ATOLL RISEARCH BTJLLETIN

6. The Agriculture of Arno k-toll, Marshall Is lands

Issued by

PACIFIC SCIENCE BOARD

Na5onal Iiesearch Council

Nashingt,on, D. C.

November 15, 1951

THE AGRICULTURE OF hRNO ATOLL,

MAXSHALL ISJAI'DS

C O N T E N T S -------- The Onneral. Agricultural Scene

Physical Sett ing Agriculture

Plants and t h e i r Fbilization Cucowt, l W i f l

Culture Copra Production Uses as Food Other Tses Yactors Affecting Production

'Fjeadfruit, ~ijd.1~ Culture Uses a s Food %her TJses Factors Affecting Production

Pandanus, f l~i jp" Culture Uses a s Food Other Uses Fac50rs P.f f ecting Production

Taro and Other Araceous Flants Colocasia Cyrtosperma: Culture Uses as Food Cyrtosperma: Factors Affecting Growth 'liocasia Polynesia? Arrowroot, "i:akr;lZkn

Banana Culture Use Factors Affecting Production

Papa2.a and Lfxe Okher Introduced Food. Plants Other Introduced Tlants Intligenous P la t s of Value

Livestock Poultry Sisine

Wood Supplies and Requirements Forest Situations Species ad Uses Constrwtlon Requirements Future Neasures

Food Supplies and Nctrftion

S m a r y of the Agricul twal Situation

To the ecologically ini.nded t h e low islands appear a s a -unique habi ta t

f o r man, ail enviroment not harsh but marked by lack of d ivers i ty and, i n

inany respects, by monotony. Here i s a climate so equable t h a t t h e average

temperature f o r any month departs not aore than a degree from the yearly

mean, a l a ~ d r e s t r i c t ed i n s i ze and r e l i e f , domj.fiated by t i e sea, and made

up alxost en t i r e ly of or~e rraterizl -- calcium carbonate. U2on t h i s are

s o i l s uniforinly calcareous and d i f fe r ing chiefly i n texture and degree o f . -

maturity. Distailce, s o i l s and the sea s a l t have sharply r e s t r i c t s d the

number of land dweiiing plants arLd aniiaals, and so liaitsd =ants choice

of foods and inaterials.

n m IH$ GGEiUZRAL BGRICULTUR.2L SCENE

Physical SeSFng

The climate, hydrology and s o i l s of Arno Atoll a r e described i n

other reports but may be summarized a s background thus: The mean annual

temperature presmably i s alnost i den t i ca l with t h a t of J e l u i t , t h a t is

80" F., with monthly means devidting about + lo. rZainfall i? some - lzO imhes , 2ossibl:r higher, ra ther well distributed. out with a tendency

f o r a dry ~ e r i o d betwesn Jamary and Xarch. High humidity and high degree

of cloud coverage a q p e n t s t ne e f f e c t s of r a i n f a l l , whereas the more or

l e s s constant winds, coarse textwed s ~ i l s and shoiit tern (e.g. one week)

periods of dryweather sornethes lead t o a moistwe s t r e s s i n plants.

Since the gromcl rrater scm:only occurs three t o six f e e t below the s o i l

surface i t s s a l i n i t y i s a major f ac to r controlling the d i s t r ibu t ion of

deep rooted vegetation. shallow rooted plants, however, draw upon the

rainwater held i n the s o i l .

Agriculture . .

Like other aspects of th- Atoll , t h e agr icul ture is marked by . . . . , . . . ...

simplicity. There i s no sharp separation between agr icul ture and non- . ..

agricul tural plants and, t o b!estern eyes, cul ture i s a somewhat casual . . . ~ . ' . . . .

a f f a i r a t best . A t f i r s t glance the coconut dominates the agriculture as

it does t he landscape but there a r e other components t o both. A shrub

be l t l i n e s tne seaward shores and takes possessionof lands too s a l t y o r

too new for other vegetation. i n the i n t e r i o r s of the wider is lands a r e

breadfruit , sometimes i n groves o r often scattered, with a var ie ty of other

plants beneath. I n t h i s zone, too, a r e t he old excavations made t o provide

sui table growing conditions f o r t a ro f o r here t he groundwater i s la rge ly

f ree of s a l t . Nixed with the breadfruit a r e tall coconut palms and these

form extensive groves around the zone and along the narrow lands . adjoining. .

Various wri ters have described t h e agr icul ture of t h e a t o l l s a s

consisting of t r e e and root crops -- coconuts, breadfruit , pandanus and

bananas, together with t a ro and Polynesian arrowroot. In a general sense

t h i s is t rue but on Brno the taro has l o s t most of i t s former importance.'

Sweet potatoes are a r a r i t y and other t rop ica l root crops absent. Further,

poultry and, t o a i imited extent, pigs a r e par t of the casual husbandry.

Fish and seafoods provide the protein t he land does not. Over t he years

copra t raders , missionaries and former German and Japanese res idents have

introduced a la rge numberof p l a n t s . b ~ t , of these the weeds and ornamentals

have been most pers is tent .

Although the introduced plants have not great ly influenced the basic

agriculture, t he prolonged emphasis on copra production has. lniell before

t he beginning of "German times," t raders made copra a cqmmodity of value;.

under German and, l a t e r , Japanese administrations ~ e o p l e were "encouraged"

t o continually increzse the area of coconuts. Ultimately t h i s extension

eliminated the native fores t t h a t once covered the unused lands and

reduced the number of breadfruit and pandanus.

Other changes occurred during the ear ly period of niissionary ac t iv i ty

and G e m contact: Old men now l i v i n g say t h a t t he population diminished

great ly then, although t h i s i s unsupported by other evidence. Certainly a

population s h i f t occurred, with people moving t o lagoon shore and abandoning

the l e s s desirable house s i t e s on the seaside and is land center. The c u l t w e

of t a r o , once a s taple , diminished, very probably because the introducedhogs

bedam& very abundant and devastated the t a ro p i t s . The .coprabrought' goods

from the outside world and these gradually became essent ia ls . Under t he

influence of t rade, outside authority, and re l igion the established cul ture ,

changed, and the t rans i t ion from old ways t o new i s s t i l l in progress. ., . . ,. , . , .

PLANTS AND THEIR UTILIZATION

Coconut, " N i "

Although waving palms are almost synonymous w i t h a t o l l s , t he extensive

coconut groves a r e a s a r t i f i c i a l a s orchards and w i l l not pers i s t without . .

man's care. Under the influence of t he copra t rade, %ativel ' vegetation gave

way t o palm plantations wherever growth conditions were sui table; much of

t h i s occurred within t h e memory of men s t i l l l iv ing .

Culture

There has been l i t t l e varietal. se lect ion and most of t h e palms bear

nuts of mediocre s ize , although the people recognize differences such a s

nut color and e d i b i l i t y of the mature meat. Under Japanese inst ruct ion

l'diseased" t r e e s -.- presumbly sca le infested -- were cut, possibly reducing

the number of susceptibles. A l a rge f ru i ted coconut has been introduced

and i s found it? small numbers but t he re seems t o be no concerted attempt t o

increase t h i s variety.

The culture of the coconut i s simple but continuous. Hant ing

consis ts of removing a square of sod o r the loose rocks i f necessary

and placing the sprouting nut. The large amount of stored material i n the

nut gives r i s e t o a large seedling and even i n deep rubble the roots reach

down t o es tabl ish contact with s o i l moisture. Competing vegetation i s kept

down and t r e e s a r e said t o reach bearing age i n about f i ve years. Present

planting i s l a rge ly a matter of f i l l i n g i n occasional openings but i n

several areas the"palm$are o-rer-mature and replacements should be considered.

The coconut, of course, t o l e r a t e s considerable s a l t , possibly even benefit ing

Prom it, and palms have been planted over t he e n t i r e s a l i n i t y range, from

the-wide is land i n t e r i o r s t o areas too s a l t y f o r normal growth.

. . ! .~ . The groves require continual weeding f o r a l a rge var ie ty of woody

species soon spring up beneath t h e palms and i f unchecked coapete w i t h them,

as well a s making nut gathering almsst impossible. Hear the coasts and on

narrow lands Scae-cola, Hesserschmidia, Guettarda, Ochrosia and "wild"

pandanus are aggressive invaders whereas inland Allophyllus, Morinda,

Pipturus, Pandanus, a s well as some of the above f i l l i n beneath the palms. . .

I n plantations l e f t unharvested, par t icu la r ly those of t he i n t e r io r s ,

sprouting nuts soon make a sol id Kass of undergrowth. Periodic cut t ing i s

the o d y means of cor t ro l i ing t h i s vegetation. Once well cleared an area

can readily be maintained but when abandoned f o r a long period, a s many

plantations were i n t he l a t e r stages of t he war, strenuous e f fo r t s a r e

required. Often the coarse herbaceous vegetation, such a s Wedelia, is a l so

cleared. Usually t he brush i s burned, together with t he f a l l e n fronds.

Sometimes the p i l e s fo r burning a re placed over stumps or against undesirable

t r e e s so f i r e supplements t he machete. Quite f r e q ~ e n t l y , however, pa lm and

other useful t r e e s are scarred by careless burning. Whenthe emptied husks

and f a l l en fronds a r e heaped together burning i s of ten incomplete and the

l i g h t l y charred heaps decay naturally. Except f o r these, the signs of f i r e

disappear rapidlfr; woody and herbaceous sprouts soon mantle t he s o i l and the

profound ef fec t s of t he clearing may go la rge ly unappreciated by the casual ...

observer. . . ..

. . 'copra ~roducti '&

The major export product, of course, i s copra. According t o Lajiblok,

who has la rge ly transported the crop, t he monthly production f o r the a t o l l

i s about 53 tons but sometimes drops t o only 30-40 tons. These figures should

be r e l i i b i e but hate not been dtherwise verified. So f a r a s could be learned . . .

t h e v a r i a t i o n i n 'production i s not seasonal. A t the current price of $80 per . . .

ton t h e a t o l l income from ou&.d& 'sources i s much grea te r than might a t , .

f i r s t appear. . .

Sup~osing the average i h o a t ~ porluction t o b e 50 tons and estimating .. , . .

t ha t t h i s i s prbduced from 2,600 &re; (&ughly 5/8 of the t o t a l a t o l l area)

of coconuts worked f o r copra, t he average y i e ld would then be 0.3 tons per

acre per year, not a high figure. Further, i f we assume t h a t 2,500 acres i s . .

t he m a k i m h average"available f o r palm groves and 0.5 tons per acre per year ,. . . .

is t'he &aximwi a+era.ge yield i i k & t o be obtained, we f ind t h a t an annual . .

proiiu&ion of 1,200-1,300 to& of copra i s about t he m k x i m u m expected output

of the en t i re a t o l l under foreseeable cu l tura l practices. , . .. . ,

Copra production i s s l b w and tedious 'business but l e s s so when made . .. . .

a group a c t i v i t y as it often is. The f a l l en nuts a r e thrown in to heaps, . .

often using a sharp tipped "pickup s t i ck , " and husked on a f l a t pointed

husking stake. This is of any hard wood, sometimes shod with a Japanese-

made hollow s t e e l t i p , -and s e t firmly i n the ground. Later the nut i s

c rxked i s t o pieces and the meat pried from the she l l . A l l the copra %anu-

facture observed involved a r t i f i c i a l drying, a t l e a s t i n t he i n i t i a l stages.

The she l l s are excellent charcoal source and t h i s is somewhat i ne f f i c i en t ly

made by burning off t he vo la t i l e matter, often i n an o i l drum. The charcoal

i s then burned beneath the rack containing the th in ly spread coconut meat,

t h e e n t i r e rack being more o r l e s s closed t o conserve heat and regulate t he

d ra f t t9 the f i r e . With s k i l l , l i t t l e scorcning of t he copra occurs.. Further . .. .

drying i s generally by exposures t o t h e sun, e i ther i n racks o r on mats, e tc .

spread on the ground. The sacked copra i s transported t o concentration points

f o r l a t e r shipment.

There i s a wide var ia t ion j.n t he efficiency with which d i f fe ren t

individuals produce copra but t he average i s l o w . Some of the measures f o r

improvenent are obvious: (1 ) As a rough estimate, perhaps one-fourth of the

area now i n bearing age palms i s too th ick ly vegetated f o r effect ive nut

collection. Zxainples of th i s . may be seen on L'angar, a i k a r e i j and the western

portion of Ine Island a s well a s o n %-en1 and N a m w i Islands where reclearing

is now going on. On an addi t ional area the vegetation i s dense enough t o

i n t e r f e re t o some degree. The p o p l a t i o n s h i f t s and disturbances caused by the

war a r e a t l e a s t i n part responsible f o r t h i s but reciamation has been slow.

The pat tern of land I1ownershiptt a l so leads t o neglect of the areas remote from

t h e major Bringing a l l sui table a reas i n to normal production could

eas i ly increase the a t o i l l s copra output by one--third. (2 ) Although the

b e t t e r producers are aware tha t s p o u t e d nuts yie ld l e s s copra, t h e majority

seem untroubled by a high percentage of sprouting. The succulent t issue. f i l l -

ing the cavity of the sprouting nut, " i ~ , ~ ' is esten but it i s an expensive food

i n terms of copra. The mass and respirat ion of t he external sprout i t s e l f

represent sheer waste of copra without any reduction i n the amount of labor

necessary .to:.ext;ract the remainder. Periodic gathering of t he nuts and

storage. on sheltered racks t o allow absorption of t h e milk and prevent

sprouting is a practice Long recommendedeXsewhere. By t h i s means alone ari

increase of perhaps 1% i n copra wy&d be obtained without proportionate

increase i n labor. (3) A few producers have drying sheds, i .e. , roofed

buildings housing the dry racks, but t he majority get along with cruder and

of ten impromptu arrangements. It is undoubtedly e f fec t ive t o spread copra

on the mat i n t he sun f o r curing o r re-drying but chickens, pigs and sudden

showers a r e attendant hazards. Widespread adoption of t he best drying

pract ice already i n use i n t h e a t o l l would not increase t h e production great ly

but would reduce the laoor involved ai-~d contribute t o a higher qua l i ty product.

The above comments on increasing production concern only practices

already known t o the Arnoese and accep ted , in l a rge par t , by some of them.

Uses as-

. . The mature meat and dr ied copra are l e s s used f o r food than might be

thought. , S i n c e t n e frui . t ing occurs throughout the year t he o i l y nut is an

excellent emergency food and apparently has i t s greates t use i n between the

pandanus and breadfruit season. I n many cases copra f o r eat ing i s made of nuts

f rompar t icu la r t rees , apparently selected f o r tenderness and sweetness of the.

f l e sh . . The "iull from. t he sprouting nut cavity is eaten out of t h e hand and

also baked;; i t i s , e a t e n i n quant i ty when copra is being made. Coconut flcream"

squeezed from .the grated mature nut i s widely used i n cooking, 'pa r t icu la r ly of

the more elaborate dishes, but i s of only minor importance i n t e r n s of average

consumption per person. Although methods of extracting o i l from copra are knowr+

they a re tedious and it appears t h a t very l i t t l e i s made, despi te t he general

demand f o r cooking f a t s and h a i r pomade.

The immature nuts a r e used i n quant i ty f o r drinking, and the sof t sweet

f lesh i s comonly eaten as well. It would be d i f f i c u l t t o fa i - ly estimate

airerage consumptS.on over t h e a t o i l , f o r drinking nuts are usually ~ r o f f e r o d

the v i s i t o r a s routine courtesy; furthermore,,the w e ayay from t h e vi l lages ,

par t icu la r ly by men working i n t h e groves, i s greater than withi.n t h e

popdated arees . Nevertheless, t h e t o t a l i s great and perhaps is l imited

c l ~ i e f l y by t h e necessity of climbing the t r e e and of husking the nuts i f . .

the:r are t o be carr ied. , .

Another wide2.y inown beverage f roa the coconut i s t h e palm sap,

obtained from the "flower stalk." Before the fl.owers emerge from t h e l a rge

elongate bud the t i p i s cut off and the juice flow observed. I f sa t i s fac tory

the l ea fy covering (spathe) i s wrapped with twine t o preveat opening except

near t he t i p luhkre it i s cut away, exposing the spadix within. Thi-s i s a lso

wrapped and hen$ dowma.rd in to a container; the sap flows from the cut surface,

xhich i s renewed by cut t ing each time the sap i s collected. To facil- i tate. . ..,

collection, palns r e g ~ l L a ~ l y l%ap~ed ' t are notched w i t f l snal lowsteps the length

of the trunk. On hrna t he f resh sugary l i qu id , ":ekara," i s drunk f resh o r

occasionally boiled down t o a s p u p hhving a character is t ic f iauor. I n t h e

l a t t e r form j.t . , can b e . kept f o r long periods,, by occasionally reheating;. and .

' serves a s a . sweetening. . According t o Spoehr, on Kajuro, j e1cara . i~ consumed i n . .

quantity but casual observations on Arno suggest t h a t t ne average cocsumption

here i s qu i t e low. The sap ferments veiy rapidly and, of course, provides

one of the pr incipal alcoholic drinks throughout t he range of t he palm. The . . . .

Arnoese, although they ,nay jes t about this product lljemanin,ll a r e re luctant t o

concede t h a t it might be produced by anyone on the a t o l l . Tnis i s understand-

able, i f not al together credibie, f o r both the missionary influence and the

Nandate t e rxs have worked against demon rim.

Other Uses ---- The meat from both co2ra and drinking nuts i s often fed t o chickens and

pigs, e i ther as scr& b r a s s~~b~! . emen ta r~ feeds. Surplus "iun from copra

making i s '&so f e d t o pigs.

30th the husks and t h e la rge leaves of t h e coconut r a t e a s ca jor

products. 'The d.ried husks: convenient i n s ize and i n abundance, a r e the major

fue l par t icular ly i n t he well s e t t l e d places o r where t he groves a r e kept f r e e

of other vegetation. The husks are a lso the source of twine (sennet) and rope.

The long vascular f i be r s a r e freed by r e t t i ng the husks f o r a t l e a s t one o r two

months. I f l e t stand for only the lllinimwi time the husks must be pounded t o

f r e e t he f i be r s whereas with longer r e t t i ng the f i b e r s can be rubbed f r ee of

the decompsed husks i n seawater. The r e t t i ng apparently takes place sat isfac-

t o r i l y i n s a l t , bratkish, o r f resh water for all three are used. Husks may be

buried neu the high t i d e l eve l on s t ab l e beaches usually along the lagoon s i d ~

Inland are r e t t i ng p i t s , "tou," dug below the groundwater l eve l , e i t he r f resh

o r brackish. Cften the tou i s located i n a naturai depression and it may be

only a muddy spot i n an old t a r o p<t o r brackish swamp although, according t o ..

legend, a tou on Ul-en' Island was 'conveniently excavated bj a s t a r .

The washed and dried f ibe r o r co i r i s made i n t o a two strand twine,

s i n n e t . Each s t rand i s firmed endlessly by repeatedly adding groups (15 t o 25)

of t he long '&ra l le l f i be r s t o i t s untwisted end, each addition and i t s juncture

be& twisted by ro l l i ng between pdlm and thigh. The addit ions a r e made

a l te rna te ly t o t he two strands and between addit ions t he strands i n tu rn are

ro l led together t o form the twine. The prodwt is a tough cord t h a t may be . .

used f b r l e s h i n g , a s on canoes and houses, o r braided in to a strong and durable . . . .

rope. . .

The p e h leaves l ikek ise provide a f i be r although of m ~ c h l e s s importance

than sennet. The epidermal laj-ers of t he f l a t u&er surface of t he frond midrib

a r e str ipped f ree of t he coarse t i s s u e s below t o give a strong, somewhat

b r i t t l e , s t r a p several f ee t long. T h i s is chief ly used on the spot, ra ther than

a s a permanent rope, but f inds consicierable use. Epidermis peeled from the

individual l e a f l e t s twis ts i n t o long f lex ib le f i be r s used ch ie f ly f o r Sine

weaving.

The ?la: leaf!.ets of the frond a r e read2lg woven and from a &.m l ea f an

Arno resident of any age can usually produce a basket of &most any proportions.

The l e a f l e t s are l e f t attached t o t he portion of the midrib which serves a s a

r i m o f t h e basket. !Although considered ~ u c h infer ior t o the pandanus, coconut

fronds arid stripped 1 e a f l e . t ~ can be quicW2r woven in to matting o r panels f o r

temporary house construction. The d7y:fiatured midribs a r e s t i f f and a re some-

t i n e s used as r a f t e r s i n house construction. The trcnk i s only occasionally

used i n house construction. It was once common t o chop a cavity i n the palm

base t o catch water flowing dokn the stem. This "enunak" was fur ther enlarged by . .

decay and ultimately contributed t o the destruction of t h e t r e e . Although these

cav i t ies a r e s t i l l found on older palms they have long sirice been supphnted by

c i s t e r m and o i l d r u m . The juice squeezed from t h s green husks i s considered

of varue i n reducing the i r r i t a t i n g properties (presumably caused by calcium

oxalate c r y s t d s ) i n t he prepared roots of klocasia. If the juice i s indeed

effect ive. t h i s cannot be due t o i t s ac id i ty , fo r samples .tested were above p~5uS.

F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n ~ Production

A s mentioned, t he red coconut sca le i s present a s well a s a l ea f spot but

we saw no severe infestatioris of e i ther . Hore serious pests, such a s the

rhinoceros beetle, are absent. Zffective quarantines would minimize the l i k e l i -

hood of introducing major pests found elsewhere in ttie Pacif ic , bc t it i s

doubtful t h a t native shipping can ever be well ins2ected. . . . .

Areas of Npoorl' coconuts &e found on the islands of N m n , U1-enf,

L'angar and Arno. On &-en' a portion of the affected area i s adjacent t o an

inland s a l t y pool, ar,d is said t o be flooded by t h e highest t ides . Excessive

s a l i n i t y a lso probably accoWts f o r similar symptoms observed on the younger

portions of N a m w i . On L'angar a malady l o c a l l y a t t r ibu ted t o the presence of

demons causes yeilowing, poor f ru i t i ng and ea r ly mortal i ty on a t r a c t of perhaps

f i v e acres i n t h e i n t e r io r . The presence of excessive s a l i n i t y i s perhaps as

l i k e l y a s t ha t of demons out t he s o i l samples have not yet been analyzed for . .

e i the r . I n t ravel ing, small areas of yel;ow palm fo l iage have been noticed on . .

. . . . . other islands but, on t h e whole, s a l i n i t y i s only a minor problem i n t he coconut

, .

groves and cer ta in ly one not read i ly remedied.

A t r a c t of several acres i n t he i n t e r i o r of Arno Island i s characterized

by ear ly bsrrenness and gradual death of t he palms. According t o t he Headman

of the vi l lage t h i s condition has always existed i n the same area, t he coconuts

being maintained only by continuous planting. There are no v i s ib l e evidences

of insects o r pathogens and the character is t ic l e a f symptoms d i f f e r fromthose .. .

observed i n sa l ine areas. Breadfruit t r e e s growing anong the dying p a l m appear .. . . . .

t o be unaffected. The appearance and depth of sandy s o i l s do not d i f f e r from .. .

adjacent areas where palms a re normal but the long persistence of t he malady

within def in i te boundaries suggests some s o i l relationship. These s o i l s a r e

re la t ive ly removed from the shore and seem t o be among the oldest on the a t o l l ; . . .

nutr ient deficiency i s a t l e a s t a poss ib i l i ty and forthcoming analyses of so i l ... . . . . . .

samples may help c l a r i f y t h i s problem. The exact acreage affected cannot be

well estimated because of interspersions of breadfrui t groves and secondary . . . ..., . - . . : .. . . .

fores t ; these, however, a r e said t o be so abundant because of f a i l u r e of the

palms. The l o s s i n coconut production i s t o some degree compensated for by

growth of such other Sp6cies and t h e s i p p l e s t i b l u t ~ o n i s t o give up t ry ing

t o grow cosonuts within t h i s area. Attempts t o discover t he cause of the

malady would be worthwhile, however, fo r i t may &;l be found on other a t o l l s , . ..

and i t s ameliorafion may not prove ciiff icult . Some comments on cdhra production' have d&dy been made. A fu r ther

need i s a replacement program t o eliminate older t r e e s past t he peak of

bearing. I f va r i e t i e s .su$erior t o ihose now i n use c& be found, t h e i r

es$?blishment. %uld Iogicdl ly be- coupled with such a replaceme& program.

The introduction of l a rge f r e t e d s t r a in s might help reduce the labor in-

vo.lved i n m p r a manufacture even though no yield increase resulted. The

poss ib i l i t y of finding higher yielding var ie t ies i s worth exploring f u l l y

but t he l imita t ions of t h e a t o l l s o i l s and t h e i r d i ss imi la r i ty from those of

most commercial planting areas should be borne in mind.

Breadfruit , "I@! ' ' --"- . .

Wherever i t s origin, the bpeadfruit, l i k e t h e cocorkt, i s well adapted

t o , t he a t o l l habitat . The breadfi-uit i s ch&acterist ic 'of t he i n t e r i o r s of

t he wider lands although i tmay'grow almost t o the beach when conditions are . .

sui table . It. i s t he comdn tr'e6:along walks and se t t l ed areas. Its dis t r ibu-

t i g n i s almost cer ta inly r e l a t ed t o ' the s a l i r ' i i l ; y ' f t h e (see report . .

of Hyd~ologis t ) and it i s .no t found i n t h e narrowlands o r obviously s a l t y areas.

A t l e a s t s i x well-recognized var ie t ies are grown on t h i s a to l l . Fru i t

charac te r i s t ics Seem'to be most dependable c r i t e r i a f o r iden t i f ica t ion although . . .

l e a f form i s indicativg except f o r 'bkcas5onkl inconsistindies. No differences i n . ,. :

t r e e form a re associated .wits Variety, according' to t he ~ r n o e s e , and there are

only minor differences i n season!.& fT&ting. 'T& o r three va r i e t i e s have seeds;

t he remainder. are seedless. ' Examples o f var ie t ies with seeds a r e t he G t t a t a ,

which has leaves cut almost t o t he mnidpibs, and the Gjwan (Ni jwan) with large,

3-5 lob?d leaves, the lobes l imited t o t he d i s t a l ' half of t he leaves. Another

type of t h e Gjwan has en t i r e leaves. Tne BXtalctak i s the preferred seedless

var ie ty with a large, so l id f ru i t . It has la rge 5-lobed leaves, t he lower

lobes extending ' for perhaps two-thirds the length of t he l ea f . By contrast ,

t he m i n o n o i s named f o r the resemblance of the 7-9 narrowly lobed leaves t o

those of the kin6 ' f ir i i . Its f r u i t i s globose and regular, turning l i g h t ye!.low

when ready.

Around t h e older t r e e s young breadfruit a r i s e from seeds and root

suckers so replacement planting i s often unnecessary. Trees blown over usually

sprout vigorously from the root crown arid stem. The idea of vegetative repro-

duction i s understood and suckers from desirable va r i e t i e s a r e taken t o estab-

l i s h new t r ee s . Despite t h i s , va r i e t i e s said t o be l e s s desirable are s t i l l

abundant.

The culture of the breadfrui t is even more simple than t h a t of the , , . . . . . . . . . , . . .

coconut. Vegetation d i r ec t ly competing with t he young t r e e s is cut although . .

the plant to le ra tes a f a i r amount of sj.de shade from t a l l e r t r e e s and i s often

s ta r ted i n small openings. The t r e e grows rapidly, par t icu la r ly i f a sprout

from an exis t ing root system, and i t s own dense shade soon eliminates much of '.

the vegetation below. Thereafter no care i s given except as t he expanding

crown comes in to competition with l e s s desirable t r e e s which may, i n the course

of time, be removed.

. . Tree form i s great ly influenced by density. In the open o r with con- . .

tinuous removal of sid6 competit ionbreadfruit tends t o branch low and form a . .

massive crown. When crowded i n ' ybkh the lower branches shade of f ' and the t r e e . . ,

has a smaller, often ragged c r o h ' a n d t a l l columnar trunk. Such differences ..- . .

i n older t r e e s have interpret ive value i n revealing growth conditions a t an

e a r l i e r period.

S,I, . .ril peak of the bre;cifruj.t season i s fron; May t o 2uJ.j- b u t t he t r e e s . . .

continue t o bear i n decreasing amomts until December. Individual t r e e s vary in

duration of yie ld but there is L i t t l e v a r i e t a l difference. As might be e~pect~ed,

t he large crowned t r e e s tend t o be n~ore f r u i t f u l but a r e not necessari.ly nore

ea s i ly 'harvested. To "pick" the f r u i t a man climbs the t ree , often using a rope

t o reach the f i r s t branch. Most of t he f r u i t i s reached with a picking pole , .

some 20 f t . long, having a Y-shaped end t o th rus t against the f r u i t . With it,

o r by hand, t he f r u i t i s detached and f a l l s t o the ground.. In narrow crowned . . . ,, . .

t r e e s most of the f r u i t i s readi ly seer. and can be reached :6 th t he pole from

the central. trunk, whereas i n large spreading t r e e s nuch of t he f r u i t can be

reached only from more hazardous positions midway out on the l a rge r limbs. The

f r u i t s suffer much l e s s than might be expected from the 30 t o 60 foot fal.1 but

some are marred by exudation of the gummy l a t e x in to bruised areas. Needless

t o say, when the t r e e s overhanging walks are being picked the loca l t r a f f i c

e i t he r ha l t s or detours.

Used as Food

Durinp, the season of f r u i t i n g breadfruit i s the s ingle nost inportant

food on the a t o l l . For most purposes the green f r u i t is preferred and the most

comwn means of preparation, par t icu la r ly f g r the preferred BZtaktak variety, i s

baking over charcoal. After cooking che pineap~le--sized f r u i t i s scraped clean

and i s then ready t o be eaten or carried. The f r u i t may be cooked in a la rge

number of other ways, suggesting the use of both potatoes and bread. Ripe b r e a b

f r u i t i s sonewhat sweeter and has a de f in i t e f r u i t y t a s t e ; it i s prepared some-

what as a delicacy. The r&ther large (3 /4 - 1 " ) seeds of t he seeded forms a re

eaten with the cooked f r u i t but are not usually gathered f o r t h a t purFose when

freed by natural decay of the f r u i t .

Although the breadfruit i s perishable it i s preserved by methods

analogous t o ensil ing. The green latex--contaking epidermis i s scraped away,

t he f r u i t s l i c e d and soaked i n seawat'e. ',' llpon removal t h S m a t e r i d i s packed

t i g h t l y i n to leaf-lined p i t s and covered . l a th leaves which a re changed

regularly. Before use t he starchy paste i s thoroughly washed h: seawater t o

remove the fermented t a s t e , conbidered undesirable by the Narshallese.

Althoughthe method produces an acceptable foodstuff and is recognized a s a

means f o r preparing f o r t he lean months before t he next breadfruit season, it

does not seem t h a t very l a rge quant i t i es a r e stored i n this!way.

Other Uses' ---.-

Near the houses the f reshly f a l l en breadfruit leaves a r e of ten gathered

f o r wrapping f i s h , breadfruit paste, etc. , p r i o r t o baking. The milky l a t e x

t h a t . flows abundantly from bark wounds. was' once used, a f t e r hal'deffing, as

calking f o r cahoes; it i s now used only When prepared materials a r e not avail-.

able. The l a t e x can a l so serve as a bird iinte althougn mtnis i s of l i t t l e

consequence t o present-day people-. The wood of the breadfruit i s moderately

so f t , durable and withstands a l t e rna t e Wetting and drying. Further, it occurs

in long pieces of re la t ive ly la rge d i a ~ e t e r and so i s the universal choice f o r

canoe construction. Smaller diameter pieces and, occasionally, hand worked

timbers a r e used f o r house consti-uction.

Factors Affecting Productkn ------ So f a r a s observed the t r e e i t s e l f i s f r ee of major pests. Only

occasional instances of heart r o t were observed and t h e few dead t r e e s seen

were all past maturity. A malady a f fec t ing t h e f r u i t , resul t ing i n a p a r t i a l

decay and premature drop, was reported on Arno, Ine, and L'angar Islands, but

. , . . not on 61-en'. According t o Kotiel o f Arno and ~ o b a n of L'angar, t he malady

was first observed about 1948 and'affected a ia rge number of f r u i t s during t h e

f o l : L o ~ ~ ~ g two yea%; becoming l e s s severe ih.1950. Examination of fall.en f r u i t

shows a portion of tLe surface blackened with r o t extending inward. idhen the

. . stem o r t he ' cen t r a l ax% i s weakened t h e f r u i t f a l l s premsturely. The nature

of. t h f s :malady and it,s seriousness require a thorough investigation (see report

.of the Entomologist):

A s mentioned, t he d i s t r ibu t ion of breadfrui t i s cer ta in ly re la ted t o

ground water s a l i n i t y dtnough l i t t l e is ac tua l ly kno-m concerning depth of

rooting. ' Generally t he t r e e reach@s '&ax&um development i n the sheltered

in t e r io r o f wider isl.ands but large open-grown t r e e s are found i n s e t t l ed areas

and occasior,al:.y very close t o the beaches. It i s evident t ha t s a l i n i t y i n t h e

'

rooting zone w i l l be affected by permeabiiity of the underlying materidls,

depth of s o i l above the grbmd vjater and conditions controll ing the outward

flow of ground water, a s well aa by mere distance from the beach. I n some areas

(e tg . t he southern par t of ~ i k i r e i j v i l l age) t he t r e e s reach f a i r diameters but

appear stunted i n height and show dead wood i n t h e tops. Their appearance and

locat ion suggest s a l i n i t y a s a cause, serhaps act ing through recurring in jury

o r root r e s t r i c t i on awing dry periods ra ther than by continuous exposure. I n

t h i s connection breadfrGit on t h e lbwer r a i n f a l l i s l a x i s of the northern

Marshalls is said t o be d c h s h o k e r than i n t h e south. Sa l in i ty problems a r e

generally beyond man's control and affk'cted areas can only be avoided.

The quanti ty of breadfruit i n t he a t o l l appears to be more than adequate

for average needs during the seasonal peak, although addit ional vigorous t r e e s

would increase t h e l a t e season supply. I n addit ion t o establishing more t r ee s ,

replacement of l e s s desirable var ie t ies with be t t e r , and judicious thinning i n

crowded groves, a s on Arno Island, would augment production. Young t r e e s not

required for food production, however, might well be kept i n somewhat crowded

stands t o improve stem form f o r l a t e r u t i l i za t ion .

. ;, . , . , . . . . ,. .:. . . i n any comprehensive work ' i i t i . ~ breadfruik: s&ecti.on f o r f r u i t character-

. . i s t i c s and season of f ru i t i ng wou1.d be a s important a s f o r t o t a l productivity.

Introduction of other var ie t ies o i &?tocarpus altiiis, a s well a s other species

of the genus i s cer ta in ly worth t rying. The -present method of harvesting the

f r u i t appears sa t i s fac tory t o ali concerned but small experiments i n pruning

young t r ee s t o a low spreading shape would not be altogether out of place.

A r t i f i c i a l f e r t i l i z a t i o n wi l l probably be out of the question f o r a Tong time

. . except with l o c a l l y avail.able phosphate..

A s i s t rue a l so f o r other crop plakrtts, the na t ive culture of the bread-

f r u i t inclucies no ' f e r t i l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e . ' ' Among Che ' s t o re of l oca l medicine

a r e a t l e a s t three procedures' f o r increasing the yield of breadfruit but, what-

ever t h e i r effectiveness, t he materials used are i n much too s m a l l quant i t ies

t o a f fec t s o i l f e r t i l i t y . The course of c iv i l i za t ion has apparently eliminated

:one.. th rea t t o t h e . breedfruit . fdr black magic is no longer considei-ed an effec-

tive'.means of dSstroying the t r ee , although our informant believed it was

. . . .. . ! :

successful i n t he past. :K:: .. ... .

anda am is,

Culture. : . . ! ' . . . .

Anderionconsidered . a l l of the@ndanus on t h e a t o l l t o be v a r i e t a l

selections of P'tectorius and l i s t e d 16 var ie t ies . Of these one, &p &

. :Kabi ls , with white margined leaves was-reputedly introduced from the Carolines

(Kabiliz) and i s found only':-as an ornaniental. kndther,"Edrwan, apparently

i nc ludes the st~aight~stenimed,::small-fruited "wildrr t y ~ e s r a t h e r t h a n being a.

defiri i te 'var ie ty . . The remainder arB::recognized a s . 'established varieties' ,

distinguished pr incipal ly by : f ru i t character is t ics Which the w r i t e r never

mastered. Frui t shape and, pa&icu~iaily.j the shack of t he nu t l e t s and' t h e i r

aggregates seem t o be tXe&significant; features,: Frui t s ize , other than ~drwan

is not ; the la rges t f r u i t i s borne. on young t rees . LTkewise l e a f cha-actexistics

change withage. Certain var ie t ies , suck1 as Anberia and Joibeb, a r e recognized

a s outstanding fo r eat ing out of hand but our informants seened unceAain about

other specif ic choices among the .var ie t ies . . . .

The pandanus season begins i n October, a t t a i n s i t s peak in November and

December, and falls off a f t e r Januarybut a few f r u i t s mature throughou't the

year . , There seem t o be no cer ta in var ie ta l differences i n t i m e of ma tu~ i ty .

The var ie t ies are reproduced vege ta t ive ly .u s ing the long prop.roots a s stock.

Seedling clusters from f a l l e n o r d i s c a ~ d e d nuts are common weeds i n coconut

groves. These volunteer pandanus arehacked down i n c lesr ing groves although

l a rge r straight-stemned t r e e s a r e often l e f t . Plantings of t he pandanus a r e

scat tered a s isolated t r e e s and s m a l l groups along paths and near houses as

w e l l a s on the lagoon shore o r a w e , as i n the i n t e r io r .

The pandanus seem t o have a considerable tolerance f o r s a l i n i t y and the

wild form i s often found i n abundance on the beach rampart of t h e windward

coasts between the S c a e v o l a - M e s s e r s c ~ 1 a scrub and t h e coconuts. The wild

forms are a l so common on dunes and back of sandy shores bordering the lagoon

but here as elsewinere t'ney are often replaced with cu l t iva ted va r i e t i e s ,

Culture of the l a t t e r consis ts ofremoving competing vegetation.

Uses as-

Among the more colorful s igh t s of t h e . a t o l l are brown-faced youngsters

chewing on chrome-yellow pandanus segments. In the.uncooked form these serve a s

does sugar cane elsexhere in t h e t rop ics , albeit.more flavorful . Upon baking

the f lavor tends t o change but t he non-fibrous portion i s more readi ly

extracted. This sonewhat mucilaginous material i s also scraped f r e e a n d dried;

i n t h i s form it can be stored-~dthout,'$poilage as..an emergency food. The small

nuts can be extracted and cracked f o r - t h e ctsnten%s although-this i s not a very

rewarding task. The pandanus sesson follows upan Shat of t h e breadfruit and

during its seasonal peak it i s the major food but its over--all importance is

considerably l e s s than tha t of the breadfruit .

Other Uses -.--

The leaves of t he pandanus :rere once perhaps f u l l y a s important i n t he

nat ive economy a s the f r u i t . Tne p la in rnats used a s bedding, f loor covering,

e tc . , a s well as decorative msts and i t e m almost forgotten by the present

generation are woven pr incipal ly from pandanus leaves. The long leaves are

str ipped o r are gathered from tile ground, trimmed, rol.led so the recurved cross

section w i l l be f l a t and stored indoors. Later the spiny midrib i s removed and

the blade s p l i t in to segments of desired width. Solor contras ts are obtained

by using leaves t h a t have cured t o various degrees, by dying, and by introducing kr

other f i be r s t h a t are colored or read i ly dyed. ., . . . , . ... . . . &

Pandanus leaved'also provide the thatch& material f o r roofs a n d s i d e s

of t h e t r ad i t i ona l house, although t o an extent t h i s has been superceded bjr . .

i n t r o d m t i o n of corrugated i rbn roofing under the Japanese and, temporarily, by

discarded American construction materials brought fromMajuro. For use t he

pandanus leaves are assembled in to p n e l s made by folding the leaves over a . .

long s;ender support, usually a s p l i t $ancianus prbp root, and s t i t ch ing them in . , ' . . .

place. These uni ts , of ten 5 o r 6 f e e t i n width, a r e otikrlapped. as shingles and ,

t i e d t o the house framework. Such thatching makes a sa t i s fac tory roof f o r hu% . .

three years or so but l a s t s ' much iong& a s walls. Bccord i~k t o .a kgend- t h i s

method o f using pndanis Gas brought t o . the Makhal l s long agd by wandering

Gilbertese; before t h i s , the'kai-shallese had used the f l i t leaves of t he fern,

Asplenium m. .., . . . . .. . , . .. . ' . .. , . .

The wild '@indanus,-Edrvian, i s alsd-valiied f o r i t s t a l l s t r a igh t trunks, . . . .

sometimes used ' i s &&i-ts 'b house co&r&tion.

Factors Affecting P~oduc't,ion -- -- --.

No major pests were observed. A great many var ie t ies of t h i s f r u i t are

found throughout the P x i f i c and it i s possible t ha t var ie t ies superior i n some .: '

res?ect t o those now present on t h e a t o l l may be found. Production can eas i ly

be increased simply by planting more t r ee s , however, so the objectives of any

introduction should be longer bearing period and addit ional f r u i t characteris-

t i cs . Taro and Other Araceous PLants -.-.--.----.---- 3--

The native t a ro of the Xarshallese i s C:~rtosr.ern?a *anissonis, I a r a j .

The nore widely known Colocasia esculenta was apparently introduced by the ,

missionaries and i t s native name, Kotak, came from Kusaie, probably with t he

plant; it i s also called Eawaiian t a ro . Both green-stexned 2nd purple-stemmed

colocasias a r e present and there probably a r e other va r i e t i e s not observed by . . .. .

t he w k t e r . Two other araceoGs plants are here considered 15 th t h e ta ros

although de f in i t e ly not included under t ha t name: W i i t i n ~ab i l i : i s a s ~ e c i e s

of Xanthosoma recently introduced and i s of l i t t , l e significance t o t he present

agr icul ture . T3e native %t is Alocasia and, according t o Anderson's check

l i s t , another species may be included with A. macrorhiza under t h i s nane,

Colocasia ---- . .

The introduced Hawaiian t a r o i s valued only f o r i t s starchy llroot" ,which

by some i s considered superior, t o t h e native cyrtosperxa. In keeping with t he , .

Marshallese d i s in t e r e s t i n l ea fy foods the edible leaves and st,ems a re not

u t i l i zed a t a l l . i n general t h e culture and use of colocasia a r e similar t o

those of t he native ta ro discussed below but a few plants, . . possibly an upland

lrarietg, were observed growing on t h e well-drained s o i l s of tne is land inteejcrsY

Cyr tos~erna

KO va r i e t a l differences a r e known. The en t i re plant increases i n s i ze

with age, however, and the huge leaves, 8-10 f t . t a l l of old plants may not be

inmediately iden t i f ied with those of t he nore common smaller plants.

A t one time, I a r e j ( I a r a j ranked uitii , o r perhaps exceeded breadfrui t

and $ndanlis'..': .Today the evidence of i+is dedliriing importance i s c lear f o r

perhaps l e s s than one-tenth of ' the p i t s prepared for 5 t s cul ture are growing

s i ini f icar i t miounts of taro. Them p i t s were excavated t o theground watep

leve lu& the sandy is land i n t e r i o r s where t h e water is f ree of Salt . The-p i t s

vary i n 6ize and shape but are commonly oval o r oblong with f l a t bottoms 20-40

f t . lone and 20-20 f t . wide. Freswiably t h e builders made use of such natural

depressions as existed but it i s apparent t h a t t he p i t s were la rge ly man-made.

Although wea.thering has softened t n e out l ines , t h e outer r i m s of t h e p i t s a r e

comedy raised somewhat above the suq~,ounding land, marking where t h e excavaw

material was duped . S o i l prof2les on these rims are snallower a ~ d y o u n g e r t b

those adjacent. Cn kl-enr Is. t a r o i s grown in the mucky margin of a l a rge

natural depression but cannot be e-xtended over the somewhat brackish peat t h a t

occupies most of t h e basin? Xlsewhere t i e p i t s are ' concentrated i:~ t h e

in t e r io r s of t h e wider lands such a s p r t s of Arno, L'angar and Ine I s . where

constant f resh water was assured. Within these areas some p i t s a r e immeeiately

adjacent so t h e spoi l forrm B high wall between; others a r e well separated.

'The s e p a r a t e p i t s a n d s u o h r a r i ~ o ~ occurrence Suggest no orderly cor.structi0n.

Cer ta in lyeach pi t 'was an undertaking of considerable magnitude, involving t h e

excavation of one- t o severai hundred tons of sand with crude tools .and baskets.

Labon, a very old man of Arno I s . , r e c a l l s t ha t a pit&+.asdug i n t h e . earlyWG1s

but it seemsprobable tha t t h i s was t h e l a s t o r mong the l a s t constructed on

the a t o l l . No one e l s e has any recol lect ion o f . excavation and the condition of

a l l obser~red suggests very considerable age. Accardlng t o .ZijBmmar t h e p i t s on

h i s land a t Ine vi l lage were there a t t he time of his'grandparents. A legend

s t a t e s t ha t the p i t s on Arno Is. a re the footpr ints of a man who walked across .*

u ~ a t e r analysis (Par t I, %ble 11) shows the U1-en' Island peat t o be f r e e of salt.

t h e land.

Usewhere i n t h e Pacif ic newly exc~vated , t a r o p i t s are p r e p r e d f o r use

byplac ing quant i t i es of organic matter i n t he bottom, Presumably t h i s was

a l so . t rue on Arno and organic debris i s ~ ~ i i l . added t o t he p i t s i n use. I n

consequence thebot tom soils a r e calcareous nucks .with t he water l e v e l l y i n g

close t o t h e surface. After heavy rains t h e water may stand t o t he depth of

several inches i n t he p i t f o r at. l e a s t a few days. Other than planting and

: harvesting t h e principle cul ture of t a ro isweeding. Such plants a s t h e

..vigorous +fedel.ia . -.- extend outward from t h e p i t margins and woody species spring

there' a lso. There a r e rel-ativeiy few plants, such - a s _Cm, the fine-like

Clerodendrum and gibiscus f t i l i a ceus t h a t grow d i r e c t i y i n the wet muck. The

principle reason given f o r not groh5ng taro. now i s t h a t i t s . cul-ture involves

too muchwor!c,although the prepzed food i s preferred t o r i c e by some.

Use as Food - ijuring the breadfrui t season t a r o i s ra re ly eaten but i s saved f o r t he

months a f t e r t he anda anus peak. The la rge r corms a re harvested a s needed. and

. boiled. or baked.. Other prepara%ions (Jukjuk) a r e made by baking mixtures of

the cooked root w i t h sugar and coconut cream o r banana. A t the present l e v e l

o f , cu l t i va t ion the Cyrtosperma andcolocasia together r a t e a s a ra ther minor

component o f t h e d i e t , although important t o a Eeu.Emilies and a s a general

reserve; . . .

Factors Affectina Growth . .

No major pests were noted. . The typhoons-of l$05 and.1918 were sa id t o

h a v e k i l l e d . t a r o by flooding t h e p i t s with s a l t water but such storms a re ra re .

Young t a r o (Cyrkosperma) i n p i t s on Arno Is. i s r e ~ o r t e d t o have beewkil led by

immersion, probably complete, i n f resh water following heavy rains .

. . . .

Wit'no!rt observation elsewhere on the Flarshalls it i s soxewhat hazardous

t o speculate on tke reasons f o r t he decline of t a r o fimm its f o n e r posit ion

as a major food crop. D r . Nason has pointed out t ha t with a decrease i n the

.,. a b s o l ~ t e powers of t he I r o i j , brought about by missionary and t+r ! . . in f luences , . .. . . . . ., ., . . . . . .

went a gradual lessening of t he landholders' responsibi l i ty t o h i s ru le rs .

This may well h w e l e d t o t h e neglect of t he more d i f f i c u l t o r l e s s rewarding

tasks . It was during the same p r i o d , however, t h a t extension of the coconut

groves took place; under t he stimulus of the copra t rade land clearing, care

of coconuts and copra manufacture requjred much more labor than previously.

Yet another factor bras involved, perhaps the decisive one: t he pigs introduced

by the missionaries thrived and multiplied u n t i l on Arno Is., according t o

Labon, t a ro and arrowroot were &most eliminated and new coconut plantings were

damaged. Probably urged by the Germans the res idents i n lfaoout 19CO" declared

an open season on a l l pigs a t large, an act ion t h a t reduced the depredations.

Nevertheless, t he ta ro crop had been wiped ottt f o r a period. A similar s to ry

i s to ld by ~ i j b a r ; pigs r u i r e d t h e t a ro near:$.he and the p i t s were abandoried . . ... . .. , . . .. . . .

and remain la rge ly so t o t h i s day. The destruction of t a ro by pigs a t a time

when the native agr icul ture was already changing may wel l a c c o a t f o r t h e

conditions noted, apart from other fac tors .

Elsewhere i n t h e Marshalls t a ro continues t o oe an important food and

i t s culture might well be encouraged on Arno, p a r t i c d a r l y since it i s already

well. accepted. and t h e p i t s are present. . .

Alocasia -- Although sometimes found with the I a r e j t h i s plant i s more comqon on

protected a n d f e r t i l e well-drained so i l s . Cultivation i s largely negative,

consisting of not destroying it when other plants a r e cut. The Ktt is an

emergency food, used when others are not available, a s following the pandanus . .

season. The corm i s peel-ed and baked a few hours bnt even then may be too

i r r i t a t i n g t o eat because of t h e minkte calcium oxalate cr.yst,als. Juice of

t he green husks of t he drinking nuts i s believed t o lessen the i r r i t a t i n g

pr inciple but even a f t e r treatment the root may s t i l l be inedibLe. There i s a

bel ief t h a t some. people know what par t of t he root i s responsible f o r t he

i r r i t a t i o n and hence have more success i n i t s preparation, but there i s no

botanical reason t o suppose t h i s i s t rue . Since W i i t provides an acceptable

food when' f ree of the i r r i t a t i n g principle, some a t ten t ion might be given t o

taxonomic and va r i e t a l differences and t o met,hods of preparation f o r elsewhere

i n t he worldsome highly i r r i t a t i n g p!.ants of t h i s groug a re recdered edible

by suf f ic ien t treatment. Subst i tut ion of introduced Xanthosoma may be m c h

simpler.

Tie large leaves of h%t.and probably of I a r e j a s well are .used f o r

wrapping f i s h and other foods f o r baking. Tine flowers of Wrt nave been used.

f o r prfumring o i l .

P o a e s i a n Arm-moot "i.IaI~if6k~~ - -.-.---.

Taeca I . eontepe tz lo i$~ , t he tlarrowrootn of t he region, ex is t s as a semi- - --.,- domesticated plant, f lourishing with l i t t l e care wherever the soil. i s salt f r ee

and only noderateljj shaded. I% i s spared when other vegetation i s slashed i n

t he groves andbenef i t s from t n i s weeding. In densely shaded areas, such a s

t he i n t e r i o r of krno arid t he wartime abandoned groves on L1angar, tacca i s

soon eliminated a s a c r o p t h i s was well recognized by t h e people of L,'angar

i n explaining the small amount of tacca now found there .

Propagation scarcely o f f e r s any problems. The small rootstocks a r e

l e f t "then the la rger o.nes a r e harvested; moreover, t he plant f r u i t s abundantly.

The ~ o t a t o - l i k e rootstocks are sometimes stored f o r a short time i n t he p i t s

along the beach but soon sprou%. .U though i t i s possible t o ez t them baked,

usually the starch i s extracted. For t h i s the clean roots a r e grated &w and

placed i n a coarse c loth bag. >rater i s :.poured through as the mixture i s

s t i r r e d , thus washing out t h e c s t a r c h a n d leaving the f i b e r i n th& bag.' 'The . .

s tarch i s collected and dr ied , yielding a white high qua l i ty product t h a t can

be stored. . . . . . . . . . , . ~. . . . , . . .

Although not present i n quanti ty on al3. i s lands the mak.n'dk is

suf f ic ien t ly abundant on the a t o l l t o 'constitute an imFo?tiirt. emergency food

source i n addition t o i t s normal use. Observations suggest t ha t the 1at.ter use

i s l imited more by the labor involved i n harvesting and preparation ra ther than

by available supply. Inasmuch a s t h i s plant i s adapted, and can be

successfully grown beneath thecoconuts , at l e a s t i n the b e t t e r so i l s , some

at tent ion might be given t o devising simple equipment t ha t xould f a c i l i t a t e

s tarch extraction.

Bananas

On L'angar t h e r e is a l egend of how once during a period of starvation

a man i n chase OF, a r a t carryinf, away a pandanus nut discovered a grove of

bananas. This . i s reputedly the or ig in of a variety, ' Jorukwor, regarded as

indigenous, and the exact spot i s marked by thes l eep ing man'-- a massive piece

.of protruding beachrock. :.There a r e other versibks of t he s to ry but discoveryof

t h i s banana i s common t o a U . T h e deep moist s o i l of t h i s spot i s regarded a s

t he best f o r bananas, and probably is, but very few grow there now. Nowhere on

t h e a t o l l does the banana grow wild a,nd it i s probable t ha t even the Jorukwor

was an ancient introduction. MoSL. of the present'.ban&s a re known t o have been . .

introduced and often t h e circumstahces attached t o t he introduction a re

remembered, a s on Anno.1~; where two weeds were reputedly brought i n with t h e

s o i l attached t o bananas introduced by German Cathdlic missionaries ear ly i n t he

. . , . . . . century.

Culture --- The var ie t ies of barlanas now p ~ e s e n t on the a t o l l were not catal.ouged

but they seem t o be few. One o r two cookir.g bananas are g r o - . a s well a s one

o r more edible so;-ts; p~esumablly a l l of t3ese can be classed es va r i e t i e s o r

sub-species of Nusa paradisiaca. The Chinese banana, X. nana, i s recognized

a s desirable because the dwarf plants a r e much 1esBsubject t o .wind in jury and

it would be more .uiidel.y planted i f seedstocks were more abundant.

The banana 5.s propagated by means of the la rge offshoots. Since the

number of these i s usually not great under Arno conditions and 0r.e o r two are

of ten l e f t as replacements, multiplications of seedstoclts i s slow. Its growth,

of course, i s l imited t o the s a l t f r ee , somewhat more _Pertile areas protactea

from the ~rrind. Bananas seem t o be planted i n th ree general areas: (1) I n

the house courtyards, (2) i n %he groves adjacent t o the house, and (3) on the

s ides and bottoms of the t a ro p i t s .

The graveled courtyards a r e k e ~ t f ree of organic matter and 'eaves of

t he bananas are genei-al;y chloro.Lic because of a derici.ency of avai lable iron.

Young ~ l a n t s , par t icular ly , a r e occasionally zlmost completely yellow but

usually survive arid become greener, g e n e r a l y acc~nu la t ing i ron during wet

periods when the saturated soi1.s favors i'cs availabiSity. Severe defjciency

increases t he time required for f ru i t i ng and, of course, reduces yield . For

optimun growth and yield t he banana also requires moderately high leve ls of

s o i l nitrogen, ordinar i iy not found i n t he courtyard locations. Occasional

plants a r e vigorous with la rge dark green leaves but these exceptions suggest not

only t h a t t he family sani ta t ion does/comply *Ath the Plarshallese standards.

Planting s i t e s i n the s e c o ~ d group a re only arbitrarily separated from

those i n t he f i r s t but i n general have greater shading and somewhat be t t e r

s o i l s . Rwte i ron deficiency is ra re , although sub-,acute symptoms a re often

seen.. Commonly p i t s a r e dug and f i l l e d with organic refuse before t he shoots . . . .

a re planted; similarly, sand p i t s dug f o r t h e maintenance of walks are often . .

. ..

f i l l e d with household rubbish, then closed and a banana planted above. Several

a. of our s a i l p ro f i l e p i t s were le f t -open u p n request f o r t h e same purpose. . . : . ' . . . .

Such preparation i s considered good pract ice bf the more a l e r t grovers and

obviousiy i s an excellent, &beit laborious, means of providing the f e r t i l i t y

needed by t h i s crop. The method,is used i n probably no more than 25% of t he

plantings made. I n some s o i l s no marked benef i ts would be ex2ected and i n one . .

instance detrimental e f fec t s from t h i s method were reported.

On planting s i t e s of the t h i r d class, bananas usually grow well with

occasional weeding a s the only cul ture . On the lower slopes and mucky bottoms

of the t a r o p i t s nutr ients are i n f a i r supsly and moisture abundant but most of

these areas are too heavily shaded for a maximum growth.

Use - Fjrcting of conditions on nearby Majuro a t o l l , Spoehr suggested t h a t

. ,

perhaps bananas figured more a s food g i f t s f o r v i s i t i ng Americans than i n t he , .

l oca l d i e t . On Arno the banana seems t o be a well-liked f r u i t and is suff i -

c ien t ly well-regarded tha t many people, though not a l l , a r e wil l ing t o give it

the necessary minimum culture. Though children and honored vLsitors eddy I. mono~oiize the available supply, this seems t o be due more t o generosity and a

desire t o please ra ther tha t o indifference towards tine f r u i t . The present

plant numbers and yields do not seem great enough for t he f r u i t t o be of much

nu t r i t i ona l significance f o r t h e average person but it does provide some . . ' ...!

var ie ty i n t h e d i e t .

Factors Affecting Production

No major insec ts o r diseases were evident. The f r u i t i s usually

gathered green t o .avoid the f t and damage bj r a t s . . . . .

Thee f fec t s of iron and nitrogen deficiencies haire been mentioned but

there i s no doubt t 3a t these couid be Svolded o r overcome. Applications of

. . soluble i ron t o very yellow leaves i n Ine v i l l age produced a rapid greening

but such treatments neither feas ib le nor necessarj. Maintenance of a deep

surface mulch of organic matter woiild eliminate deficiency of iron, as well a s

supp1ying the nitrogen and other nutr ient elements required i n quanti ty f o r

rapid growth. Such a mulch, i f composec! l a rge ly of lo3r-nitrogen material l i k e

coconut husks, might lead t o temporary nitrogen deficiency throu.gh microbial

tie-up of t h i s element but the condition wouI;d be only temporary. If herbaceous

o r leguminous material were included i n t he mulch even such temporary tie-ups

would be unlikely.

Froduction of bananas could be jncreased.many fold simplyby fu r the r

p l a n t k ~ g s on the s o i l s known to . be most favoi-abk, such a s .the phosphate areas,

t a ro p i t s , etc., and on other s o i l s using mulch fertilization. The principal

l imi ta t ion t o such mulching i s t h e labor irwolved i n carrying the material; by

. . sca t te r ing the p l a t i n g s throughout s u i t a b l e areas, ra ther than concentrkting

them, the distance t o available materials can be kept ve.0- low. A~ound t h e

house areas, where surface organic matter often she l t e r s centipedes and

. . scorpions, p i t s f i l l e d with orgar,ic matter woad continue t o be. tiin'bcs%

iCsurance of sa t i s fac tory growth.

P a p x a and L5me -.

It i s probable t h a t t he papaya was introduced OD. the a t o l l ~ r e @ e a r l y in . .

t h e century but it i s nowhere abundant. It i s usually found a s a soaewhat

neglected t r e e near t he dwelling places and pe r s i s t s a s much by reason of it,s

heavy seeding a s by del iberate planting. The t r e e often suf fe rs from a sub-.

acute i ron deficlency. Tie only var ie ty obserrred has a mediocre f r u i t and t h e

plant i s usually allowed t o grow too t a l l . Unless picked green the f r u i t i s

. . . . ., . , . . . .. . . . . .

damaged by r a t s . There a r e occasional exceptions but generally t h e f r u i t -is . . . . .. . . . . ,

of very minor importance. :, 7 . . . . . . ,

Present i n t e r e s t i n the f r u i t does not warrant much at tent ion t o it. . . . . . . , .. ,. ~ . . . .

Introduction of be t t e r va r i e t i e s and Frovision of knowledge about t h e i r . .

cul ture and vegetative propagation a r e the obvious needs and might bring . I , :

. . . . . . . . .. . about fur ther acceptance of t he f r u i t .

. .

Large lime t r e e s a r e r e l a t i ve ly scarce but numerous younger >lants were

observed. The comon planting s i t e i s i n t he shaded i n t e r i o r s o r on t a r o p i t

slopes. Trees planted near

caused by iron deficiency.

f o r any s ignif icant e f f ec t s

but the lime ranks with t he . . . .

t he a to l l . . .

, . . . . . . . . .

t he houses often su-ffer from a severe cmorosis . , . .

The quantity of f r u i t produced is much too s m a l l . .

on the vitamin C intake of the average individual . . .

kino fern as t he major f lavoring agents used on . ,. .

~ u l c h i n ~ o r incorporation of organic matter beneath the young t r e e s a s . . . . . . . . .

, . . , ,, . . . . . .

suggested f o r the banana a r e tne obvious cu l tura l recom~endations. The s ing le . .. . . . . .

varie ty i s of good qua l i ty and apparently propagated by seed. Introduction of

addit ional va r i e t i e s i s rauch l e s s important than introduction of other c i t r u s

adapted t o the a t o l l habi ta t .

Other Introduced Food Plants . .. . . . . . . .

The ch i l e pepper (Capsicum frutescens) i s commonly grown near houses f o r

i ts f r u i t s which a re used, though sparsely, i n cooking. I n a few areas (eag .

t he phosphatic s o i l on ~ a k - l y b I s . ) an introduced punpkin grows as a semi-wild . .. . . .

plant; i t s occasional f r u i t s are eaten. Two va r i e t i e s bf' sweet potatoes,

"Bitato", were observed but t h i s crop i s grown only r a r e l y and i s of no s ignif i - .. .

cance i n the general d i e t . A small clump of sugar cane, To'o, was found growing .. . .

i n an old t a ro p i t near Ine but a p P a r e k y no e f fo r t i s being made t o increase . . . . . .

t h i s despite a general l i k ing f o r sweets. The presence of th6'yauti i ,

Xanthosoma, was noted under the discussion of taro. 4. small-fruited f i g , TEbro

(Ficus t i nc to r i a ) introduced from J a l u i t , i s found occasionally on the a t o l l

and does not appear t o have spread beyond the or ig ina l planting some years ago.

The f i r m marble-sized f r u i t s are boiled, masked and mixed with grated coconut;

thus it provides occasional var ie ty f o r few individuals. A single t r e e of

G r a k (Inocarpus fagiferus) grows and f r u i t s i n the garden of King Tobo in Ine

v i l l age and a single mango t r e e was planted on Arno Island a f t e r t h e war.

Other Introduced Plants

Neglecting horticultural. va r i e t i e s , roughly i+G$ of the species now

recorded on the a t o l l have been introduced in h i s to r i c times. I n addition t o

t he introduced food plants mentioned previously and a few weeds of foreign

or igin , several of the other exotics have some importance f o r t h e people of

Arno. With t h e i r fondness f o r flowers they have welcomed ornamentals and here,

a s throughout t he Pacif ic t rop ics , hibiscus and frangipangi (Plumeria) a r e

conspicuous. Oleander, Croton, and Bougainvillea a r e present but rare , the

l a t t e r represented by a single plant on Arno Is. Acalypha and species of

Polyscias a r e hedge plants i n Ine vi l lage, presumably by reason of Japanese

introduction. Much more widely dis t r ibuted a re two s ~ e c i e s of Pseuderanthcmm;

they are used a s hedge plants and t h e fleshy leaves of P. atropurpureum,

Tirosbin (= pink tearose) , a r e gathered a s pig feed. The herb Gcimum sanctum

i s used f o r scenting coconut o i l . The small pink f a i r y l i l y , =anthes,

blooms periodically in the graveled yards where it seems t o th r ive . The much

l a rge r H,vmenocallis l i t t o r a l i s , Kiop wau (= Lily of Gehu) was presumably brought

by Hawaiian missionaries but is now naturalized i n the open groves. Several

other garden flowers a r e found i n smaller numbers, presumably t h e hardy remnants

of successive waves of introductions. Similarly, a few plants of cotton,

Gossmium barbadense pers i s t though uncultivated. Another plant ca l led "Kotin"

. . . . .. ::. , . . . . . . - i s %e kapoi t r e e , -- ~eiba.pe&xid&; .- .- i ts ' f l o s s i s occasj.ona.lly"used f o r pillows.

. . . . . ' ~ c c o r d i n ~ ~ t o Felix, seedlings we&sellt t o k& i n 1915 by a Geman l i v i n g on

Ponape. -~kan<ed in the f e r t i l e phosphatic s o i l of ~ a k - i < b 1sl. they have

f lour ished &?I spreiki but the t r e e i s not fo&d el&wh&e oh tiie a t o l l . . . . . .

Seeds of tomat; and watermelon as 1&1 is' those of a numbir of garden . .

' &wers wire brought t o the a t o l l a s a g i f t t o t he p b p l e fiom. '~ii . Anderson. . . . . . .

observations on these plantings, a s w d l a s o n Q smali garden established by . .

t he wri ter , indlcai% a very high percentage of fa i lure . The use of' a r t i f i c i a l i' '

'f6i?tiY.izers, co~~@bst;s o r inul.ches be riekessary for successful growth of mcx;ti;,

.. . . . . .

common garden crops. ' In t h i s c o n k k t i & t h e shallow fresh'watgr peats of old

t a r o p i t s may be used t o surface smallgarden spots f o r a few preferred plants

such as the t.o.mato. . . . .

. . Indigenous E.1ants of Value

7 7 . virtually. , a,li. . . t$e indigenous p l a n t s figured i n the native materia medica . . .

and many had other uses. The loo, Hibiscus t i l i a c e s , i s a f i be r plagt of value. . . . .

I n habit it resembles a gigantic bush and i s found singly o r i n very.smal1

groups i n ruois.$ s o i l and abandoned t a r o p i t s . &l'though here considered . . .

. indigenous,. . . . i t s l imited occurrence znd l ack of aggressiveness suggest t n a t v e r j

possibly C t , too, i s an ancient introduction. The ta l l s t ra igh t poles a r i s ing . . . . , , . .

from the old horizontal branches a r e . . stripped f o r t h e i r tough inner bark. This . , .

is used as cordage o r as an eas i ly h y e d f i b e r fo r mat weaving, e tc . The inner . . . .

bark of arme, Pipturus ., argenteus , was r e l i e d up0.n. f o r f i s h l i n e s and is s t i l l

u s e d when:imported l i n e s are not available. The bark of Triumfetta provides a

colored f i b e r f o r weaving. .. .

T'fl.e,.grasses, Thuarea, glusine and Pas~a lu rn~ and espacial ljr . the ubiquit0LE . ..

legume, Vigna marina, provide much of the feed consumed bychickens. The leaT3s , . .;, ., . . . . ,,. ,

: . . ofIpomoeatuba -.- are gathered for,.pigs:,.,, I n addition t o t he uses,of i t s tough . . . , . . . . ., .

wood, t'qe f r u i i s of t he mangrove, JoR, gu-u~Lr2 con.iufiata, i s a source of t h e

blacic dye used f o r decorat?ig mat f ibers. Likewise, roots of Morinda provide

a yellow dye. The fronds of a fern, Kino, Folypodim,scoloy;endria, are widely . ..

, .. , .

used f o r the f lavor imparted t o fowl, etc., baked in i t s leaves. The nuts .. . ...

from the two species of Te rmina l l a r e used occasionally but t he supply is very

limited. Barr in~tonia , f r u i t s a r e used a s f i s h poison but only by children.

The wood of -- Guttarda was used f o r f i r e plows, not much in demand a t present.

Pr ior t o cooking, octopus i s covered with leaves of Y.esserschmidia a d

pounded. Tests of t he dried Leaves (by J. B. Sumner, Cornell University),

however, snow no appreciab1.e amounts of protein-decomposing enzymes.

LIVESTOCK

Other than does and ca t s and occasional pet pigeons and. reef herons,

t he only domesticated animals now on t h e a t o l l a r e pigs and chickens, first . ,.......... . . ~ . . . .

introduced by the Germans ar.d missionaries. Turkeys and ducks a r e said t o

have been $resent p r ior t o t he war.

Poult= -- Old men st i l l remember t h a t Defore t he missionaries came the jungle fowl

l ived i n quasi-domestication on these islands; they were vslued fo r t h e cockdl*

I t s e l f an ancient imnugrant, brought i n some forgotten canoe, t he jungle fowl

was absorbed by the introduced chickens although some of t he plumage character-

i s t i c s a r e still seen. The present population has resulted from a mixture of

breeds, mostly now unrecognizable except f o r the feather pat tern of t h e

Frizzles, sa id t o have been introriuced by the Japanese. The Arnoeze do no t e a t

eggs and t h e chickens a r e kept, only f o r meat. Body s i ze is usually qu i t e small

md the merits of the stock a re l a rge ly hardiness and t h e a b i l i t y t o forage.

The chickens a r e kept penned only r a r e ly and t h e i r food consist of grasses,

seeds (par t icular ly of Vigna), insects , etc. , discarded coconuts and the meager

househo3.d scraps. Young chicks a r e sometimes fed grated coconut o r coconut and

chopped grass. The hens ilste.alll th62r nest$; they a re good mothers and

corrmonly bring off broods of from 1 2 t o 15 chicks. Subsequent mortali ty is

high and three-Geek-old broods seldom nuaber more than 6 t o 9. Food, weather

and disease doubtlessly account f o r many of these losses hut predation by ca%s

i s probably much grea te r than the people concede.

Despite these hazards the chickens a r e abundant and of some importance

a s a protein source, :a l though. the use seems t o be Emited t o special o c c a h .

They could be more important' f o r there i s addit ional poultry range outside of

t he well popclated areas: Improvement of t h e exis t ing stock and pract ices i s

qui te possible but only,,within cer ta in limits: (1) There i s no reason t o

emphasize egg produ.ction u n t i l the time when people accept eggs i n t h e i r d i e t .

(2) Feed supplies w i l l continue t o be much a s described above, with an ample

native range and only l imited supplemental feeding. Additional coconut could

b e fed a s i n t i e Ph i l i pphes , but other supplements a r e not in sight . Hence,

feed w i l l probably continue t o l irnit growth. 3 Early mortali ty cou ldbe

' decide@Ijr'decreased by confinement and suppleme.nta.1 feeding of the chicks.

Other changes i n present practice cannot be expected, except possibly within

the vil lages, f o r the. chickens must range widely t o feed. The hardiness,

disease resistance and foraging a b i l i t y of the ,presen t stock a re necessary

a t t r ibu tes . Thus, t he only pract ical recommendation i s introduction of males

of some vigorous, f e r t i l e , medium-weight:breed such a s t h e meat-type

New Hampshire t o upgrade t h e native stock.

The C i v i l Administration n a t p ~ e school a t Majuro has recent ly i m ~ o r t e d

ducks. Various breeds, including tbe Muscovy, should be t r i e d f o r ducks ar'e

worthy of tflorough trial i n view of t he i r previous presence and the posssi le

.: . i - . . : food supply of t he shallow beaches.

Swine -- The rapid increase in n-mbcrs fol!.o.&ng i;ltroducti.on and t h e conseqxeat

disastrous e f fec t s on agr icu l ture ear ly i n the century have been mentioned in

connection d t h t a ro culture. in t h e %ore populated areas pigs a t l a rgc are

s t i l l prohibited, although enforcement i s not always s t - ic t , and there an

occasional family pig is kept i n a stone walled pen. In a f e-d areas pigs ranee

a t \ r i l l witn conseyent destruction of a l l edible plants.

A very rough eslimate o? t h e t o t a l nunber of pigs i n the a t o l l would be

besween 100 and 150. Their numbers were grea t ly educed during t h e war and

' some of t he Guani breed were brought in during post-'war rehabi l i t a t ion e f fo r t s .

Crosses of t h i s adapted Lrsed ,with t he rent; loca l animals have resul ted in

sone upgrading but t i e e f fec t s do not seem very mrked. I n two instances

second and th i rd generaGlon animals, s t i l l with 25 or 50% Guam blood,

qproached the loca l breed i n s ize .

Tnds d i r ec t s a t t a t i o n t.o t he nutri5iona.l s t a tu s of t h e animal. Con-

f ined anixals alrrost cex4xird.y rece ive ,a very low energy rat ion, unless

del iberaie ly fattened, for leaves, household scraps, etc., can seldom be f ed a s

swfficient q ~ a n t i t i e s . Coconut is v i r tua l ly she only concentrate and it is not

usually fed i n quantity except. t o pigs fattened f c r l a rd production. Pigs a t

l a rge appear t o f a r e sonewhat b e t t e r but unless t h e i r numbers are small i n

r e l a t i on t o area ranged they soon wipe out the plants t ha t supply t h e i r feed.

It i s obvio\ts t ha t protein in% aks must be minimal. Of the mir.erals, calcium

should be adequate because of the leafy feeds and incidee+,al ingestion of s o i l .

The sources of phosphorus a r e iim2ted aithough they may suff ice f o r tine low

energp r-t ' lon. . .

Thus it appears Chat both a n i m l nurbers and att,empts t o impro~re the . .

breed w i l l be rest,ricted by t h e natnre and apount of food avaflable. Increasing

t he area of "upen range" would pro vide more food bmt would el.iroir!a.r;e t h e

poss ib i l i t y of growir!g tacca.; bmanas, taro, etc. , there . Oork i s a highly

desirable food, providing ani.mil, p ro t e i c addin.5 much needed vai-i.ety . t o the

d i e t , and the l a r d is valued a s well.. k mdera t e .increase i n t h e swine popula-

t ion i s f eas ib l e but .under present conclitions an7 considerab3.e increase would

be - a t -the expense of other foodstuffs.

A s pointe.? out, mwh of t h e e.xtensicn of t he coconut groTJes was a t t he

expense of the or ig ina l forest.ed area. T h ~ s the Pko?ias which Agassis

copnenf;ed on wken he v i s i t ed the ato1.l i n 1930 a re nowhere abundant itow. T0da.y

there is l i t t l e t o show the nature of t h a t fores t a t its best ; t h e "jung3.e"

areas i n the i n t e r io r of Urno and L1angar is . are ~ l e a r l y secondary fores t . The

only wooded area. t ha t m y have s o ~ e af; init ies d t h original. f o re s t is on .,

t!.e a t m i c a l s o i l s of ,Tak-lib Is. Here a r e a few ltlrge PLsonia, Cordia., Tntsia

(Kfzelia) together with otb.er species, but the introduced C ~ i b a s ~ g g s s t s a very

Forest, s i t aa t ions --..--,--

Apart from the a.tove it is convenient t o recogn ize four Vorest

sZtuations," ~ ! t : i o u ~ ~ these are not va l id ecological unizs. (1) On exposed

shores ar,d recent l a rds tne s!?orelir.e b r u s h i s com~osed la rge ly of t h e spraw- - .-.-. -.-.

3caevola w i th a variable arnourit of P;essersckflidie.. On sandy lagoon ahores md

i . 6 ,, el-ior. s d i i i e f!a!Ls Temphisr or r a r e ly *iana, is more l i k e l y t o dominate.

This type i s of velue as a wiridbreal: and some of t h e woody stens a re used.

(2) Nwging w i t n the & w e i s t he ki;c;& ~ , ~ u i , c o ~ s i s t i n g of Scaevola

and 1Gesserschi:ii.dla together ! .~+,h t r e e species, such a s Pandarlus, Guettarda.,

Ochrosia, Ocnrocwp.ls, T e m i n d i a , Korinda, In t s i a an4 o c c . a s i . o n a ~ l y , ~ ~ u . ~ ~ g ~ ~

ar,d Calophyllum. The t r e e s a r e young and t h e species present deper.d on the

degree of s a l i n i t y and seed supply. Such m W m e s of ten represent stages i h

t he vegetational siccessiun. followin& dist,wbance by storms or clears-ng. ' Thus,

without ,periodic cut t ing t h e t r e e s would event~icllly dominate. Occasionally one

f inds small stands of older Ochrosia.,. Soularnea, Guettarda , or various mrixtures . .

where t h i s has occurred.. Else7,kere t he mixed brush areas a r e t r ans i t i on zones;

a mixture with Pandanus predominating i s of ten found on th- beach rampart,

tapering in height from the outer shore brush t o groves inland. The mixed

brush. . . . types . a.re widely d i s t r ibu ted and pmvi6e a var ie ty of d i f fe ren t woods

and shapes for iocdl. use.

3 Secondary fo re s t s on the dark sal t - f ree so i l s of the h t e r i o r con-

s i s t of AllaphyLlus, Premma., Korinda, P ip tur ia and Guettarda, together w i t h +he

wild Pandanus and sometimes I n t s i a o r young h r toca rpx . Ixora i s loce l ly

abundant on Lrno Islana, and Fibiscus til:'.aceus may occur i n moist spots. A l l

of the areas of such fo re s t s a r e r e l a t i ve ly young and usually they have

originated a s an understory i n abandoned coconut or breadfruit groves. A high

proportion of stems tend t o be ra ther crooked but t he stands a r e su f f i c i en t ly

dense t o la rge ly overcome t h i s . The r e l a t i ve ly long, small diameter p d e s a r e

well suited for framing thatched houses and a r e read i ly cut and mndled.

IIeqce t h i s f o r e s t is of value but i t s occurrence is limited t o a few is lands

and there l a rge ly owes i ts existence t o neglect. Several of these species a r e

good t i d e r t r e e s elsewhere i n t h e Pacif ic but on Arno the crooked stems of

young t r ee s and the spradi.ng form of older rel.fcs suguests t h i s is not t rue

on the a t o l l habi ta ts . Breadfruit (Artocarpus) is t h e fioteworthy exception.

(4) Several small areas of rrangrove -- o c c ~ r , cn ie f ly i n inland

depessions. Bruguiera i s the pr incipal species, forrring dense pure stands on

the . shallow . brackish peats and rocky aepressi.ons of L'angar,. Tinak and other , .

islands. Elsewhere it occurs x i t h Lurnnitzera,iri s m a l l brackish basins. The ;

young poles a r e s t r a i g h t kt the older t r e e s tend to be crooked and seldo2

exceed t e n inches i n diameter. 3n Biliareij and N m w i Is. Zmgniera forms sma1.1

pure slands along the mai3,qirs of s a l i ne f l a t s and Lzlets 3s wel l as mixing with

Sonneratia . The in1 and mangrove areas a r e cea r l y vabe le s s for agr icul ture but

a r e of decided iniportance to nearby res idents a s B .source of tough. poles and

durable wood.

Other sources of small diameter poles a r e the woady invaders of coconut,

and breadfruit groves but t h e i r abundance i s i n proportion t o t he i n t ens i ty of

clearing. Larse t r e e s of Pandmus, CalophyUm, Ochrosia, Terniina1i.a and

In t s i a a r e occasionslly found as isolhted ir ;dividmls along protected shores or

i n door yards. Ilnese a r e usual ly too la rge t o be u t i l i zed with available too7se

Frgifi t h e t o t ime the large breadfrwit d i e and decay without u t i l i z a t i o n f o r t h

saze reason. Root suckers of' breadfruit may form co lo~Les thsit occasionaEy,

as on the Arno Is., t & e on t h e aspects of a f o r e s t starld and & r e excellent

sources of s t ra igh t ~or!.<aDle trunks.

Species and Uses

A i ist of woody spec;es used by the Marshallese vou!.d simply be a

catalog of those occurring f o r almost a l l a r e u t i l i zed . Tile du rab i l i t y of

Bruguiera, Lmnitzera and In t s ia i n contacf i r i th t h e s o i l , as well as t h e ta@m

ness of these, Ochrccarpus and Galophylium a r e known. ?he bide use of bread-

frui.t fo r canoes has been mentioned and it is worked i n irany other ways.

Although l e s s abundant than now formerly, Corclia, workable snd tough, serves

f o r t!le end-pieces of small canoes, a d is nade into paddies, platform boards,

pounding bowls, hatblocks and for s imilar incidental csrving. I n addition t o

t he breddfruit Soulamea provides support beams for canoe octriggers and cwved

pieces of it, a s v ~ e l l a s t h e s t e m of Scaevola, a r e ~ s e d for the arched braces

t o t h e outrigger f l o a t . The very hard Pemphis is spliced on as mast t i p s and

onto sail. poles

protective keel

as a Searing frog against t he msst.; it js also used as t h e

. Penphis, Randia and Ixora a r e mzde into cage-type f i sh t raps . . .

and Prc?mna, ~1loph;rl lus ,and ~ k i f z e r a a r e t h e preferred woods f o r fishir!g poles . ,. . '

Net f l o a t s have been aide ~f ttil very r igh t wood of Hibiscus t i l i a ceus . St,raSght . . . .

p o l e s or posts of almost any species a r e bf v a h e f o r house building but di.ffer- , . . . . . . . ences are recognized, thxs Sasrngtonia is considered a very poor wood. COCOIII%

i s occasionall.y used, for heavy posts but is not durable i n contact ?dtb t h e so& ..

, Constmcti.on Requirements . . .

The discontinuance of tine wartime base on I%a.juro provided. a bonanza. of . .

construction materials t h a t s t i l l has i t s e f fec t on the archi tecture and con- . .

s t ruct ion of Arno. The abundance of frame and frame-thatched hybrid dwellings

tends t o obscurk t h e f a c t t h a t h o u s i q af sawn lurrber is si-mply not cornpatibible

with the present average income of the Arnoese. i3arring other bonanzas, most

of the people w i l l go back t o l i v i n g in thatched houses a s decay and

obsolescence claim the present shanties. The few pre-wcr 'frame buildings were , .

l a rge ly Japanese houses o r s t o r e s and copra sheds. it is e a s y t o ca!.cu!.atethat

a t present-day prices t he re w i l l be very l i t t l e construction, even of

Karshallese-size houses, with pxrchased lwn'aer. Hence the need for pandanus . . ! . , .

thatch and. smal!. diameter poles f o r framing is l i k e l y to increase i n the future, , .

... . . . . , . . . . . .

Since r a i n f a l l stored i n c i s t e rns provides the main fresh water source for t he . .

vi l lage areas, t h e demand f o r metal roofing i s a reasonable one and w i l l con-

t inue strong. Eoat construction :#ill continue t o require wo~d, e i t he r sol id

breadfrui t logs f o r outrigger canoes or sawn lumber for t h e more conventional

small boats . Because of the considerable d i f f i c u l t i e s of transporting wood some

. .

individuals o r groups nay lack but, a t present, t h e r e a r e ample supplies of . .

...

wood a n d . thatch . ,. f o r builcting on the a t o l l . Continued clearing and . .

i

be t t e r maintenance of t he groves w i l l . a~itomatica.lly reduce wood supply. Future

prospects a r e f o r diminishing supplies and somewhat higher demands.

Future Neasures -- Suggested measures for irnproting wood supply depend t o some degree on

education o r supervision and hence a re not practlcab3.e under exis t ing circum-

stances. They are: (1) Education i n and encour~gement of simple care of

woodland areas not i n confl ic t with agricu!.tural use. Thus the productivity of

t he mangrove swamps, i n terms of useful material, could be increased by simply

cut t ing or girdl ing oversized and crooked t rees . Breadfruit i s potent ia l iy t he

most valuable timber t r e e and i t s p h n t j n g should be e~couraged beyond the need

f o r the f r u i t .

( 2 ) It i s doubtful t h a t any introduced s ~ e c i e s would be superior t o

breadfruit i n r a t e of growth 0.r general u t i l i t y but Casuarina and the bamboos

have special merits. The Casuarina i s a strand t r ee , occurring on coral shores

elsewhere i n the Pacif ic and might succeed i n the beach zone.. Theform of the . .

t r e e i s f a i r t o good and the wood hard but subject t o sp l i t t i ng . T h e ba~boos

are so gmera l ly useful else-&here tha t they are worthy of e.xkensive t r i a l s .

Mr. Kessel of the Civil Government School a t Majuro reported tha t a pl-anting of

bamboo made there has fa i led . There are several genera and species of bamboos,

however, and these should be t r i e d on a var ie ty of planting s i t e s , especially

t he old t a ro p i t s and, moist s o i l s of the i n t e r io r s , and on the%ree areas of

phosphatic so i l s .

(3 ) Tne poss ib i l i ty of a small portable saxnil1 serving one o r more

a t o l l s should not be overlooked, although admittedly a project of t he future.

Presumahly t h i s would e n t a i l cooperative ownership, and operation would require

mechanical s k i l l s but these problems have already been met with some success i n

t he acquisit ion of atol-1-owned ships. The cap i ta l investment required would

amount t o , say, one-fo~?rth t o one-half of t he sum represented- by the . a t o l l ' s

copra production f o r a single month and hence i s by no meansprohibitive. The

r e a l problems involved a re sa t i s fac tory transpor-t of t h e mi l l from place t o

place and of the l o g s t o t he m i l l , a s well a s rigorous control of cutt ing. The

,sourca of logs wou!d be very la rge ly breadfruit and coconut, t h e l a t t e r yieldhg.

"porcupine wood," sui table f o r use i f kept dry. Obviously such cu t t ing could

not be' permitted t o reduce production of food o r copra and it need not. A re-

placement program for overage palms and removal of over-mature o r crowded

breadfruitwould provide a continuous supply of sawn lumber from materidlnow

l a rge ly wasted. . . . . . .

FOOD SUPPLIES AND NUTRITION

The appraisal of food supply and nut r i t iona l significance can be in only

themost general. terms f o r t he wr i t e r has no e s t i m t e s u f productivity and con-

sumption, nor are there nu t r i t iona l data f o r many components of t he d i e t .

Further, our observations were f o r a l imited period i n the seasonofabundarrt

food. Nevertheless, there a re - ample signs t h a t at present t h i s atoll. i s well

supplied with food, so f a r as t o t a l quant i ty i s concerned. The sustained pro-

duction of copra . i s an obvious guarantee against near-starvation levels . The

unused suppli.es of arrowroot, breadfrui t and alocasia, t he decrease i n f ishing

and t a r o culture, and the ra ther minor a t tent ion t o food storage suggest- that

such food shortages a s occur a r e f a r from c r i t i c a l . -There ma$ well be times

when the d i e t is l imited t o the l e s s desirable foods or those obtainedmore

laboriousiy - t o "fish, crabs and copra" a s was sa id on Lfangar -- but the

ac tua l calor ie intake can be maintained. Further than t h i s , some food i s , .

imported, although primarily f o r the high income f aa i l i e s . , . . .

' N u t r i t i o n i s one of the fads of our time a s well as a subject f o r sober

investigation, andsome of t he recent re&orts o n tRe.Pacif ic areas contain

f a c i l e judgments on ,the adequacy of nst ive diets . Without clinical. evidence of

deficiency . . . . o r detai led appraisal of d i e t , sup~lemented with analyses, s w h . . , ,

juclgnents can scawely be more than opinion. To begin with, from a l l accounts

t he Narshallese thrived f a i r l y well on %heir or iginal is land l i iet which contzind

no l ea fy vegetables, only pandanus and possibly bananas a s f r u i t , and cer ta in ly

no milk. iiather than the or ig ina l d i e t it is the subsequent modification of j.t

t h a t provides cause for co:mern.

From considerations i n other paragraphs it i s evident t h a t the

agr icul tural production of t he a t o l l i n terms of calor ies f a r exceeds present

die tary neecls, although la rge percentage of t h i s i s i n t h e form of copra. Thus . .

it may readi ly be cal.culated tha t about one-third (ca. 1 5 t o 16 tons .pr month) , -.

of t he present copra production would alone f u l l y supply the energy requirements

(2500 calor ies Fer p r s o n per day) of the en t i r e population (1200). Aithough

the idea of such a d i e t i s f an t a s t i c t he f igure demonstrates t he importance of

t h e coconut a s a reserve points out t h a t the amount actual ly consumed i s

only a f ract ion of t h a t prepared f o r ewor t . In f a c t t h e contribution of

coconut t o the average calor ie intake i s probably greater than comonly real.j.&,

for. although the mature nut i s scarceljr eaten when other foods a r e avai lable

the consumption of the sof t f l e sh of d r s ~ i n g nuts and of i~ (cav5ty t i s s u e ) i s

very appreciable. Xuch of t h i s i s eaten outside of the reguiar meals and often

away f romthe dwellings. It seems Likely t h a t coconut ranks near breadfrui t

and pandanus a s major calor ie sources, with t he protein foods, tacca, t a ro , etc.,

and imported foodstuffs ranking well. below.

There i s reason t o believe t h a t f i sh ing i s carr ied on t o a l e s s e r extent

than formerly but t h e principal protein sources are s t i l l f i s h and seafood.

Pork and poultry can make but a smal.1 contribution t o t he average requirement.

Breadfruit and t a r o a r e considered low protein foods but, according t o avai lable

analyses, i f eaten i n suf f ic ien t quanti ty t o s a t i s f y t he d a i l y c a l o r i e requLre- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.. . . . . . . . . . .

ment they supply from om.-fuurt,h t o one-haif t he established prote&n..rqpire- . . . . . . .. ,. . . . .

. . . . . . . .

, . . . . . ,

ments of t he normal adult , although the qua l i ty of tkiis protein i s unknow~.. . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . Analyses of dried pandanus f lour and preserved breadfruit . . . . from . Kapingarnarangi .

~. , ,. ,

(kindly supp1j.ed by C, D. Miller, H. Denning . . . and A. Bauer of t l l e m i v e r s i t y . of . . , . , . : . > ' , , . . . . . . . .

, . :

Hawaii) show the dr ied pandanus, and hence presumably t4.e o ~ i g i n a l f r u i t , t o be . .

a poor protein source. Flesh of t he immature coconut qay have a muchhigher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

protein-calorie r a t i o than the mature nutmeat. . :

Although concern has been expressed over t he starchy d i e t of breadfrui t , . , , , . .

and t a ro the Hawaiian workershave demonstrated tha+ t&ese foods are , i n f a c t , , .

much superior t o white f lour and r i c e i n respect t o t h e B,viti?1?5ns ind calcium. . . . .

- The high calcium content i n araceous plants may be of no value, however,

. . .

because of the presence of oxalates. Breadfruit i s consiciered a fa i r sour ,ce . of . .

vitamin C, even when cooked, and t h i s . . . may be of considerable significance i n . . . . .

view of t he quant i ty consumed. Assays. of the two Rapggaaarangi foods bear out . ,. . ..'.." . . . .

these r e su l t s and suggest t h a t t h e pandanus i s a f a i r source of vitamin A. . ^. , . . . . . . . . . . .

Aithough f lu id from t h e drinking nut contains re la t ive ly , ? m a l l amwnts o f ,> . ,..

accessory substances, t h e quant i ty consumed must be,considered . , i n e v a l u a t i n g its. . , .

contribution. Fish, crabs and other seafood provicle minerals and. several of Qx? . . . . . . .

vitamins, as well a s proteins, i n proportion t o t he q u q t i t y consmed. Vitamin . . .

D . . . i s presumably of l i t t l e concern except f o r in fan ts and some women c ~ n t ~ o u s l ; ~ . . . . . . ,

sheltered from the sun. .... . ,. .:. . . . . . . . .;., . . , . I . .

These considerations suggest t h a t the adequacy o f t h e native d i e t may . . . ..! >

have been maligned unduly, a l thwgh estimates of t h e calcium, phosphorus and , . , . . . . . . .

vitamin C s t a tu s a r e weak. Sut two unhealthy t r e d s , i n t h e d ie ta ry habits. a r e . ' i . . .

appearing: The su'ostituti.on i n par t of white.-flour, sugar. and. r i c e f o r t h e . . . . . . . . . . . !, >; . . . loca l carbohydrate sources, and the rsputed reduction i n fishing. . Both.,of t h e . , . . ' I, ' . . , . . .:: .

tendencies are most marked i n t he Ine v i l l age area b e c a ~ ~ s e of the higher income

and greater foreign contacts, and a re of l e s s e r ixportance i n the more renlo-te

portions of the a t o l i . Fdension of these tendencies w i l l inevi tably lead t o

deterioration i n qua l i ty of the d i e t f o r t h e lack of l ea fy foods, f r u i t s , and

addit ional ;;rotein sources leaves but l i t t l e margin for safety. Yet increase i n

purchasing power encourages such extension and it probably cannot be avoided,

barring actual controls, Suggested posi t ive measures are mandatory enrichment

of f lour , a t such tiiile-when i ts pot-ential use i s suf f ic ien t t o warrant t h i s ,

improved f ishing methods (see report of the lqarine Biologist) and diversifica-,

t i on of t he present subsistence agr lcd- ture , adding new foods while en60uraging

use of t h e old t o provide both var ie ty and nu t r i t i ona l qual i ty i n She modified

d ie t .

It must be pointed out t h a t t h e foregoing estimat.e i s la rge ly based on

i&p?essidns and a. few analyses. Data on the actual consumption of food, both

loca l and imyortsd, a s well a s nu t r i t iona l assays and re la ted evidence, a r e . .

necessary for accurate evaluat,ion and prediction.

SLWY OF T ~ E AGRIZULTUE~;I, SIT'JATION

The agr icul ture of t he a t o l l i s thus seen to 'have two aspects, subsist-

ence and export. The' present subsistence agr icul txre i s derivative and still

r e s t s l a rge ly upon' t h e or iginal food plants, c u l t u r a l zethods and uses of nat ive

vegetation. Introduced plants nave had only minor e f f ec t s on the subsistence

agriculture and d ie t . Originally, agrgculture and f ishing were complementary

subsistence a c t i v i t i e s and t o a large extent s t i l l are. The r e l a t i ve ly small

contribution of introduced animals t o the d i e t e r i s e s from t h e i r l imited number

ra ther than loca l acceptance. Some of the changes occurring i n t h e past half

century o r so a r e displacement of t a r o as a major food, a great increase i n t he

cult ivated area and consecpent elimination o? t h e or ig ina l vegetation, g rea te r

dependence on Lnpr ted goods, and the begimings of subst i tut ion of imported f o r

. J o c d foods.. The pattern: of land holding (see report of t h e hkhropologi.st)

: d o e s not always favor f u l l e s t use of the land, particularly for subsistence

crops. None tne l e s s , t he subsistehce agrLculture is la rge ly adequate and

capable of expanding t o support a considerable increase i n population.

. . . The export ~ g r i c u l t u r e is concerned wholly with cop ra , which i s the

product of an indigenous t r e e cult ivated with pract ices t h a t are .only modifica-

.:::.tions of bhoseempioyed in t h e native agriculture. By those concerned with t he

economics of such areas, increases in export agr icul tural vvales are often

looked upon a s t h e most promising means of providing the goods and services

necessary-:for material improvement of tne people. We nave already estimated

very grossly t ha t f o r A-rno about a two-fold increase :in .co'px% production is

about the most t ha t can be hoped f o r under exis t ing practices. Such an increase

, i s a vforthwhile ob jecti-re but a limi'tted one, even: .*~he~ combined vr i t l i moderate

increases i n qual i ty and productiori. efficiency.' Fujither, pr ices f o r copra in

t h e world markets have been subject t o wide fluctuations in t h e past and. may be

i n t h e future.

Such considerations lead t o t h e question of producing other export crops

i n order t o i n c r e a s e t h e . t o t a l income'of the area and rnilimize the r i sks

inherent i n a single-crop agriculture. Unfortuna.te1.y t h e kresent prospect of

any considerable gains by such means i s exceedingly dim. I n the en t i r e Narsh&

t h e t o t a l area of protected land sui table f o r such crops i s s m a l l and it is

scat tered piecemeal, precluding any la rge single develolxents o r mechanization,

and complicating production and shipaent. Taking Urno a s representative, even

i n favorable r z i n f a l l regions t n e inherent productivity of t he s o i l s f o r most

such crops i s very low. The calcareous s o i l s preclode some crops and without

measures f o r maintaining o r increasing f e r t i l i t y t he success of others would be

fo,redoomed. Finally, were a crop decic!ed upon, discovering var ie t ies ' and

. , < .

cliLtural met'nods adapted t o tire area, the a3nos-t cer ta jn Liicelihood of pest

control and f e r t i l i t y prob!..ems, and the consi.derab1.e task of adapting the

peoglels folk ways t o t h e new crop wokid together requi.r* sustained skill-ed

e f f o r t and suprv is ion .

These and addi t ional causes f o r pessimism a re s e t fo r th by J. C . R ippew.

i n h i s 1946 report on Some ~ g r i c u l t w a l Aspects of ~ i c r o n e s i a , vol. 17 of t he . ..

USCC. Ecckomics Survey of FIicronesia. They a r e a l so implic i t i n t he perceptive

statement of Project No. E. 6, nEconomic Development of Coral IslandsM p r e ~ a r e d

f o r t he South Facif ic Coinmission Research Council. The one possib3.e exception,

sugg@sted by isp pert on, i s the production of f r u i t s , t ruck crops, etc. o n a r e a s

near Pmericm bases t o supply gar r i son forces. Although local ized i n importance

such ma6kets are lucra t ive and t h i s possibi . l i ty should be developed fu l ly . The

price incentives, i f combined with production guidance, would accelerate

agr icul tural change i n t h e areas influenced.

I n the subsistence agr icul ture it i s d e a r that many gains can readi ly be

made and tha t , i n addition, there a r e many p o s s & ~ i i t i e s t h a t o f f e r enough

prospect of success t o waxant ~ome investig&ion. Improvement of the exis t ing

crops and crop t n e s , cu l tura l methods and u t i l i za t ion , a r e real izable

o'bjectives. itltroduction of aciditional. usefd. 'p l 'ants , of which there a r e many

i n t he t ropics , i s an obvious and a t t r ac t ive pros$ect. The same considerations

mentioned f o r nex export c rops apply t o such in t rodwt ions , however, and

numerous f a i l u re s a r e t o '0; ex~ekted: Yet, the clioice is great , t he irwestment

involved i s s m a l l , and a number have &ready been t e s t ed i n par t by former

introducti&s of low isl.ands. 3ut even though swcessfu1;mere introduction is

with0u.t 'value unless t he plant with i t s cul ture i s accepked by the ~ e o p l e and

f i l l s an exis t ing o r created need;;' Moreover, plant iatroduction shou1.d be

looked uFon la rge ly as a means of supplementing, not making over, t he present

adapted agric-dture.

The l imita t ions of agr icul ture have been mentioned, Some general and . . . . . . . . . ,

spec i f ic changes i n the export and subsisterice aspects have been suggested.

Yet what i s c lear ly needed fo r subs tan t ia l impovement i n t h i s region i s a long . .

time program of on-thk-ground invest igat ion l&ked with education and demondE+=-

t ion . Both a c t i v i t i e s can be on a small scale i f properly supported and < .:. . ., . . . . . .

s taffed. A t t h i s stage, by making use of &levant information accumulated . . . . . . . . . . % . . . % . .

elsewhere i n the tropics, 'well conceived einperical. investigations could pay off . . . . . . .

handsomely for a time. The r e s u l t s w i l l be of l i t t l e vrilue, though, without , .. . . . . . . . - . . .

demonstration a n d education 'to b r ing about acceptance. ' Such extension . . . . . .

a c t i v i t i e s n e ~ e s s a r i l ' ~ reachbey&d the questions 'of production t o influence . . . . . :., . . . , $ . . . . .. , . . . . .

u t i l i z a t i o n and consum&ion. Thus, they might weil be f i t t ed" in t0 a l a rge r ... . . . 8 . . . . ' I

program of education and assistance, embracing other aspects of nat ive . . .

. . . . . . indust& and >relfare, but t h i s is a question of administrative policy.

. . . , . . . . . The people of Arno a re extremsly receptive t o new ideas, even though

, ' . . . :. ,, ~

subsequent retention and execution a r e ra ther l e s s than outstanding. Arnericati.. . . . . . .

technical. capacity i s highly regarded because of t he war-time contacts, t he . . . . . , . . .

Bilcini t e s t s and the medical successes against yaws, venereal diseases, e t c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,

People would readi ly accept an extension program modeled a f t e r the fami l ia r . . . : . . . .

agr icu l tura l extension and home demonstration a c t i v i t i e s of the U. S., but . .

,, . .

adapted t o t h e i r needs and level . Yet a l l extension work i s presumptuous t o . . . . .. , . . . . . . . . , . . ,

some degree, implying the greater wisdom of the newer knowledge, and i f such a

program i s not t o dis turb the &Clues and the sense of secur i ty i n t h e ex i s t i ng . . . . , . .> , . .

order it must be guided by anthropological a s well. a s technical considerations. : . . .

Summarizing, f o r ~ r n b iitk1.1 we f ind tha t productive capacity i n terms of

value of agr icul tural exports i s below maximum a t present but t h i s maximum is . .

de f in i t e ly l imited. I n terms of subsistence agriculture, t h e land, supple- ~ . . . . . . .

by t h e sea, i s capable of sustaining a considerzbly higher population than i s : ... . . . . . ~ . . . . ~ . .

now present, provided the meager resources a r e used f u l l y and in t e l l i gen t ly .