on

the soil after a crop has been planted. It can be accomplished through no-till, strip-till, ridge-

till, or mulch tillpractices.

Organic Farming

Organic farming is a small, but growing, segment of U.S. agriculture. USDA estimates the

value of retail sales of organic foods at $6 billion in 1999 with about 12,200 organic farmers

nationwide, most with small-scale operations. Organic farming encompasses both crop and

animal production and is defined as "ecological production management system that promotes

and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity."'Organic' is a labelingterm that denotes products produced under the authority of the U.S. Organic Foods Production

Act. "The principal guidelines are to use materials and practices that enhance the ecological

balance of natural systems. Organic agriculture practices do not ensure that products are

completely free of residues; however, methods must be used to minimize contamination."

Organic food handlers, processors and retailers must adhere to standards that maintain the

integrity of organic agricultural products. This includes practices such as minimizing or

eliminating the use of herbicides in crop production and antibiotics in animal production.

Corn, turkeys, tomatoes, potatoes, peanuts, and sunflower seeds constitute some of the major

holdovers from theagricultural endowment of the Americas.European agricultural practices greatly affected the New England landscape, leaving behind

many physical foot prints. Colonists brought livestock over from Europe which caused many

changes to the land. Grazing animals required a lot of land and food to sustain them and due to

grazing, native grasses were destroyed and European species began to replace them. New

species of weeds were introduced and began to thrive as they were capable of withstanding the

grazing of animals, whereas native species could not.[2]

The practices associated with keeping livestock also contributed to the deterioration of the forests

and fields. Colonists would cut down the trees and then allow their cattle and livestock to graze

freely in the forest and never plant more trees. The animals trampled and tore up the ground so

much as to cause long-term destruction and damage.[2]

Soil exhaustion was a huge problem in New England agriculture. Farming with oxen did allow the

colonist to farm more land but it increased erosion and decreased soil fertility. This was due to

deeper plow cuts in the soil that allowed the soil more contact with oxygen causing nutrient

depletion. In grazing fields, the large number of cattle in the New England, the soil was being

compacted by the cattle and this didnt give the soil enough oxygen to sustain life. [2]
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In the U.S., farms spread from the colonies westward along with the settlers. In cooler

regions,wheat was often the crop of choice when lands were newly settled, leading to a "wheat

frontier" that moved westward over the course of years. Also very common in the

antebellum Midwestwas farming corn while raising hogs, complementing each other especially

since it was difficult to get grain to market before the canals and railroads. After the "wheat

frontier" had passed through an area, more diversified farms includingdairy cattle generally tookits place. Warmer regions saw plantings ofcotton and herds ofbeef cattle. In the early colonial

south, raising tobaccoand cotton was common, especially through the use of slave labor until

the Civil War. In the northeast, slaves were used in agriculture until the early 19th century.[citation

needed] In the Midwest, slavery was prohibited by the Freedom Ordinance of 1787.

The introduction and broad adoption of scientific agriculture since the mid nineteenth century has

made a large improvement in the USA's economic growth. This development was facilitated by

the Morrill Act and the Hatch Act of 1887 which established in each state a land-grant

university(with a mission to teach and study agriculture) and a federally funded system

ofagricultural experiment stationsand cooperative extension networks which place extension

agents in each state.

Soybeanswere not widely cultivated in the United States until the 1950s, when soybeans began

to replace oats and wheat.

Significant areas of farmland were abandoned during the Great Depressionand incorporated into

nascent national forests. Later, "Sodbuster" and "Swampbuster" restrictions written into federal

farm programs starting in the 1970s reversed a decades-long trend ofhabitat destruction that

began in 1942 when farmers were encouraged to plant all possible land in support of the war

effort. In the United States, federal programs administered through local Soil and Water

Conservation Districtsprovide technical assistance and partial funding to farmers who wish to

implement management practices to conserve soil and limit erosion.

[edit]Major agricultural products
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Satellite image of circular crop fields characteristic ofcenter pivot irrigation inKansas(June 2001). Healthy,

growing crops are green. Corn would be growing into leafy stalks by late June. Sorghum, which resembles corn,

grows more slowly and would be much smaller and therefore, possibly paler. Wheat is a brilliant gold as harvest

occurs in June. Fields of brown have been recently harvested and plowed under or lie fallow for the year.

The top twenty agricultural products of the United States by value as reported by the FAO in 2003(ranked in order of value with volume in metric tons)[3]:[verification needed]

1.Corn 256,900,000

2.Cattlemeat 11,736,000

3.Cow's milk, whole, fresh 78,155,000

4.Chickenmeat 15,006,000

5.Soybeans 65,800,000

6.Pig meat 8,574,000

7.Wheat 63,590,000

8.Cotton lint 3,968,000

9.Heneggs 5,141,000

10.Turkey meat 2,584,000

11.Tomatoes 12,275,000

12.Potatoes 20,820,000

13.Grapes 6,126,000

14.Oranges 10,473,000

15.Rice, paddy 9,034,000

16.Apples 4,242,000

17.Sorghum 10,446,000

18.Lettuce 4,490,00019.Cottonseed 6,073,000

20.Sugar beets 27,760,000

The only other crops to ever appear in the top 20 in the last 40 years were,

commonly, tobacco,barley, and oats, and, rarely, peanuts,almonds, and sunflowerseeds (in all,

only 26 of the 188 crops the FAO tracks worldwide).Alfalfa andhaywould both be in the top ten

in 2003 if they were tracked by FAO.

[edit]Crops

[edit]Value of production

Rice paddy, California
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Major Crops in the U.S.A. - 1997

(in US$ billions)

Corn $24.4

Soybeans $17.7

Wheat $8.6

Alfalfa $8.3

Cotton $6.1

Hay, other than alfalfa $5.1

Tobacco $3.0

Rice $1.7

Sorghum $1.4

Barley $.9

Source:

1997USDA-NASS reports,[1]

Note alfalfa and hay are not tracked by the FAO and the production of tobacco in the U.S. has

fallen 60% between 1997 and 2003.

[edit]Yield

U.S. agriculture has a high yield relative to other countries. The yield was (in 2004):[2]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybeanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfalfahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobaccohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorghumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculturehttp://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/CropRank/98180/crprnkus.txthttp://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/CropRank/98180/crprnkus.txthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5http://www.usda.gov/nass/pubs/agr05/05_ch9.PDFhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soybeanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfalfahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cottonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobaccohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorghumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculturehttp://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/CropRank/98180/crprnkus.txthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5http://www.usda.gov/nass/pubs/agr05/05_ch9.PDF


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Corn for grain, average of 160.4 bushels harvested per acre (10.07 t/ha)

Soybean for beans, average of 42.5 bushels harvested per acre (2.86 t/ha)

Wheat, average of 43.2 bushels harvested per acre (2.91 t/ha, was 44.2 bu/ac or 2.97

t/ha in 2003)

[edit]LivestockThe major livestock industries in the United States are:

Dairy cattle

Beef cattle

Swine (also called hogs or pigs)

Poultry

Sheep

US Livestock and Poultry Inventory[4][5]

Type 1997 2002 2007

Cattle and calves 99,907,017 95,497,994 96,347,858

Hogs and pigs 61,188,149 60,405,103 67,786,318

Sheep and lambs 8,083,457 6,341,799 5,819,162

Broilers & other meat chickens 1,214,446,356 1,389,279,047 1,602,574,592

Laying hens 314,144,304 334,435,155 349,772,558

Goats, horses,turkeys andbees are also raised, though in lesser quantities. Inventory data is not

as readily available as for the major industries. For the three major goat-producing states (AZ,

NM, and TX) there were 1,200,000 goats at the end of 2002. There were 5,300,000 horses in the

United States at the end of 1998. There were 2,500,000 colonies of bees at the end of 2002.

[edit]Farm type or majority enterprise type

Farm type is based on which commodities are the majority crops grown on a farm. Nine common

types include:
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Cash grains includescorn, soybeansand other grains (wheat,oats,barley, sorghum), dry

edible beans and peas, and rice.

Tobacco

Cotton

Other field crops includespeanuts, potatoes, sunflowers,sweet potatoes,sugarcane,

broomcorn,popcorn, sugar beets, mint, hops, seed crops,hay,silage, forage, etc. Tobaccoand cotton can be included here if not in their own separate category.

High value crops includes fruits,vegetables,melons,tree

nuts, greenhouseand nursery crops, and horticultural specialties.

Cattle

Hogs

Dairy

Poultry andEggs

[3][4][5]

[edit]Governance

Agriculture subsidy, from aCongressional Budget Office report. Note: chart does not show sugar subsidies.

Main articles:Agricultural policy in the United States andAgricultural subsidy

Agriculture in the United States is primarily governed by periodically renewed U.S. farm bills.

Governance is both a federal and a local responsibility with the United States Department of

Agriculture being the federal department responsible. Government aid includes research into crop

types and regional suitability as well as many kinds of subsidies, some price supports and loan

programs. U.S. farmers are not subject to production quotas and some laws are different forfarms compared to other workplaces.

Labor laws prohibiting children in other workplaces provide some exemptions for children working

on farms with complete exemptions for children working on their family's farm. Children can also

gain permits from vocational training schools or the4-Hclub which allow them to do jobs they

would otherwise not be permitted to do.
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A large part of the U.S. farm workforce is made up of migrant and seasonal workers, many of

them recent immigrants from Latin America or aliens working under work permits. Additional laws

apply to these workers and their housing which is often provided by the farmer.

[edit]Employment

In 1870, 70-80 percent of the US population was employed in agriculture.[citation needed] As of 2008,

approximately 2-3 percent of the population is directly employed in agriculture.[6]

In 2010, there were 1,202,500 farmers, ranchers and other agricultural managers and an

estimated 757,900 agricultural workers were employed in the US. Animal breeders accounted for

11,500 of those workers with the rest categorized as miscellaneous agricultural workers. The

median pay was $9.12 per hour or $18,970 per year.[6]

[edit]Agriculture safety and health

Agriculture ranks among the most hazardous industries.[7] Farmers are at high risk for fatal and

nonfatal injuries, work-related lung diseases, noise-induced hearing loss, skin diseases,

chemical-related illnesses, and certain cancers associated with chemical use and prolonged sun

exposure.[8]In an average year, 516 workers die doing farm work in the U.S. (19922005). Every

day, about 243 agricultural workers suffer lost-work-time injuries, and about 5% of these result in

permanent impairment.[9]Tractor overturns are the leading cause of agriculture-related fatal

injuries, and account for over 90 deaths every year. The National Institute of Occupational Safety

and Healthrecommends the use ofroll over protection structureson tractors to reduce the risk of

overturn-related fatal injuries.[9]

Farming is one of the few industries in which families (who often share the work and live on the

premises) are also at risk for injuries, illness, and death. Agriculture is the most dangerous

industry for young workers, accounting for 42% of all work-related fatalities of young workers in

the U.S. between 1992 and 2000. Unlike other industries, half the young victims in agriculturewere under age 15.[10] For young agricultural workers aged 1517, the risk of fatal injury is four

times the risk for young workers in other workplaces[11] Agricultural work exposes young workers

to safety hazards such as machinery, confined spaces, work at elevations, and work around

livestock. The most common causes of fatal farm-related youth injuries involve machinery, motor

vehicles, or drowning. Together these three causes comprise more than half of all fatal injuries to

youth on U.S. farms. [12]

An estimated 1.26 million children and adolescents under 20 years of age resided on farms in

2004, with about 699,000 of these youth performing work on the farms. In addition to the youth

who live on farms, an additional 337,000 children and adolescents were hired to work on U.S.

farms in 2004. On average, 103 children are killed annually on farms (19901996). Approximately40 percent of these deaths were work-related. In 2004, an estimated 27,600 children and

adolescents were injured on farms; 8,100 of these injuries were due to farm work.[9]To reduce the

number of farm-related youth injuries, theNational Institute of Occupational Safety and

Health and the Marshfield ClinicResearch Foundation have issued a set of guidelines known

asthe North American Guidelines for Children's Agricultural Tasks (NAGCAT)based on child

development principles that matched children's abilities with the requirements of specific farm
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work. These guidelines have proven effective at reducing work-related injury rates among youth

living on farms in the United States.[12]

[edit]Research centers

Some USresearch centers are focused on the topic of health and safety in agricultural practices.

These centers not only conduct research on the subject of occupational disease and injuryprevention, but also promote agricultural health and safety through educational outreach

programs. Most of these groups are funded by theNational Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health, the US Department of Agriculture, or other state agencies.[13] Centers include:

Northeast Center for Agricultural and Occupational Health, New York Center for

Agricultural Medicine and Health, Cooperstown, NY[14]

Great Plains Center for Agricultural Health, Iowa State University, Ames, IA

The High Plains Intermountain Center for Agricultural Health and Safety, Colorado State

University, Fort Collins, CO

Southeast Center for Agricultural Health and Injury Prevention,University of Kentucky,

Lexington, KY

Southwest Center for Agricultural Health, Injury Prevention and Education, University of

Texas, Tyler, TX

Western Center for Agricultural Health and Safety, University of California, Davis, CA

Pacific Northwest Agricultural Safety and Health Center,University of Washington,

Seattle, WA

National Children's Center for Rural and Agricultural Health and Safety,Marshfield

Medical Center, Marshfield, WI[15]

n ultimele deceniii, mecanizarea a revolu ionat sistemele agricole n a a fel nct actualmente dect 1,5% din popula ia Statelor Unite mai lucreaz n agricultur. Organizarea spa ial a agriculturii Statelor Unite a urmrit ndeaproape modelul de regionare von Thunen, aprut ini ial n Europa. Modelul este o reprezentare ideal a realit ii care demonstreaz cele mai importante propriet i pe care un sistem agricol trebuie s le aib n vedere, n special cele de localizare a activit ilor productive n Fermele agricole europene. Von Thunen a postulat necesitatea unui teren independent (deunde i izolarea), avnd o singur pia central, cu un teren plat i nentrerupt, care s nu prezinte impedimente n desf urarea activit ilor de cutivare i transport. n aceast situa ie, costurile de transport vor fi direct propor ionale cu distan a. Modelul Von Thunen sau Teoria loca iei revel patru zone sau inele de pmnt cultivabil, ncercuind pia a central. Inelul intern si direct adiacent pie ii reprezint o zon a agriculturii

intensive i a produc iei de lapte, din care se ob in produsele cele mai perisabile i cu pre ul cel mai ridicat. Urmtoarea band este ocupat de o pdure folosit pentru ob inerea cherestelei i a lemnului de foc (considerat o prioritate n concep ia lui Von Thunen n prima jumtate a secolului al XIX-lea). A treia band repezint un ansamblude cmpuri de cultivare a cerealelor (gru), sau a diferitelor legume (cartofi). Ultimul inelcon inea p uni i fne e, n jurul crora se ntindeau vaste areale slbatice, de unde costurile de transport spre pia a de desfacere deveneau prohibitive.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States#cite_note-NIOSH_guidelines_impact-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States#cite_note-NIOSH_centers-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States#cite_note-NIOSH_centers-12http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_York_Center_for_Agricultural_Medicine_and_Health&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_York_Center_for_Agricultural_Medicine_and_Health&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Kentuckyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Kentuckyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Kentuckyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Davishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washingtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washingtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washingtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshfield_Medical_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshfield_Medical_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshfield_Medical_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshfield_Medical_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States#cite_note-NIOSH_guidelines_impact-11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States#cite_note-NIOSH_centers-12http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_York_Center_for_Agricultural_Medicine_and_Health&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_York_Center_for_Agricultural_Medicine_and_Health&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado_State_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Kentuckyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Texashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Davishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washingtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshfield_Medical_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshfield_Medical_Centerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States#cite_note-14


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Precum n Europa, la nceputul secolului al XIX-lea, modelul original al ora ului i hinterlandului su era acela de expansiune n afara limitelor adminsitrative, condus fiindde mbunt irile constante ale tehnologiei transportului, de la un stat/ora local izolat, la ncorporarea unui ntreg continent la nceputul secolului XX. Ideea de Supercity,ancornd acest sistem regional macro-Thunian, a reprezentat sursa apari iei

Megalopolisului nord-estic al S.U.A., devenit i rmnnd pia a de desfacere i transport dominant in ntreaga federa ie. De i indelele circulare nu sunt vizibile la aceast scar n hart, se pot observa multe regularit i spa iale. Cel mai semnificativ apare secven a regiunilor fermiere la o distan de la majorrile pie ei na ionale, n special nspre vest din Megalopolis, spre California (cea mai vizat pia de penetrare n domeniul agriculturii din Statele Unite). Centurile agricole sunt principalele entit i func ionale din domeniul agriculturii practicate n Statele Unite. Centura Atlantic a Fructelor i Legumelor, Centura lactatelor, Brul Porumbului, Centura Grului i Regiunea P unatului sunt ntr- adevr fidele structurii logice a modelului, fiecare zon fiind plasat succesiv din ce n cemai departe n itneriorul continentului, de-a lungul principalelor ci agricoletranscontinentele.

Regiuni agricole:

1. Interiorul continentului se extinde n jurul Marilor Lacuri i se continu i n Canada. Agricultura confer caracteristici aparte teritoriului. Deoarece parteaestic a regiunii se suprapune climatului temperat umed i datorit proximit ii cu re eaua na ional de pia (pe litoralul nord-estic), terenurile ocupate de agricultur mixt de cultivare a cerealelor i de cre tere a animalelor c tig net n fa a acelor ocupate de gru de primvar de mai mic productivitate, care este relocalizat n zonele fertile, dar semiaride din partea central-vestic a Marilor

Cmpii, de-a lungul pr ii mai uscate de la 100 grade long. V.

Distribu ia culturilor de porumb i de gru este ilustrat n harta... i marginile acestei zone celei mai productive coincid cu o serie de linii de grani ale statelor. Corn Belt-ul se ntinde pe teritoriul statelor Iowa, Illinois-ul de Nord, n timp ce Wheat Belt-uleste concentrat pe teritoriile statelor North Dakota i Kansas. Subregiunea sudic de ine o parte majoritar a Centurii de Porumb, n est, i ntreaga centur a Grului de Var, n vest. Cel din urm ar trebui renumit Corn-Soybean Belt, deoarece elproduce i recolte de soya, care cresc deseori n rota ie cu porumbul. Numele acestuia deriv din practica de a planta gru la nceputul primverii i de a-l recolta la sfr itul sezonului. Avantajul acestui ciclu de cre tere este c recolta este strns nainte ca

vara torid i uscat s pun stnire pe Marile Cmpii situate ntr-un mediu semiarid.

Pe tot cuprinsul interiorului rii, activitatea econonic este orientat spre activitatea agricol. Metropolele conductoare - Kansas City, Minneapolis St. Paul, Winnipeg,Omaha, i chiar i Denver sunt puncte importante de procesare i vnzare a crnii de porc i vit, morrit, prelucrarea de soya, a semin elor de floarea-soarelui, ob inerea uleiului de canola (majoritar destinat exportului). De i ferma de familie, de dimensiuni mici, nc domin peisajul agricol, incursiunea agresiv a fermelor


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privatizate mari amenin acum modul tradi ional de via al fermierilor tipici americani.

2. Regiunea Sud aceasta ocup col ul de sud-est al Statelor Unite, extinzndu-se din Bazinul Bluegrass al nordului statului Kentuky, pn spre mla tinile statului

Louisiana de pe coasta din dreptul trecerii Curentului Golfului i dinspre Dealurile Virginiei de Vest spre insulele nisipoase ale Floridei de Sud. Din celenou regiuni, niciuna nu a trecut prin att de multe schimri n ultima jumtate desecol. Timp de mai mult de 100 de ani de la ncheierea Rzboiului Civil care aruinat ntregul Sud, a existat o perioad de stagnare economic, pn n 1970.Propulsate de for a care crease fenomenul Sunbelt, activit ile din centrele urbane din Sud s-au intensificat. Conurba iile s-au format rapid n sud-estul Floridei, n Piemontul Carolina i pe Coasta statelor Texas-Louisiana. Totu i, regiunea din Sud rmne una asaltat de numeroase probleme economice, din cauza reliefuluisu nu foarte favorabil practicrii agriculturii i a amplasrii n calea uraganelor. De i unele ora e mari au avut de c tigat de pe urma prelucrrii unor produse

agricole, iar n alte ora e mici s-au juxtapus activit ile agricole cu cele de servicii, decalajul dintre lumea bogat i cea srac se men ine i acum n sudul Statelor Unite.

3. Regiunea Sud-Vest se suprapune statelor Texas, New Mexico i Arizona. Aceasta nu este foarte avansat n practici agricole, deoarece s-a dezvoltat maimult pe baza centrelor de cercetare (Sillicon Valley) i a industriilor IT i productare de ma ini i electricitate, iar produc ia agricol, chiar dac s-ar fi dorit o optimizare a ei, ar fi rmas n urm, din cauza climatului arid din aceastparte a rii, care nu favorizeaz dezvoltarea agriculturii. Aceast regiune este una dintre cele mai competitive productoare post-industrial, bazndu-se pe afaceri,

informatic, manufactur de vrf i tehnologie.4. Frontiera Vestic corespunde platourilor din Mun ii Stnco i i lan ul Sierra Nevada M ii Cascadelor, ntinzndu-se din nordul Arizonei (partea nordic a Marelui Canion) pn la pdurea temperat-rece canadian. Statele cuprinse sunt:Utah, nevada, idaho, vestul statului Colorado. ablonul spa ial al regiunii este concentrat asupra arealelor urbane dense, care fomreaz o a doua frontier aregiunii. Multe probleme privesc efectele intruziunii urbanului n zonele rurale, aicror locuitori sunt nevoi i s nve e c activit ile tradi ionale de minerit i de agricultur extensiv sunt de mult perimate n aceast regiune.

5. Frontiera Nordic coincide cu statul Alaska i cel mai mult se extinde pe teritoriul Canadei, ocupnd aprx. 90% din aceasta. Activit ile de baz aici sunt

cele de extrac ie a diferitelor resurse minerale.6. Pivotul Pacificului - se alunge te paralel cu linia rmului pacific i poate fi

caracterizat drept o f ie din teritoriul Statelor Unite, situat la sud de paralela de 50 de grade lat. N i la nord de lan ul Sierra Nevada M i Cascadelor, n care umiditatea moderat permite dezvoltarea unei intense activit i agricole. San Francisco este polul urban al regiunii. Numele de hinge = pivot, balamadesemneaz faptul c regiunea formeaz o interfa ntre Nordul Americii i


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cordonul litoral al Pacificului, n plin expansiune economic, dar nc ndezvoltare.

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http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2012/tables/12s0862.pdf

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AGRICULTURE.html

http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/ag101/cropsystems.html

http://diva-gis.org/datadown

http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/ag101/cropmajor.html

Muller, P.O., 2004, Concepts and Regions in Geography, Media Integration.

http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/agriculture.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States

Ward, P., 1976, Woeld Regional Geography: A question of place, JOHN Wiley and Sons

http://www.bartlett.ucl.ac.uk/casa/latest/software/the-von-thunen-model
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american agriculture is marked by several trends

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