amazing Thailand, Khoa Sok. Adventure Magazine: 186. amazing Thailand, Inthanon. Campcar Magazine. 17: 184. Guide Book Natuional Park in Thailand, Khoa Luang. Visit Park Thailand: 160. amazing Thailand, Doi Phu Kha. Campcar Magazine. 19: 184. (1974). "MYCOTAXON." I(2): 65-148. (1974). "MYCOTAXON." I(1): 1-64. (1974). "I. M. A. Nomenclature Notice." MYCOTAXON 1(2): 142. (1975). "MYCOTAXON." I(3): 149-264. (1975). "MYCOTAXON." III(1): 1-192. (1975). "MYCOTAXON." II(1): 1-208. (1975). "MYCOTAXON." II(2): 209-276. (1976). "MYCOTAXON." III(2): 193-324. (1976). "MYCOTAXON." IV(2): 329-562. (1976). "MYCOTAXON." IV(1): 1-328. (1976). "MYCOTAXON." III(3): 325-580. (1977). "MYCOTAXON." V(1): 1-364. (1977). "MYCOTAXON." VI(2): 213-420. (1977). "MYCOTAXON." VI(1): 1-212. (1977). "MYCOTAXON." V(2): 365-528. (1978). "MYCOTAXON." VII(No.3): 441-538. (1978). "MYCOTAXON." VII(1): 1-184. (1978). "MYCOTAXON." VII(2): 185-440. (1978). "MYCOTAXON." VI(3): 421-526.

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DEvelopment Cluny Road, Singapore 1025. 39. (1987). "MYCOTAXON." XXVIII(2): 257-571. (1987). "MYCOTAXON." XXVIII(1): 1-256. (1987). Flora of Thailand Vol. 5 , Part 1. Flora of Thailand. Thailand, The Forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department Bangkok, 1987. 5: 1-138. (1987). "Transactions of The British Mycological Society." Transactions of The British Mycological Society 89(Part 3): 285-427. (1987). "Transactions of The British Mycological Society." Transactions of The British Mycological Society 88(Part 4): 433-601. (1987). "Transactions of The British Mycological Society." Transactions of The British Mycological Society 89(Part 2): 141-283. (1987). "Transactions of The British Mycological Society." Transactions ofThe British Mycological Society 88(Part 3): 291-432. (1987). "Transactions of The British Mycological Society." Transactions of The British Mycological Society 89(Part 4): 429-640. (1987). "MYCOTAXON." XXIX: 1-522. (1987). "MYCOTAXON." XXX: 1-531. (1987). The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore. The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore, Botanic Gardens Park and Recreation Department Ministry of National Development Cluny Road, Singapore 1025. 40: 76. (1987, 1988, 1989). "MYCOTAXON (The xylariaceae of The Rain Forests of North Sulawesi (Indonesia)), MYCOTAXON (Xylaria (SPHAERIALES, XYLARIACEAE) FROM CERRO DE LA NEBLINA, VENEZUELA), MYCOTAXON (A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF XYLARIA OF MEXICO)." XXIX, XXXI, XXXIV(1, 1, 2): 113-172, 103-153, 283-373. (1988). "MYCOTAXON." XXXII: 1-524. (1988). "MYCOTAXON." XXXI(2): 261-616. (1988). "MYCOTAXON." XXXIII: 1-524. (1988). "MYCOTAXON." XXXI: 1-260.

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(1994). Discovering Drugs from Nature Novel Approaches & New Sources. Conference Documentation, The Kensington Hilton, London W11, IBC Technical Services Limited. (1995). "MYCOTAXON." LV: 1-558. (1995). "MYCOTAXON." LIII: 1-516. (1995). "MYCOTAXON." LVI: 1-516. (1995). "MYCOTAXON." LIV: 1-508. (1996). "MYCOTAXON." LIX: 1-524. (1996). "MYCOTAXON." LVIII: 1-532. (1996). "MYCOTAXON." LVII: 1-524. (1996). Flora of Thailand Vol. 6 , Part 2. Flora of Thailand. Thailand, The forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department Bangkok, 1996. 6: 81-178. (1996). "MYCOTAXON." LX: 1-524. (1997). "MYCOTAXON." LXIV: 1-500. (1997). "MYCOTAXON." LXIII: 1-516. (1997). "MYCOTAXON." LXV: 1-540. (1997). Flora of Thailand Vol. 6 , Part 3. Flora of Thailand. Thailand, The forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department Bangkok, 1997. 6: 179-245. (1997). "MYCOTAXON." LXI: 1-508. (1997). "MYCOTOXON." LXII: 1-516. (1998). "MYCOTAXON." LXVIII: 1-536. (1998). "MYCOTAXON." LXVII: 1-546. (1998). "MYCOTAXON." LXVI: 1-540. (1998). Flora of Thailand Vol. 6 , Part 4. Flora of Thailand. Thailand, The forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department Bangkok, 1998. 6: 247-485.

(1998). "MYCOTAXON." LXIX: 1-540. (1998). Annual Report 1998. BRT Research Reports 1998, Biodiversity Research and Training Program. (1998-1999). amazing Thailand, Thai Travel Thai. Tourism Authority of Thailand: 396. (1999). "MYCOTAXON." LXXII: 1-556. (1999). "MYCOTAXON." LXXI: 1-534. (1999). Flora of Thailand Vol.7, Part 1. Flora of Thailand. Thailand, The forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department Bangkok,1999. 7: 1-250. (1999). "MYCOTAXON." LXXIII: 1-526. (1999). "MYCOTAXON." LXX: 1-516. (1999). Abstracts Research and Thesis 3rd. BRT Research Reports 1999, Biodiversity Research and Training Program. (2000). "MYCOTAXON." LXXIV(2): 257-546. (2000). Flora of Thailand Vol.7, Part 2. Flora of Thailand. Thailand, The Forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department Bangkok,2000. 7: 253-349. (2000). "MYCOTAXON." LXXVI: 1-522. (2000). "MYCOTAXON." LXXV: 1-536. (2000). "MYCOTAXON." LXXIV(1): 1-256. (2000). Chiang Mai: 244. (2001). Flora of Thailand Vol. 7, Part 3. Flora of Thailand. Thailand, The Forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department Bangkok, 2002. 7: 351- 654. (2001). "MYCOTAXON." LXXIX: 1-530. (2001). "MYCOTAXON." LXXX: 1-548. (2001). "MYCOTAXON." LXXVIII: 1-540. (2001). "MYCOTAXON." LXXVII: 1-540.

(2001). BRT Research Reports 2001. BRT Research Reports 2001, Biodiversity Research and Training Program. (2001). Abstract of BioThailand 2001, 7-10 November 2001. BioThailand, Queen Sirikit National Convention Center Bangkok, Thailand, Research to Market BioThailand 2001. (2001). The First International Biotechnology Trade Exhibition & Conference. Bio Thailand 2001, Plenary Hall, Queen Sirikit National Convention Center, Bangkok, Thailand, Production Management & Services CO., LTD. (2001). Research Project National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology. Research Project National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC). (2002). Flora of Thailand Vol.7 , Part 4. Flora of Thailand. Thailand, The Forest Herbarium, Royal Forest Department Bangkok, 2002. 7: 655-920. (2002). BRT Research Reports 2002. BRT Research Reports 2002, Biodiversity Research and Training Program. (2002). Research Project 2002. Research Project 2002, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC). (2002). Food Mycology Protein Bioresources Culture Collection Plant Marine Medical. BIOTEC Yothi Research Unit. (2003). BRT Research Reports 2003. BRT Research Reports 2003, Biodiversity Research and Training Program. (2003). Flower in Thailand, Biodiversity Re. (2003). BioThailand 2003 Technology for Life. Abstracts of BioThailand 2003, Peach, Pattaya, Thailand, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC) National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA) Ministry of Science and Technology. (2003). The 2nd International Conference on Medicinal Mushroom and the International Conference on Biodiversity and Bioactive Compounds. Bio Thailand 2003, Peach, Pattaya, Thailand, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnlogy, National Science and Technology Development Agency, Ministry of Science and Technology. (2003). Mushrooms Several, Switta a Philanthropic foundation.

(2004). BRT Research Reports 2004. BRT Research Reports 2004, Biodiversity Research and Training Program. (2004). Abstracts : The IV Asia - Pacific Mycological Congress & The IX International Marine and Freshwater Mycology Symposium. The IV Asia - Pacific Mycological Congress & The IX International Marine and Freshwater Mycology Symposium, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology International Mycological Association Committed for Asia and British Mycological Society. (2004). State of The Thai Environment Biodiversity. (2004). Annual Report 2004. A Driving Force for National Science and Technology Capability. (2005). Flora of Thailand Vol. 9 , Part 1. Thailand, The Forest Herbarium: National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department Bangkok, 2005. 9: 1-89. (2005). Flora of Thailand Vol. 8 , Part 1. Flora of Thailand. Thailand, The Forest Herbarium : National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department Bangkok, 2005. 8: 1-303. (2005). Abstracts of Papers Published in International Journals 9th. Abstracts of Papers Published in International Journals 9th, Sofitel Raja Ochid Hotel, khon Kaen, Biodiversity Research and Training Program. (2005). Abstracts Research and Thesis 2005 : 9 th BRT Annual Conference. Abstracts Research and Thesis 2005, Sofitel Raja Ochid Hotel, Khon Kaen, Biodiversity. (2005). Annual Report 2005. BRT Annual Report 2005, Biodiversity Research and Training Program. (2005). Wine Fruit and Sato convinced to Produce, Khon Kaen University, Fervaap, BIOTEC & NSTDA. (2005). S&T in Thailand: Towards the Molecular Economy. NSTDA Annual Conference 2005, NSTDA, NECTEC, BIOTEC, MTEC, NANOTEC, TMC, Thai Land Science Park, members of NSTDA Ministry of Science Technology. (2005-2006). Annual Report 2005-2006. BIOTEC, Biodiversity Research and Training Program. (2006). "Songklanakarin : of Technology." E- journal 28(No.1): 1-226. (2006). Them: Building Up Mycology In Thailand. The Annual Meeting of Thai

Mycological Association (TMA) and Mycology Conference in Thailand, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Thai Mycological Association (TMA) and Faculty of Agricultural Technology, Thai Mycological Association (TMA) and Faculty of Agricultural Technology, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang (KMITL), Bangkok 10520, Thailand. (2006). Science and Technology for Sufficiency Economy 32nd. Abstracts 32nd Congress on Science and Technology of Thailand (STT), Queen Sirikit National Convention Center (QSNCC). (2006). Advanced Thailand :Geographic , 12. Advanced Thailand :Geographic. 96: 248. (2006). Breakthroughs in Life Science, BIOTEC a member of NSTDA. (2007). BRT Newsletter. BRT Newsletter: 87. AANEN, D. K., T. W. KUYPER, et al. (2001). "A widely distributed ITS polymorphism within a biological species of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Hebeloma velutipes." Mycol. Res. 105: 284-290. The ectomycorrhizal fungus Hebeloma velutipes consists of

two biological species (BSP 16 and 17). Within BSP 17 a dikaryon was found with two divergent types of the ribosomal Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS1 and 2). The two ITS types segregated in monokaryotic progeny of that dikaryon, showing that these different ITS types represent different alleles at homologous rDNA loci in the two nuclei. RFLP analysis of a number of strains of BSP 17 showed that the polymorphism is widespread in Europe. There was no deficiency of the heterokaryotic type, demonstrating that ITS divergence in this species is not correlated with reduced intercompatibility. A strain from North America, not assigned to a biological species, showed the same polymorphism. Cladistic analysis of the two ITS sequences showed that they were not sister groups. One of the ITS types formed a monophyletic group together with the ITS type of BSP 16, the other type formed a clade with the ITS type of H. incarnatulum (BSP 18). BSP 16 and 17 showed partial intercompatibility. However, several lines of evidence suggest that the polymorphism of BSP 17 is not the result of frequent and continuing hybridisation with BSP 16. Instead, we give arguments for the hypothesis that the polymorphism evolved in allopatry and that the two types have come together relatively recently. The results of the polymorphism indicate a potential problem for molecular identification of fungal species based on ITS fingerprinting. The results also show that no generalisations are possible about the relation of speciation (the formation of BSP) and nuclear ITS divergence.

AARLE, I. M. v., H. ROUHIER, et al. (2002). "Phosphatase activities of

arbuscular mycorrhizal intraradical and extraradical mycelium, and their relation to phosphorus availability." Mycol. Res. 106(10): 1224–1229. We investigated the influence of changes in external

phosphorus (P) concentration on the proportion of phosphatase-active structures of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Gigaspora margarita associated with Allium cepa. The P treatment was started when mycorrhizal colonisation had been established, and plant systems were harvested three times after the start of the P treatment. Higher shoot dry weights and P contents were observed in the high-P treated plants at the last harvest.Wedid not find any change in the proportion of phosphatase-active extraradical mycelium following P treatment. However, the proportion of alkaline phosphatase-active mycelium was positively correlated for extraradical and intraradical mycelium. Also, the proportion of alkaline phosphatase-active arbuscules seemed to increase with the shoot fresh weight, whereas the proportion of acid phosphatase-active arbuscules decreased with higher shoot P concentration and dry weight. We have shown experimentally that the intraradical mycelium of G. margarita, but not the extraradical mycelium, responds metabolically to plant P concentration, and possibly also to external P availability.

Abbott, S. P., T. C. Lumley, et al. (2002). "Use of holomorph characters to delimit Microascus nidicola and M. soppii sp. nov., with notes on the genus Pithoascus." Mycologia, 94(2): 362-369. Several isolates of a perithecial microascaceous ascomycete

having falcate ascospores and a Scopulariopsis anamorph were obtained from rotting wood in the boreal forest of Alberta, Canada. Additional isolates appeared conspecific based on anamorphic characters, but failed to produce a teleomorph. These isolates showed similarities to Microascus nidicola (type species of the genus Pithoascus) and Scopulariopsis flava. Sexual compatibility systems were investigated to establish holomorph concepts for these taxa. The teleomorph obtained in mating trials among anamorphic isolates was identical to that of self-fertile isolates. The new heterothallic species M. soppii is described. The anamorph is S. soppii. Single ascospore isolates derived from M. nidicola demonstrated homothallism and lacked an anamorph. Scopulariopsis flava (basionym Acaulium flavum) is considered a nomen dubium. Generic concepts of Pithoascus are evaluated and the genus is treated as a synonym of Microascus. Pithoascus stoveri is transferred as M. stoveri comb. nov.

ABDEL-WAHAB, M. A., E. B. G. JONES, et al. (1999). "Halosarpheia kandeliae sp. nov. on intertidal bark of the mangrove tree Kandelia candel in Hong Kong." Mycol. Res. 103: 1500-1504. Halosarpheia kandeliae sp. nov. collected on intertidal bark of

Kandelia candel is described and its unique ascus morphology illustrated. It is compared with other Halosarpheia spp. and Aniptodera salsuginosa.

ABDULLAH, S. K., J. CANO, et al. (2000). "The aero-aquatic Helicodendron microsporum n. sp. from Mallorca, Spain." Mycol. Res. 104: 375-377. A new aero-aquatic helicosporous hyphomycete,

Helicodendron microsporum, is described and illustrated from decaying leaves submerged in a small arti®cial pond surrounded by Quercus ilex and Pinus halepensis in Mallorca, Spain. It is characterized by branched conidiophores with chains of hyaline conidia eventually forming white clusters which do not break up even at maturity. It also has small conidia (8--10 µm diam.) consisting of a 2--2.5 µm thick filament which coils 1.5--2 times counter-clockwise. The main characters of the species are compared with 14 similar hyalosporous Helicodendron species.

ABELN, E. C. A., A. M. STAX, et al. (2002). "Genetic differentiation of Phoma exigua varieties by means of AFLP fingerprints." Mycol. Res. 106: 419-427. Several varieties have been distinguished within the

phytopathogenic pycnidial fungus Phoma exigua on the basis of cultural characteristics. These varieties have been stated to correlate with differences in ability to attack different host plants. Molecular discrimination of the varieties was investigated using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and sequence analysis of the ITS region of the rDNA cluster on a set of 43 strains and 7 outgroup strains. The ITS sequences of the 43 different P. exigua strains were highly similar and revealed no subgroups within P. exigua while the AFLP fingerprint patterns of two primer combinations showed clear clustering of most varieties.

Abesha, E., G. Caetano-Anolles, et al. (2003). "Population genetics and spatial structure of the fairy ring fungus Marasmius oreades in a Norwegian sand dune ecosystem." Mycologia, 95(6): 1021-1031. The population genetics and spatial structure of the fairy ring

fungus Marasmius oreades (Bolt. : Fr.) Fr. was studied by DNA amplification fingerprinting (DAF). Basidiocarp samples were collected from fairy rings from two separate sand dune systems of about 560 m2 and 1750 m2, respectively, on the Lista Peninsula in southwestern Norway in 1996. Samples were collected after a careful mapping of fairy rings and a vegetation survey of the composition and spatial structure of vascular plants, bryophytes and lichens. DAF with standard arbitrary oligonucleotide primers was used to examine the genetic relationship between basidiocarp samples. The study showed that the fungal population contained a high number of genotypes and that about 90% of the fairy rings represented a separate genet. Both cluster and phylogenetic analyses of DAF amplification products established relationships between fairy rings and showed that genetically similar basidiocarps were found close to each other. Overall results showed a weak correspondence between genotype and spatial distribution and no correspondence between genotype and composition of the surrounding

vegetation. Furthermore, the occurrence of the four dominant sand dune grass species was randomly distributed among the localities housing the various fungal genotypes, indicating that the fungus did not exhibit genotypic specialization to the various grass species that could host it as a pathogen. Results show that establishment of new individuals generally was mediated by basidiospore dispersal and not by frag-menting dikaryotic, vegetative mycelium, as previously proposed.

Acero, F. J., V. Gonzalez, et al. (2004). "Molecular phylogenetic studies on the Diatrypaceae based on rDNA-ITS sequences." Mycologia, 96(2): 249-259. The order Diatrypales (Ascomycota) contains one single

family, the Diatrypaceae. To obtain insight in the phylogenetic relationships within this family, the complete sequences of the ITS region (ITS1, 5.8S rRNA gene and ITS2) of 53 isolates from the five main genera in the family (Diatrype, Diatrypella, Cryptosphaeria, Eutypa and Eutypella) were determined and aligned for phylogenetic reconstruction. Sequence analysis revealed the presence of tandem repeated motifs 11 nucleotides-long, placed in homologous positions along the ITS1 region. Parsimony analysis established the existence of nine monophyletic groups and one branch with a single isolate of Eutypella quaternata. The phylogenetic relationships established by parsimony analysis did not correlate well with classical taxonomic schemes. None of the five genera included in this study was found to be monophyletic. The genera Diatrype, Eutypa and Cryptosphaeria each were divided into two groups. Isolates of Diatrype flavovirens appeared in a clade separated from the one that grouped Diatrype disciformis and the rest of Diatrype species. The Eutypa strains appeared distributed into two clades, one grouping Eutypa lata and related species (Eutypa armeniacae, Eutypa laevata, Eutypa petrakii), and anoth-er with the remaining species of the genus. Eutypella (excluding Eutypella quaternaria) appeared as an unstable monophyletic group, which was lost when the sequence alignment was subjected to neighbor-joining analysis. The genus Diatrypella was not associated with any monophyletic group, suggesting that the multisporate asci character has appeared several times during the evolution of the group. Overall, our study suggests the need to revise many of the concepts usually applied to the classification of members of the family.

ADAMCIK, S. and H. KNUDSEN (2004). "Red-capped species of Russula sect. Xerampelinae associated with dwarf scrub." Mycol. Res. 108: 1463-1475. The microscopic structure of herbarium material of alpine and

arctic species of Russula sect. Xerampelinae from Europe and Greenland was studied. Based on our observations two taxa with prevailingly red pilei are accepted from the area: R. subrubens and R. pascua. Other related species occurring in arctic areas are R. cicatricata with a coppery coloured pileus and R. clavipes with a prevailingly greenish olivaceous pileus. As a consequence of the study of type material, R. chamiteae var. chamiteae

and R. chamiteae var. microsperma are synonymized with R. subrubens. No European collections could be referred to R. oreina, and accordingly we suggest that this species is absent from Europe.

Adams, G. C., R. S. Surve-Iyer, et al. (2002). "Ribosomal DNA sequence divergence and group I introns within the Leucostoma species L. cinctum, L. persoonii, and L. parapersoonii sp. nov., ascomycetes that cause Cytospora canker of fruit trees." Mycologia, 94(6): 947-967. Leucostoma species that are the causal agents of Cytospora

canker of stone and pome fruit trees were studied in detail. DNA sequence of the internal transcribed spacer regions and the 5.8S of the nuclear ribosomal DNA operon (ITS rDNA) supplied sufficient characters to assess the phylogenetic relationships among species of Leucostoma, Valsa, Valsella, and related anamorphs in Cytospora. Parsimony analysis of the aligned sequence divided Cytospora isolates from fruit trees into clades that generally agreed with the morphological species concepts, and with some of the phenetic groupings (PG 1–6) identified previously by isozyme analysis and cultural characteristics. Phylogenetic analysis inferred that isolates of L. persoonii formed two well-resolved clades distinct from isolates of L. cinctum. Phylogenetic analysis of the ITS rDNA, isozyme analysis, and cultural characteristics supported the inference that L. persoonii groups PG 2 and PG 3 were populations of a new species apparently more genetically different from L. persoonii PG 1 than from isolates representative of L. massariana, L. niveum, L. translucens, and Valsella melastoma. The new species, L. parapersoonii, was described. A diverse collection of isolates of L. cinctum, L. persoonii, and L. parapersoonii were examined for genetic variation using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of the ITS rDNA and the five prime end of the large subunit of the rDNA (LSU rDNA). HinfI and HpaII endonucleases were each useful in dividing the Leucostoma isolates into RFLP profiles corresponding to the isozyme phenetic groups, PG 1–6. RFLP analysis was more effective than isozyme analysis in uncovering variation among isolates of L. persoonii PG 1, but less effective within L. cinctum populations. Isolates representative of seven of the L. persoonii formae speciales proposed by G. De´fago in 1935 were found to be genetically diverse isolates of PG 1. Two large insertions, 415 and 309 nucleotides long, in the small subunit (SSU) of the nuclear rDNA of L. cinctum were identified as Group 1 introns; intron 1 at position 943 and intron 2 at position 1199. The two introns were found to be consistently present in isolates of L. cinctum PG 4 and PG 5 and absent from L. cinctum PG 6 isolates, despite the similarity of the ITS sequence and teleomorph morphology. Intron 1 was of subgroup 1C1 whereas intron 2 was of an unknown subgroup. RFLP patterns and presence/absence of introns were useful characters for expediting the identification of cultures of Leucostoma isolated from stone and pome fruit cankers. RFLP patterns from 13 endonucleases provided an effective method for selecting an

array of diverse PG 1 isolates useful in screening plant germplasm for disease-resistance.

Addepalli, M. K., Y. Fujita, et al. (2002). "A monoclonal antibody and the lectin wheat germ agglutinin induce zoospore encystment in Pythium porphyrae, a marine microbial pathogen." Mycologia, 94(4): 712-722. Pythium porphyrae (Oomycota) is a microbial pathogen which

causes red rot disease in the commercially cultivated red seaweed Porphyra. This disease is initiated by the motile zoospores of the fungus, which it has been suggested to recognize and process host specific signals by membrane bound receptors. Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) were developed against the surface components of zoospores and cysts of this fungus in order to try and identify the putative receptor molecules involved in the zoospore encystment process. Screening of MAbs by immunofluorescence assays has revealed three different patterns of surface epitope binding, while labeling of zoospore and cysts components by FITC-conjugated lectins has identified different carbohydrate moieties. Of the MAbs and lectins tested, MAb 1A3 and wheat germ agglutinin have induced zoospore encystment under in vitro conditions. MAb 1A3 identified a 109 KDa band of a glycoprotein in western blot analysis which could be a putative receptor responsible for the induction of zoospore encystment.

ADDY, H. D., E. P. BOSWELL, et al. (1998). "Low temperature acclimation and freezing resistance of extraradical VA mycorrhizal hyphae." Mycol. Res. 102: 582-586. We conducted a series of experiments to determine if

extraradical hyphae of VAM fungi acclimate to low temperatures. Blocks of field soil containing VAM fungi were either slowly cooled or held at room temperature prior to freezing. Infectivity of VAM fungi was greater in soil that was slowly cooled. We hypothesized that greater infectivity following freezing resulted from cold acclimation of extraradical hyphae. This hypothesis was tested using in vitro mycorrhizas cultured in two-compartment Petri plates, in which hyphae grew into a separate compartment. Metabolic activity of these hyphae following freezing was assessed using a vital stain. The majority of cultures that were slowly cooled prior to freezing contained active hyphae, whereas hyphal activity was almost completely eliminated by freezing in non-precooled cultures. Freezing temperature influenced survival and activity of hyphae. To our knowledge this is the first report of acclimation to cold temperatures by VAM fungi.

ADDY, H. D., S. HAMBLETON, et al. (2000). "Distribution and molecular characterization of the root endophyte Phialocephala fortinii along an environmental gradient in the boreal forest of Alberta." Mycol. Res. 104: 1213-1221.

Phialocephala fortinii is a common root endophytic fungus with a wide geographic distribution and little, if any, host specificity. Little is known about its habitat specificity, although there is evidence to suggest that high water tables may restrict the occurrence of P. fortinii in wetlands. We tested this hypothesis by determining the distribution of P. fortinii along a sand dune -- wetland complex. Isolates of P. fortinii, identified on the basis of cultural and morphological characteristics, were obtained from the roots of vascular plants across the moisture gradient. Three ` cultural groups' were recognized among these isolates. Thirty-three of these isolateswere compared among themselves and to strains of known identity using PCR/RFLP analysis of the ITS region and a portion of the 28S subunit of rDNA. The restriction digest profiles of all isolates were identical to those of P. fortinii for 4 restriction enzymes. DNA sequences, from a subset of these strains, showed a low percent sequence divergence confirming the reliability of the RFLP data. The same analyses were done with two strains of Leptodontidium orchidicola, a culturally similar root endophyte, to ensure that this taxon was not among the transect isolates. DNA data showed a clear difference between P. fortinii and L. orchidicola but did not discriminate among cultural groups. Thus, P. fortinii showed no habitat speci®city and occurred in both xeric and hydric sites. RFLP profiles and ITS sequences showed little variation among isolates of P. fortinii and among the isolates of L. orchidicola.

ADENDORFF, R. and F. H. J. RIJKENBERG (2000). "Scanning electron microscopy of direct host leaf penetration by urediospore-derived infection structures of Phakopsora apoda." Mycol. Res. 104: 317-324. Urediospore-derived infection structures of Phakopsora apoda,

a rust fungus on kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum), penetrate the host leaf directly through the cuticle and not through the stomata. A urediospore germinates on the leaf to form a short germ tube which is delimited from a terminal appressorium by a septum. Most appressoria form at the junctions between epidermal cells. Appressoria are often sessile to the urediospores. From the base of the appressorium, a penetration peg develops, which penetrates through the host cuticle and epidermal cell wall. Penetration of the epidermal cell wall occurs approx. 6 h post inoculation. Once inside the epidermal cell, the penetration peg expands to form a penetration hypha, which traverses the epidermal cell and emerges into the intercellular space of the mesophyll tissue. A septum is formed in the intercellular portion of the penetration hypha, delimiting a primary hypha which extends further into the mesophyll, before branching to form two secondary hyphae. This penetration process appears to be very similar to that of Phakopsora pachyrhizi on soybean.

Agerer, R. (1973). Rectipilus (Eine Neue Gattung Cyphelloider Pilze). Persoonia. 7: 389-436. Die Gestalt der Randhaare ist fur die Gattungszugehorigkeit

entscheidend. Da in der Gattung Henningsomyces O. K., s. 1. Arten mit verzweigten undmit unverzweigten Randhaaren zusammengefabt werden, schlage ich vor, dieses Genus in zwei homogenere Sippen zu spalten. Arten mit verzweigten Randhaaren gehoren demnach zur Gattung Henningsomyces O.K., s. str., wahrend Arten mit unverzweigten Randhaaren in eine neue Gattung, Rectipilus Agerer, zu stellen sind.

Aghayeva, D. N., M. J. Wingfield, et al. (2004). "Two new Ophiostoma species with Sporothrix anamorphs from Austria and Azerbaijan." Mycologia, 96(4): 866-878. The genus Ophiostoma includes numerous species of primarily

insect-vectored, wood-staining fungi. Several anamorph genera that differ in their micronematous or macronematous conidiogenous cells have been associated with Ophiostoma species. Among the former group, Sporothrix is associated with many species and is characterized by conidiogenous cells that arise laterally or terminally from any place on the hyphae and produce nonseptate conidia on sympodially developing denticles. The purpose of this study was to characterize ophiostomatoid isolates with Sporothrix anamorphs recently collected in Austria and Azerbaijan. The isolates were characterized based on comparisons of rDNA and b-tubulin sequence data. Morphology, growth in culture, and sexual reproductive mode were also considered. Phylogenetic analyses of the combined sequence data showed that the isolates formed two distinct groups, one including isolates from Austria and the other isolates from Austria and Azerbaijan. Growth at 25 C and morphology revealed some differences between the two groups, and supported the view that they represent two new species, which we describe here as Ophiostoma fusiforme sp. nov. and Ophiostoma lunatum sp. nov. Both these groups phylogenetically were related to, but distinct from, Ophiostoma stenoceras.

AGHAYEVA, D. N., M. J. WINGFIELD, et al. (2005). "Ophiostoma dentifundum sp. nov. from oak in Europe, characterized using molecular phylogenetic data and morphology." Mycol. Res. 109(10): 1127-1136. Previous phylogenetic studies based on ITS sequence data

have shown that Ophiostoma species with Sporothrix anamorphs include several species complexes. Isolates from oak in Poland and Hungary, which have previously been referred to as O. stenoceras, as well as isolates morphologically similar to S. inflata formed the basis of this study. Identification was based on sequences for the ITS region of rDNA operon and partial β-tubulin gene. Analyses showed that isolates from Poland and Hungary reside in a well resolved clade, separate from those in the O. stenoceras-complex. The morphology of these isolates was compared with those of strains in the O. stenoceras complex and S. inflata. Morphological differences in teleomorph and anamorph structures were found between the isolates from Poland and Hungary and those in the O. stenoceras-complex. Growth characteristics and the presence of the

teleomorph in culture could be used to separate this fungus from isolates in the S. inflata-complex. The fungus from Poland and Hungary is described here as O. dentifundum sp. nov. It is phylogenetically most closely related to isolates of S. inflata, which represent four well defined groups based on morphology and DNA sequence phylogeny.

AGOSTINI, D., R. D. BELLIS, et al. (2000). "Identification, purification and gene cloning of a protein from Tuber dryophilum fruitbodies homologous to TBF-1 protein." Mycol. Res. 104: 533-536. This paper reports a study aimed at gaining new information on

the molecular composition of fruitbodies of Tuber spp. The presence of proteins homologous to TBF-1, which is highly specific for the fruitbody-phase of Tuber borchii, has been investigated in other white truffles. SDS-PAGE analyses revealed that only Tuber dryophilum fruitbodies possess a similar protein. This protein was purified by HPLC and partially sequenced, confirming a high degree of homology with TBF-1. Several PCR analyses of the genomic DNA, were performed to evaluate whether the absence of proteins homologous to TBF-1 in other white truffle species was a result of the absence of the coding genes. T. dryophilum gave an amplification product corresponding to the entire gene (tdf-1), but no products were obtained from the other species. Tdf-1 was sequenced and its organisation studied since it is one of the first genes isolated from a Tuber species. The deduced amino acid sequence was compared to that of TBF-1, to evaluate the presence of conserved regions, in an attempt to gain new information about their role in fruitbody formation.

Agueda, B., E. Soria, et al. (2006). "Characterization and identification of field ectomycorrhizae of Boletus edulis and Cistus ladanifer." Mycologia, 98(1): 23-30. Field ectomycorrhizae sampled under Boletus edulis and

Cistus ladanifer have been characterized and described in detail based on standard morphological and anatomical characters. The described ectomycorrhiza has traits typical of Boletales: whitish with three differentiated plectenchymatous layers in the mantle in plan view forming ring-like structures and rhizomorphs with highly differentiated hyphae. The inflated, smooth cystidia-like clavate end cells on the surface of the rhizomorphs and their slightly twisted external hyphae are additional characterizing features. The Hartig net occupies 1K rows of cortical cells, partly reaching the endodermis. Not all hyphae have clamps. The identification of the fungal symbiont as B. edulis was confirmed by ITS rDNA sequence comparison between mycorrhizas and sporocarps. The singularity of this symbiotic association, as well as its ecological and practical implications, are discussed.

Ahmad, N., A. K. Sarbhoy, et al. (1998). "A new variety and two new species of powdery mildews from India." Mycological Research 102(1): 30-32.

Podosphaera clandestina var. cydonia var. nov., Setoerysiphe kashmiriensis sp. nov. and Brasiliomyces kumaonensis sp. nov., collected from Northern India on Cydonia oblonga, Sambucus wightiana and Quercus sp., respectively, are described and illustrated.

AHRAZEM, O., B.GOMEZ-MIRANDA, et al. (2000). "An acidic water-soluble cell wall polysaccharide: a chemotaxonomic marker for Fusarium and Gibberella." Mycol. Res. 104: 603-610. Alkali-extractable and water-soluble cell-wall polysaccharides

were purified from cell walls of some species of Fusarium and Gibberella. Their structures were determined by chemical analysis and NMR. The polysaccharides consisted of a main chain of β-(1→6)-linked galactofuranose units almost fully branched at positions O-2 by single residues of glucopyranose or acidic chains containing glucuronic acid and mannose. Individual differences were found, concerning the proportion of neutral and acidic side chains. These polysaccharides showed major differences from those of Microdochium nivale, Plectosphaerella cucumerina, Fusarium ciliatum, F. aquaeductuum and F. cavispermum. Highly specific polyclonal antibodies were raised against this structure, which were used in immunocompetence and immunofluorescence experiments.

AHRAZEM, O., G. BLAZQUEZ, et al. (2002). "Alkali-extractable and water-soluble polysaccharide (F1SS): a chemotaxonomic and phylogenetic character for Cephalotheca." Mycol. Res. 106(10): 1187–1192. The cell wall alkali-extractable water-soluble polysaccharide

(F1SS) purified from the three species of Cephalotheca has been characterized. Two different structures have been deduced by chemical and structural analyses. The structure of the polysaccharide F1SS from C. purpurea and C. reniformis is similar, and composed of 3,6-di-O-substituted mannopyranose with terminal residues of rhamnopyranose. The polysaccharide F1SS from C. sulfurea contains 2,6-di-O-substituted

mannopyranose and terminal residues of galactofuranose. Our results confirm the relatedness of C. purpurea and C. reniformis with Ophiostomatales and of C. sulfurea with Sordariales.

AHREN, D., M. FAEDO, et al. (2004). "Low genetic diversity among isolates of the nematode-trapping fungus Duddingtonia flagrans: evidence for recent worldwide dispersion from a single common ancestor." Mycol. Res. 108: 1205-1214. The genetic variation of Duddingtonia flagrans, which has

become a promising biocontrol agent of animal parasitic nematodes, was investigated in a worldwide collection of 22 isolates. We analysed the sequence variation in four nuclear genes, tubA (β-tubulin), CMD1 (calmodulin), EF1a (translation elongation factor 1a), and PII (extracellular serine protease). 1428 aligned base pairs (bp) were analysed from the

four genes, including 709 bp of introns. In addition, the variations in three anonymous genomic regions comprising 1155 bp were examined. Three single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were detected in the seven loci, none of them in the protein encoding genes. The genetic variation was significantly higher in the nematode-trapping fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora, the closest evolutionary relative to D. flagrans. Analysis of 12 isolates of A. oligospora revealed 30 SNPs in tubA, CMD1, EF1a and PII. The genetic variation

in the isolates of D. flagrans was further examined using AFLP analysis. Five primer combinations were used to detect 159 bands, of which 94 (59.1%) were polymorphic. A neighbour-joining tree based on the AFLP data showed no clear association between genotype and geographical origin. Furthermore, the AFLP data suggest that D. flagrans is mainly clonal and no recombination could be detected, not even within the same country. The low genetic variation in D. flagrans suggests that this fungus has recently diverged from a single progenitor. Based on estimations of mutation rates, it was calculated that this most recent common ancestor lived about 16 000–23 000 years ago.

Aime, M. C., T. J. Baroni, et al. (2002). "Crepidotus thermophilus comb. nov., a reassessment of Melanomphalia thermophila, a rarely collected tropical agaric." Mycologia, 94(6): 1059-1065. Melanomphalia thermophila (Sing.) Sing. is a rarely collected

agaric previously known only from Florida and Brazil. This taxon was originally described as a species of Tubaria and much of Singer’s rationale for placing Tubaria within the Crepidotaceae (Imai) Sing. was based on anatomical similarities between T. thermophila and Crepidotus (Fr.) Staude. In later works, T. thermophila was transferred to Melanomphalia M.P. Christ., again forming the basis upon which Singer placed Melanomphalia within the Crepidotaceae. Based on examination of newly collected specimens from Puerto Rico and Panama, type studies, and nuclear large subunit rDNA analysis, we conclude that this taxon is, in fact, a centrally stipitate Crepidotus. Melanomphalia thermophila is transferred to Crepidotus, fully described and illustrated.

Aime, M. C., T. W. Henkel, et al. (2003). "Studies in neotropical polypores 15: new and interesting species from Guyana." Mycologia, 95(4): 614-619. During fieldwork in Guyana several unusual and distinctive taxa of

polypores were collected, three of which are described here as new. The first of these, Amauroderma coltricioides is the first species known in the Ganodermataceae with smooth basidiospores. Coltricia verrucata and Coltriciella navispora also are described as new, and a key to the neotropical species of Coltricia is provided. Finally, a checklist of 73 poroid fungi from Guyana is given, of which 29 are new records for the country.

Aime, M. C. and W. Phillips-Mora (2005). "The causal agents of witches’ broom

and frosty pod rot of cacao (chocolate, Theobroma cacao) form a new lineage of Marasmiaceae." Mycologia, 97(5): 1012–1022. The two most devastating diseases of cacao (Theobroma

cacao)—the source of chocolate—in tropical America are caused by the fungi Crinipellis perniciosa (witches’ broom disease) and Moniliophthora roreri (frosty pod rot or moniliasis disease). Despite the agricultural, socio-economic and environmental impact of these fungi, most aspects of their life cycles are unknown, and the phylogenetic relationships of M. roreri have yet to be conclusively established. In this paper, extensive phylogenetic analyses of five nuclear gene regions (28S rDNA, 18S rDNA, ITS, RPB1, and EF1-a) confirm that C. perniciosa and M. roreri are sister taxa that belong in the Marasmiaceae (euagarics). Furthermore, these taxa form part of a separate and distinct lineage within the family. This lineage includes the biotrophic fungi Moniliophthora perniciosa comb. nov. and M. roreri, as well as one undescribed endophytic species. The sister genera to Moniliophthora are Marasmius, Crinipellis and Chaetocalathus, which consist mainly of saprotrophic litter fungi.

AIMI, T., Y. IWASAKI, et al. (2003). "Heterologous diploid nuclei in the violet root rot fungus, Helicobasidium mompa." Mycol. Res. 107: 1060-1068. Allelic genes hga1-1 and hga1-2, which encode G protein

alpha subunit in the violet root rot fungus, Helicobasidium mompa, were sequenced and characterized. Restriction fragment polymorphism (RFLP) analysis determined that the gene is present as a single locus in the single basidiospore isolates, while strain V169 possessed both alleles of this gene. Therefore, although basidiospore isolates are dikaryon, they are homokaryotic. Field-isolated strain V169, the putative

parent strain, is a dikaryotic heterokaryon. Allelic genes hga1-1 and hga1-2 segregated in almost a 1:3 ratio among single basidiospore isolates from the same fruiting body. Moreover, the copy number of hga1-1 was found to be less than that of hga1-2 in the V169 strain. These results suggest that one of the nuclei in the V169 parent strain is homozygous diploid and the other heterozygous diploid. This parent strain produced four homokaryotic and dikaryon basidiospores on each basidium.

AIMI, T., S. KANO, et al. (2003). "Telomeric fingerprinting of the violet root rot fungus, Helicobasidium mompa: a useful tool for karyotype estimation." Mycol. Res. 107: 1055-1059. We hybridized the telomere-associated DNA sequence

pTel46 isolated from Coprinus cinereus with Helicobasidium mompa genomic DNA. The hybridized fragments were more sensitive to Bal31 nuclease than those that were not hybridized, suggesting that they were located at the ends of chromosomes in H. mompa. The hybridization profile can be used to estimate chromosome number, since the number of chromosomes in a single basidiospore isolate is about half that in putative parent strains. Thus, single basidiospore and field isolates might be

homokaryons and heterokaryons respectively. We found telomere-linked restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) in strains of H. mompa isolated from field and individual basidiospores. Thus, this marker appears to be an excellent tool with which to reveal the considerable polymorphism of H. mompa and to identify strains. The RFLP was not found among several strains of the same mycelial compatibility group (MCG) isolated from the same field, suggesting that strains belonging to an MCG group are identical.

Alamouti, S. M., J.-J. Kim, et al. (2006). "A new Leptographium species associated with the northern spruce engraver, Ips perturbatus, in western Canada." Mycologia, 98(1): 149–160. An undescribed Leptographium species was isolated from the

spruce-infesting bark beetle Ips perturbatus collected from felled spruce trees and logs in northern British Columbia and Yukon Territory. Morphologically, this fungus is similar to L. abietinum and L. hughesii but differed in a number of characteristics (e.g. the arrangement of its conidiophores). The fungus grew optimally at 25 C on 2% malt-extract agar and showed a high level of tolerance to cycloheximide. Comparison of rDNA and b-tubulin gene sequences also confirmed that this Leptographium species represents an undescribed taxon. Thus we described it as a new species, Leptographium fruticetum sp. nov.

ALBERTINI, C., G. THEBAUD, et al. (2002). "Eburicol 14α-demethylase gene (CYP51) polymorphism and speciation in Botrytis cinerea." Mycol. Res. 106(10): 1171–1178. Botrytis cinerea (anamorph of Botryotinia fuckeliana) is a

filamentous ascomycete that causes grey mould especially on grapevine. Based on the presence or the absence of two transposable elements (Boty and Flipper) two sibling sympatric populations named transposa and vacuma have been described. Among the vacuma population, some strains (designated HydR1) were found to be resistant to fenhexamid (a sterol C-4 demethylase inhibitor) and to show an increased sensitivity to 14a-demethylase inhibitors (DMIs). In order to assess whether or not mutations at the target gene level (CYP51) could underlie increased sensitivity to DMIs in HydR1 strains, we cloned the CYP51 gene and determined its DNA sequence in various B. cinerea strains. The gene was highly polymorphic, with mutations detected at 58 positions in the 35 strains analysed. The polymorphisms did not discriminate between transposa and vacuma strains, but did distinguish between HydR1 and non-HydR1 ones. Two expressed mutations were present in all HydR1 strains, namely phenylalanine to leucine at position 15 of the inferred protein, and serine to asparagine at position 105. These data, combined with the existence of morphological differences and somatic incompatibility between HydR1 and non-HydR1 strains, suggest that these two groups comprise distinct genetic entities.

Alexopoulos, C. J., C. W. Mims, et al. (1996). Introductory Mycology. America, Jonh Wiley Eyand Sons, Inc. ALI, R. A., R. J. MURPHY, et al. (1999). "Investigation of the extracellular mucilaginous materials produced by some wood decay fungi." Mycol. Res. 103: 1453-1461. The morphology of the extracellular mucilaginous material

(ECM) produced by Coniophora puteana and Coriolus versicolor during colonization of Scots pine and beech was studied using SEM. Wood specimens were examined in the frozen hydrated (FH) condition using low-temperature SEM, and in the freeze-dried (FD) and critical point dried (CPD) state, using conventional SEM. All techniques produced artifacts but the ECM was best preserved when examined in the FH state. Very little difference was observed between FH and FD preparations, but critical point drying damaged the ECM extensively. Copious amounts of ECM were produced by both fungi. It was found to line much of the lumen surface, establishing contact between the mycelium and the wood substratum. Most aerial hyphae were coated with ECM, appearing glued together in a bundle-like fashion. The ECM thickness varied within the same wood cell and from one cell to another. A peculiar granular pattern, in which the ECM was definitely involved, was seen on occasion to encircle the infecting hyphae where they contacted the wood surface. Other morphological patterns of ECM distribution were also observed. Calcium oxalate crystals of varying shapes and sizes were often seen associated with the mycelia and mucilage of the two fungi in beech but not in Scots pine. The probable roles played by the ECM in wood decay mechanisms are discussed.

ALLAIN-BOULE, N., R. TWEDDELL, et al. (2004). "Pythium attrantheridium sp. nov.: taxonomy and comparison with related species." Mycol. Res. 108: 795-805. Pythium attrantheridium sp. nov. is a new species isolated

from cavity spot lesions of carrots as well as apple and cherry seedlings from various locations widely distributed in Canada and the USA. This fungus is closely related to the heterothallic P. intermedium, but is distinguished by: (1) unique molecular characteristics ; (2) unique morphological characteristics; and (3) mating incompatibility with P. intermedium. The ITS region of the nuclear rDNA of all strains of P. attrantheridium studied is different from that of all other known Pythium spp. The oogonia attract a large number of antheridia when compatible mating types contact each other. The positive mating type produces zoospores unlike those of P. intermedium. Thus, biological, morphological and molecular data support the recognition of a new species.

ALMARAZ, T., C. ROUX, et al. (2002). "Phylogenetic relationships among smut fungi parasitizing dicotyledons based on ITS sequence analysis." Mycol. Res.

106: 541-548. The phylogenetic relationships of several smut fungi parasitic

on dicotyledons were analysed. Parsimony analysis was performed based on the sequences of the ITS regions of the rDNA genes. Three genera were considered: Microbotryum, Sphacelotheca and Ustilago. The cladogram showed a dichotomy: the species of Microbotryum and Ustilago parasitic on dicotyledons (dicot Ustilago) were found to be divided into two independent taxa among the Microbotryaceae. A divergent mechanism of evolution of the species of each of these two clades with their respective hosts could be involved in this dichotomy. According to our results, Microbotryum appears monophyletic and restricted to the anthericolous smuts on Caryophyllaceae. However, no morphological characters have yet been found

to support this distinction, and we refute the denomination Bauhinus as defined by Moore to describe the group of `dicot Ustilago' as it leads to controversial determinations. Sphacelotheca belongs to Microbotryales, but could not be synonymised with Microbotryum as S. polygoni-persicariae is in an independent clade. Lastly, U. duriaeana is independent of the `dicot Ustilago' clade; the position of this species among Microbotryales is still uncertain.

ALTES, A., G. MORENO, et al. (1999). "Notes on Tulostoma volvulatum and T. giovanellae." Mycol. Res. 103: 91-98. A detailed examination of the rediscovered type of Tulostoma

volvulatum leads to the conclusion that it represents an earlier name for T. giovanellae. The former name will be proposed for rejection and the latter for conservation. Tulostoma volvulatum s. auct. becomes T. obesum.

Alvarez, M., R. Godoy, et al. (2004). "Surface-bound phosphatase activity in living hyphae of ectomycorrhizal fungi of Nothofagus obliqua." Mycologia, 96(3): 479-487. We determined the location and the activity of surface-bound

phosphomonoesterase (SBP) of five ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi of Nothofagus oblique. EM fungal mycelium of Paxillus involutus, Austropaxillus boletinoides, Descolea antartica, Cenococcum geophilum and Pisolithus tinctorius was grown in media with varying concentrations of dissolved phosphorus. SBP activity was detected at different pH values (3–7) under each growth regimen. SBP activity was assessed using a colorimetric method based on the hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl phosphate (pNPP) to p-nitrophenol phosphate (pNP) 1 P. A new technique involving confocal laser-scanning microscopy (LSM) was used to locate and quantify SBP activity on the hyphal surface. EM fungi showed two fundamentally different patterns of SBP activity in relation to varying environmental conditions (P-concentrations and pH). In the cases of D. antartica, A. boletinoides and C. geophilum, changes in SBP activity were induced primarily by changes in the number of SBP-active centers on the

hyphae. In the cases of P. tinctorius and P. involutus, the number of SBP-active centers per mm hyphal length changed much less than the intensity of the SBP-active centers on the hyphae. Our findings not only contribute to the discussion about the role of SBP-active centers in EM fungi but also introduce LSM as a valuable method for studying EM fungi.

Alves, A., A. Correia, et al. (2004). "Botryosphaeria corticola, sp. nov. on Quercus species, with notes and description of Botryosphaeria stevensii and its anamorph, Diplodia mutila." Mycologia, 96(3): 598-613. Botryosphaeria stevensii frequently has been associated with

dieback and canker diseases of oak, mainly in the western Mediterranean area but more rarely in other regions. The species concept of B. stevensii has been unclear, and it is possible that some collections were identified incorrectly. A collection of fungal strains isolated from diseased oak trees and initially identified as B. stevensii was characterized on the basis of morphology and ITS nucleotide sequences. Morphology was compared with the type specimens of Physalospora mutila (5 B. stevensii) and its anamorph, Diplodia mutila. It was concluded that the isolates from oak differed from B. stevensii in having larger ascospores and conidia as well as different spore shapes and represented an as yet undescribed species, which is described here as B. corticola. Moreover, ITS sequence data separated B. corticola from all other known species of Botryosphaeria. Amended descriptions of B. stevensii and its anamorph are provided to differentiate B. stevensii from B. corticola and to clarify some of the earlier taxonomic uncertainties.

ALY, R., N. HALPERN, et al. (2001). "Biolistic transformation of Cercospora caricis, a specific pathogenic fungus of Cyperus rotundus." Mycol. Res. 105: 150-152. Cercospora caricis is being considered as a bioherbicide agent

for use against purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus), one of the world's worst weeds. However, first its efficiency must be improved, for example by genetic transformation. By optimizing physical and biological parameters, the particle gun acceleration method (biolistics) has been adapted to transform mycelial cells of C. caricis. Two genes were expressed in C. caricis by biolistic transformation. The β-glucuronidase gene (GUS) fused to the GDP1 promoter of Cochliobolus hetrostrophus and the hygromycin B resistance gene under control of the PtrpC promoter of Aspergillus nidulans. Although the transformation frequency was not high, all transformants were stable when they were propagated on a selective

medium after eight subsequent transfers. AMEY, R. C., A. ATHEY-POLLARD, et al. (2002). "PEG-mediated and Agrobacterium-mediated transformation in the mycopathogen Verticillium fungicola." Mycol. Res. 106: 4-11.

Verticillium fungicola, a severe mycopathogen of the cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus, was successfully transformed using both PEG-mediated and Agrobacterium-mediated techniques. PEG-mediated co-transformation was successful with hygromycin B resistance (hph), uidA (β-glucuronidase GUS), and green fluorescent protein (GFP) genes. Agrobacterium-mediated transformation was successful with the hph gene. Transformation frequencies of up to 102 transformants per µg DNA and 4068 transformants per 105conidia were obtained for PEG-mediated and Agrobacterium-mediated transformation respectively. Expression of integrated genes in co-transformants was stable after 18 months of successive sub-culturing on non-selective medium, and following storage at --80 °C in glycerol.

Molecular analysis of PEG-mediated transformants showed integration of the transforming genes into the target genome. Molecular analysis of Agrobacterium-mediated transformants showed integration of transforming DNA as single copies within the target genome. Co-transformants exhibited symptoms of disease in inoculation experiments and were at least as virulent as the wild-type fungus. GFP and GUS expression were observed in-vivo with the GFP-tagged

strain showing great potential as a tool in epidemiological and host-pathogen interaction studies. The development of transformation systems for V. fungicola will allow in-depth molecular studies of the interaction of this organism with A. bisporus.

AMICARELLI, F., A. BONFIGLI, et al. (1999). "Glutathione dependent enzymes and antioxidant defences in truffles: organisms living in microaerobic environments." Mycol. Res. 103: 1643-1648. Truffles live in an environment poor in oxygen, and are a good

model for investigation of enzymatic adaptation to microaerobic conditions. We studied the antioxidant and glutathione dependent enzymatic endowment of Tuber truffles. Superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase Se dependent, glutathione reductase, glyoxalase 1 and glyoxalase 2 are expressed and correlate with the microaerobic metabolism, growth rate and mycorrhizal symbiosis of truffles. A very low or undetectable glutathione S-transferase activity was found. For comparison the same enzyme activities were investigated in Agaricus bisporus which is epigeous and nonmycorrhizal.

AMIRI-BESHELI, B., B. KHAMBAY, et al. (2000). "Inter- and intra-specific variation in destruxin production by insect pathogenic Metarhizium spp., and its significance to pathogenesis." Mycol. Res. 104: 447-452. Inter- and intra-speci®c variation in destruxin production was

detected in Metarhizium and may be important in determining virulence and/or specificity against insects. Strains of M. anisopliae var. anisopliae produced different amounts of destruxins A, B and E, but strain V220 did not produce any destruxins. M. anisopliae var. majus, M. flavoviride and

M. album which are reported to be specific towards Coleoptera, Orthoptera and Hemiptera, respectively, had different destruxin profiles with destruxin A predominant. In time course studies on M. anisopliae var. anisopliae V245, destruxin E levels declined with time while destruxin A levels increased. The most virulent strains, Ma23 and V245, produced large quantities of destruxins but some low toxin producers were also virulent,

suggesting that destruxins are not the only pathogenicity determinants. Some weakly to moderately pathogenic strains were highly pathogenic when injected into Galleria mellonella larvae, demonstrating the importance of the cuticle as a barrier to fungal infection. Only trace amounts of destruxin A or a combination of A and B could be detected in Galleria larvae infected with M. anisopoliae var. anisopliae or M. anisopliae var. majus. No destruxins were detected in larvae infected with M. flavoviride. Destruxin production may be influenced by the nutrients in insects or culture media.

Amon, J. P. and K. H. French (2004). "Photoresponses of the marine protist Ulkenia sp. zoospores to ambient, artificial and bioluminescent light." Mycologia, 96(3): 463-468. Ulkenia sp. zoospores are attracted to 492 nm wavelength light

produced by the marine bacterium Vibrio fischeri. Zoospores are positively photoresponsive to wavelengths of 440, 460 and 480 nm and contain a pigment that absorbs blue light. The average velocity of the zoospores is 0.47 m h21. Stimulatory intensities of these wavelengths ranged from 0.5 to 3.5 mEm22 s21 in both laboratory and field studies. The response of this protist to bioluminescence produced by Vibrio fischeri may direct zoospores to a nutrient rich environment colonized by these bacteria. In addition, the greatest responses were found at intensities associated with the light regime found near the bottom of naturally turbid estuaries or at greater depths of nonturbid, offshore waters. Positive phototaxis was not seen in zones of high light intensity either in field or laboratory studies, and there is some indication that zoospores may swim away from high light intensities.

ANAGNOSTAKIS, S. L. (1998). "Introduction of new genotypes into ascospore progeny of Cryphonectria parasitica in the field." Mycol. Res. 102: 685-686. The aim of this work was to use sexual reproduction to

introduce new genotypes into natural populations of Cryphonectria parasitica, the cause of chestnut blight disease. Mating was initiated by painting conidia (which serve as spermatia) onto stromata in cankers initiated in the early spring. The matings yielded perithecia 161 and 180 d after canker initiation. Single-ascospore isolates from these perithecia included cultures with the phenotypes of conidia which had been painted onto the cankers as early as 17 d after canker initiation.

Anastasi, A., G. C. Varese, et al. (2005). "Isolation and identification of fungal communities in compost and vermicompost." Mycologia, 97(1): 33-44. This research illustrates the qualitative and quantitative

composition of the mycoflora of both a green compost (thermophilically produced from plant debris) and a vermicompost (mesophilically produced by the action of earthworms on plant and animal wastes after thermophilic preconditioning). Fungi were isolated using three media (PDA, CMC, PDA plus cycloheximide), incubated at three temperatures (24, 37 and 45 C). Substantial qualiquantitative differences in the species composition of the two composts were observed. The total fungal load was up to 8.2 x 105 CFU/g dwt in compost and 4.0 x 105 CFU/g dwt in vermicompost. A total of 194 entities were isolated: 118 from green compost, 142 from vermicompost; 66 were common to both. Structural characterization of this kind is necessary to determine the most appropriate application of a compost and its hygienic quality.

ANDERSEN, B., E. KR∅GER, et al. (2002). "Chemical and morphological segregation of Alternaria arborescens, A. infectoria and A. tenuissima species-groups." Mycol. Res. 106: 170-182. Correct morphological identification of Alternaria is important

and demands a combination of modern standardised methods and up-to-date literature. The production of secondary metabolites has previously been used as a means of identification and classification. In this study, 153 fungal isolates belonging to the genus Alternaria were examined. They were grown under standardised conditions and subjected to morphological and chemical examination. All isolates were grouped according to their three-dimensional sporulation pattern on potato carrot agar and their colony colour on dichloran rose bengal yeast extract sucrose agar (DRYES). After extraction, all isolates were analysed by a high performance liquid chromatograph equipped with a diode array detector and the resulting metabolite profiles were

subjected to multivariate statistic analyses. The analyses of metabolite profiles showed that the isolates could be divided into three major species-groups that were morphologically identiflable as the A. infectoria species-group, the A. arborescens species-group and the A. tenuissima species-group. The A. infectoria species-group is chemically very different from both the A. arborescens and the A. tenuissima species-groups with only a few metabolites in common. None of the 35 A. infectoria species-group isolates produced any known metabolites and all had white or greyish white colonies on DRYES. The A. arborescens species-group and the A. tenuissima species-group, shared most of the known metabolites and had colonies of various shades of green on DRYES. One cluster of isolates belonging to the A. tenuissima species-group was able to produce tentoxin, which has not been reported previously from any A. tenuissima isolate. The results suggest that each species-group contains several taxa and these taxa need to be formally described before species specific

metabolite profiles can be established. ANDERSEN, B., E. KRéGER, et al. (2001). "Chemical and morphological segregation of Alternaria alternata, A. gaisen and A. longipes." Mycol. Res. 105: 291-299. Correct identification of fungi to species level is important

because a specific epithet embodies a set of characters that enables us to predict, for example, the mycotoxin production of a species. Many small-spored Alternaria isolates have been misidentified due to inappropriate growth conditions and the use of spore size as the only identifying character. In this study 39 Alternaria isolates were grown under standardised conditions and subjected to chemical, morphological and physiological analyses. All isolates were extracted and analysed by HPLC--DAD. Analysis showed that both A. gaisen and A. longipes were able to produce altertoxin I, which has not previously been reported. The resulting metabolite profiles were subjected to cluster analysis and principal component analysis. A subset of the isolates was grown at five different temperatures. Colony colour and diameter were recorded and the diameter measurements were subjected to principal component analysis. Analysis of chemical and physiological data showed that the 39 isolates segregated into the same distinct groups that are morphologically identiflable as A. alternata, A. longipes or A. gaisen. The results showed that A. longipes, A. gaisen and A. alternata are different species that can be distinguished morphologically, physiologically and chemically. Therefore, the continued use of the name Alternaria alternata for A. longipes and A. gaisen is

unwarranted and pathotypes should not be used. Andersen, B., K. F. Nielsen, et al. (2002). "Characterization of Stachybotrys from water-damaged buildings based on morphology, growth, and metabolite production." Mycologia, 94(3): 391-403. Stachybotrys was found to be associated with idiopathic

pulmonary hemorrhage in infants in Cleveland, Ohio. Since that time, considerable effort has been put into finding the toxic components responsible for the disease. The name Stachybotrys chartarum has been applied to most of these isolates, but inconsistent toxicity results and taxonomic confusion prompted the present study. In this study, 122 Stachybotrys isolates, mainly from water-damaged buildings, were characterized and identified by combining three different approaches: morphology, colony characteristics, and metabolite production. Two different Stachybotrys taxa, S. chartarum and one undescribed species, were found in water-damaged buildings regardless of whether the buildings were in Denmark, Finland, or the USA. Furthermore, two chemotypes could be distinguished in S. chartarum. One chemotype produced atranones, whereas the other was a macrocyclic trichothecene-producer. The second undescribed taxon produced atranones and could

be differentiated from S. chartarum by its growth characteristics and pigment production. Our results correlate with different inflammatory and toxicological properties reported for these same isolates and show that the three taxa/chemotypes should be treated separately. The co-occurrence of these three taxa/ chemotypes in water-damaged buildings explains the inconsistent results in the literature concerning toxicity of Stachybotrys isolated from that environment.

Andersen, B., K. F. Nielsen, et al. (2003). "Molecular and phenotypic descriptions of Stachybotrys chlorohalonata sp. nov. and two chemotypes of Stachybotrys chartarum found in water-damaged buildings." Mycologia, 95(6): 1227-1238. Twenty-five Stachybotrys isolates from two previous studies

have been examined and compared, using morphological, chemical and phylogenetic methods. The results show that S. chartarum sensu lato can be segregated into two chemotypes and one new species. The new species, S. chlorohalonata, differs morphologically from S. chartarum by having smooth conidia, being more restricted in growth and producing a green extracellular pigment on the medium CYA. S. chlorohalonata and S. chartarum also have different tri5, chs1 and tub1 gene fragment sequences. The two chemotypes of S. chartarum, chemotype S and chemotype A, have similar morphology but differ in production of metabolites. Chemotype S produces macrocyclic trichothecenes, satratoxins and roridins, while Chemotype A produces atranones and dolabellanes. There is no difference between the two chemotypes in the tub1 gene fragment, but there is a one nucleotide difference in each of the tri5 and the chs1 gene fragments.

ANDERSEN, D., J. C. RENSHAW, et al. (2003). "Rhodotorulic acid production by Rhodotorula mucilaginosa." Mycol. Res. 107: 949-956. Rhodotorula mucilaginosa produces the siderophore

rhodotorulic acid (RA) when grown in iron-limited conditions. R. mucilaginosa grew at rates between 0.10 and 0.19 h-1 in iron-restricted conditions, depending on the carbon source, and at 0.23 h-1 in iron-sufficient conditions. In bioreactors inoculated with iron-starved pre-cultures, initial specific growth rates in batch culture were dependent on the iron concentration. The critical dilution rate (Dcrit, at which steady state cultures cannot be sustained) in continuous cultures was also dependent on the iron concentration and was lower than mmax in batch culture. Sucrose was the best carbon source for RA production [287+11 µmol (g biomass)-1] and production could be further increased by supplementing the medium with the precursors acetate [460+13 µmol

(g biomass)-1], ornithine [376+6 µmol (g biomass)-1], or both [539+15 µmol (g biomass)-1]. Citric acid was an effective suppresser of RA production. RA was produced in a growth rate dependent manner and was optimally produced at pH 6.5.

ANDERSEN, H. L. and S. EKMAN (2005). "Disintegration of the Micareaceae (lichenized Ascomycota): a molecular phylogeny based on mitochondrial rDNA sequences." Mycol. Res. 109: 21-30. The phylogeny of the family Micareaceae and the genus

Micarea was studied using mitochondrial small subunit ribosomal DNA sequences. Phylogenetic reconstructions were performed using Bayesian MCMC tree sampling and a maximum likelihood approach. The Micareaceae in its current sense is highly heterogeneous, and Helocarpon, Psilolechia, and Scutula, all thought to be close relatives of Micarea, are shown to be only distantly related. The genus Micarea is paraphyletic unless the entire Pilocarpaceae and Ectolechiaceae are included, as also indicated by an expected likelihood weights test. It is suggested that the Micareaceae is reduced to synonymy with the Pilocarpaceae, which also

includes the Ectolechiaceae, and that Micarea may have to be divided into a series of smaller genera in the future. Micarea species with a ‘non-micareoid’ photobiont group with Psora and the Ramalinaceae, whereas Micarea intrusa appears to belong in Scoliciosporum. Three species fall inside the paraphyletic Micarea: Szczawinskia tsugae, Catillaria contristans, and Fellhaneropsis vezdae. Tropical foliicolous taxa are nested within groups of mainly temperate and arctic-alpine distribution. A ‘micareoid’ photobiont appears to be plesiomorphic in the Pilocarpaceae but has been lost a few times.

ANDERSON, D. L., A. J. GIBBS, et al. (1998). "Identification and phylogeny of spore-cyst fungi (Ascosphaera spp.) using ribosomal DNA sequences." Mycol. Res. 102: 541-547. The internal transcribed spacers, ITS1 and ITS2, and 5.8S

region of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) from 20 species of Ascosphaera were amplified by PCR, and their sequences determined and compared. No variation was detected in the sequences from 23 widely distributed isolates of A. apis, in sequences from 11 widely distributed A. atra isolates, in four A. aggregata isolates, or in sequences from two isolates each of A. acerosa, A. duoformis, A. flava, A. larvis, A. pollenicola and A. proliperda. However, the ribosomal sequences from each of these nine species, and from another 11 species of which only a single isolate was examined, differed from one another by 0.18-30.9%. Thus these sequences provide a rapid method for identifying species, and searches using them showed that the

sequence of A. apis rDNA recorded in the international databases is, in fact, that of A. atra.

The rDNA sequences also provided data for assessing the relationships of these fungi. Of the rDNA sequences in current international databases, that of Eremascus albus was very close to, but distinct from, those of the Ascosphaera species. Comparisons of the Ascosphaera sequences showed that most formed consistent clusters

irrespective of the method of comparison used (distance matrix and parsimony), or whether the ITS1 or ITS2 portions were used; A. acerosa with A. asterophora, A. atra with A. duoformis, A. colubrina closely with A. flava, A. larvis, A. major, A. variegata and more distantly with A. apis and A. celerrima, and, also, A. aggregata with A. subcuticulata, A. proliperda and more distantly with A. solina. The apparent relationships of these clusters were inconsistent, depended on the alignment of several regions of ` indels ', and could not be resolved. The A. fusiformis, A. naganensis and A. osmophila sequences showed inconsistent relationships with the others, especially that of A. osmophila, which had an A. solina-like ITS2 region, but an atypical ITS1 sequence with a large unique repetitive insertion. The clusters based on gene sequence comparisons clearly correlated with groupings based on ascospore morphology and other characters.

ANDERSON, I. C., S. M. CHAMBERS, et al. (1998). "Use of molecular methods to estimate the size and distribution of mycelial individuals of the ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete Pisolithus tinctorius." Mycol. Res. 102: 295-300. A field study was conduced to determine the size and spatial

distribution of mycelial individuals of Pisolithus tinctorius at a site in NSW, Australia. Following collection and mapping of carpophores and isolation of the fungi into axenic culture, genomic DNA was extracted and combined data from RAPD and microsatellite analyses used to identify and map mycelial individuals. Thirty-three genetically distinct individuals were recognized at the field site and, while one large individual (at least 30 m diam.) was identified, most individuals appeared relatively small (<3 m diam.). The size and distribution of individuals is discussed in relation to growth

of P. tinctorius mycelia through soil. ANDERSON, I. C., S. M. CHAMBERS, et al. (1999). "Intra- and interspecific variation in patterns of organic and inorganic nitrogen utilization by three Australian Pisolithus species." Mycol. Res. 103: 1579-1587. The ability of three Australian Pisolithus species, discriminated

on the basis of ITS sequence data, to utilize a range of inorganic and organic nitrogen sources was assessed in liquid axenic culture. Both intra-, and putative interspecific, variation in nitrogen source utilization was observed. Most isolates demonstrated a preference for NH4 + over NO3

-, although some showed no significant preference for either inorganic source. All isolates utilized a range of amino acids. Species I isolates demonstrated a preference for acidic and/or neutral amino acids over basic acids, while species II and III isolates generally utilized amino acids poorly relative to species I. Although most isolates utilized BSA poorly, two species I isolates that had been maintained in axenic culture for >10 y grew well on this substrate, suggesting possible changes in nitrogen utilization with extended storage in axenic culture.

ANDERSON, I. C., S. M. CHAMBERS, et al. (2001). "Distribution and persistence of Australian Pisolithus species genets at native sclerophyll forest field sites." Mycol. Res. 105: 971-976. Basidiomes of a Pisolithus species were collected from a ca

2500 m2 Australian sclerophyll forest site during 1997 and 1999 and of a second Pisolithus species from a further ca 150 m2 site during 1999. Inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) PCR was conducted on DNA extracted from each basidiome using the primers 5'BDB(ACA)5, 5'DDB(CCA)5 and 5'DHB(CGA)5. Thirty-seven genotypes of Pisolithus species I were detected at the North Wilberforce site, with eight genotypes present during both 1997 and 1999. All other genotypes were observed during only one year. Mapping genotype distribution according to location of basidiome collection at the site suggested that most genotypes were present as small (<2.0 m2) below-ground mycelial genets, however several larger (>4.0 m2) genets (including one ca 120 m2 genet) were also present. All Pisolithus species II basidiomes at the North Turramurra site were of a common genotype, suggesting the presence of a single large (ca 69 m2) below-ground mycelial genet of this taxon at the site. Both Pisolithus species thus appear to produce large long-lived soil-borne mycelia, but establishment of large genets may be restricted under some circumstances.

ANDERSON, I. C., S. M. CHAMBERS, et al. (2001). "Characteristics of glutamine uptake by two Australian Pisolithus species." Mycol. Res. 105: 977-982. Uptake of 14C-labelled glutamine by seven Australian Pisolithus

isolates (representing two species) was investigated over the concentration range 0.5 mmol m-3-20 mol m-3. Total uptake did not conform to simple Michaelis-Menten kinetics over this concentration range. At concentrations above 0.5 mol m-3 much of the glutamine uptake appeared to be diffusion-like. At concentrations below 0.5 mol m-3, subtraction of uptake in the presence of 2,4-dinitrophenol from total uptake revealed an active component that followed Michaelis-Menten kinetics. Estimated Km and Vmax values for active glutamine uptake by all isolates were in the ranges 4.0--210 mmol m-3 and 80--637 nmol g-1 d wt. min-1 respectively. pH optima for glutamine uptake were in the ranges 4.5--6.0, 3.7--5.0 or 3.0--4.5, depending on the isolate. While intraspecific variation was observed, there were no apparent relationships between the two Pisolithus species and either kinetic parameters for glutamine uptake or the pH optimum for the process.

ANDERSON, I. C., S. M. CHAMBERS, et al. (2001). "ITS--RFLP and ITS sequence diversity in Pisolithus from central and eastern Australian sclerophyll forests." Mycol. Res. 105: 1304-1312. Fifty-three isolates of Pisolithus were obtained from various

locations in central and eastern Australia. These, along with two isolates from south-east Asia and one from USA, were compared using ITS--RFLP and ITS sequencing analyses. Results of the RFLP analysis initially grouped the isolates into eight RFLP types. ITS sequences were obtained for at least one representative isolate from each RFLP type and compared by a neighbour-joining analysis with Pisolithus ITS sequences available in databases. The majority of isolates clustered into four groups within two major clades, each clade comprising isolates of similar basidiospore characteristics. Most Australian isolates corresponded with recent provisional descriptions of P. albus or P. marmoratus. One isolate (LJ30) had low sequence identity (61.6--78%) to the other isolates and probably represents a separate undescribed Australian species. Significant intraspecific variation was observed in ITS--RFLP profiles for the putative P. albus isolates, suggesting that the sole use of RFLP analysis in diversity assessment may overestimate Pisolithus species richness.

Anderson, J. M. and A. Macfadyen (1976). The Role Terrestrial and Aquatic Organisms in Decomposition Processes. Oxford London Edinburgh Melbourne, Blackwell Scientific Publications. ANDJIC, V., A. L. J. COLE, et al. (2005). "Taxonomic identity of the Sterile Red Fungus inferred using nuclear rDNA ITS 1 sequences." Mycol. Res. 109: 200-204. The taxonomic position and properties of an unidentified

fungus isolated from wheat roots was investigated. The Sterile Red Fungus (SRF) is characterised by its fast growing habit, red pigmentation, non-sporing nature and mycelial form resembling some Laetisaria and Limonomyces species. rDNA variation was used to study the relationship of the SRF to Laetisaria spp. and Limonomyces spp. Nucleotide sequence obtained from eight Laetisaria and three Limonomycesspecies representing the ITS 1 region, were analysed by PCR and direct sequencing. Plant growth promoting properties of the five taxa were also determined. The SRF had closest identity (98%) to British material of Limonomyces roseipellis.

UPGMA analysis of ITS 1 DNA sequence support a close relationship between SRF and L. roseipellis. The relationship inferred by nucleotide sequence data was supported by phenotypic analysis; both L. roseipellis and the SRF were shown to promote the growth of wheat plants. Unexpectedly, Laetisaria arvalis and material named as Limonomyces roseipellis from New Zealand appeared to be closely related with 98% rDNA sequence identity, suggesting the misidentification of the New Zealand collection.

Andrie, R. M., J. P. Martinez, et al. (2005). "Development of ToxA and ToxB promoter-driven fluorescent protein expression vectors for use in filamentous ascomycetes." Mycologia, 97(5): 1152–1161. The green fluorescent protein (GFP) has been established as

the premier in vivo reporter for investigations of gene expression, protein localization, and cell and organism dynamics. The fungal transformation vector pCT74, with sGFP under the control of the ToxA promoter from Pyrenophora triticirepentis, effectively expresses GFP in a diverse group of filamentous ascomycetes. Due to the versatility of ToxA promoter-driven expression of GFP, we constructed an additional set of fluorescent protein expression vectors to expand the color palette of fluorescent markers for use in filamentous fungi. EYFP, ECFP and mRFP1 were successfully expressed from the ToxA promoter in its fungus of origin, P. tritici-repentis, and a distant relative, Verticillium dahliae. Additionally the ToxB promoter from P. tritici-repentis drove expression of sGFP in V. dahliae, suggesting a similar potential to the ToxA promoter for heterologous expression in ascomycetes. The suite of fungal transformation vectors presented here promise to be useful for a variety of fungal research applications.

ANGELOVA, M. B., S. B. PASHOVA, et al. (2005). "Oxidative stress response of filamentous fungi induced by hydrogen peroxide and paraquat." Mycol. Res. 109: 150-158. Although, oxidative stress response, which protects organisms

from deleterious effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS), has been extensively studied in pro- and eukaryotes, the information about filamentous fungi is fragmentary. We investigated the effect of two ROS-generating agents (paraquat, PQ, and H2O2) on cellular growth and antioxidant enzyme induction in 12 fungal species. Our results indicate that exposure of fungal spores or mycelia to PQ and H2O2 promoted oxidative stress, as evidenced by remarkable inhibition of spore germination and biomass production; stimulation of cyanide-resistant respiration; accumulation of oxidative modified proteins. Cell responses against both superoxide and peroxide stresses include enhanced expression of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase, however, the

extent was different: treatment with PQ increased mainly SOD, whereas exogenous H2O2 led to enhanced catalase. We also found that G6PD has a role in the mechanism of protection against superoxide and peroxide stresses. The activation of antioxidant enzyme defence was blocked by the translation inhibitor, cycloheximide, suggesting that there was de novo enzyme synthesis.

ANIKINA, M. I., L. V. SAVENKOVA, et al. (1999). "Oogonia with multiple oospheres in Phytophthora infestans." Mycol. Res. 103: 1332-1334. Isolates of Phytophthora infestans of A1 mating type from

central Mexico and Wales, when mated to a range of A2 isolates from Russian and Mexico, produced a proportion of abnormal oogonia with several oospheres. Similar oogonia were observed in selffertile lines resulting from treatment of a Russian A1 isolate with a chemical mutagen followed by the fungicide, metalaxyl.

ANIKSTER, Y., T. EILAM, et al. (2000). "Interspecific transfer of pycnial nectar induces pycniospore caps in rust fungi in a manner related to mating type within species.." Mycol. Res. 104: 311-318. Pycnial nectar of one mating type is known to induce cap

formation on pycniospores of opposite mating type within several species of Puccinia and Uromyces. To learn if caps are induced by nectar transfers between species, we used interspecific pairings involving six species of Puccinia and three of Uromyces. Overall, caps were induced in 14 pairings between different species involving all tested species, except Puccinia helianthi which has no intraspecific cap induction. Nectar (with pycniospores) exchanged in reciprocal transfers between individual pycnial clusters of two different species gave pycniospore caps in nine of 16 cluster pairings, comparable to rates within species. Spore-free nectar combined from five or more pycnial clusters of one species (to ensure that nectar of two mating types was present) usually induced caps in pycniospores from single pycnial clusters of a second species. This occurred in all tested pairings of species except pairings involving P. helianthi. In experiments with pycniospore-free nectar of one capping type specificity from P. recondita, caps were induced in about 50% of pycnial clusters of unknown capping type from P. triticina or P. hordei and only in pycnial clusters of one capping type from P. triticina or P. reichertii in experiments in which type within species was determined. Coupled with the fact that capping type specificity and mating types are coincident within species, the results indicate that mating type-specific induction of pycniospore caps by nectar extends across species boundaries. Although aecia were never produced in interspecific pairings, cap induction occurred as it does in intraspecific pairings where it precedes aecium formation in species exhibiting the capping phenomenon.

Anikster, Y., T. Eilam, et al. (2005). "Spore dimensions of Puccinia species of cereal hosts as determined by image analysis1." Mycologia, 97(2): 474-484. Digital image analysis was used to measure dimensions of

spores produced by Puccinia coronata, P. graminis, P. hordei, P. recondita, P. striiformis and P. triticina. Included were teliospores, basidiospores, urediniospores and, except for P. striiformis, pycniospores and aeciospores. Length, width and projection area of spores were measured with NIH Image or Scion software. By using limits on size, spores were automatically selected and measured, except for teliospores, which required manual elimination of the pedicel and separation of images of adhering spores. Length and width were determined as the major and minor axes of the best fitting ellipse for each spore. This procedure gave values for length and width close to results obtained with an ocular micrometer. Projection area was determined as the number of pixels within spore boundaries multiplied by the area represented by each pixel, giving values that are not feasible to obtain accurately with an ocular

micrometer. Of the species studied, spores of P. recondita had the largest dimensions, P. triticina had the smallest. The rank of the six species based on increasing width, length or projection area was almost the same, using each spore type except pycniospores. Generally, differences of 5% in a given spore dimension between two species were significant. Differences between species were greater with basidiospores and aeciospores than with other spore types. Teliospores were unique in that length and width were negatively correlated, resulting in less variation in area than in length or width. The results indicate that image analysis is useful for measuring spore dimensions, that projection area of spores is a useful added parameter for characterizing rust species and that dimensions of teliospores, basidiospores, aeciospores and urediniospores each are potentially useful for differentiating species.

Anikster, Y., T. Eilam, et al. (2003). "Self-fertility and other distinguishing characteristics of a new morphotype of Puccinia coronata pathogenic on smooth brome grass." Mycologia, 95(1): 87-97. A new morphotype of Puccinia coronata, pathogenic to

Bromus inermis, a common roadside and pasture grass in the northern United States, was discovered in the 1990s and described as P. coronata f. sp. bromi by Delgado et al in 2001. Puccinia coronata f. sp. bromi does not require fertilization of pycnia to produce aecia on its alternate host, whereas fertilization is required in all other varieties or formae speciales of P. coronata with aecial hosts in the family Rhamnaceae and for which life cycles have been described. Promycelia of P. coronata f. sp. bromi produce only two basidiospores, and each receives a pair of nuclei from the promycelium. The nuclei divide again so that mature basidiospores each contain four nuclei. Puccinia coronata f. sp. bromi has smaller teliospores than P. coronata var. avenae, and its substomatal vesicles are non-septate and distinctly shaped compared to those of P. coronata var. avenae. In addition, nuclei of P. coronata f. sp. bromi contain less DNA than those of P. coronata var. avenae. Puccinia coronata f. sp. bromi is further distinguished from P. coronata var. avenae and P. coronata var. hordei in being avirulent on both oat and barley, whereas neither P. coronata var. avenae nor P. coronata var. hordei are virulent on Bromus inermis.

Anke, T. (1997). Fungal Biotechnology, Chapman and Hall. Ann, P.-J., J.-H. Huang, et al. (2006). "Pythiogeton zizaniae, a new species causing basal stalk rot of water bamboo in Taiwan." Mycologia, 98(1): 116–120. A new species, Pythiogeton zizaniae, was isolated from

diseased water bamboo (Zizania latifolia) in central Taiwan. The organism formed a colony with scanty mycelia and mycelial aggregates on ryewater bamboo medium. Special treatments were required for production of sporangia which were terminal, noncaducous and mostly ovoid.

Chlamydospores were absent. The fungus was homothallic. Oogonia produced on V-8 water bamboo medium in water were mostly globose to subglobose and each was attached with a club-shaped, monoclinous antheridium by the base of the oogonium stalk. Oospores were plerotic and globose to subglobose. Py. zizaniae caused death of water bamboo suckers but did not infect seedlings of corn, rice, wheat, sorghum, cucumber, tomato, soybean or water spinach. It also did not affect cucumber and tomato fruit, carrot roots or potato tubers.

ANTAL, Z., L. MANCZINGER, et al. (2000). "Colony growth, in vitro antagonism and secretion of extracellular enzymes in cold-tolerant strains of Trichoderma species." Mycol. Res. 104: 545-549. Of three hundred and sixty Trichoderma strains investigated,

fourteen, identi®ed as T. aureoviride, T. harzianum and T. viride, grew well at 5 °C on both minimal and yeast extract agar media. In dual culture tests at 10°, most strains antagonized the phytopathogens Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. dianthi. T. aureoviride and T. viride were more effective against Pythium debaryanum than T. harzianum. The activities of extracellular chitinases (EC 3.2.1.30), β-glucosidases (EC 3.2.1.21) and proteases (EC 3.4.21.1; EC 3.4.21.4), which are thought to be involved in the mycoparasitic process, were also examined and results showed that these enzymes were highly active at 5° in the cold-tolerant strains.

ANTHONY, P. A. (1999). "The macrofungi and decay of roofs thatched with water reed, Phragmites australis." Mycol. Res. 103: 1346-1352. This study examined the occurrence of macrofungi and the

decay of roofs thatched with water reed, Phragmites australis. Sampling from 20 north- and 20 south-facing roof sides showed that several ascomycetes usually associated with reed in situ are common on thatch. The only basidiomycetes recorded were Mycena species. There was no significant difference in the representation of macrofungi on north- and south-facing roof sides, but Mycena spp. only produced basidiomes on surfaces facing north, suggesting that the dry environment of the south side prevents fruiting. Eleven species were recorded in total, and the average of 2.4 species per roof did not increase with the age of thatch or degree of decay. The same species were generally present on young and old thatch, and no successional stages of fungal communities could be distinguished with increasing roof age.

Deterioration of thatch occurs at the exposed surface of the roof and progresses inwards. Within the layer of reeds outer, middle, and inner zones develop representing different stages in the decay. The zones move inwards as thatch deteriorates. A comparison of the rate of decay among roofs with pitch 30°, 45° and 60° showed that the innermost zone appeared ca 20 cm from the exposed reed butts in both of the steeper roofs, whereas it was no longer present in the roof with low pitch. This

suggests that the depth of the zones depends upon the roof slope, and the outer and middle zones move inwards at a higher rate in roofs with a low pitch,

resulting in an increased rate of deterioration. Phragmites thatch appears to harbour its own characteristic

macrofungal community, with certain Mycena species likely to represent the principal decomposers. A common feature of fungi occurring on thatch is that they must endure unfavourable conditions.

Antonin, V. and B. Buyck (2006). "Marasmius (Basidiomycota, Marasmiaceae) in Madagascar and the Mascarenes." Fungal Diversity 23: 17-50. Twenty six collections representing 19 taxa of the genus Marasmius from

Madagascar, Mauritius and Réunion were studied. The following new taxa are described: Marasmius andasibensis, Marasmius andasibensis var. obscurostipitatus, M. brunneoaurantiacus and M. curreyi var. bicystidiatus in sect. Marasmius; M. cecropiformis and Marasmius neosessiliformis (introduced as a nom. prov. because of the absence of the macroscopic description) in sect. Neosessiles; M. pseudocyphella in sect. Hygrometrici and M. eyssartieri in sect. Sicci.

Antonin, V. and M. E. Noordeloos (1993). A Monograph of Marasmius, Collybia and related genera in Europe--Part 1: Marasmius, Setulipes and Marasmiellus. Libri Botanici. V. Antonin and M. E. Noordeloos. IHW-VerLag, IHW-Verlag. Vol. 8: 229. The present work is the first in a planned series of two monographic

studies, intended to cover most European taxa referred to Marasmius and Collybia s1., now included in the genera Marasmius sensu stricto, Setulipes, Marasmiellus, Micromphale, Collybia, Chaetocalathus and Crinipellus. In this first part, the genera Marasmius, Setulipes, and Marasmiellus will be treated, based upon extensive studies on representatives of these genera in Europe. Much material has been studied based on freshly collected material as well as on dried specimens borrowed from the major European herbaria. ..........

Antonin, V. and M. E. Noordeloos (1997). A Monograph of Marasmius, Collybia and related genera in Europe. Part 2 : Collybia, Gymnopus, Rhodocollybia, Crinipellis, Chaetocalathus, and additions to Marasmiellus. Libri Botanici. V. Antonin and M. E. Noordeloos, IHW-Ver & Verlagsbuchhandlung 1997. 17: 256. ANTONIOLLI, Z. I., D. P. SCHACHTMAN, et al. (2000). "Variation in rDNA ITS sequences in Glomus mosseae and Gigaspora margarita spores from a permanent pasture." Mycol. Res. 104: 708-715. To study the genetic variability in Glomus mosseae and

Gigaspora margarita sequence similarities of ITS regions of rDNA were analysed from spores collected from a permanent pasture and from pot

cultures. PCR amplification with the primers ITS1 and ITS4 was performed and products were cloned and sequenced. The sequences from single spores of G. mosseae and Gi. margarita confirmed that there is variation in the ITS region in a single spore. Phenetic analysis of sequences from both species supported the morphological identification which placed the species into two separate groups. Through the analysis of these sequences an estimate of genetic diversity was derived which clearly showed that the three field spores of G. mosseae were at least 2--5 times more genetically diverse than one single spore (field) and a pool of spores (pot culture) of Gigaspora margarita. This demonstrates that a high degree of variation exists in this natural population of G. mosseae.

Aoki, T., K. O’Donnell, et al. (2003). "Sudden-death syndrome of soybean is caused by two morphologically and phylogenetically distinct species within the Fusarium solani species complex— F. virguliforme in North America and F. tucumaniae in South America." Mycologia, 95(4): 660-684. Soybean sudden-death syndrome has become a serious

constraint to commercial production of this crop in North and South America during the past decade. To assess whether the primary etiological agent is panmictic in both hemispheres, morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses were conducted on strains selected to represent the known pathogenic and genetic diversity of this pathogen. Maximum-parsimony analysis of DNA sequences from the nuclear ribosomal intergenic spacer region and the single copy nuclear gene translation elongation factor 1-a, together with detailed morphological comparisons of conidial features, indicate that SDS of soybean in North and South America is caused by two phylogenetically and morphologically distinct species. Fusarium virguliforme sp. nov., formally known as F. solani f. sp. glycines, is described and illustrated for the SDS pathogen in North America, and F. tucumaniae sp. nov. is proposed for the South American pathogen. The molecular phylogenetic results challenge the forma specialis naming system because pathogenicity to soybean might have evolved convergently in F. tucumaniae and F. virguli-forme. Phylogenetic evidence indicates the two SDS pathogens do not share a most recent common ancestor, since F. tucumaniae was resolved as a sister to a pathogen of Phaseolus vulgaris, F. phaseoli comb. nov. All three pathogens appear to have evolutionary origins in the southern hemisphere since they are deeply nested within a South American clade of the F. solani species complex.

APOGA, D. and H.-B. JANSSON (2000). "Visualization and characterization of the extracellular matrix of Bipolaris sorokiniana." Mycol. Res. 104: 564-574. Extracellular matrix (ECM) surrounding conidia and germlings

of B. sorokiniana was studied using light microscopy (LM), scanning (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Conidial ECM surrounding dry-inoculated, ungerminated conidia was fluid-like and

observed only using a cryo-preparation technique, suggesting that the material was water soluble. ECM enveloping germlings appeared fibrillar in LM, TEM and SEM but amorphous in cryo-SEM, indicating that the structure of the ECM is dependent on the water content of the matrix. Fibrillar ECM formed thread-like structures that extended over long distances on the substrate or

towards neighbouring conidia and hyphae. TEM of germlings negatively stained with uranyl acetate revealed the presence of fungal fimbriae. The strong resemblance between the extending organization of fibrillar thread-like ECM structures and fimbriae suggested that fimbriae constitute a basic structural component of the ECM and serve as the aggregation centre for the other ECM components. Histochemical labelling revealed significant differences between ECM surrounding the fungus at different morphological stages. The germ tube ECM was labelled for both proteins and polysaccharides whereas germling ECM consisted of two layers : an inner rich in proteins and an outer composed mainly of polysaccharides. Furthermore, the newly released ECM localized on germ tubes and hyphal tips showed affinity for microspheres carrying any type of surface properties while hyphal ECM had affinity only for negatively charged microspheres. This together suggests that ECM after its release is subjected to structural changes.

APOGA, D., H.-B. JANSSON, et al. (2001). "Adhesion of conidia and germlings of the plant pathogenic fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana to solid surfaces." Mycol. Res. 105: 1251-1260. Soon after coming in contact with its host, the plant

pathogenic fungus Bipolaris sorokiniana produces an extracellular material that appears to be important for adhering conidia and germlings to the host surface. To further understand this step of the infection, the adhesion of B. sorokiniana to artificial solid surfaces was examined. On a hydrophobic (polystyrene) surface adhesion occurred in two stages, the first by conidia and the second by germlings. Conidial adhesion occurred shortly (0--1 h) after hydration. The conidia were easily detached by increasing the shear force and including detergents in the washing buffer. As conidia were hydrophobic, these observations indicate that conidial adhesion to polystyrene is due to weak, hydrophobic interaction. The second stage of adhesion was accompanied by conidial germination and occurred 1--2 h after hydration and contact with the surface. Concomitant with the delayed adhesion, the fungus produced an extracellular matrix (ECM). The adhesion of germlings was firm and surfaceunspeci fic since they adhered to both hydrophobic and hydrophilic (glass) surfaces. Except for strong bases, hydrochloric acid and broad-specificity proteases (including Pronase E), none of the hydrolytic enzymes, electrolyte solutions, ionic and hydrophobic

detergents and organic solvents removed germlings from the solid surfaces. The adhesion of germlings incubated in the presence of the protein

glycosylation inhibitor tunicamycin or the lectins Con A (Concanavalin A) and GNA (from Galanthus nivalis) was signi®cantly reduced, which indicates the involvement of surface glycoproteins in this process. The surface proteins of germlings were labelled with 125I, extracted and analysed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. This revealed about 40 surface proteins over a wide pH range (4--10) with molecular masses between 10 and 100 kDa.

Aptroot, A. (1997). "Notes on the saprobic ascomycetes from Papua New Guinea, with the new genus Papilionovela." Mycological Research 101(3): 266-268. Saprobic fungi were identified among the material collected during the

Benelux Lichenological Expedition to Papua New Guinea in 1992. These include many widespread species, especially those found on high altitude, some of which are reported here for the first time from the Southern Hemisphere. Papilionovela albothallina gen. et sp. nov. is described and illustrated. Xylopezia is referred to the Hyponectriaceae.

APTROOT, A. and R. LUCKING (2001). "The Sphaerella species described from Hymenophyllaceae (filmy ferns) belong to Strigula and Trichothelium (lichenized ascomycetes)." Mycol. Res. 105: 510-512. The two Mycosphaerella and Sphaerella species described

from ®lmy ferns (Hymenophyllaceae) turned out to be lichenized and to belong to different ascomycete orders, the Trichotheliales and Pyrenulales. As one epithet antedates the names currently in use for the taxon, the following new combination is proposed: Trichothelium assurgens (syn. Sphaerella assurgens Cooke, Trichothelium marianense Harada, T. nanum Malcolm & Ve ) zda). These unexpected redispositions serve as an example of the current state of knowledge about the taxonomy of foliicolous ascomycetes, both non-lichenized and lichenized. They also show that type studies are essential to evaluate the identity of Mycosphaerella and Sphaerella species, and that the resulting number of accepted species in the huge genus Mycosphaerella, and consequently in the ascomycetes as a whole, might be lower than currently thought. Strigula phyllogena and

Porina albicera are reported as new for Samoa. APTROOT, A. and U. SCHIEFELBEIN (2003). "Additional species of Cheiromycina (lichenized hyphomycetes), with a key to the known species." Mycol. Res. 107: 104-107. Cheiromycina globosa and C. ananas spp. nov. are described

in the lichenized hyphomycete genus Cheiromycina, one from Germany and one from the USA. A key is provided to all four species now known in genus, and all other lichenized hyphomycetes are briefly mentioned. All are corticolous and rarely recorded, so far only from temperate regions in Europe and North America.

Aptroot, A., S. W., et al. (2007). "New lichens from Thailand, mainly microlichens from Chiang Mai." Fungal Diversity 24: 75-134. Results from collecting trips in Chiang Mai and other Provinces of

Thailand are reported here. Excluding new species described here the paper includes about 300 species new to Thailand, six of which are first records for the Northern Hemisphere of species described from Australia or Papua New Guinea A few species are reported here for the first time since their original description, such as Bacidiopsora orizabana, which was known only from Mexico, but is here reported from Thailand and Taiwan. Concentration on specific groups of crusts led to the identification of three yellow crusts which are usually found sterile. One was identified as the pycnidial form (with stalked pycnidia) of Piccolia conspersa. The others are described below as Pyrrhospora luminescens Aptroot & Wolseley, Rinodina citrinisidiata Aptroot & Wolseley (also reported from Yunnan, China). A pantropical lichen with an unusual hyphomycetous anamorph, superficially resembling a mould, is described as Bacidina penicillata Aptroot, Cáceres, Lucking & Sparrius. Two common, usually sterile isidiate crusts were found with fruiting bodies; Platythecium dimorphodes and Gassicurtia clathrisidiata Aptroot described below. The following further species are described as new to science: Bactrospora inspersa Aptroot, Brigantiaea lobulatisidiata Aptroot, Enterographa inthanonensis Sparrius, Haematomma parda Aptroot, Hypoflavia crustosa Aptroot, Pyrenula aurantiopileata Aptroot, Pyrrhospora fuscisidiata Aptroot & Wolseley and Triclinum sorediatum Aptroot & Sparrius. The new combinations Lopezaria isidiza (Makhija & Nagarkar) Aptroot & Sipman and Malcolmiella aurigera (Fée) Aptroot are made, and the combination Phaeographopsis indica (Patw. & Nagarkar) Sipman & Aptroot is validated.

Excluding new species described here the paper includes about 300 species new to Thailand, six of which are first records for the Northern Hemisphere of species described from Australia or Papua New Guinea A few species are reported here for the first time since their original description, such as Bacidiopsora orizabana, which was known only from Mexico, but is here reported from Thailand and Taiwan. Concentration on specific groups of crusts led to the identification of three yellow crusts which are usually found sterile. One was identified as the pycnidial form (with stalked pycnidia) of Piccolia conspersa. The others are described below as Pyrrhospora luminescens Aptroot & Wolseley, Rinodina citrinisidiata Aptroot & Wolseley (also reported from Yunnan, China). A pantropical lichen with an unusual hyphomycetous anamorph, superficially resembling a mould, is described as Bacidina penicillata Aptroot, Cáceres, Lucking & Sparrius. Two common, usually sterile isidiate crusts were found with fruiting bodies; Platythecium dimorphodes and Gassicurtia clathrisidiata Aptroot described below. The following further species are described as new to science: Bactrospora inspersa Aptroot, Brigantiaea lobulatisidiata

Aptroot, Enterographa inthanonensis Sparrius, Haematomma parda Aptroot, Hypoflavia crustosa Aptroot, Pyrenula aurantiopileata Aptroot, Pyrrhospora fuscisidiata Aptroot & Wolseley and Triclinum sorediatum Aptroot & Sparrius. The new combinations Lopezaria isidiza (Makhija & Nagarkar) Aptroot & Sipman and Malcolmiella aurigera (Fée) Aptroot are made, and the combination Phaeographopsis indica (Patw. & Nagarkar) Sipman & Aptroot is validated.

ARADHYA, M. K., H. M. CHAN, et al. (2001). "Genetic variability in the pistachio late blight fungus, Alternaria alternata." Mycol. Res. 105: 300-306. Genetic variation in the pistachio late blight fungus, Alternaria

alternata, was investigated by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) in the rDNA region. Southern hybridization of EcoRI, HindIII, and XbaI digested fungal DNA with a RNA probe derived from Alt1, an rDNA clone isolated from a genomic library of the Japanese pear pathotype of A. alternata, revealed 34 different rDNA haplotypes among 56 isolates collected from four central valley locations in California. Analysis of molecular variation revealed a significant amount of genetic diversity within populations (85.8%), with only marginal variation accounting for differentiation among populations (14.2%,ΟST=0.142). All isolates examined were highly pathogenic. The identity of the four geographic populations sampled was not evident in both cluster and principal component analyses, probably indicating either the selectively neutral nature of rDNA variation or prevalence of widespread gene flow among populations combined with uniform host-selection.

ARAGONA, M., M. MONTIGIANI, et al. (2000). "Electrophoretic karyotypes of the phytopathogenic Pyrenophora graminea and P. teres." Mycol. Res. 104: 853-857. Contour-clamped homogeneous electric ®eld has been applied

to analyse genome size and organisation of two important pathogens of barley, Pyrenophora graminea and P. teres.

Electrophoretic karyotypes of four P. graminea isolates resolved 6±8 chromosomal bands, depending on the isolate, while the one P. teres isolate analysed contained six chromosomal bands. Chromosome length polymorphism was observed among P. graminea isolates. For both fungi the chromosomes ranged from 1.6 to more than 6 Mb, with chromosomes larger than 6 Mb migrating as a single band within the compression zone of the gel.

Arambarri, A. M., M. N. Cabello, et al. (1997). "Gyrothrix flagelliramosa sp. nov., a new hyphomycete from Argentina." Mycological Research 101(12): 1529-1530. Gyrothrix flagelliramosa, a new species of hyphomycete, found in litter

floating in hydrocarbon-polluted water in the Santiago River, Argentina, is described and illustrated.

ARENAL, F., G. PLATAS, et al. (2000). "ITS sequencing support for Epicoccum nigrum and Phoma epicoccina being the same biological species." Mycol. Res. 104: 301-303. The phylogenetic relationship between Epicoccum nigrum and

Phoma epicoccina has been assessed by means of sequencing of the ITS regions of rDNA. The analysis of the sequences from five isolates of E. nigrum and four of P. epicoccina suggests that both entities represent the same biological species.

Armstrong, L. and R. L. Peterson (2002). "The interface between the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices and root cells of Panax quinquefolius: a Paris-type mycorrhizal association." Mycologia, 94(4): 587-594. Two major types of arbucular mycorrhizal associations, the

Arum-type and the Paris-type, have been identified based on morphological features. Although the Paris-type is the most common, it is the Arum-type that has been most intensively studied in terms of structure/function because of its prevalence in agronomically important plant species. In this study, the interface between the host cell cytoplasm and intracellular hyphae (extensive hyphal coils and arbusculate coils), which typify the Paris-type mycorrhiza, was studied. Using immunofluorescence techniques combined with laser scanning confocal microscopy, dramatic changes in the cytoskeleton in colonized cells were observed. Changes in the positioning of both host cell microtubules and actin filaments occurred in colonized plant cells. Both microtubules and actin filaments were associated with the hyphal coils and the arbusculate coils. An interfacial matrix, of host origin, was demonstrated between hyphal coils and arbusculate coils using various affinity techniques. It formed an apoplastic compartment consisting of cellulose and pectins between the fungus and host cell cytoplasm. There was less labelling adjacent to the fine branches of arbusculate coils compared to the hyphal coils. These observations show some similarities to those seen with Arum-type mycorrhizas.

ARNERUP, J., N. HOGBERG, et al. (2004). "Phylogenetic analysis of multiple loci reveal the population structure within Letharia in the Caucasus and Morocco." Mycol. Res. 108: 311-316. The sequence variation within the genus Letharia in the

Caucasus and Morocco was investigated. Twelve thalli from each area were sequenced at eight different loci. Phylogenetic analysis of the multiple loci data revealed the cryptic species Letharia ‘lupina’ in Morocco, previously known only from western North America. The two cryptic species L. vulpina and L. ‘lupina’ locally share the same ecology but are genetically isolated from each other. In the Caucasus, five different haplotypes of L. vulpina were detected, and in Morocco four L. vulpina haplotypes and six L. ‘lupina’ haplotypes were found. For L. vulpina, allelic differences were detected at five of the eight loci in the Caucasus and

Morocco. The populations of L. vulpina in both the Caucasus and Morocco contain more genetic variation than those previously investigated in Europe, which indicates that the Caucasus and Morocco acted as refugia during quaternary glaciations, and that central and northern Europe may have been recolonised from one or both of these areas.

ARNESEN, S., S. H. ERIKSEN, et al. (2002). "De novo synthesis is involved in the production of extracellular a-amylase activity from Thermomyces lanuginosus in the stationary phase." Mycol. Res. 106: 345-348. The thermophilic fungus Thermomyces lanuginosus was

cultivated in shake-flasks for up to 120 h with low-molecularweight dextran as carbon source. Maximal biomass was attained after 48 h of growth whereas extracellular a-amylase activity was highest in the stationary phase with maximum activity after 96 h of cultivation. A similar pattern was found for total extracellular protein. Pulse-labeling of proteins showed that a-amylase and other unidentified proteins were de novo synthesised in the stationary phase. Using specific primers with sequences from a-amylase from T. lanuginosus, RT-PCR analysis showed that a-amylase transcription did not start until late in the growth phase and reached a maximum more than 24 h after maximal biomass was obtained.

Arnold, A. E. and E. A. Herre (2003). "Canopy cover and leaf age affect colonization by tropical fungal endophytes: Ecological pattern and process in Theobroma cacao (Malvaceae)." Mycologia, 95(3): 388-398. Fungal endophytes inhabit healthy tissues of all terrestrial plant

taxa studied to date and are diverse and abundant in leaves of tropical woody angiosperms. Studies have demonstrated that plant location and leaf age influence density of endophyte infection in leaves of tropical forest trees. However, ecological factors underlying these observations have not been explored in detail. Here, we establish that foliar endophytes of a tropical tree (Theobroma cacao, Malvaceae) are transmitted horizontally and that endophyte- free seedlings can be produced for experimental manipulation by protecting aerial tissues from surface wetting. At Barro Colorado Island, Panama, we used transects of endophyte-free seedlings to determine the importance of several factors (canopy cover, abundance of aerial and epiphytic propagules, leaf age, leaf chemistry, leaf toughness and duration of exposure to viable air spora) in shaping colonization by endophytic fungi. Endophytes colonized leaves of T. cacao more rapidly beneath the forest canopy than in cleared sites, reflecting local abundance of aerial and epiphytic propagules. The duration of exposure, rather than absolute leaf age, influenced endophyte infection, whereas leaf toughness and chemistry had no observed effect. Endophytes isolated from mature T. cacao grew more rapidly on media containing leaf extracts of T. cacao than on media containing extracts from other co-occurring tree species, suggesting that interspecific differences in leaf chemistry influence endophyte assemblages. Together, these data allow us to identify factors

underlying patterns of endophyte colonization within healthy leaves of this tropical tree.

ARNOLD, A. E., Z. MAYNARD, et al. (2001). "Fungal endophytes in dicotyledonous neotropical trees : patterns of abundance and diversity." Mycol. Res. 105: 1502-1507. Fungal endophytes have been found in every plant species

examined to date and appear to be important, but largely unquantified, components of fungal biodiversity. Endophytes are especially little known in tropical forest trees, where their abundance and diversity are thought to be greatest. Here, we explore the occurrence of endophytes in a broad diversity of woody, angiospermous taxa in a lowland, moist tropical forest in central Panama! . We use similarity indices to assess host preference and spatial heterogeneity of endophytes associated with two co-occurring, but distantly related, understorey tree species in two sites of that

forest, and assess the utility of indices based on frequencies of morphospecies occurrence (Morisita-Horn index) and on presenceabsence data (S∅rensen's index). We suggest that our understanding of fungal diversity will be enhanced by exploring ecological patterns underlying endophyte occurrence in host species, and discuss methods for assessing the proportion of fungal biodiversity represented by tropical endophytes.

Arora, D. K. (2004). Fungal Biotechnology in Agricultural, Food, and Environmental Applications. Mycology. New York.Basel, Marcel Dekker, INC. 21: 509. ARRUDA, M. C. C. D., M. A. S. V. FERREIRA, et al. (2003). "Nuclear and mitochondrial rDNA variability in Crinipellis perniciosa from different geographic origins and hosts." Mycol. Res. 107: 25-37. Genetic variability in Crinipellis perniciosa, the causal organism

of witches’ broom disease in Theobroma cacao, was determined in strains originating from T. cacao and other susceptible host species Heteropterys acutifolia and Solanum lycocarpum in Brazil, in order to clarify host specificity and geographical variability. RFLP analysis of the ribosomal DNA ITS regions (rDNA ITS), and the mitochondrial DNA small subunit ribosomal DNA gene (mtDNA SSU rDNA) did not reveal any genetic variability in 120 tested strains, possibly serving only as species level markers. Genetic variability was observed in the ribosomal DNA IGS spacer region, in terms of IGS size, RFLPs and sequence data. Phylogenetic analyses (using CLUSTAL W, PHYLIP and TREEVIEW) indicated considerable differences between C. perniciosa strains from T. cacao and those from H. acutifolia (85–86%) and S. lycocarpum (95–96%). Sequence differences also indicated that C. perniciosa from T. cacao in Bahia is less variable (98%) when compared to the pathogen on T. cacao in Amazonas (97–98%), perhaps reflecting a recent introduction to T. cacao in Bahia.

ARSECULERATNE, S. N. and D. N. ATAPATTU (2004). "The assessment of the viability of the endospores of Rhinosporidium seeberi with MTT (3-[4, 5-dimethyl- 2-thiazolyl]-2, 5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide)." Mycol. Res. 108: 1423-1430. This report describes tests with Evan’s Blue and MTT (3-[4, 5-

dimethyl-2-thiazolyl]-2, 5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide) for the assessment of the viability of rhinosporidial endospores. MTT stained a proportion of the spherical bodies that we regard as the Electron Dense Bodies (EDBs), and the cytoplasm of freshly prepared endospores or ones that were stored at 4 °. Slow-freezing at --20 °C, exposure to 10% formalin, or 0.1% sodium azide of the endospores abolished MTT-staining in both sites. Evan’s Blue stained the EDBs and cytoplasm of fresh endospores or those stored at 4 °, and of sodium azide-treated or frozen (-20 °)-thawed endospores. TMRE (tetramethyl-rhodamine ethyl ester) specifically labelled the spherical bodies, supporting the conclusion that these spherical bodies have a mitochondrial-like structure. TMRE-staining was however retained in endospores after their treatment with formalin, sodium azide and slow-freezing while MTT-staining was abolished in all these treated endospores.

These results indicate that EvB and TMRE were capable of revealing the morphological integrity of endospores but failed to identify the metabolic inactivation of the endospores after treatment with formalin, sodium azide or slow-freezing. Only MTT was capable of identifying metabolically active endospores and hence their viability and could prove to be of value in standardizing models of infection.

ARTICUS, K., J.-E. MATTSSON, et al. (2002). "Ribosomal DNA and b-tubulin data do not support the separation of the lichens Usnea florida and U. subfloridana as distinct species." Mycol. Res. 106: 412-418. The lichens Usnea florida and U. subfloridana have since long

been recognised as distinct species. They show many similarities in morphology, but have different reproductive strategies. Usnea florida is always provided with many apothecia and produces no specialised asexual propagules. Usnea subfloridana has soralia, isidiomorphs and occasionally apothecia. Phylogenetic analyses based on continuous sequences of the ITS and LSU regions of the

nuclear ribosomal DNA and the gene coding for b-tubulin, show that specimens of the two species form one monophyletic group of intermixed specimens, and not two groups corresponding to morphology, which would have been expected if two species were at hand. The ` species pair' concept in lichenology is discussed. Other Usnea species included in the study are: U. articulata, U. barbata, U. ceratina, U. filipendula, U. hirta, U. rigida and U. wasmuthii.

Arx, V., J.A. (1970). The Genera of The Fungi Sporulating in Pure Culture, 330i Lehere Verlag Von J. Cramer 1970.

Arx, V., J.A. (1972). "Antonie van Leewenhoek On Endomyces, Endomycopsis and related yeast-like fungi." Journal of Microbiology and Serology 38(No.3): 289-309. Arx, V., J.A. (1981). The Genera of The Fungi Sporulating in Pure Culture, J. Cramer. ASAI, E.-I., K. HATA, et al. (1998). "Effect of simulated acid rain on the occurrence of Lophodermium on Japanese black pine needles." Mycol. Res. 102: 1316-1318. The occurrence of Lophodermium on fallen needles and

Leptostroma, the mitosporic state of Lophodermium, on living needles of Japanese black pine trees treated with simulated acid rain (SAR, pH 3) or tap water (control, pH 6.3) were studied. The amount of fallen needles was also examined. Significantly more needles fell from SAR-treated trees than from control trees, though there were no visible symptoms in the needles of SAR-treated trees. The detection frequency of Lophodermium on fallen needles, and that of endophytic Leptostroma on 2 year old and 3 year old needles, was lower in SAR-treated than control trees. The reduction in the detection of Lophodermium}Leptostroma on needles implied the reduction in the density of endophytic fungi with air pollution.

ASIEGBU, F. O., S. ABU, et al. (2004). "Sequence polymorphism and molecular characterization of laccase genes of the conifer pathogen Heterobasidion annosum." Mycol. Res. 108: 136-148. The oxidizing enzyme laccase produced by many fungi is

generally considered to be active in the biodegradation of lignin, a major plant cell wall component highly resistant to microbial attack. The enzyme is secreted at high levels by the P-type of the highly aggressive pathogen Heterobasidion annosum, but at much lower levels by the S-type which correlated with their varying wood decay capability. To investigate the evolutionary relationship between laccase genes of the different H. annosum types from several geographical regions we have compared the nucleotide sequence of the laccase gene from 32 different isolates of the fungus together with two other Asian isolates (H. araucariae, H. insulare). In addition to nucleotide sequence assessment, we have also cloned, characterized and analysed the partial sequences of the laccase gene from the homokaryotic (FSE-7: S-type; Sa 16-4: P-type) and heterokaryotic (Faf-8: F-type) strains of H. annosum. Using degenerate primers, two distinct laccase gene fragments of 1.64 and 2 kb were amplified from the genomic DNA of this fungus. DNA sequence analyses showed that the 1.64 kb laccase fragment in all three H. annosum types shared significant homology (86–96%). But comparative analyses of the 1.64 and 2 kb laccase gene fragment

revealed only 48% nucleotide sequence similarity. Using the cDNA sequence

information, exon regions were predicted and this revealed that about nine small introns interrupted the genomic DNA. Southern hybridization analysis indicated a single copy of the gene in the homokaryotic S-type (FSE-7) examined but presence of double bands in the homokaryotic and heterokaryotic P-type strains of the fungus suggest the existence of two laccase genes. Northern analyses revealed that the gene is constitutively expressed but appear to be enhanced several fold with the addition of ferulic acid or oxalic acid. Alignments of the nucleotide sequences and phylogenetic analyses are presented allowing estimations of evolutionary relationships to be made. These comparisons indicate that laccase gene of P-type is distinct

from other Heterobasidion sequences, including the outgroups H. araucariae and H. insulare, while the relationship between the S- and F-groups could not be resolved. Comparative phylogenetic analyses using predicted amino acid sequence also showed strong similarity to the laccases from other basidiomycetes (Pleurotus ostreatus, Phlebia radiata and Trametes versicolor) but least similar to laccases from ascomycete fungi. In addition, the results of McDonald-Kreitman test for possible evidence of selection based on analyses of two exon regions of the H. annosum laccase gene are presented and discussed.

ASSANTE, G., D. MAFFI, et al. (2004). "Histological studies on the mycoparasitism of Cladosporium tenuissimum on urediniospores of Uromyces appendiculatus." Mycol. Res. 108: 170-182. Interactions between the mycoparasite Cladosporium

tenuissimum and the bean rust Uromyces appendiculatus were studied through light and electron microscopy in vitro at the host–parasite interface. Urediniospore germination decreased on contact with ungerminated C. tenuissimum conidia, possibly due to antibiosis mechanisms. C. tenuissimum grew towards the bean rust spores and coiled around their germ tubes. Penetration of the urediniospores occurred either

enzymatically and/or mechanically, through appressorium or infection cushion structures, from which a thin penetrating hypha was generated. Enzyme production by the mycoparasite was suggested by the loosening of the matricial components of the spore wall, which sometimes left chitin fibrils visible. Mycoparasite hyphae grew within the host spore, emptied its content, and emerged profusely forming conidiophores and conidia. C. tenuissimum was able to grow on media containing laminarin, suggesting the ability of producing glucanases, but not when chitin was used as the sole carbon source. Conidia that had been grown on a sugar-rich medium, filtered, and extracted with organic solvents, were found to contain cladosporol and related compounds. Complete control of the bean rust disease was achieved by application of C. tenuissimum culture filtrates but not by conidial suspensions. This is the first report of parasitism by C. tenuissimum on U. appendiculatus. These investigations provide

additional observations on a genus besides Melampsora and Cronartium from which this fungus has been isolated and tested to date. The possible role of

environmental factors for the exploitation of this organism as a biocontrol agent is also mentioned.

ATKINS, S. D., L. HIDALGO-DIAZ, et al. (2003). "Approaches for monitoring the release of Pochonia chlamydosporia var. catenulata, a biocontrol agent of root-knot nematodes." Mycol. Res. 107: 206-212. Pochonia chlamydosporia var. catenulata is a potential

biocontrol agent against root-knot nematodes. Diagnosis of isolates has relied on morphological identification, and is both time-consuming and difficult. β-tubulin primers have been developed for the identification of this fungus that were specific enough to distinguish between varieties of the fungus within the same species. Separate primers have been developed for the specific detection of P. chlamydosporia var. catenulata based on ITS sequences, which were able to detect the fungus in soil from various sites in Cuba where the biocontrol agent had been added. When the PCR diagnosis was combined with serial dilution of soil samples on selective medium, colonies were rapidly identified. The fungus was still present, albeit at low densities, in soils inoculated five years previously. The development of a baiting method allowed quick in situ screening of the isolates’ ability to infect nematode eggs, and when combined with PCR diagnosis both varieties of the fungus could be detected in infected eggs. RFLP analysis of ITS sequences from P. chlamydosporia provided an extra level of discrimination between isol

ATKINS, S. D., T. H. MAUCHLINE, et al. (2004). "Development of a transformation system for the nematophagous fungus Pochonia chlamydosporia." Mycol. Res. 108: 654-661. The nematophagous fungus Pochonia chlamydosporia is a

potential biocontrol agent against root knot and cyst nematodes. Genetic transformation of the fungus to introduce visual marker genes, novel traits, or changes in expression levels of endogenous genes, would greatly enhance understanding of its behaviour on nematode-infested roots and of its interactions with other soil and rhizosphere microorganisms. A transformation system for the introduction of novel genes into P. chlamydosporia has been developed. Methods to generate protoplasts, introduce DNA and regenerate transformed viable fungal mycelium have been optimised, using plasmids carrying the green fluorescent protein marker gene gfp and the hygromycin resistance gene hph. Cultures of P. chlamydosporia were resistant to high levels of a range of fungal inhibitors, including hygromycin, that are commonly used with dominant selectable marker genes in the

transformation of other fungi. However, regenerating protoplasts transformed with hph could be selected by their ability to grow through an agar overlay

containing 1 mg ml-1 hygromycin. Green fluorescence was observed in protoplasts and regenerating mycelium after transformation with gfp, but the GFP phenotype was lost on subculture. Maintenance of introduced genes was not stable, and during subculture, PCR assays indicated that the transformants lost both hph and gfp. When these genes were introduced on the same plasmid, segregation of hph and gfp was observed prior to their loss. It was unclear whether the introduced plasmids were able to replicate autonomously in P. chlamydosporia, or if they integrated transiently into the fungal genome. Possible reasons for the instability of the transformants are discussed.

ATTITALLA, I. H., J. FATEHI, et al. (2004). "A rapid molecular method for differentiating two special forms (lycopersici and radicis-lycopersici) of Fusarium oxysporum." Mycol. Res. 108: 787-794. Two pathogenic special forms (f. sp.) of the Fusarium

oxysporum species complex f. sp. lycopersici (Fol) and f. sp. radicis-lycopersici (Forl) are morphologically indistinguishable. Although they are pathogenic to the same host genus Lycopersicon (tomato), and infect the same tomato cultivar, they form distinct diseases; Fol causes wilt and Forl causes crown rot and root rot. These two special forms apparently exist as genetically isolated populations, based on vegetative compatibility and molecular variation at the DNA level. In seeking efficient diagnostic tools for differentiating Fol and Forl isolates, we examined three techniques: isozyme analysis, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) RFLP by HaeIII-digestion of total genomic DNA, and an osmotic method using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to detect fungal pigments. The isolates were collected from geographically widespread locations. Distinct HPLC-profile differences were found between an endophytic non-pathogenic isolate and the other pathogenic isolates. However, the direct mtDNA RFLP technique proved to be an efficient diagnostic tool for routine differentiation of Fol and Forl isolates.

AU, D. W. T., E. B. G. JONES, et al. (1999). "Observations on the biology and ultrastructure of the asci and ascospores of Julella avicenniae from Malaysia." Mycol. Res. 103: 865-872. Ultrastructure of the marine, bitunicate, ascomycete Julella

avicenniae is presented and compared with the marine Pleospora gaudefroyi. Asci of J. avicenniae possess an ocular chamber, a thick endoascus, and a thinner ectoascus. Pseudoparaphyses are enveloped by mucilage (hyphal sheath) which stains with ruthenium red. The mucilage appears to be an extension of the pseudoparaphysis cell wall and internally these cells contain an array of vesicles. Muriform ascospores are surrounded by an exosporial sheath, an electrondense episporium and a bilamellate mesosporium. Optimum conditions for growth are 25--30 °C in 100% artificial seawater glucoseyeast extract-tryptone media, but the fungus also is able to grow at 35° and at higher

salinities. The ability of the fungus to withstand extremes of environmental conditions is discussed. Aung, O. M., J. C. Kang, et al. (2006). "Cordyceps mrciensis sp nov from a spider in Thailand." Mycotaxon 97: 235-240. AVILA, A., J. Z. GROENEWALD, et al. (2005). "Characterisation and epitypification of Pseudocercospora cladosporioides, the causal organism of Cercospora leaf spot of olives." Mycol. Res. 109(8): 881-888. Cercospora leaf spot of olives is a serious defoliating disease

attributed to Pseudocercospora cladosporioides. Although the disease is well distributed throughout olive growing regions of the world, its epidemiology and population structure remains unknown. The aim of this study was to establish the genetic variability of Spanish isolates of P. cladosporioides using DNA sequence data from the ITS region, as well as two protein-coding genes, actin and calmodulin. Phylogenetic

data obtained here support P. cladosporioides as closely related to other Pseudocercospora species that cluster within Mycosphaerella. Spanish isolates clustered in two clades: isolates from Catalonia were different from those collected in Andalusia. However, isolates appeared to be genetically relatively homogeneous, suggesting that chemical control of this disease via a managed spraying programme may prove a viable option for controlling the disease in Spain.

AVIO, L. and M. GIOVANNETTI (1998). "The protein pattern of spores of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi: comparison of species, isolates and physiological stages." Mycol. Res. 102: 985-990. Spore proteins of different species and isolates of arbuscular

mycorrhizal (AM) fungi were compared by PAGE. Reproducibility of protein patterns was assessed by using cultures of the same species either grown on different host plants, or produced during successive propagation cycles and stored up to 5 years. The results consistently showed that host species, different generations and storage, did not affect protein profiles, thus validating the accuracy of the method. Comparison among different geographical isolates of the same species revealed consistent protein patterns. The stability and diversity of spore protein profiles suggested that PAGE could be used to discriminate and identify AM fungal species and isolates. By contrast, the physiological state of spores affected the quality and quantity of bands, with germinating spores showing marked profile changes, as compared to quiescent spores, both in denaturating and native analytical conditions. The disappearance of some polypeptides in germinated spores might be related to the occurrence of storage proteins in AM fungi.

Avis, P. G. and I. Charvat (2005). "The response of ectomycorrhizal fungal inoculum to long-term increases in nitrogen supply." Mycologia, 97(2): 329-337.

The inoculum of ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi was examined in a 16 y long nitrogen fertilization experiment maintained in a temperate oak savanna. To measure EM fungal inoculum, bur oak seedlings were grown in three types of bioassays: (i) intact soil cores that measure inoculum such as spores, mycelia and mycorrhizal roots; (ii) resistant propagule bioassays that measure inoculum types resistant to soil drying; and (iii) previously mycorrhizal root bioassays that measure the ability of EM fungi to colonize new roots from mycorrhizal roots. Colonization of bur oak seedlings was characterized by morphotyping and where necessary by restriction analysis and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequencing. Fourteen morphotypes were found in intact soil core bioassays with species of Cortinarius, Cenococcum and Russula abundant. Five morphotypes were found in resistant propagule bioassays with Cenococcum, a thelephoroid morphotype and a Wilcoxina- like ascomycete abundant and frequent. In intact soil core bioassays total percent root colonization and number of morphotypes were not affected by N supply in 2000 and 2001. However the composition of EM fungi colonizing oak seedling roots was different with increased N supply such that Russula spp. (primarily Russula aff. amoenolens) were most abundant at the highest level of N supply. Dominant Russula spp. did not colonize any roots in resistant propagule bioassays but did colonize oak seedling roots from previously mycorrhizal roots. Results suggest that in this savanna N supply can influence the kinds of inoculum propagules present and thereby might affect the dynamics of ectomycorrhizal communities by differentially influencing reproductive and colonization strategies.

AYLIFFE, M. A., P. N. DODDS, et al. (2001). "Characterisation of a β-tubulin gene from Melampsora lini and comparison of fungal b-tubulin genes." Mycol. Res. 105: 818-826. A Melampsora lini β-tubulin gene and flanking sequence has

been isolated and characterised. The gene contains 8 introns, is expressed in germinating urediospores and vegetative mycelia and encodes a 448 amino acid protein that is similar to other fungal β-tubulin genes. Evidence for a second β-tubulin gene within the M. lini genome is also presented. The predicted M. lini β-tubulin protein was compared with 34 other fungal β-tubulin proteins in a phylogenetic analysis and, in general, good agreement was observed between the derived β-tubulin based phylogeny and the current taxonomic status of these species. However, a second btubulin protein found in five fungal species is atypical when compared to other fungal β-tubulin proteins. Analysis of intron positions within 33 fungal β-tubulin genes showed that intron location was generally characteristic of the fungal class, with euascomycete fungi showing particularly striking conservation of intron position, although intron number was variable and intron sequences showed little conservation.

Aziz, B. and J. Razali (1992). Notes on the Rare Fern, Pteris holttumii C. Chr. The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore, National Parks Board Singapore Botanic Gardens Cluny Road Singapore 1025. 44: 47-50. BA, A. S., J. Sherman A. PHILLIPS, et al. (2000). "Yeasts in mound soil of the red imported fire ant." Mycol. Res. 104: 969-973. Soil yeast occurrence and abundance was studied in brood

chambers within mounds of the red imported fire ant, Solenopsis invicta, and adjacent non-mound soil from Texas. Ten yeast species were isolated from fire ant brood chamber soil and 13 from non-mound soil. Relative frequencies of Candida parapsilosis and C. lipolytica were greater in brood chamber soil, and Cryptococcus terreus occurred more frequently in non-mound soil. Rhodoturula rubra, R. minuta, and Candida vini only occurred in non-mound soil. Mean cfu g-1 of soil was greater in brood chamber soil. Fire ants alter the community composition and relative abundance of yeasts within mounds due to creation of unique microhabitat patches.

Baar, J., B. Comini, et al. (1997). "Performance of four ectomycorrhizal fungi on organic and inorganic nitrogen sources." Mycological Research 101(5): 523-529. The performance of isolates of the ectomycorrhizal fungi Coltricia

perennis, Laccaria bicolor, Lactarius hepaticus and Paxillus involutus originating from Scots pine stands was studied on solid media with different concentrations of ammonium, glycine and glucose as inorganic nitrogen, organic nitrogen and carbon source. Laccaria bicolor was able to grow on both ammonium- and glycine-containing media. Biomass and growth rate of L. hepaticus and P. involutus on media with ammonium were generally higher than on media with glycine as nitrogen source. Coltricia perennis did not clearly show preference for either ammonium or glycine. Fractal dimensions, calculated from the biomass and radii of the fungi, were in the range 1-3. Fractal dimensions provided extra information about the foraging strategy of mycelia not obtained from growth rate and biomass production measurements, but cannot replace those because the use of fractal dimensions alone may lead to misinterpretation.

BAAR, J. and N. L. STANTON (2000). "Ectomycorrhizal fungi challenged by saprotrophic basidiomycetes and soil microfungi under different ammonium regimes in vitro." Mycol. Res. 104: 691-697. In an in vitro study, interactions between ectomycorrhizal fungi,

saprotrophic basidiomycetes and soil microfungi known from pine forests were examined in relation to different ammonium concentrations. The saprotrophic basidiomycetes Clitocybe marginella and C. vibecina and the soil microfungi Penicillium pinetorum, Oidiodendron ¯avum and Torulomyces lagena were grown against the ectomycorrhizal Cenococcum geophilum, Laccaria bicolor and Rhizopogon luteolus. Interactions were species specific and overgrowth was the most common (43 %), followed by inhibition at distance (26%) and contact inhibition (16

%). Ammonium concentrations affected the type and strength of the interactions. The competitive strength of the ectomycorrhizal fungi was relatively high and only the

growth of the mycelia of L. bicolor was clearly suppressed by the Clitocybe spp. The interactions are discussed in relation to the ecology of the fungi and potential future studies.

BABU, A. M., V. KUMAR, et al. (2002). "Surface ultrastructural studies on the infection process of Pseudocercospora mori causing grey leaf spot disease in mulberry." Mycol. Res. 106: 938-945. Pseudocercospora mori produced three kinds of hyphae --

primary infection hyphae, internal hyphae and secondary infection hyphae. The primary infection hyphae were developed from conidia and they penetrated the leaf through stomata directly or by lateral penetration branches -- the stomatopodia. Inside the stomatal chambers the stomatopodia swelled to become vesicle-like structures. The internal hyphae produced compact stromata in the sub-stomatal chambers. Each stromata carried 1--5 conidia at a time on short unbranched conidiophores. The secondary infection hyphae were developed from internal hyphae directly or from stromata. The secondary infection hyphae emerged through stomata, branched profusely on the leaf surface and produced conidia singly on short conidiophores. The secondary infection hyphae re-entered the leaf directly or by stomatopodia. Conidia were developed also from stomatopodia and from their substomatal vesicles. The conidia developed from substomatal stromata, and those produced from the secondary infection hyphae on leaf surface were similar in their morphology and size of

conidiophores. The conidia were obclavate to cylindrical, 3--17 celled and measured 4.35x1.5-2 µm. Germ tubes were often found to emerge from the conidial cell nearer to stomata. The primary infection hyphae and secondary infection hyphae produced stomatopodia above stomata.

BACHEWICH, C. and I. B. HEATH (1999). "Cytoplasmic migrations and vacuolation are associated with growth recovery in hyphae of Saprolegnia, and are dependent on the cytoskeleton." Mycol. Res. 103: 849-858. Hyphae of Saprolegnia ferax recovered from intracellular

acidification with variable degrees of apical vacuolation and migration of cytoplasm out of the apex, prior to apical refilling and resumption of growth. The response was not due to alkalinization, but was generalized to recovery from diverse growth inhibitors including procaine, latrunculin B and the kinase inhibitor 6- dimethylaminopurine. The vacuoles apparently arise from expansion and fusion of apical tubular vacuoles. This process is mediated by microtubules, since their disruption suppresses apical vacuolation. The shape of the vacuoles appears to be F-actin imposed, because their expansion is enhanced by F-actin disruption. The accompanying, often bidirectional, cytoplasmic migrations are

independent of tip growth, require F-actin, and probably represent part of a hypothetical generalized cytoplasmic avoidance response.

BAE, H., J. H. BOWERS, et al. (2005). "NEP1 orthologs encoding necrosis and ethylene inducing proteins exist as a multigene family in Phytophthora megakarya, causal agent of black pod disease on cacao." Mycol. Res. 109(12): 1373-1385. Phytophthora megakarya is a devastating oomycete pathogen

that causes black pod disease in cacao. Phytophthora species produce a protein that has a similar sequence to the necrosis and ethylene inducing protein (Nep1) of Fusarium oxysporum. Multiple copies of NEP1 orthologs (PmegNEP) have been identified in P. megakarya and four other Phytophthora species (P. citrophthora, P. capsici, P. palmivora, and P. sojae). Genome database searches confirmed the existence of multiple copies of NEP1 orthologs in P. sojae and P. ramorum. In this study, nine different PmegNEP orthologs from P. megakarya strain Mk-1 were identified and analyzed. Of these nine orthologs, six were expressed in mycelium and in P. megakarya zoospore-infected cacao leaf tissue. The remaining two clones are either regulated differently, or are nonfunctional genes. Sequence analysis revealed that six PmegNEP orthologs were organized in two clusters of three orthologs each in the P. megakarya genome. Evidence is presented for the instability in the P. megakarya genome resulting from duplications, inversions, and fused genes resulting in multiple NEP1 orthologs. Traits characteristic of the Phytophthora genome, such as the clustering of NEP1 orthologs, the lack of CATT and TATA boxes, the lack of introns, and the short distance between ORFs were also observed.

Bago, B., C. Cano, et al. (2004). "Differential morphogenesis of the extraradical mycelium of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus grown monoxenically on spatially heterogeneous culture media." Mycologia, 96(3): 452-462. A new in vitro experimental system was developed to study the

morphogenesis of discrete regions of a single extraradical mycelium of the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus Glomus intraradices,growing simultaneously in six different agar-based media. The media were (i) unamended water agar (WA), (ii) WA+PO4

3− (PO4 3-), (iii) WA+NO3- (NO3

-), (iv) WA+NH4

+ (NH4+), (v) WA+NH4

+ +MES (NH4 + +MES) and (vi) minimal medium (M, complete nutrients). Each medium was amended with the pH indicator bromocresol purple. The extraradical mycelium of the fungus showed betweentreatment differences in morphogenesis, architecture, formation of branched absorbing structures (BAS) and sporulation. Extraradical hyphae that developed in WA or PO4 32 compartments exhibited an economic development pattern, in which runner hyphae radially extended the external colony. Extraradical hyphal growth in the NO3 2 compartments was characterized by increased formation of runner

hyphae, BAS and spores and an alkalinization of the medium. In the two NH4 +-amended media (NH4 +, NH4 + +MES), sporulation was suppressed and considerable morphological changes were noted. These results show the plasticity of G. intraradices that lets it efficiently exploit an heterogeneous substrate.

BAGO, B., Y. PICHE, et al. (1998). "Fluorescently-primed in situ PCR in arbuscular mycorrhizas." Mycol. Res. 102: 1540-1544. In situ gene amplification (in situ PCR) is a recent, powerful

molecular technique which allows the localization of low abundance nucleic acids targets directly within tissue sections. The work presented here is, to our knowledge, the first report of successful direct detection of in situ PCR amplification with ¯uorescently-labelled primers, and the first successful in situ PCR performed on arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. Ribosomal SSU genes within AM fungal spore sections were amplified by using fiuorescent, glomaleanspeci fic primers, then directly detected by means of epifluorescence microscopy. Different controls confirmed the successfulness of the in situ amplification. These results open new avenues in the study of arbuscular mycorrhizas, where genetic processes seem to be

transient and very localized. Bahl, J., R. Jeewon, et al. (2005). "Phylogeny of Rosellinia capetribulensis sp. nov. and its allies (Xylariaceae)." Mycologia, 97(5): 1102–1110. A new Rosellinia species, R. capetribulensis isolated from

Calamus sp. in Australia is described. R. capetribulensis is characterized by perithecia immersed within a carbonaceous stroma surrounded by subiculum-like hyphae, asci with large, barrelshaped amyloid apical apparatus and large dark brown spores. Morphologically, R. capetribulensis appears to be similar to R. bunodes, R. markhamiae and R. megalospora. To gain further insights into the phylogeny of this new taxon we analyzed the ITS-5.8S rDNA using maximum parsimony and likelihood methods. In addition, a morphological dataset also was analyzed phylogenetically to investigate possible affinities. ITS rDNA based phylogenies reveal that R. capetribulensis is closely related to other Rosellinia species showing closest affinity to R. arcuata, R. necatrix and R. pepo. However, analysis of R. capetribulensis forms an unsupported branch sister to these taxa. Results from the morphological matrix indicate a close morphological affinity to members of Rosellinia subgenus Rosellinia. Despite that ITS rDNA and morphological analyses present difficulties in constructing a proper phylogenetic framework among Rosellinia and allied genera, there is sufficient evidence to support the establishment of the new taxon in the genus Rosellinia. The morphological similarities and differences between R. capetribulensis and allied genera such as Astrocystis and Entoleuca are also briefly discussed.

BAILEY, D. J., C. R. THORNTON, et al. (2001). "A non-destructive immunoblotting technique for visualisation and analysis of the growth dynamics of Rhizoctonia solani ." Mycol. Res. 105: 983-990. Immunoblotting combined with computer imaging and a simple,

non-linear mathematical model were used to demonstrate the potential of a technique for non-destructive visualisation and analysis of fungal growth of Rhizoctonia solani over the surface of nonsterile sand. Immunoblotting detected actively growing regions of mycelium enabling visualisation of individual hyphae at the colony edge. A zone of active growth was detected expanding radially over time. Active growth did not continue in the centre of the fungal colony leading to the development of a ring of mycelium surrounding the inoculum. Change in the density of actively

growing mycelium with distance from the inoculum unit was summarised for each colony at each time by a Gaussian function, describing a wave of actively growing mycelium, symmetrical in density about its centre but differing amongst replicate colonies. The effectiveness of the immunoblotting technique to detect differences in colony growth was tested by comparing the growth of replicate colonies for two contrasting isolates of R. solani. When both isolates of R. solani were grown at 23 °C the amplitude of the wave increased to a maximum and then decayed over time, the location of the centre of the wave moved outwards at a constant rate, whilst the width of the wave increased. Increasing the temperature to 28 °, accelerated this intrinsic growth process for one isolate, but retarded growth of the other.

BAKA, Z. A. M. and D. M. LOSEL (1998). "Ultrastructure and lectin-gold cytochemistry of the interaction between the rust fungus Melampsora euphorbiae and its host, Euphorbia peplus." Mycol. Res. 102: 1387-1398. Ultrastructural and cytochemical investigations of the

interaction between Melampsora euphorbiae and its host Euphorbia peplus are described. Two types of collar around the haustorial neck could be recognized, corresponding to the maturity of the haustorium. Using various lectin-gold complexes as probes, different glycoconjugates were revealed in the fungus and host. Chitin was found in walls of uredinospores and intercellular hyphae but not of haustoria. D-glucose and/or D-mannose were strongly indicated in host starch grains and glycogen particles inside the intercellular hyphae, but only lightly in the fungal cytoplasm. Galactose residues and l-fucose were detected in fungal walls, more strongly in those of intercellular hyphae than haustoria. Galactose was also localized cytochemically in lomasome membranes of the fungus. β-Glucosides were detected in the fibrillar wall material bordering intercellular spaces of host tissue.

Bakker, H. C. d., B. Gravendeel, et al. (2004). "An ITS phylogeny of Leccinum and an analysis of the evolution of minisatellite-like sequences within ITS1." Mycologia, 96(1): 102-118. Phylogenetic relationships of the European species of Leccinum

(Boletales, Boletaceae) were investigated by maximum parsimony, Bayesian and likelihood analyses of nrITS1-5.8S-ITS2 and 28S sequences. The separate gene trees inferred were largely concordant, and their combined analysis indicates that several traditional sectional and species-level taxonomic schemes are artificial. In Leccinum, the nrITS region ranges in size from 694 to 1480 bp. This extreme length heterogeneity is localized to a part of the ITS1 spacer that contains a minisatellite characterized by the repeated presence of CTATTGAAAAG and CTAATAGAAAG core sequences and mutational derivatives thereof. The number of core sequences present in the minisatellite varied from 12 to 36. Intra- individual sequence variation of the minisatellite was always smaller than between different species, indicating that concerted evolution proceeds rapidly enough to retain phylogenetic signal at the infraspecific level. In contrast, the evolutionary pattern exhibited by the major ITS1 repeat types found was homoplastic when mapped onto the species lineages inferred from the combined 5.8S-ITS2 sequences. The minisatellite therefore appears not to be useful for phylogeny reconstruction at or above the species level.

Bakshi, B. K. (1971). Indian Polyporaceae (On Trees and Timber). New Delhi, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). BALARDIN, R. S., J. J. SMITH, et al. (1999). "Ribosomal DNA polymorphism in Colletotrichum lindemuthianum." Mycol. Res. 103: 841-848. Genetic divergence among 57 isolates of Colletotrichum

lindemuthianum collected in north, central and south America and The Netherlands was assessed on the basis of PCR-RFLP analysis and sequencing of the nuclear rDNA region of the two internal transcribed spacers (ITS 1 and ITS 2) and the 5.8S rRNA gene. A reproducible 0.58 kb fragment was amplified in all 57 isolates. Races of C. lindemuthianum formed two groups based on the restriction of the PCR-amplified ITS regions. Group I consisted mainly of Middle American races (65 %), whereas 85% of Andean races belonged in group II. Genetic distances calculated from the sequence polymorphism in the rDNA region ranged from 0.2 to 1.8% among 14 isolates of C. lindemuthianum. The neighbour-joining and parsimony analyses of the sequence data showed no association of any particular ITS genotype with host gene pool, virulence or geographic origin of races. These data suggest that virulence can arise in different geographic areas at different times, independent of genetic background. Molecular polymorphism among isolates of races 7, 17, 31 and 73 collected in different countries was demonstrated by RFLP analysis of the ITS regions. A similar lack of agreement was observed in the sequence data between isolates of race 73 from Mexico and the United States and the Jukes--Cantor genetic distance between the isolates was large (0.9%). These findings support a level of molecular variability within C. lindemuthianum greater than the variability previously

characterized by virulence analysis and suggest independent evolution of specific virulence patterns.

Baldrian, P. and J. Gabriel (2002). "Intraspecific variability in growth response to cadmium of the wood-rotting fungus Piptoporus betulinus." Mycologia, 94(3): 428-436. The intraspecific variability in growth response to cadmium

(Cd) on agar media and in liquid culture was studied among fourteen strains of a wood-rotting fungus Piptoporus betulinus. The variability of Cd tolerance was found to be very high. The ED50 ranged from 6.8 mM Cd in the most sensitive strain, up to 255.1 mM in the most resistant one. On agar media the addition of Cd to nutrient media resulted in reduction of relative growth rate and increased lag time. While the reduction of growth rate was already apparent at 10 mM Cd, the lag time was significantly increased in higher Cd concentrations. Five strains of P. betulinus failed to grow at 250 mM Cd and none grew at 500 mM metal. Biomass production in liquid culture was less sensitive to addition of Cd than the growth rate on solid media. At 100 mM Cd the radial growth rate of the mycelium was reduced to 27%, whereas the dry mass of mycelium was 77% of the respective control value. A group of four Cd-sensitive strains was found, showing low metal tolerance both on solid media and in liquid cultures. Although the isolates originated from sites with different Cd-pollution level, no correlation between level of Cd-pollution and resistance (ED50) was found. The growth rate of fourteen tested strains displayed lower variability than biomass production, showing that radial growth rate is more species-specific and therefore more valuable for interspecific comparisons of growth response.

BANDALA, V. M. and L. MONTOYA (2000). "A revision of some Crepidotus species related to Mexican taxa." Mycol. Res. 104: 495-506. A morphological study of Mexican collections of Crepidotus

cinnabarinus, C. croceitinctus, C. palmarum and C. quitensis is provided. The

relationships of these species with close allies are examined and discussed. Microscopical observations on the type collections of C. carpaticus, C. cinnabarinus, C. croceitinctus, C. luridus vars luridus, minor and oaxacae, C. macedonicus, C. palmarum, C. quitensis, C. subcroceitinctus and C. unicus are included. Illustrations of the microscopic features of all taxa are presented.

Bandala, V. M., L. Montoya, et al. (2006). "Crepidotus rubrovinosus sp. nov. and Crepidotus septicoides, found in the cloud forest of eastern Mexico, with notes on Crepidotus fusisporus var. longicystis." Mycologia, 98(1): 131–140. Two species of Crepidotus are recorded from cloud forest in

the central region of Veracruz State (eastern Mexico): Crepidotus rubrovinosus sp. nov. and Crepidotus septicoides. The latter species was

known previously only from the type locality in Brazil and from one record in tropical rain forest in southern Veracruz (as C. longicystis s. str. Singer). Descriptions, illustrations and discussions for both taxa are provided. A type study of C. fusisporus var. longicystis from USA is included, and it is concluded that the collection supporting this variety belongs to C. luteolus.

BANDANI, A. R., B. P. S. KHAMBAY, et al. (2000). "Production of efrapeptins by Tolypocladium species and evaluation of their insecticidal and antimicrobial properties." Mycol. Res. 104: 537-544. This study shows for the ®rst time that Tolypocladium species

produce efrapeptins, a group of toxic peptides, in vivo but the quantities are too small to account for insect death, suggesting that these insecticidal compounds work in concert with other pathogenicity determinants. There is inter- and intraspecific variation in efrapeptin production in vitro by Tolypocladium species. T. parasiticum produced only efrapeptin E, in small quantities. Efrapeptins were detectable 48 h after inoculation and increased with biomass. The relative amounts of individual efrapeptins (C, D, E, F, G) produced by T. niveum in vitro were D>E>F>C>G but in vivo they were D>F>C>E>G. Efrapeptins were toxic to a wide range of insects when injected into the haemocoel. Mortality was dose-related. Efrapeptins also exhibited limited antifungal and antibacterial activity. Micrococcus luteus was considered an excellent indicator of efrapeptin presence in culture filtrate extracts because of its extreme sensitivity to these compounds.

Bandoni, A. A., R. J. Bandoni, et al. Preliminary Pictorial and Synoptic Keys to Thai Fungi. 4: 1-53. Banke, S., J. C. Frisvad, et al. (1997). "Taxonomy of Penicillium chrysogenum and related xerophilic species, based on isozyme analysis." Mycological Research 101(5): 617-624. Eighty-four isolates of Penicillium chrysogenum and related species were

examined by isozyme analysis. Four main groups could be defined by cluster analysis ; P. chrysogenum var. chrysogenum, P. flavigenum sp. nov., P. chrysogenum var. dipodomyis and P. nalgiovense. P. flavigenum is described as new species, and P. chrysogenum var. dipodomyis raised to species level as P. dipodomyis. The genetic distance between these groups was calculated by employing a formula that accounts for the differences in alleles and loci obtained by isozyme analysis of these fungi. The genetic distances and cluster analysis suggest that the groups should be considered as four separate species. The practical implication of the separation and the ecological characteristics of the four species are discussed.

BANNIZA, S. and M. A. RUTHERFORD (2001). "Diversity of isolates of Rhizoctonia solani AG-1 1A and their relationship to other anastomosis groups

based on pectic zymograms and molecular analysis." Mycol. Res. 105: 33-40. Reference strains of Rhizoctonia solani from AG-1 1A, -1--1B,

1--1C, 2--1, 2--2, and 3 to 9, isolates of AG-1 1A from various rice growing countries and field isolates from a paddy rice field experiment in Cote d'Ivoire were analysed by pectin enzyme analysis. A subset of these isolates was also analysed by A+T-rich DNA (AT-DNA) RFLPs, both with the objectives to study the diversity at various taxonomic levels and to obtain a clearer picture of the relationships between these isolates. Field isolates were submitted to simple sequence repeat PCR (SSR-PCR). Pectin enzyme analysis as well as AT-DNA RFLP showed that isolates of different

anastomosis groups generated very distinct patterns. Isolates of AG-1 1A from various countries had a lower degree of variability in zymogram patterns and AT-DNA RFLPS, while zymograms and AT-DNA RFLPs of ®eld isolates obtained from one field experiment consisted of one identical pattern. However, these isolates showed variation in RFLPs obtained through SSR-PCR, indicating that they were not clones sensu stricto.

Barata, M., M. C. Basilio, et al. (1997). "Nia globospora, a new marine gasteromycete on baits of Spartina maritima in Portugal." Mycological Research 101(6): 687-690. Nia globospora sp. nov., a marine basidiomycete, provisionally put in the

Melanogastrales, producing fruit bodies on dead culms of Spartina maritima is described. The species grew on baits that were submerged for a period of 6 months in the Mira River estuary, Portugal. Comparisons with other species of Nia are made.

BARBER, P. A., T. J. BURGESS, et al. (2005). "Botryosphaeria species from Eucalyptus in Australia are pleoanamorphic, producing Dichomera synanamorphs in culture." Mycol. Res. 109(12): 1347-1363. Species within the genus Botryosphaeria include some of the

most widespread and important pathogens of woody plants, and have been the focus of numerous taxonomic studies in recent years. It is currently accepted that anamorphs of Botryosphaeria belong to two distinct genera, Fusicoccum and Diplodia. Species within the genus Fusicoccum commonly produce aseptate, hyaline conidia. In the present study, fungi were isolated from foliage and wood of Eucalyptus in native forests and plantations in Australia. Although these fungi produced Dichomera anamorphs in culture, they clustered within the Fusicoccum clade of Botryosphaeria based on their ITS sequence data. Four species, Botryosphaeria dothidea, B. parva, B. ribis and B. australis produced Dichomera conidia in culture. The Dichomera synanamorphs are described for these four species of Botryosphaeria. In addition, falling within the Fusicoccum clade of Botryosphaeria, two species were found to be distinct from previously described Botryosphaeria spp. based on their ITS sequences, but synonymous with D. versiformis and D. eucalypti.

These observations are currently unique to isolates from host trees within the genus Eucalyptus in Australia, and the pleoanamorphic nature of these species is discussed.

BARJA, F., A. C. JR, et al. (1998). "Microinjected antisense Inf24 oligonucleotides inhibit appressorium development in Uromyces." Mycol. Res. 102: 1513-1518. Germlings of Uromyces appendiculatus respond to

topographical stimuli and develop appressoria. During this period several genes are expressed, one of which is Inf24. Germlings were microinjected with a sense and antisense fragment of the ORF of Inf24. Sense (Inf24-S), 5'-ATG AGT GCT TCA TCG CAG CAG CAG-3' fragment did not affect germling response to the topographical stimuli and the developed appressoria. Microinjection of antisense (Inf24-RC), 5'-CTG CTG CTG CGA TGA AGC ACT CAT-3' blocked gene transcription and appressoria were rarely formed. Injection of Inf24-RC into already formed appressoria did not inhibit

continued development of subsequent infection structures, e.g. penetration peg, sub-stomatal vesicle.

Barnes, C. W., L. J. Szabo, et al. (2004). "Inbreeding levels of two Ustilago maydis populations." Mycologia, 96(6): 1236-1244. Little is known about the population mating behavior of the

smut fungus Ustilago maydis DC (Corda). To determine the amount of inbreeding that occurs in local U. maydis populations, two corn- fields were sampled, one in North America (NA) at Le Sueur, Minnesota, and one in South America (SA) at Tarariras, Uruguay. These fields were chosen because of their geographic isolation and host management differences. Inbreeding coefficients (Fis) were calculated using data derived from amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. Mean Fis values estimated for both the NA (20.08), and the SA (20.02) populations statistically are not different from zero. The results of this study demonstrate that the U. maydis population structure in both cornfields results predominately from out-crossing and suggests that teliospores infrequently act as single infection units. The genetic differentiation between populations was high (Fst = 0.25).

Barnes, I., J. Roux, et al. (2003). "Ceratocystis pirilliformis, a new species from Eucalyptus nitens in Australia." Mycologia, 95(5): 865-871. Several species of Ceratocystis have been recorded on

Eucalyptus. These include C. fimbriata, C. eucalypti, C. moniliformis and C. moniliformopsis. Of these, only C. fimbriata is known as a pathogen; it recently has been found causing serious wilt diseases in Uganda, Congo and Brazil. This study was undertaken to collect Ceratocystis species, including C. eucalypti, from artificially induced wounds on Eucalyptus nitens near Canberra in southeastern Australia. Trees were wounded in

October 2000, and wounds were examined approximately one month later. Ascomata characteristic of a Ceratocystis species were found covering the wounds, and this fungus also was isolated from the wood using carrot baiting. This species of Ceratocystis has hat-shaped ascospores similar to those of C. fimbriata, but it differs from C. fimbriata and all other species of Ceratocystis in that it possesses ascomata with a pyriform base. Comparison of DNA sequences from the ITS and 5.8S rRNA operon confirmed that the fungus from E. nitens in Australia is unique, and we describe it here as a new species, C. pirilliformis.

Barnes, S. E. and D. Moore (1997). "The effect of fatty, organic or phenolic acids on the germination of conidia of Metarhizium flavoviride." Mycological Research 101(6): 662-666. Conidia of Metarhizium flavoviride were suspended in oil formulations and

received fatty and other acids before germination. This was done by the acids being added either to the conidial suspensions before inoculation onto agar plates or directly into the agar before the conidia were applied. Certain acids of chain lengths C10 and below, including lactic, salicylic, caprylic and capric acids produced significant inhibition of germination when added to the oil formulations. When incorporated into the agar, all acids of C10 and below were inhibitory, with the exception of sebacic and succinic acids. Sebacic acid (a C10 saturated dicarboyxlic acid) and all the longer chain fatty acids sampled produced no inhibition of germination, either when added to the formulation or the agar. Tests were carried out on a sample of conidia which showed no germination ; a few acids stimulated some germination. These included sebacic acid and longer chain fatty acids such as stearic and (inconsistently) lauric acids. Conidia from a long term storage experiment showed increased germination on the addition of stearic and/or lauric acids. The inhibitory effect of capric acid on germination was overcome by a 4-15 times higher concentration of stearic acid.

Barnett, H. L. and B. B. Hunter (1998). Illustrated Genera of Imperfect Fungi 4th Edition. Baroni, T. J., D. E. Desjardin, et al. (2001). "Clitopilus chalybescens, a new species from Thailand." Fungal Diversity 6: 13-17. Barr, M. E. (1975). "A note on Extrawettsteinina." MYCOTAXON 2(1): 104-106. Barr, M. E. (1990). Some Dictyosporous Genera and Species of Pleosporales in North America, The New York Botanical Garden. Barr, Margaret E. (Department of Botany, University of Massachusetts,

Amherst, Ma 01003, U.S.A.).... BARRASA, J. M., F. ESTEVE-RAVENTOS, et al. (1998). "Glabrocyphella

stercoraria, a new cyphellaceous fungus from Spain." Mycol. Res. 102: 1265-1268. Glabrocyphella stercoraria, a new cyphellaceous fungus, is

described on the basis of morphological and ecological features. It is characterized by grey-brown colours, lack of special hairs on the surface of the fruitbody, spore size, absence of clamps and coprophilous habitat. The holotypes of Glabrocyphella upplandensis, G. brunneocrystallina and G. palmarum have been examined and compared with the new species. Observations about the status and the possible taxonomic relationships of Glabrocyphella with some other members of the reduced series of Tricholomataceae, Arrhenia (including Leptoglossum) and Rimbachia (including Mniopetalum), are discussed.

Barrasa, J. M. and V. J. Rico (2003). "The non-omphalinoid species of Arrhenia in the Iberian Peninsula." Mycologia, 95(4): 700-713. A taxonomic study of the species with nutant, pleurotoid and

cyphelloid basidiomata of the genus Arrhenia in the Iberian Peninsula is presented. This study is based on the examination of recent specimens collected in the field and from dried herbarium collections. Five species and one variety of this genus are recognized on the basis of morphological and ecological features: Arrhenia acerosa var. acerosa, A. acerosa var. tenella, A. auriscalpium, A. lobata, A. retiruga and A. spathulata. Arrhenia auriscalpium is new to Spain, where it is not restricted to alpine zones of the Eurosiberian region and is more common in the Mediterranean region than previously reported. In contrast, A. acerosa var. tenella currently is known from the Eurosiberian subalpine belt and represents the first report to the Iberian Peninsula, and A. retiruga is known only from the mesomediterranean to supramediterranean belts of the Mediterranean region. Arrhenia acerosa var. acerosa, A. lobata and A. spathulata are widespread in both the Eurosiberian and the Mediterranean regions. Non-Iberian materials of A. acerosa var. tenella and A. spathulata also were studied for comparison. Cyphella cochlearis var. subsessilis, Dictyolus lagunae, Leptoglossum muscigenum var. azonum and Pleurotellus acerosus var. tenellus are lectotypified. Cyphella cochlearis var. subssesilis, Dictyolus lagunae and Leptoglossum muscigenum var. azonum are synonymized with Arrhenia spathulata, and Cyphella cochlearis var. auriformis is placed in synonymy with A. auriscalpium. These taxa are illustrated, described and discussed, based on Iberian material with emphasis on features of the basidioma, pigment of the pileipellis, presence or absence of clamps and shape and size of the basidiospores. A diagnostic key also is given.

BASTOLA, D. R., H. H. OTU, et al. (2004). "Utilization of the relative complexity measure to construct a phylogenetic tree for fungi." Mycol. Res. 108: 117-125. The relative complexity measure (RCM) is a new approach to

evaluate relatedness of DNA sequences which eliminates the requirement

to align sequences prior to analysis, a step required with standard reference methods. The value of the RCM approach to generate distance matrices for use in phylogenetic analysis of organisms has not been determined. This study compared RCM with the algorithmic and tree searching reference methods for phylogenetic analysis using fungal sequences. Sequences of the cytochrome b gene and the 18S rDNA gene were obtained from the GenBank database to determine feasibility of this method for phylogenetic relatedness. The RCM approach was also used to construct a phylogenetic tree using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences from 23 medically relevant fungal species. The robustness of the RCM and reference approaches was determined by comparing the topology of seven medically relevant fungi within the phylogenetic trees generated after progressive removal of 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50% of the nucleotide bases from either the 5' or 3' end of the three genomic target sequences. The results demonstrated that the RCM method was equivalent to the reference methods for construction of phylogenetic trees from cytochrome b and

18S rDNA gene sequences. The phylogenetic tree constructed using the ITS sequence generated no contradictory topology. The RCM generated trees retained the appropriate topology after removal of up to 50% of the cytochrome b sequence, 40% of the ITS sequence, and 30% of the 18S gene target sequence. Comparatively, the reference methods failed to maintain topology after only a 10% sequence deletion for each genomic target. The results showed the RCM to be a reliable and robust computational approach for use in the construction of fungal phylogenetic trees without the requirement for prior sequence alignment.

Batra, L. R. (1977). Insect-Fungus Symbiosis: nutrition, mutualism, and commensalism. The University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, a Halsted Press Book, Jonh Wiley and Sons. Batzer, J. C., M. L. Gleason, et al. (2005). "Expansion of the sooty blotch and flyspeck complex on apples based on analysis of ribosomal DNA gene sequences and morphology." Mycologia, 97(6): 1268–1286. Sooty blotch and flyspeck (SBFS) is a lateseason disease of

apple and pear fruit that cosmetically damages the cuticle, resulting in produce that is unacceptable to consumers. Previous studies reported that four species of fungi comprise the SBFS complex. We examined fungal morphology and the internal transcriber spacer (ITS) and large subunit (LSU) regions of rDNA of 422 fungal isolates within the SBFS complex from nine orchards in four Midwestern states (USA) and compared them to previously identified species. We used LSU sequences to phylogenetically place the isolates at the order or genus level and then used ITS sequences to identify lineages that could be species. We used mycelial and conidial morphology on apple and in culture to delimit putative species. Thirty putative species found among the Midwest

samples were shown to cause SBFS lesions on apple fruit in inoculation field trials. Among them Peltaster fructicola and Zygophiala jamaicensis have been associated previously with SBFS in North Carolina. The LSU analyses inferred that all 30 SBFS fungi from Midwestern orchards were Dothideomycetes; one putative species was within the Pleosporales, 27 were within Dothideales, and two putative species could not be placed at the ordinal level. The LSU sequences of 17 Dothideales species clustered with LSU sequences of known species of Mycosphaerella

BAUER, R., D. BEGEROW, et al. (2001). "The Georgefisheriales : a phylogenetic hypothesis1." Mycol. Res. 105: 416-424. To obtain an understanding of the phylogenetic relationships

among the Georgefischeriales, septation, cellular interactions, teliospores, basidia, cultures and nucleotide sequences from the 5' terminal domain of the nuclear large subunit rRNA gene were studied. Analyses of both morphological and molecular characters yield similar phylogenetic conclusions. The Georgefischeriales are divided into three groups, corresponding to the Eballistraceae, Georgefischeriaceae, and Tilletiariaceae. The basal dichotomy is between the Eballistraceae and the branch uniting the Georgefischeriaceae and Tilletiariaceae. The Tilletiariaceae are phragmobasidiate, whereas the Eballistraceae and the Georgefischeriaceae are holobasidiate. The Eballistraceae differ from the Georgefischeriaceae and Tilletiariaceae in the lack of the ballistospore mechanism. The systematic position of Tilletiopsis minor is unclear. The Eballistraceae, Eballistra and

Phragmotaenium are proposed as new taxa. The descriptions of the Tilletiariaceae and Jamesdicksonia are emended. Except for Entyloma majus, E. parvum, Georgefischeria, Jamesdicksonia brunkii, J. obesa, Tilletiaria anomala, and Tolyposporella chrysopognis, the teleomorphic species of the Georgefischeriales are presented as new combinations. Bauer, R., D. Begerow, et al. (2003). "Classicula: the teleomorph of Naiadella fluitans1." Mycologia, 95(4): 756-764. A new genus, Classicula, and a new species, Classicula

fluitans, are described in the Urediniomycetes for the teleomorph of Naiadella fluitans.

Classicula fluitans forms transversely septate basidia with subapically swollen sterigmata and long fusiform basidiospores. An integrated analysis of morphological, ultrastructural and molecular data indicates that Classicula fluitans is a member

of the Urediniomycetes. Among the Urediniomycetes, Classicula fluitans shares the formation of simple septal pores associated with microbodies and tremelloid haustorial cells only with the hyphomycete Jaculispora submersa. In addition, in our molecular phylogenetic analyses with at least two representatives of all known urediniomycetous groups, Classicula fluitans appears together with Jaculispora submersa in a statistically

wellsupported cluster. Accordingly, the family Classiculaceae and the order Classiculales are proposed to accommodate these fungi in the Urediniomycetes.

Bauer, R., M. Lutz, et al. (2004). "Tuberculina-rusts: a unique basidiomycetous interfungal cellular interaction with horizontal nuclear transfer." Mycologia, 96(5): 960-967. Cellular interaction of the basidiomycete Tuberculina persicina

with the haploid stages of two rusts Puccinia silvatica and Tranzschelia pruni-spinosae was analyzed by serial-section electron microscopy of chemically fixed samples and samples subjected to high-pressure freezing and freeze substitution. Tuberculina persicina is a contact parasite, forming neither haustoria nor other intracellular structures. However, at contact areas between T. persicina and its hosts, distinct interfungal interactions are present. At the beginning, a hyphal cell of T. persicina invades the host cell wall with a protuberance and the cell walls of both protuberance and host cell dissolve at the point of contact. Thus, the plasma membranes of the two organisms contact and fuse to form a pore that enlarges to a final diameter of approximately 1 mm. The membrane of the fusion pore is continuous with the plasma membranes of both cells, and Tuberculina nuclei and other organelles are transferred to the rust cells. Phylogenetic and functional aspects of this curious basidiomycetous interfungal interaction are discussed, and a hypothesis of the evolutionary derivation of the Tuberculina mycoparasitism from a sexual interaction is presented.

BAUER, R., M. LUTZ, et al. (2005). "Gjaerumia, a new genus in the Georgefischeriales (Ustilaginomycetes)." Mycol. Res. 109(11): 1250-1258. Teliospores, basidia, cultures, hyphal septations, cellular

interactions and nucleotide sequences from the D1/D2 region of the nuclear large subunit ribosomal RNA gene of Entyloma ossifragi occurring on Narthecium ossifragum (Nartheciaceae) were examined and compared with findings in the Georgefischeriales and other Ustilaginomycetes. The data show that Entyloma ossifragi is a member of the Georgefischeriales. Among the Georgefischeriales, Entyloma ossifragi morphologically is very similar to Jamesdicksonia species, but differs from this genus and all other Georgefischeriales by the formation of dolipores without striations that become closed during teliosporogenesis. In addition, in our molecular phylogenetic analyses Entyloma ossifragi stands well apart from Jamesdicksonia, forming with some Tilletiopsis specimens a statistically supported cluster. Accordingly, the genus Gjaerumia gen. nov. and the family Gjaerumiaceae fam. nov. are proposed to accommodate Entyloma ossifragi in the Georgefischeriales. The new combination G. ossifragi (syn. Entyloma ossifragi) is made.

Bawden, F. C. (1943). Plant Viruses and Virus Diseases. U.S.A., WALTHAM,

MASS., U.S.A. Published by the Chronica Botanica Company. Bayman, P. and Angulo (1998). "Distribution and dispersal of Xylaria endophytes in two tree species in Puerto Rico." Mycological Research 102(8): 944-948. Xylaria species are common endophytes in tropical plants. It is not known,

however, whether transmission of Xylaria occurs horizontally or vertically, whether individual Xylaria strains have wide host ranges or are host-specific, or how they are dispersed. We compared frequency of Xylaria endophytes in leaves and seeds of two tree species in Puerto Rico, Casuarina equisetifolia (Australian pine) and Manilkara bidentata (ausubo). These trees were chosen because they differ markedly in morphology, habitat, distribution, and origin. In C. equisetifolia Xylaria was significantly more frequent in leaves than in seeds. Xylaria was isolated from seeds of trees in inland parks, but never from seeds of trees growing on beaches. This suggests that vertical transmission of Xylaria may be possible but is not necessary for infection. In M. bidentata, Xylaria was isolated from 97% of leaves but was never isolated from seeds, suggesting that transmission is entirely horizontal. Seedlings raised in a greenhouse far from other M. bidentata trees had a level of Xylaria infection as high as seedlings in the forest, suggesting that inocula can come from other sources and endophytic strains are not host-specific.

BEAKES, G. W. and S. L. GLOCKLING (2000). "An ultrastructural analysis of organelle arrangement during gun (infection) cell differentiation in the nematode parasite Haptoglossa dickii." Mycol. Res. 104: 1258-1269. Haptoglossa dickii is a bi¯agellate zoosporic parasite of

bactivorous nematodes. The walled encysted zoospores germinate more or less synchronously to produce specialised infection cells known as gun cells. This paper documents the changes in the main cytoplasmic organelles, namely the nucleus, Golgi body, mitochondria, lipid droplets and dense-body vesicles, from the onset of encystment until the formation of the mature gun cell. The septum-delimited gun cells show a marked polarity in the distribution of their organelles from their inception, which seems in part determined by the temporal order by which the main organelles migrate

out of the cyst and into the gun cell initial. In this species the majority of dense-body vesicles and mitochondria precede the nucleus and lipid droplets. The nucleus remains more or less central throughout the remaining course of gun cell differentiation. The single nucleus associated Golgi body changes its orientation to track (possibly even determining) the spatial position of the ingrowing injection tube. The mitochondria fuse to form one or more complex reticulate structures which are aligned close to the injection tube throughout its formation and which in the mature cells form a FIne network entwined around the fully differentiated tube. The vesicles containing electron-dense inclusion granules (dense-body vesicles) are initially concentrated towards the gun cell anterior, but later

migrate to the posterior end of the cell and fuse to give rise to the basal vacuole. Some of the likely functional aspects of these cytoplasmic changes are discussed.

Beard, C. E. and P. H. Adler (2002). "Seasonality of trichomycetes in larval black flies from South Carolina, USA." Mycologia, 94(2): 200-209. Trichomycete fungi are common endobionts of aquatic insect

larvae, but little is known of their ecology. In this study, the seasonality of trichomycete colonization of larval black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) was investigated in three streams in northwestern South Carolina. At least eight species of trichomycetes were found in two species of black flies, and 93.8% of 1819 larval black flies examined contained trichomycetes. Significant differences were found in the seasonal prevalence of Harpella melusinae, Simuliomyces microsporus, and Paramoebidium spp. at one of three sites. At this site, the lowest mean prevalence for H. melusinae occurred in winter (67%) versus the other seasons (96–100%), whereas mean prevalence was lowest in summer for Simuliomyces microsporus (1%) versus the other seasons (2– 21%) and lowest in summer for P. spp. (9%) versus the other seasons (45–67%). Significant differences in levels of colonization among seasons were not detected. Conjugations of H. melusinae (representing early stages of sexual reproduction) occurred most frequently in the spring and winter (up to 14% of larvae). Sexual reproduction (represented by zygospores) of Legeriomycetaceae occurred most frequently in the spring and fall (up to 17% of larvae).

Beard, C. E. and P. H. Adler (2003). "Zygospores of selected Trichomycetes in larval Diptera of the families Chironomidae and Simuliidae." Mycologia, 95(2): 317-320. The midgut-inhabiting fungi (Harpellaceae) Harpella melusinae

and Stachylina pedifer were induced to form zygospores, using an application of a pH 10 potassium hydroxide solution with culture media. The previously unknown zygospores of S. pedifer are borne perpendicular to the zygosporophore, as in Harpella melusinae. The zygospores of the hindgut- inhabiting species Smittium coloradense, borne obliquely to the zygosporophore (in vivo), are described for the first time.

Beard, C. E., J. W. McCreadie, et al. (2003). "Prevalence of the trichomycete fungus Harpella melusinae (Harpellales: Harpellaceae) in larval black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) across a heterogeneous environment." Mycologia, 95(4): 577-583. A total of 2063 mid- to late-instar larval black flies were

collected from 64 stream sites in South Carolina and screened for the presence of the trichomycete

fungus Harpella melusinae. Sixteen of 18 host species were colonized by H. melusinae on at least one occasion. Prevalence of H. melusinae in larvae of Simulium tuberosum cytospecies ‘‘A’’ was highest in acidic streams with

low conductivity, whereas H. melusinae colonized larvae of Simulium verecundum most frequently in slower-moving streams. Ecological conditions, therefore, can serve as predictors of the prevalence of H. melusinae. Prevalence in host larvae was

significantly lower in the Piedmont ecoregion than in the Mountain ecoregion. Prevalence did not differ in the host species S. verecundum across ecoregions, suggesting that different prevalences among host species might indicate some host preference. The prevalence of H. melusinae differed significantly between two univoltine host species (Simulium venustum and Prosimulium magnum) at the same site but not between two multivoltine host species (S. tuberosum cytospecies

‘‘FG’’ and S. tuberosum cytospecies ‘‘CDE’’), suggesting that host life history could be important in determining fungal prevalence.

BèASZKOWSKI, J., M. TADYCH, et al. (1998). "Endogone maritima, a new species in the Endogonales from Poland." Mycol. Res. 102: 1096-1100. Endogone maritima sp. nov. is described and illustrated. This

fungus was recovered from around the roots of endomycorrhizal Ammophila arenaria, Corynephorus canescens, Juncus balticus, J. articulatus, and ectomycorrhizal Pinus sylvestris colonizing a deflation hollow of the Slowinski National Park in Poland. Endogone maritima produces sunflower to brownish yellow zygosporangia enveloped by a separable hyphal mantle consisting of interwoven hyphae appearing in section as a dense net. The zygosporangia occur both singly in the soil and in small, non-peridial sporocarps typically containing 2-7 zygosporangia.

Becerra, A., L. Beenken, et al. (2005). "Anatomical and molecular characterization of Lactarius aff. omphaliformis, Russula alnijorullensis and Cortinarius tucumanensis ectomycorrhizae on Alnus acuminata." Mycologia, 97(5): 1047–1057. Ectomycorrhizae (ECM) of Lactarius aff. omphaliformis

Romagn., Russula alnijorullensis (Sing.) Sing. and Cortinarius tucumanensis Mos. on Andean alder (Alnus acuminata Kunth) were characterized and identified. The identification of the fungal symbionts was achieved by morpho-anatomical observations of mycorrhizae and by comparison of ITS-RFLP patterns obtained from ECM and fruitbodies. L. aff. omphaliformis ECM differed in some morphological details such as ramification and mantle type from ECM of the same species on A. glutinosa. L. aff. omphaliformis ECM show an orange to ochre mantle containing latex cells, which stain with sulpho-vanillin, emanating hyphae without clamps. R. alnijorullensis ECM represent a typical Russula-type-ECM, light yellow to pinkish, the outer mantle being composed of triangular latex-filled cells staining with sulpho-vanillin, emanating hyphae without clamps. C. tucumanensis ECM exhibit a white (silvery) to yellowish brown mantle covered with soil particles, emanating hyphae with clamps.

Beer, Z. W. d., T. C. Harrington, et al. (2003). "Phylogeny of the Ophiostoma stenoceras–Sporothrix schenckii complex." Mycologia, 95(3): 434-441. Ophiostoma stenoceras is a well-known sapwood- colonizing

fungus occurring on some coniferous and hardwood hosts in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Southern Hemisphere, the fungus has been reported only from New Zealand. The human pathogen, Sporothrix schenckii, has been suggested to be the anamorph of O. stenoceras. The aim of this study was to gain a better understanding of the phylogenetic relationship between these two species. The study also provided the opportunity to confirm the identity of some Sporothrix and O. stenoceras-like isolates recently collected from wood and soil around the world. For this purpose, the DNA sequence of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of the ribosomal DNA operon was determined. Isolates of O. nigrocarpum, O. albidum, O. abietinum, O. narcissi and O. ponderosae, all morphologically similar to O. stenoceras, were included in the study. From phylogenetic analyses of the sequence data, four main

clades were observed. These represented O. stenoceras, O. nigrocarpum and two separate groups containing isolates of S. schenckii. Our results confirm earlier

suggestions that S. schenckii should be classified with-in the teleomorph genus Ophiostoma but support studies separating O. stenoceras and S. schenckii.

Ophiostoma albidum and O. ponderosae should be considered synonyms of O. stenoceras. The status of O. narcissi and O. abietinum needs further clarification. The two groups within S. schenckii might represent two species, but this needs to be confirmed. This study represents the first reports of O. stenoceras from Colombia, Kenya, Uruguay and South Africa. BEER, Z. W. D., B. D. WINGFIELD, et al. (2003). "The Ophiostoma piceae complex in the Southern Hemisphere: a phylogenetic study." Mycol. Res. 107: 469-476. The Ophiostoma piceae species complex incorporates several

economically important species, including serious tree pathogens and agents of bluestain. The species in the complex are morphologically similar, but can be distinguished from each other based on morphology, biology, mating type studies and molecular data. At present, all the species in the complex are considered to be native to the Northern Hemisphere, most of them with a very wide distribution. Only a few sporadic reports of members of the complex are available from the Southern Hemisphere, where they are believed to have been introduced, including New Zealand, Australia, Chile, Brazil and Uruguay. This study aims to confirm the identity of isolates resembling O. piceae originating from three Southern Hemisphere countries, using mating

compatibility and rDNA sequencing. Our results show that O. quercus is widely distributed throughout South Africa on both native and exotic hardwoods.

O. quercus is also reported for the first time from Brazil, again from a native host. O. floccosum is reported for the first time from South Africa, but from an exotic Pinus sp. These results suggest that species of the O. piceae complex are common in the Southern Hemisphere, and that current views on the origins of especially O. quercus need to be reconsidered.

BEGEROW, D., R. BAUER, et al. (2000). "Phylogenetic placements of ustilaginomycetous anamorphs as deduced from nuclear LSU rDNA sequences." Mycol. Res. 104: 53-60. In order to integrate ustilaginomycetous anamorphs into the

general phylogenetic system of Ustilaginomycetes, partial nuclear large subunit ribosomal DNA sequences of 56 teleomorphic and 19 anamorphic species of the Ustilaginomycetes were analysed. Maximum parsimony and neighbour joining confirm the new suprageneric system of Ustilaginomycetes and indicate that (i) the species of Pseudozyma represent anamorphs of Ustilaginales parasitizing grasses, (ii) Pseudozyma prolifica, the type of Pseudozyma, is very closely related to Ustilago maydis, (iii) Pseudozyma tsukubaeX nsis is probably synonymous with Ustilago spermophora, (iv) the species of Malassezia represent a group of its own within the Exobasidiomycetidae, (v) Tilletiopsis cremea, T. lilacina and T.

washingtonensis belong to the Entylomatales and (vi) T. flava, T. fulvescens and T. minor are members of the Georgefischeriales. Like all Tilletiopsis species tested, T. albescens and T. pallescens are members of the Exobasidiomycetidae, but they cannot be ascribed to any of the known orders of this subclass. The description of the Malasseziales is emended. BEGEROW, D., R. BAUER, et al. (2001). "Muribasidiospora: Microstromatales or Exobasidiales ?1." Mycol. Res. 105: 798-810. Characteristics of hyphal septation, cellular interaction,

sporulation, cultures and}or nucleotide sequences from the 5' terminal domain of the nuclear large subunit rRNA gene of some species of Exobasidium, Microstroma and Muribasidiospora were examined and compared. Our analyses show that the order Microstromatales comprises Microstroma, Muribasidiospora triumfetticola and the anamorphic species Rhodotorula bacarum, R. phylloplana and Sympodiomycopsis paphiopedili, whereas Muribasidiospora hesperidium and Muribasidiospora indica are members of the Exobasidiales. Because of the high degree of morphological divergence between Muribasidiospora triumfetticola and Microstroma, a new genus, Volvocisporium, and a new family, Volvocisporiaceae, of the Microstromatales are proposed. Apart from the phylogenetic implications, the most interesting observations in the present work are

the unusual development of the basidia, especially of the basidiospores, and the nutrient transport system from the host attacking hyphae to the basidia in

Muribasidiospora triumfetticola. BEGEROW, D., B. JOHN, et al. (2004). "Evolutionary relationships among β-tubulin gene sequences of basidiomycetous fungi." Mycol. Res. 108: 1257-1263. 36 fungal β-tubulin sequences were analysed to study the

evolution of this gene and the phylogeny of basidiomycetes. The analysis comprises a representative selection of all major lineages of basidiomycetous fungi and some selected ascomycetes for comparison. Intron positions vary between the different lineages, but seem to be conserved in the Hymenomycetes and Ustilaginomycetes. The most conserved regions seem to be highly susceptible for introns. Splicing and branching sites of the introns are more variable in basidiomycetes than reported from other fungal groups so far. Basidiomycete monophyly was confirmed with our data in respect to the ascomycetes studied. By analysing amino acid sequences, the Hymenomycetes and the Ustilaginomycetes were resolved as monophyletic groups. The phylogeny within these two groups is similar to that obtained with other genes. Based on β-tubulin data Naohidea sebacea, Chionosphaera apobasidialis, Jaculispora submersa, Platygloea pustulata, Platygloea disciformis and Melampsora lini, representing the Urediniomycetes, are not resolved in most analyses. The early radiation of major basidiomycetous lineages seems to be reflected in the highly conserved β-tubulin gene.

BEGEROW, D., M. LUTZ, et al. (2002). "Implications of molecular characters for the phylogeny of the genus Entyloma." Mycol. Res. 106: 1392-1399. Many species formerly listed in Entyloma have been removed

and are now placed in several orders. This study aims to clarify the framework of the genus Entyloma and the phylogeny of these plant parasitic smut fungi with molecular data. Analyses of LSU and ITS sequences are presented and support the monophyly of the order Entylomatales. The sequences show higher similarities within the examined species of Entyloma than within other smut families and genera, suggesting

a recent radiation. Within the Entylomatales a cluster of anamorphic Tilletiopsis washingtonensis, T. lilacina and T. cremea collections is the sister group to Entyloma. The phylogenetic relationships in the genus Entyloma are a result of joint evolution with their hosts. The analyses of the sequence data show unresolved groups on Ranunculales and a well-supported group on Asteridae.

BEILHARZ, V. and J. CUNNINGTON (2003). "Two new closely related species of Pseudocercospora on unrelated host families from south-eastern Australia." Mycol. Res. 107: 445-451. A species of Pseudocercospora causing foliar lesions on

Hibbertia aspera (Dilleniaceae) is morphologically indistinguishable from a species of Pseudocercospora causing foliar lesions on Platylobium

formosum (Fabaceae) from the same locality. In order to assess the degree to which these fungi were related, we sequenced the ribosomal DNA ITS region of cultures derived from single conidial isolates. Cultures were obtained from four specimens of each respective host. The ITS sequences for cultures derived from the same host were identical, with the exception of one isolate that had a 4 bp insert, while the Pseudocercospora species from Hibbertia consistently differed at three bases from the species isolated from Platylobium. These data suggest that two distinct species of Pseudocercospora are represented, and that they probably result from a recent evolutionary divergence. P. platylobii and P. hibbertiae-asperae spp. nov. are described and illustrated.

BELBAHRI, L., G. CALMIN, et al. (2005). "Phylogenetic analysis and Real Time PCR detection of a presumbably undescribed Peronospora species on sweet basil and sage." Mycol. Res. 109(11): 1276-1287. Downy mildew of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) has

become a serious disease issue for the producers of sweet basil in Switzerland since it was first recorded in 2001. Reported in Africa in Uganda as early as 1933, major outbreaks of this disease in Europe were first noted in Italy in 1999 and in the USA from 1993. Previous reports have named the pathogen as Peronospora lamii. Its preferential hosts belong to the Lamiaceae family including basils (Ocimum spp.), mints (Menta spp.), sages (Salvia spp.) and other aromatics. This study investigated the taxonomic status of the downy mildew pathogen, using both morphological characters and molecular analysis of the ITS region of the rDNA. The inherent variability of conidial dimensions made species differentiation difficult. Sequence homology and phylogenetic analysis of nine collections of the Peronospora on sweet basil showed unique ITS sequences distinct from those of P. lamii and any other sequenced Peronospora species. This paper describes and illustrates the morphology of this presumably undescribed species of Peronospora. Its taxonomic position and relationships with other related species in the same genus are presented and discussed. In addition to this work, PCR primers for real time PCR analysis have been developed for the specific detection of this downy mildew pathogen from infected tissues or seeds. It is shown that these primers can also be used in classic PCR.

BELLIVEAU, M. J.-R. and F. B. RLOCHER (2005). "Molecular evidence confirms multiple origins of aquatic hyphomycetes." Mycol. Res. 109(12): 1407-1417. Traditional taxonomy of aquatic hyphomycetes has been

based on conidial morphology and development. Since the predominantly tetraradiate and sigmoid forms are due to convergent evolution, they are often phylogenetically non-informative. The comparison of nuclear small-subunit ribosomal DNA sequences of 30 species (22 new, eight previously published) assigned 22 to Leotiomycetes, four to Dothideomycetes, three to Sordariomycetes, and one to Orbiliomycetes. Eight species of

Anguillospora were distributed among the Leotiomycetes, Dothideomycetes, and Orbiliomycetes. All three anamorphs connected with Massarina were assigned to the Pleosporales, however, Clavariopsis aquatica and Tumularia aquatica separated from Anguillospora longissima. The nSSU rDNA sequences of several species were identical (e.g. Anguillospora crassa and A. furtiva), suggesting the need to include less conservative genes for resolving such differences.

Benade, E., M. J. Wingfield, et al. (1997). "Conidium development in Sporothrix anamorphs of Ophiostoma." Mycological Research 101(9): 1108-1112. Hyalorhinocladiella and Sporothrix are two common mycelial anamorphs

of Ophiostoma that are difficult to distinguish from each other. Sporothrix spp. differ visibly from Hyalorhinocladiella by the presence of denticles on the conidiogenous cells. Graphium and Sporothrix are often synanamorphs of the same Ophiostoma species and the aim of this study was to determine whether a relationship exists between sympodial conidium development in Sporothrix and annellidic development in Graphium. Conidium development was examined in Sporothrix schenckii, Ophiostoma nigrocarpum and Ophiostoma piceae. Using ¯uorescence microscopy, as well as scanning and transmission electron microscopy, distinct denticles were observed on the conidiogenous cells in Sporothrix spp. In some cases, these conidiogenous cells were reduced, giving them a Hyalorhinocladiella-like appearance. Results of this study suggest that a continuum in patterns of conidium development exists between Sporothrix, Hyalorhinocladiella and Graphium. The linear extent, and the angle of the proliferation stage with reference to the long axis of the conidiogenous cell, appear to determine the form of conidium development.

Bending, G. D. and D. A. Read (1997). "Lignin and soluble phenolic degradation by ectomycorrhizal and ericoid mycorrhizal fungi." Mycological Research 101(11): 1348-1354. The organic soil horizons of heathland and temperate forest ecosystems

are characteristically rich in phenolics, which present barriers to organic N availability to the microflora. The abilities of ectomycorrhizal (ECM), ericoid mycorrhizal and wood decomposing saprotrophic fungi to degrade model compounds representing the insoluble phenolic lignin, and soluble phenolics, which provide physical and chemical barriers respectively to organic N availability, were compared. No clear relationship was found between ability to degrade lignin and soluble phenolics. The presumptive assays indicated that most mycorrhizal fungi have only low abilities to degrade these compounds relative to the wood decomposing fungi. In general, ericoid mycorrhizal fungi were capable of greater phenolic degradation than most ECM species, and degradative ability was associated with production of phenol-oxidizing enzymes. In no case was presumptive degradation of lignin or soluble phenolic, or production of phenol-oxidizing enzymes by mycorrhizal fungi as great as that of the

wood decomposing fungi. In the case of the ericoid endophyte Hymenoscyphus ericae, phenol-oxidation was associated with production of an extracellular o-polyphenol oxidase (tyrosinase) which showed optimal activity at a pH of 5-5.5 and temperature of 30 °C. The ecological significance of the results is discussed.

Bennett, J. W. (2004). "May you live in interesting times: A retiring editor in chief reviews the job and looks ahead." Mycologia, 96(6): 1173-1178. Benny, G. L. and M. Blackwell (2004). "Lobosporangium, a new name for Echinosporangium Malloch, and Gamsiella, a new genus for Mortierella multidivaricata." Mycologia, 96(1): 143-149. Lobosporangium is proposed as a new name for

Echinosporangium Malloch, a later homonym of Echinosporangium Kylin. Lobosporangium transversale was isolated from arid soils on three occasions between 1964 and 1968 but has not been reported again. Observations on sporangium development

in culture revealed rapid sporangiospore germination, rapidly growing hyphae forming anastomoses, threefold dichotomously branching aerial sporangiophores and formation of clusters of eight sporangia. The sporangia of L. transversale are illustrated, and the placement of Lobosporangium in the Mortierellaceae is discussed. A new genus, Gamsiella, is proposed that is based on Mortierella multidivaricata. Sporangial ontogeny of Gamsiella is compared with that presented here for Lobosporangium.

BENYON, F. H. L., L. W. BURGESS, et al. (2000). "Molecular genetic investigations and reclassification of Fusarium species in sections Fusarium and Roseum." Mycol. Res. 104: 1164-1174. The genetic relationships of 56 isolates from the taxa

traditionally grouped in Fusarium sections Fusarium (syn. Discolor) and Roseum were studied using the Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) technique, by Southern hybridisation with random genomic and mitochondrial DNA probes originating from Fusarium species. Pairwise distances between taxa were calculated from the 957 RFLP bands scored on autoradiograms, using Dice's coefficient in the RAPDistance computer program. A strong genetic relationship was observed between F. graminearum, F. culmorum and F. crookwellense. However, the morphologically similar taxon, F. pseudograminearum shared only approximately 40% of genomic DNA RFLP bands with these taxa, demonstrating affinity, but less

direct genetic similarity. Of all taxa examined F. pseudograminearum and F. graminearum shared the greatest similarity in mitochondrial DNA RFLP patterns. F. avenaceum subsp. avenaceum, subsp. aywerte and subsp. nurragi displayed very little genetic resemblance with each other, or with F. heterosporum and the cereal infecting pathogens. F. torulosum was

closest genetically to subsp. avenaceum, with approximately 22% of genomic DNA RFLP bands in common. On the basis of these results F. avenaceum subsp. aywerte and subsp. nurragi are elevated to species rank, as F. aywerte comb.. nov. and F. nurragi comb. nov., and F. avenaceum subsp. avenaceum is returned to its former species status.

BERBEE, M. L., B. P. PAYNE, et al. (2003). "Shared ITS DNA substitutions in isolates of opposite mating type reveal a recombining history for three presumed asexual species in the filamentous ascomycete genus Alternaria." Mycol. Res. 107: 169-182. About 15000 species of ascomycete fungi lack a known sexual

state. For fungi with asexual states in the anamorph genera Embellisia, Ulocladium, and Alternaria, six species have known sexual states but more than 50 species do not. In sexual filamentous ascomycetes, opposite mating type information at the MAT1 locus regulates mating and the opposite mating type genes each have a clonal, non-recombining phylogenetic history. We used PCR to amplify and sequence

fragments of the opposite mating type genes from three supposedly asexual species, A. brassicae, A. brassicicola and A. tenuissima. Each haploid fungal isolate had just one mating type, but both mating types were present in all the three species. We sequenced the ribosomal ITS regions for isolates of opposite mating type, for the three asexual species and four known related sexual species. In a phylogenetic analysis including other ITS sequences from GenBank®, the three asexual species were not closely related to any of the known sexual species. Isolates of opposite mating type but the same species had identical ITS sequences. During any period of asexual evolutionary history, lineages of each mating type would have had a separate evolutionary history and any ITS substitutions shared between isolates of opposite mating type would have had to accumulate by convergence. Allowing for varying substitution rates and assuming a Poisson distribution of substitutions, the probability that isolates of opposite mating type shared an ITS substitution through convergence was low. This suggests that isolates of opposite mating type of A. brassicae, A. brassicicola and A. tenuissima were exchanging substitutions through sexual or parasexual reproduction while the ITS was evolving. If sexuality was

lost, it was lost after the period of evolutionary history represented by the shared substitutions.

Bergonzo, E., W. Rossi, et al. (2004). "New and interesting Laboulbeniales parasitic on Brazilian Diptera." Mycologia, 96(4): 703-711. Three new Laboulbeniales occurring on Brazilian Diptera are

described. These are Stigmatomyces cearensis, parasitic on Guttipsilopa (Nesopsilopa) stonei (Mathis & Wirth) (Ephydridae); Stigmatmyces gratiellae, parasitic on Cressonomyia meridionalis (Cresson) (Ephydridae); and Stigmatomyces litoralis, parasitic on Glenanthe caribea Mathis and

araglenanthe bahamensis Wirth (both Ephydridae). Fifteen other dipterophilous Laboulbeniales are reported for the first time from Brazil. The synonomy between Stigmatomyces notiphilae Thaxt. and S. leucophengae Thaxt. also is proposed.

Berndt, R. (1997). "Cerotelium dioscoreae, a new rust fungus on Dioscorea*." Mycological Research 101(3): 311-314. A new rust fungus on Dioscorea, Cerotelium dioscoreae, sp. nov. is

described from Ecuador. Similarity with other phakopsoraceous genera and the assignment of the new fungus to Cerotelium is discussed.

Berndt, R. (1997). "Morphology of haustoria of Ravenelia and Kernkampella spp.*." Mycological Research 101(1): 23-34. The haustorial morphology of 21 Ravenelia species, two Kernkampella

species, and four leguminicolous Uredo and Uraecium species which are probably related to Ravenelia, was investigated by light microscopy. Three different kinds of interaction could be found: (1) species with haustorial complexes comprising dikaryotic haustoria and intracellular hyphae. These species showed strictly intracellular growth of the parasitic mycelium. (2) Species with only dikaryotic haustoria, and (3) species with only intracellular hyphae or monokaryotic haustoria. Complexes of dikaryotic haustoria and intracellular hyphae were found in 17 of the investigated Ravenelia species and three Uredo species. Three Ravenelia species revealed dikaryotic haustoria, and Ravenelia lonchocarpicola had only intracellular hyphae. Complexes of dikaryotic haustoria and intracellular hyphae are probably the prevalent type of parasitic interaction in Ravenelia. The investigated Kernkampella species revealed dikaryotic haustoria.

BERNDT, R. (1997). "Cerotelium dioscoreae, a new rust fungus on Dioscorea." Mycol. Res. 101: 311-314. A new rust fungus on Dioscorea, Cerotelium dioscoreae, sp.

nov. is described from Ecuador. Similarity with other phakopsoraceous genera and the assignment of the new fungus to Cerotelium is discussed.

BERNDT, R. (1998). "New Puccinia species on Baccharis from Ecuador and Costa Rica." Mycol. Res. 102: 1108-1112. Six new species of Puccinia on Baccharis are described :

Puccinia basirostrata, P. ecuadorientalis, P. lentapiculata, P. otavalensis and P.

quitensis from Ecuador, and P. vulcanicola from Costa Rica. Beside features of telio-, uredinio- and aeciospores, basidiospore morphology yielded important characters for species delimitation. Berndt, R. (2002). "Additions to the rust fungi of Argentina*." Mycologia, 94(3): 523-534.

A contribution is made to the rust fungus flora of Argentina: Puccinia baccharidis-boliviensis, P. cordyceps, P. pucarae, and Aecidium hypseocharidicola

are described as new species. Cionothrix praelonga, Frommee¨lla mexicana var. mexicana, Phakopsora compressa, Prospodium peruvianum, Puccinia amphiospora, P. chaetochloae, P. liabi, P. pappophori, P. sanguinolenta, P. subaquila, Ravenelia havanensis, Uredo leonuri, Uromyces orbicularis, and U. cnidoscoli are new reports for Argentina. New observations on already known species were made: the aecia of Puccinia subaquila and aecia and uredinia of Uromyces cnidoscoli are described for the first time. Senecio hieronymi is a new host for Puccinia lagenophorae. Uredo leonuri belongs to the genus Coleosporium. Melilotus albus is a new host of Uromyces anthyllidis in Argentina.

Berndt, R. and N. Sharma (1998). "Dicellomyces calami sp. nov., from India*." Mycological Research 102(12): 1484-1486. Dicellomyces calami sp. nov. was collected on rotang palm in southern

India. It is the first Dicellomyces species on palms. A key to the known Dicellomyces species is presented and possible relationships of the genus are discussed.

Berner, D. K., F. M. Eskandari, et al. (2005). "Cercosporella acroptili and Cercosporella centaureicola sp. nov.—potential biological control agents of Russian knapweed and yellow starthistle, respectively." Mycologia, 97(5): 1122–1128. Russian knapweed (Acroptilon repens [L.] DC.) and yellow

starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis L.) are invasive weeds in the western United States, and

both weeds are targeted for biological control. Cercosporella acroptili (Bremer) U. Braun was identified as a possible biological control agent for A. repens, and a morphologically similar Cercosporella sp. recently was found damaging to C. solstitialis in the field. Because both fungi are potentially important for biological control of the respective weeds, studies were undertaken to ascertain whether the isolates were identical based on morphology, pathogenicity, growth and spore production, and genetics (molecular characterization of the internal transcribed spacer regions of the ribosomal RNA genes). Differences in these variables between the two isolates were sufficient to indicate that the isolate from C. solstitialis was distinct and justified a new description at the species level: Cercosporella centaureicola sp. nov.

Bernicchia, A. and L. Ryvarden (1998). "A new species of Lindtneria from Italy." Mycological Research 102(4): 502-504. Lindtneria hydnoidea sp. nov. is described, characterized by a hydnoid

hymenophore and a total lack of clamp-connections on the generative hyphae. A key is given to all currently accepted Lindtneria species.

BERREDJEM, A., A. GARNIER, et al. (1998). "Effect of nitrogen and carbon sources on growth and activities of NAD and NADP dependent isocitrate dehydrogenases of Laccaria bicolor." Mycol. Res. 102: 427-434. The ectomycorrhizal Laccaria bicolor, cultivated axenically in

modified Pachlewski's medium, can use a broad spectrum of nitrogen and carbon sources. The fungus exhibited greater growth in the presence of ammonium or nitrate than with ammonium nitrate. With the latter salt, the drop in pH of the culture medium indicated that ammonium was taken up preferentially to nitrate. L. bicolor grew more poorly on amino acids such as glycine, alanine, aspartate and glutamate, the latter three being very poor carbon sources. By contrast, glycine was used as nitrogen and carbon sources. Glucose and maltose in mixture, with a 20:5 ratio, were the most effective carbohydrates for promoting growth, followed by starch, dextrins, maltose, glucose and sorbitol. L. bicolor failed to grow in the presence of sucrose and galactose.

Isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH), a key enzyme linking carbon and nitrogen metabolism, is present in L. bicolor as NAD- and NADP-dependent proteins. Both enzymes were stimulated in response to nitrogen starvation and appeared to operate in close association with the glutamine synthetase and NADP-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase of the fungus, indicating that 2- oxoglutarate produced by IDHs is probably utilized in the assimilation of inorganic nitrogen. The highest specific activities of NAD and NADP-IDH coincided in most cases with the rapid growth periods of the fungus, although in slow growing conditions obtained by addition of glycine or sorbitol to the culture media, only NADP-IDH activity increased in conjunction with growth. In addition, activity of the NADP-IDH was constantly higher than that of NAD-IDH. These results are indicative that the NADP-dependent enzyme plays a substantial biosynthetic role, possibly by an additional production of reduced nucleotides.

Bettucci, L. and R. Alonso (1997). "A comparative study of fungal populations in healthy and symptomatic twigs of Eucalyptus grandis in Uruguay." Mycological Research 101(9): 1060-1064. Seven hundred and eighty two isolates corresponding to 52 fungal taxa

have been obtained from 920 segments of healthy and symptomatic twigs of Eucalyptus grandis, incubated on media with water potential -0±138 MPa and -4±19 MPa. Only thirty taxa were isolated at frequencies of 2% and greater. The composition of species isolated from bark of healthy twigs incubated on media with both water potentials was similar, with Aureobasidium pullulans being dominant. Sistrotrema brikmannii was the main species isolated from xylem of healthy twigs at -0±138 MPa whereas Pleospora sp. and Sphaeropsis eucalyptus were the dominant species isolated from this material on medium at -4±19 MPa. Fusicoccum eucalypti and Cytospora chrysosperma were most commonly isolated

from bark and xylem of symptomatic twigs. Correspondence analysis showed the fungal species associated with each tissue. Summer drought followed by frequent frost in early autumn may have incited wounds allowing fungal invasion of the bark of twigs.

BETTUCCI, L., R. ALONSO, et al. (1999). "Endophytic mycobiota of healthy twigs and the assemblage of species associated with twig lesions of Eucalyptus globulus and E. grandis in Uruguay." Mycol. Res. 103: 468-472. The endophytic mycobiota of healthy twigs and the

assemblage of species associated with twig lesions of Eucalyptus globulus and E. grandis planted at the same site in the central west region of Uruguay was examined. Twig segments from E. grandis and E. globulus were plated on 2% malt agar. The diversity of endophytes isolated was low, as was the number of host-specific species. E. globulus endophytes of healthy xylem were different from the colonizers of cracked lesions and healthy bark. Conversely, in E. grandis characterized by black spots, the main difference in species composition was between xylem and bark. Cytospora chrysosperma was isolated from healthy bark and symptomatic twigs of E. globulus, suggesting that symptomatic tissues, such as cracks produced under drought were favourable to saprotrophic expansion.

Bhalla, K., S. K. Sindh, et al. (1997). "Further Mycovellosiella species from the Indian sub-continent." Mycological Research 101(12): 1496-1498. Mycovellosiella malloti-repandi, M. nerii-indici and M. solanacearum,

occurring on Mallotus repandus (Euphorbiaceae), Nerium indicum (Apocynaceae) and Solanum verbascifolium (Solanaceae), respectively, are described and illustrated. The first was collected from the North-Eastern Terai region of India and the other two from Nepal.

Bhikkhu, B. (1956). Handbook for Mankind, DHAMMASAPA. Bianchinotti, M. V. (1997). "A new species of Pseudorobillarda from a leguminous tree in Argentina." Mycological Research 101(10): 1233-1236. Pseudorobillarda magna sp. nov. from bark of Geoffroea decorticans, a

native tree of Argentina, is described and illustrated. It is compared with the known species in the genus. This is the first report of a species of Pseudorobillarda from South America.

Bianchinotti, M. V. (2004). "Two new lignicolous species of Nitschkia from Argentina." Mycologia, 96(4): 911-916. Two species of Nitschkia are described from bark and wood of

a legume shrub, native to the semiarid regions of Argentina. Nitschkia campylospora is characterized by asci with a variable number of ascospores, mainly 16, and curved ascospores; hairy ascomata and large ascospores are two distinct features of Nitschkia pilosa. The new species

are compared with most similar species. A key to Nitschkia species is provided with the inclusion of comments on those from Argentina and neighboring countries.

BIANCHINOTTI, M. V., M. RAJCHENBERG, et al. (2005). "Parenthesome structure of some corticioid fungi." Mycol. Res. 109(8): 923-926. The parenthesome structure of seven corticioid species,

traditionally referred to the family Corticiaceae (Basidiomycota), were studied in order to better understand their taxonomic position: Phanerochaete velutina, Phlebia radiata, P. rufa, Rhizochaete americana (syn. Ceraceomyces americana), R. brunnea, R. filamentosa (syn. Phanerochaete filamentosa) and R. radicata (syn. Phanerochaete radicata). All possessed the perforate type of parenthesome that is commonly

encountered in homobasidiomycetes. This feature excludes the above taxa from both the hymenochaetoid and the cantharelloid clades which are the only groups that have imperforate parenthesomes in the homobasidiomycetes.

BIDOCHKA, M. J. and J. D. KONING (2001). "Are teleomorphs really necessary?: modelling the potential effects of Muller's Ratchet on deuteromycetous entomopathogenic fungi." Mycol. Res. 105: 1014-1019. Teleomorphic, or sexual, phases have not been described for

many deuteromycetous fungi and it is debated whether these phases actually exist, or are even necessary for some fungi. Muller's Ratchet is a population genetical mechanism, hypothesized in 1964 by H. J. Muller, which describes how certain asexual populations may undergo an unavoidable and progressive decline in fitness, eventually leading to population extinction. With respect to deuteromycetous fungi, Muller's Ratchet could operate because clonally reproducing populations are not able to reduce their mutational load with each generation. Here we used a model to investigate and

quantify some of the potential effects of the lack of sexual recombination on the accumulation of deleterious mutations using parameters derived from two species of deuteromycetous entomopathogenic fungi, Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana. Our results suggest that, under certain realistic conditions, Muller's Ratchet may not play a critical role in the fitness of these deuteromycetous entomopathogenic fungi and it is at least theoretically possible that these fungi could reproduce through exclusive clonal lineages.

BIDOCHKA, M. J., J. D. KONING, et al. (2001). "Analysis of a genomic clone of hydrophobin (ssgA) from the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae." Mycol. Res. 105: 360-364. A 909 bp region containing a genomic clone encoding for

hydrophobin (ssgA) from the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae has been sequenced and the regulatory motifs analysed

against those recognized in other fungi. The genomic clone was also compared with the open reading frame of the hydrophobin ssgA (starvation stress gene) cDNA sequence. The genomic clone contained a 291 bp coding sequence with one intron of 64 nucleotides. From this sequence primers were established that could be used to amplify the hydrophobin. Restriction fragment polymorphism analysis of hydrophobin amplified by the polymerase chain reaction from 80 isolates of M. anisopliae showed no variability. Analysis of the potential regulatory elements 313 bp upstream from the transcriptional start site revealed typical TATAA and CCAAT boxes. CT or GC motifs were not found. Upstream regulatory elements were also found with sequence homologies to the AREA, CREA, CRE (cAMP response element) and BRLA regions of Aspergillus nidulans as well as the CYS3 and AmyB regions of Aspergillus oryzae. The promoter regions of other fungal hydrophobins were also assessed for the presence of regulatory elements. Upstream regulatory elements are also present for the gene encoding a cuticle-degrading protease (Pr1) from M. anisopliae. We suggest that nutrient levels and cAMP mediation of thigmotropic signals in

the entomopathogenic fungus, M. anisopliae, co-ordinate the regulation of the gene products required for morphological development and secretion of ` penetration ' enzymes.

BIDOCHKA, M. J., M. J. MELZER, et al. (2000). "Genetically related isolates of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae harbour homologous dsRNA viruses." Mycol. Res. 104: 1094-1097. Several isolates of the entomopathogenic Metarhizium

anisopliae that harboured dsRNA viruses of similar electrophoretic band sizes (1.8 and 2.0 kbp) were assessed for homologies of the dsRNA by Northern analysis. The isolates were also characterised genetically by RAPD and VCG. Similarly sized dsRNA, as visualised by electrophoresis, were not always homologous, suggesting that the comparison of dsRNA based solely on electrophoretic banding patterns is an unreliable method of dsRNA characterisation. Several isolates, but not all, harbouring multiple dsRNA patterns, including a 1.8 and 2.0 kbp doublet, also showed homologies to strains harbouring only the dsRNA banding doublet. This suggests that mixed infections of different dsRNA elements are found in M. anisopliae. Genetically similar fungi, based on RAPD banding patterns and vegetative compatibility, were more likely to harbour genetically related dsRNA. The findings suggested that dsRNA elements in M. anisopliae are horizontally transferred to genetically related isolates or are maintained through clonal lineages.

Bigelow, D. M., R. L. Gilbertson, et al. (1998). "Cultural studies of fungi causing brown rot in heartwood of living lemon trees in Arizona." Mycological Research 102(3): 257-262. Coniophora eremophila and Antrodia sinuosa cause brown heartrot in

living lemon trees in southern Arizona and California. They can be distinguished in the field by differences in rot characteristics. Both have a high optimum growth temperature of approximately 35 °C. Coniophora eremophila has a cultural morphology typical of other Coniophora species and did not fruit in culture. Antrodia sinuosa cultures were morphologically similar to previous reports and fruited readily under laboratory conditions. Mating tests with homokaryotic single spore isolates showed it to have a heterothallic bipolar mating system. The decay capacity of C. eremophila on lemon wood test blocks under laboratory conditions was low compared to that of A. sinuosa, five other brown rot fungi, and three white rot fungi.

Bigelow, D. M., M. W. Olsen, et al. (2005). "Labyrinthula terrestris sp. nov., a new pathogen of turf grass." Mycologia, 97(1): 185-190. A species of Labyrinthula that causes ‘rapid blight’ and death

of turfgrass has been isolated and studied. We name this new species Labyrinthula terrestris and briefly summarize morphological characteristics and growth patterns of this pathogen of turfgrass.

BILLS, G. F., R. M. ARIAS, et al. (2001). "Merimbla humicoloides sp. nov. from conifer forest soil of Veracruz state, Mexico." Mycol. Res. 105: 1273-1279. Merimbla humicoloides sp. nov. was isolated after heat

treatment of soil collected in a pine forest of Veracruz state, Mexico. The fungus is characterized by pale buff to cinnamon colonies that become dark brown to black in reverse and conidiophores that vary from irregularly asymmetrical penicilli to symmetrical penicilli with inflated metulae, and Humicola-like chlamydospores on the submerged hyphae. Phylogenetic inferences made from the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 rDNA sequences indicate that M. humicoloides is a member of the Trichocomaceae and that it is related to M. ingelheimensis, Hamigera avellanea, and Penicillium species.

BILLS, G. F., G. PLATAS, et al. (2004). "Conspecificity of the cerulenin and helvolic acid producing ‘Cephalosporium caerulens’, and the hypocrealean fungus Sarocladium oryzae." Mycol. Res. 108: 1291-1300. Fermentation processes for the biochemical reagents

cerulenin and helvolic acid employ ‘Cephalosporium caerulens, ’ an invalidly published designation that has been used for more than 40 years. However, its identity has never been critically examined because strains were unavailable from major culture collections. An authentic strain of ‘C. caerulens ’, derived from the original strain KF-140, was recently found and compared to Sarocladium oryzae, another Acremonium-like fungus which also produces cerulenin and helvolic acid. Morphological comparisons, rDNA sequence data, and chromatography of secondary metabolites established that ‘C. caerulens’ and S. oryzae are conspecific. Sequence data from ribosomal DNA genes indicated S. oryzae belongs to the Hypocreales and is allied with members of the

Ceratostomataceae, Scopinella species, Emericellopsis species and certain

Acremonium-like anamorphs of uncertain familial relationships. At least two of the isolates of S. oryzae produced titres of cerulenin and helvolic acid similar to those of KF-140. This finding demonstrates that manufacture of cerulenin need not be limited to the original strain. BILLS, G. F., G. PLATAS, et al. (1999). "Reclassification of a pneumocandin-producing anamorph, Glarea lozoyensis gen. et sp. nov., previously identified as Zalerion arboricola." Mycol. Res. 103: 179-192. The importance of pneumocandin B0as the fermentation-

derived starting material for the antifungal drug candidate, MK-991, along with the identification of our production strain as Z. arboricola (ATCC 20868) as CBS prompted a search for other strains of Z. arboricola or Zalerion species with improved titres or that might produce natural pneumocandin analogues. Analysis of morphology, secondary metabolites profiles, and DNA fingerprinting demonstrated that ATCC 20868 was not congeneric with Z. arboricola. Ribosomal DNA sequences were compared among Zalerion species and pneumocandin-producing fungi and with rDNA sequences in GenBank. No good matches with sequences in GenBank were obtained for Z. arboricola or Z. maritimum, but for Z. varium, P. carpinea and ATCC 20868, relevant similarities were observed with ITS1 sequences from fungi of Leotiales. ATCC 20868 was phylogenetically more akin to P. carpinea, another pneumocandin producer, than initially suspected. The closest relative of ATCC 20868 seemed to be Hymenoscyphus monotropae. We conclude that the genus Zalerion is artificial ; its species bear no phylogenetic relation among themselves. ATCC 20868 and Z. varium were related to fungi of the Leotiales. We propose a new anamorph genus and species, Glarea lozoyensis, to accommodate ATCC 20868.

Binder, M. and A. Bresinsky (2002). "Derivation of a polymorphic lineage of Gasteromycetes from boletoid ancestors." Mycologia, 94(1): 85-98. The phylogeny of selected gasteromycetes and

hymenomycetes was inferred from partial nuclear large subunit rDNA (nuc-lsu, 28S) sequences, delimited by primers LR0R and LR5. Taxon sampling with emphasis on relationships within the Boletales further included some gasteroid groups, which obviously have evolved convergent fruiting body morphology, and therefore remained controversial in taxonomy. This study confirms the close relationship of Geastrales, Gauteriales and Phallales and the presumable derivation of Nidulariales and Tulostomatales within the euagarics clade, as widely accepted. In addition, four Hymenogaster species investigated were found to be in the euagarics clade and a relationship to the Cortinariaceae was indicated. The gasteroid fungus Zelleromyces stephensii is an

example for maintaining morphological linkage by a lactiferous hyphal system to the genus Lactarius in the Russulales, and this relationship was affirmed in the sequence analysis. Several previously suggested relationships of

gasteromycetes and Boletales were reproducible by analyzing nuc-lsu sequences. As a new result, Astraeus hygrometricus, the barometer earth star, is an additional representative of the Boletales. Together with Boletinellus, Phlebopus, Pisolithus, Calostoma, Gyroporus, Scleroderma, and Veligaster, Astraeus forms an unusual group comprising pileatestipitate hymenomycetes and polymorphic gasteromycetes.This group is a major lineage within the Boletales and we propose the new suborder Sclerodermatineae, including the six families Boletinellaceae fam. nov. (Boletinellus and Phlebopus), Gyroporaceae (Singer) fam. nov. (Gyroporus), Pisolithaceae (Pisolithus), Astraeaceae (Astraeus), Calostomataceae (Calostoma), and the typus subordinis Sclerodermataceae (Scleroderma and Veligaster). Morphological and ecological characters, and pigment synthesis support the delimitation of the Sclerodermatineae, and indicate the radiation of different lineages in the Boletales originating from fungi with primitive tubular hymenophores. We regard such boletes with gyroid-boletinoid hymenophores, like Boletinellus, Gyrodon, Gyroporus, Paragyrodon and Phlebopus as key taxa in the evolution of Paxillineae, Sclerodermatineae and Boletineae.

BINDSLEV, L., R. P. OLIVER, et al. (2002). "In situ PCR for detection and identification of fungal species." Mycol. Res. 106: 277-279. PCR and DNA sequence analysis have become standard tools

for identification, detection and phylogenetic analysis of fungi. A large number of species are incapable of growth in the laboratory, making the preparation of pure DNA problematical. The amplification of DNA samples from impure material is subject to misinterpretation if more than one species is present. To overcome this problem, we designed an in situ PCR technique that links PCR amplification to the light microscopic image. The amplified tissue is stained, thus confirming which morphotype has been amplified. The PCR product can then be sequenced. We tested the technique on fixed Blumeria graminis spores and mycelia using primers derived from the sequence of the gene encoding the catalytic subunit of protein kinase A (bka1). This is the first report of in situ PCR on phytopathogenic fungal material. This technique allows positive confirmation of the origin of genes cloned from obligate pathogenic fungi and could be adapted for use on any samples containing mixed fungal species.

Bircher, U. and H. R. Hohl (1997). "Environmental signalling during induction of appressorium formation in Phytophthora." Mycological Research 101(4): 395-402. Appressorium formation in vitro by Phytophthora palmivora started after

about 1 h of incubation of zoospores in an aqueous solution and was influenced by topographical signals, substrate hydrophobicity and available nutrients. Free floating, non-adhering germlings did not form appressoria. On smooth substrates, no appressoria were formed under

high nutrient conditions (20% pea broth) independent of the hydrophobicity of the contact surface, while under low nutrient conditions (5% pea broth) appressoria formed on smooth substrates with hydrophobic, but not on smooth substrates with hydrophilic, surfaces. If the same substrates were scratched, appressoria formed over these scratches independent of levels of exogenous nutrients and substrate hydrophobicity. These findings are summarized in a model of signalling for appressorium induction.

Bircher, U. and H. R. Hohl (1997). "Surface glycoproteins associated with appressorium formation and adhesion in Phytophthora palmivora." Mycological Research 101(7): 769-775. Pronase E and tunicamycin, a putative inhibitor of protein glycosylation,

strongly reduced the frequency of germlings adhering to smooth polystyrene and completely inhibited appressorium formation of adhering germlings without inhibiting germ-tube growth of the pathogen. Additionally, a-mannosidase or a-glucosidase, but not b-glucosidase or lipase, partly inhibited adhesion to smooth polystyrene and substantially inhibited appressorium formation by germlings adhering to this substrate. Infection structure formation was also reduced by the addition of either lectins binding to mannose or glucose residues (ConA and LCA), or by the addition of lgG. The presence of ConA- and IgG-binding (glyco)proteins among proteins obtained from the germination fluid, or from differentiated germlings, has been confirmed on Western blots. Removal of proteinaceous surface material by pronase E inhibited appressorium formation on smooth polystyrene. After the protease was removed, newly formed ConA-binding glycoproteins have been detected at the germ-tube apex with FITC-conjugated ConA. The (re)appearance of these glycoproteins was correlated with the time period when appressorium formation was observed. Interestingly, removal of proteinaceous materials from the germ-tube surface by pronase E, and also the addition of IgG had no inhibitory effect on appressorium formation on furrows in polystyrene. Our results suggest ConA-binding surface glycoproteins present at the germ-tube apex as essential factors for infection structure formation on smooth polystyrene. In contrast, these glycoproteins are unlikely to be involved in appressorium induction over grooves in the same substrate.

Bischoff, J. F., P. Chaverri, et al. (2005). "Clarification of the host substrate of Ascopolyporus and description of Ascopolyporus philodendrus sp. nov.." Mycologia, 97(3): 710–717. During a recent collection trip to Barro Colorado Island,

Panama, two species belonging to genus Ascopolyporus (Clavicipitaceae, Hypocreales) were collected. Species of Ascopolyporus are epibionts of their bamboo (Poaceae) host and long thought to be biotrophs of their plant hosts. However, based on

morphological observations and phylogenetic evidence using large subunit

ribosomal DNA data, we propose that genus Ascopolyporus is likely composed of pathogens of scale insects (Coccoideae, Homoptera). Phylogenetic analyses included Ascopolyporus spp. in a clade containing only entomopathogenic clavicipitaceous species (100% posterior probability), and the scale insect pathogen Hyperdermium bertonii was found to share the most recent common ancestor

with the Ascopolyporus clade (98% posterior probability). In addition remnants of the scale insect were observed to be embedded within stromata during early stages of stroma development. Ascopolyporus philodendrus sp. nov. was described and distinguished from the type species of the genus, A. polychrous, based on perithecial size, ascus size, plant host substrate and phylogenetic evidence. Furthermore subfamily Clavicipitoideae (Clavicipitaceae) was included and well supported in a single clade (100% posterior probability).

Bischoff, J. F., R. F. Sullivan, et al. (2004). "Phylogenetic placement of the anamorphic tribe Ustilaginoideae (Hypocreales, Ascomycota)." Mycologia, 96(2): 1088-1094. Tribe Ustilaginoideae (Hypocreales, Ascomycetes) is made

up of three anamorph genera, Munkia, Neomunkia and Ustilaginoidea. Species of Munkia

and Neomunkia develop on the culms of bamboo (Chusquea spp.) and have a neotropical distribution while species of Ustilaginoidea infect the florets of various grasses and are pantropical in distribution. In this study we evaluated the phylogeny of the tribe and assessed hypotheses regarding its affinity to clavicipitalean teleomorphic groups. To support phylogenetic analyses, morphology of representatives of several key species of Ustilaginoideae was examined also. Phylogenetic analyses using sequences of the large subunit of the ribosomal RNA gene suggest that members of Ustilaginoideae are distinct from teleomorphic genera of Clavicipitaceae and that Ustilaginoideae should be recognized as a monophyletic group within Hypocreales. However, phylogenetic analyses did not resolve the placement of Ustilaginoideae in Clavicipitaceae or Hypocreaceae, suggesting that it might be a distinct lineage within Hypocreales. This evaluation supported the monophyly of tribes Balansieae and Clavicipeae in the family Clavicipitaceae.

BLACKMAN, L. M., H. J. MITCHELL, et al. (2005). "Characterisation of manganese superoxide dismutase from Phytophthora nicotianae." Mycol. Res. 109(10): 1171-1183. Three polypeptides with manganese superoxide dismutase

(MnSOD) activity were found in mycelium, zoospores and germinated cysts of Phytophthora nicotianae. Their relative molecular weights in non-denaturing gels were approximately 34.5, 36 and 50 kDa. No evidence for the presence of either iron or copper/zinc SODs was detected at any of the developmental stages examined. The level of activity of the MnSOD

polypeptides was similar in mycelia and spores. Degenerate PCR was used to amplify partial genes of two different MnSODs, designated PnMnSOD1 and PnMnSOD2, from P. nicotianae. Southern blot analysis indicated that there are two PnMnSOD1 genes in the P. nicotianae genome. Full length sequence was obtained for one of these genes, PnMnSOD1a, from a P. nicotianae bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) library. RNA blots probed with PnMnSOD1 showed similar levels of expression in vegetative and sporulating hyphae, lower levels in germinated cysts and no detectable expression in zoospores. PnMnSOD1a had 96%, 97% and 99% amino acid identity with homologous genes from P. ramorum, P. infestans and P. sojae, respectively. The second gene cloned from P. nicotianae, PnMnSOD2, had only 38% amino acid identity with PnMnSOD1a and was homologous to MnSODs that possessed an N-terminal mitochondrial targeting sequence in Phytophthora species and other eukaryotes. Southern blots indicated that there is one copy of PnMnSOD2 in the P. nicotianae genome. PnMnSOD2 was expressed at similar levels in mycelia and germinated cysts but PnMnSOD2 transcripts were not detectable in zoospores.

Blackwell, M., D. A. Henk, et al. (2003). "Extreme morphological divergence: phylogenetic position of a termite ectoparasite." Mycologia, 95(6): 987-992. Species of Termitaria are lesion-forming ectoparasites

occurring worldwide on a diverse group of termites. The reduced thallus consists of a basal cell layer from which haustorial cells penetrate the termite and a darkly pigmented sporodochium. One species, Termitaria snyderi, has been the subject of several morphological studies, but its phylogenetic position has remained enigmatic. Here we provide evidence of a close relationship between T. snyderi and the morphologically distinct ascomycetes, Kathistes analemmoides and K. calyculata, based on phylogenetic analysis of molecular characters derived from portions of the nuclear-encoded small-subunit ribosomal RNA gene (ssu rDNA) and supplemental evidence from the ß-tubulin gene. Trees were derived using parsimony and maximum-likelihood criteria. Bayesian analysis and parsimony bootstrap methods were used to assess support for the tree nodes.

Blanco, O., A. Crespo, et al. (2005). "Molecular phylogeny of parmotremoid lichens (Ascomycota, Parmeliaceae)." Mycologia, 97(1): 150-159. Parmotrema is one of the larger genera segregated from

Parmelia s. lat. Additional genera recently have been segregated from this large genus based mainly on morphological and chemical features. We have employed molecular data from three genes to continue a revision of the generic concept within the parmelioid lichens. A Bayesian analysis of nuclear ITS, LSU rDNA and mitochondrial SSU rDNA sequences was performed. The genera Canomaculina, Concamerella, Parmelaria and

Rimelia appear nested within Parmotrema. Alternative hypotheses to maintain the independence of Canomaculina, Concamerella and Rimelia are shown to be highly unlikely and are rejected. As a consequence these three genera are reduced to synonymy with Parmotrema. An alternative topology segregating Parmelaria from Parmotrema s. lat. cannot be rejected with the dataset at hand. However we have established that this genus is closely related to Parmotrema rather than to cetrarioid species as was considered previously. The revised genus Parmotrema includes species that have an upper cortex consisting of a palisade plectenchyma or rarely paraplectenchyma with vaults, have a pored or fenestrated epicortex, lack pseudocyphellae, have or lack cilia, have laminal, perforate or eperforate apothecia, usually have simple rhizines and filiform, cylindrical, bacilliform or sublageniform conidia. It is closely related to Flavoparmelia but the status of these genera requires further investigation. Nineteen new combinations are made.

BLANCO, O., A. CRESPO, et al. (2004). "Melanelixia and Melanohalea, two new genera segregated from Melanelia (Parmeliaceae) based on molecular and morphological data." Mycol. Res. 108: 873-884. This paper continues a revision of generic concepts in the

parmelioid lichens using molecular data in order to reach a consensus among lichenologists over which segregates proposed over the last two decades should be accepted. Here we employ data from three gene portions to provide a basis for a revised generic concept of the brown parmelioid lichens hitherto classified in Melanelia. The phylogeny was studied using a Bayesian analysis of a combined data set of nuclear ITS, LSU rDNA and mitochondrial SSU rDNA sequences. 173 new sequences were obtained from 38 specimens of 15 Melanelia species, 37 related parmelioid species, and eight non-parmelioid species. The results indicate that Melanelia is not monophyletic but falls into four different clades. The genus Melanelia is restricted here to a small group of saxicolous lichens related to the type species M. stygia, and with bifusiform conidia, while the remaining species, most of which are primarily corticolous and have mainly cylindrical to filiform conidia, belong to two other clades recognised as two new genera: Melanelixia and Melanohalea, to accommodate the M. exasperata and M. glabra groups, respectively. 27 new combinations are made. The epicortex of Melanelixia species have pores or special structures termed here ‘fenestrations’, while most Melanohalea species are pseudocyphellate. Pleurosticta links to the Melanohalea clade but without strong support, and the phylogenetic position of M. disjuncta and its related species remains uncertain, linking with the Xanthoparmelia (syn. Neofuscelia) clade but also without strong support.

BLAUDEZ, D., C. JACOB, et al. (2000). "Differential responses of ectomycorrhizal fungi to heavy metals in vitro." Mycol. Res. 104: 1366-1371. Thirty-nine ectomycorrhizal isolates of Paxillus involutus,

Pisolithus tinctorius, Suillus bovinus, S. luteus and S. variegatus were tested on cadmium, copper, nickel and zinc amended media to determine their in vitro tolerance, measured as inhibition of biomass production. Twenty-one isolates were from heavy metal polluted sites, whereas the others were from non-contaminated soils. There was a strong interspecific variation in metal tolerance. S. luteus, S. variegatus and P. tinctorius were more tolerant of Cu, Cd and Zn when compared with P. involutus, whereas the reverse was true for Ni. A high intraspecific heterogeneity in metal tolerance was also found. EC50 values for isolates originating from polluted sites were not statistically different from EC50 values for isolates originating from non-contaminated sites. The findings are discussed in relation to the potential benefits of ectomycorrhizal fungi in protecting their host plants from metal contamination.

BLILOU, I., P. BUENO, et al. (2000). "Induction of catalase and ascorbate peroxidase activities in tobacco roots inoculated with the arbuscular mycorrhizal Glomus mosseae." Mycol. Res. 104: 722-725. Catalase and ascorbate peroxidase enzymatic activities were

examined during the interaction between Nicotiana tabacum and the arbuscular mycorrhizal Glomus mosseae. Transient enhancements of both enzymatic activities were detected in the inoculated plant roots coinciding in time with the stage of appressoria formation in the root surface. The analysis of free salicylic acid content in roots revealed that the increases in enzymatic activities were coincident in time with the accumulation of SA in inoculated roots. These data indicate that the first reaction of the root cells to the invasion of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi is a defence response.

BOCK, C. H., M. J. JEGER, et al. (1999). "Effect of dew point temperature and conidium age on germination, germ tube growth and infection of maize and sorghum by Peronosclerospora sorghi." Mycol. Res. 103: 859-864. The effect of the environment on the germination, survival and

infection of sorghum by conidia of Peronosclerospora sorghi is unknown in Africa. Dew point temperature, and the effect of conidium age was characterized for an isolate of P. sorghi from Zimbabwe. Germination and germ tube growth took place in the range 10--34 °C (optimal at 10--34 and 20--33°, respectively). Infection was optimal at 14--30°. Incidence of infection at different temperatures was correlated with germ tube growth (r=0.8, P<0.001). Germination and germ tube growth occurred from 5 h after commencing incubation of infected leaf material, although immature conidia harvested at 3 h caused a low incidence of infection. Plant age also affected the incidence of infection. Container grown sorghum plants older than 20 d, and maize plants older than 15 d were resistant to systemic infection by conidia. The results indicate that germination, germ tube growth and infection take place over a wide temperature range, and that some limited biotypic variation may exist when these data are

compared to other reports of the environmental requirements of P. sorghi from the U.S.A. and India.

BOCK, C. H., M. J. JEGER, et al. (2000). "Variability of Peronosclerospora sorghi isolates from different geographic locations and hosts in Africa." Mycol. Res. 104: 61-68. Nine isolates of Peronosclerospora sorghi from maize,

sorghum and wild sorghum were sampled from Zimbabwe, Zambia, Rwanda, Mozambique and Kenya. They were compared for variation in conidium and conidiophore morphology, temperature requirements for sporulation, germination and germ-tube growth and for pathogenicity on different sorghum and maize cultivars. Although there were significant differences in isolate morphology, all conformed to the known range for P. sorghi. Mean conidial length x width ranged from 21--23 µm x16.9--19.2 µm, and mean conidiophore length (basal cell-branching) ranged from 116.3--135.6 µm. All

isolates sporulated in the range 14--26 °C (optimal at 16--23°), although one isolate from maize from Umbeluzi in Mozambique had a broader optimal range for sporulation (12--25°). Conidia of all isolates germinated between 10° and 34°. Germ-tube response to temperature was similar for all isolates (10--34°). The isolates varied in their pathogenicity towards sorghum cultivars, with an isolate from Rwanda being pathogenic to more sorghum differentials than any other. Cluster analysis of isolates based on host reaction indicated five groups at the 85% similarity level. The existence of pathogenic variability has rami®cations for the breeding of sorghum for resistance to downy mildew in Africa.

BOCK, C. H., P. H. THRALL, et al. (2002). "Detection of genetic variation in Alternaria brassicicola using AFLP fingerprinting." Mycol. Res. 106: 428-434. Genetic variation within and between eighteen isolates of

Alternaria brassicicola, five isolates of A. alternata, and a single isolate of Rhynchosporium secalis was compared using Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLPs). The AFLPs consistently distinguished between the three species. AFLPs thus provide a reliable tool for identifying A. brassicicola. The analysis of eighteen isolates of A. brassicicola from different sites also indicated at least moderate

levels of genetic diversity within A. brassicicola along the New South Wales coast. Of 43--66 markers scored per primer combination, 16.7--27.9% were polymorphic. On the basis of an unweighted paired group method of arithmetic averages analysis using data from four primer combinations, most isolates were identified as separate genotypes. However, multiple isolates from particular locations tended to cluster together, implying the potential for population structure, and there was a significant positive correlation between Nei's measure of genetic distance and physical distance (r=0.5486, P<0.001). Despite the absence of an identified sexual stage, A. brassicicola would appear to have a means for generating and

maintaining significant variation. BOCK, C. H., P. H. THRALL, et al. (2005). "Genetic structure of populations of Alternaria brassicicola suggests the occurrence of sexual recombination." Mycol. Res. 109: 227-236. Substantial polymorphism was detected between isolates from

five populations of Alternaria brassicicola attacking Cakile maritima along the New South Wales coast of Australia, with a maximum of two genotypes being shared between population pairs. Of ten pair-wise population comparisons, six had no pathogen genotypes in common; only one genotype occurred five times, and most (93%) were found only once. Although an UPGMA based on Nei’s measure of genetic distance separated the five populations, a cluster analysis using individual isolates failed to group them according to population, indicating significant gene flow. An analysis of molecular variance indicated ca 14% of the variation occurred between populations, representing moderate population differentiation over the spatial scale of the study. Tests

of the relative contribution of clonality and sexual recombination indicated low, albeit significant levels of linkage disequilibrium in all populations. The level of linkage disequilibrium, and the high genotype diversity, provides support for the contention that a hitherto unidentified sexual stage might be a significant factor in the life-cycle of A. brassicicola.

BOEKHOUT, T., J. STALPERS, et al. (2002). "Experimental taxonomic studies in Psilocybe sect. Psilocybe." Mycol. Res. 106: 1251-1261. The species of Psilocybe sect. Psilocybe, formerly classified in

the genus Deconica, were investigated using morphology, mating behaviour and RAPD analysis. Psilocybe inquilinus and P. crobula do not seem to be closely related. Based on the morphology, two varieties could be accommodated in P. subviscida, namely as vars. subviscida and velata. The mating group of P. montana is characterized by rather thick-walled, dark spores with a fairly large germ-pore. Putative

representatives of P. muscorum and P. physaloides freely interbreed with typical P. montana, and, consequently, these taxa are considered to represent one variable species. The ex-type strain of P. chionophila did not mate with isolates of P. montana. One collection of P. chionophila from a lowland habitat, morphologically resembling P. montana, was found to be interfertile with the ex-type strain of P. chionophila, but not with P. montana. We identified several collections as P. magica, which is morphologically similar to P. schoeneti. Mating studies showed that these specimen belong to the same biological species, but failed to mate with the ex-type of P. schoeneti.

Boerema, G. H., J. d. Gruyter, et al. (2004). Phoma Identification Manual Differentialtion of Specific and Infra-species Taxa in Culture, CABI Publishing is a division of CAB International.

Bok, J.-W., K.-I. Ishida, et al. (2003). "Ultrastructural changes in Neurospora cells undergoing senescence induced by kalilo plasmids." Mycologia, 95(3): 500-505. In N. crassa and N. intermedia, the kalilo plasmid triggers

senescence by insertion into mitochondrial DNA. To investigate the cell death pathway induced by this plasmid, juvenile and senescent subcultures of several senescent strains were examined by light and transmission electron microscopy, and at the DNA level. There were no signs of apoptotic events, such as shrinkage of the cytoplasm away from the cell wall, apoptotic bodies, internucleosomal DNA fragmentation or condensation of the cytoplasm while retaining mitochondria and endomembrane structure. Instead, swollen mitochondria lacking cristae and containing amorphous inclusions, and disruption of nuclear and mitochondrial membranes indicated a necrotic mode of cell death.

Bonnen, A. M. and C. Hopkins (1997). "Fungicide resistance and population variation in Verticillium fungicola, a pathogen of the button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus." Mycological Research 101(1): 89-96. Isolates of Verticillium fungicola, collected over a period of 45 yr from

various geographical sites, were analysed for their responses to four fungicides (benomyl, thiabendazole, chlorothalonil and diethofencarb), and for colony morphology, virulence and DNA polymorphisms. Three different colony morphologies were observed for this population of isolates including fluffy, dense and appressed. The majority of isolates had the appressed colony morphology. Most isolates exhibited high levels of virulence. The appearance in this population of both benomyl and thiabendazole resistance was correlated with the introduction of benomyl for use on mushrooms. Eighty-eight percent of the isolates were cross-resistant between benomyl and thiabendazole and 80% exhibited negatively correlated cross-resistance between benomyl and diethofencarb. Seventy percent of the isolates exhibited negatively correlated cross-resistance between thiabendazole and diethofencarb. The level of resistance to chlorothalonil was relatively high even prior to its introduction and overall the response to this fungicide appears to have varied little over the last 45 yr. DNA polymorphisms, as detected by randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis, divided the isolates into four groupings. Limited correlations could be drawn between RAPD groupings, fungicide response and geographical origin. All recently collected isolates (1993-5) were extremely similar in their response to the four fungicides and had appressed colony morphology, high virulence and were members of RAPD group four. The lack of variation in the recent isolates as compared to the older isolates indicates that the V. fungicola population may be becoming more homogeneous.

Bonner, J. T. and D. S. Lamont (2005). "Behavior of cellular slime molds in the soil." Mycologia, 97(1): 178-184.

Cellular slime molds are soil organisms, yet since they were discovered in 1869 they have been studied on agar surfaces. Here the behavior of a number of species is examined and it is evident that they have different responses to directional light and they all thrive in the presence of soil. While phototaxis clearly plays a significant role in their ability to come to the soil surface for dispersal, even more important are gradients in the soil: both temperature gradients known from earlier studies, and as we show here gas gradients, presumably ammonia as a repellent and oxygen as an attractant. There are numerous differences in both morphology and behavior among slime mold species, some of which are likely to be the result of natural selection to particular habitats, while others could be explained more easily by neutral phenotypic variation.

Boonpragob, K. (2004). Lichens. Thai Fungal Diversity, BIOTEC, Thailand: 79-85. Lichens have a dual and can be recognized as an ecological unit as well

as a systematic group, although a significant number are members of the Acomycota. They occur widely in Thai rainforests, where they frequently are found as early colonizers of substrata, in particular on bark, rocks and stone.

Boonyuen, N. (2005). A Molecular Phylogenetic Study of Selected Ingoldian Species. Biotechnology, Mahidol University 2005: 92. Taxonomic studies of Ingoldian fungi are mainly based on morphological

characters and ontogeny of sexual and asexual spore formation. However, some of them need revision and reclassification especially at the genus and species levels because of misleading of teleomorph and anamorph connections. Sivichai et al. (2003) proposed that the anamorph of H. varicosporoides a species of Tricladium rather than Varicosporium sp. as originally initiated by Tubaki (1996). In addition, the two species H. varicosporoides and Cudoniella indica possess almost the same morphological characteristics except for differences in the ascus staining. Thus, we conducted a molecular phylogenetic analysis of the complete ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 DNA sequences of 37 selected Ingoldian taxa in the Helotiaceae to clarify teleomorph-anamorph connections for these two conspecific genera. The phylogenetic analysis suggested that the 37 selected taxa comprised a monophyletic group in Helotiaceae, Helotiales. The results indicated that both type species have an anamorph best assigned to Tricladium indicum with a well-supported clade (82%) containing both of the teleomorph genera H. varicosporoides and C. indica, and their anamorphs. The molecular data suggested that the presence or absence of a staining reaction reaction for the apical ring was not a phylogenetically reliable character. The highly significant identify (98-99.5%) of ITS1-2 and 5.8S regions of C. indica (SS 708) and H. varicosporoides (SS 336, SS 76.01 and CBS 651.66) is evidence that the two genera are very closely related or synonymous. The inferred

phylogenetic trees illustrate that temperate strains isolated from the UK. India and Japan formed the subclade separate from subclade of tropical strains isolated from Thailand. Molecular phylogeny analysis based on ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 Dna sequences is a usefukl tool for resolving regarding teleomorph- anamorph connections within related Ingoldian taxa.

BOROVICKA, J., Z. RANDA, et al. (2005). "Gold content of ectomycorrhizal and saprobic macrofungi from non-auriferous and unpolluted areas." Mycol. Res. 109(8): 951-955. Ectomycorrhizal and saprobic macrofungi growing in the wild

were collected from non-auriferous and unpolluted areas and analyzed for gold. Gold was determined using long-term instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). In total, 154 samples, including 67 species of ectomycorrhizal fungi and 22 species of terrestrial saprobes, were examined. Gold contents of the both groups were mostly less than 20 ng g-1 of D.W. The highest concentrations (expressed in D.W.) were found in the ectomycorrhizal species Amanita strobiliformis (136 ng g-1), Russula claroflava (148 ng g-1), Cantharellus lutescens (156 and 210 ng g-1), and Boletus edulis (235 ng g-1). Among the saprobic fungi, the highest values were found in Langermannia gigantea (160 ng g-1) and Morchella esculenta (189 ng g-1). Species of Agaricus commonly had relatively high gold values, 10s of ng g-1. The gold content of macrofungal fruit bodies was considerably higher than that of vascular plants, and parallels concentrations found in plants growing in auriferous areas.

Both, E. E. (1993). The Boletes of North America A Compendium, Buffalo Museum of Science 1020 Humboldt Parkway Buffalo, NY 14211. BOUGOURE, J. J., D. S. BOUGOURE, et al. (2005). "ITS-RFLP and sequence analysis of endophytes from Acianthus, Caladenia and Pterostylis (Orchidaceae) in southeastern Queensland." Mycol. Res. 109: 452-460. We used ITS-RFLP and sequence analysis to determine the

identities of the fungal endophytes of six terrestrial orchid species from southeastern Queensland, a region previously unexplored in this context. Pure cultures of orchid – colonising fungi were obtained and fungal identities were assessed by means of ITS-PCR, RFLP analysis, sequence comparison, and protocorm colonisation tests. ITS-PCR and RFLP analysis resulted in five main groupings. Sequencing and GenBank comparison of these five groups showed that the fungal endophytes isolated from the three Pterostylis species were probably Thanatephorus species. There was close sequence identity (90%) of the fungus isolated from Acianthus spp. to Epulorhiza repens, suggesting these may be the same fungal species. However, that only E. repens succeeded in colonising protocorms of Thelymitra pauciflora suggests these may be different species of Epulorhiza. Analysis of the ITS and LSU sequences of the fungus isolated from Caladenia carnea showed high identities with a

sequence from a Sebacina vermifera originally isolated from Caladenia dilatata. These results show that there is specificity for fungal partners within the orchid genera Acianthus, Caladenia and Pterostylis.

BOUNOU, S., S. H. JABAJI-HARE, et al. (1999). "Polymerase chain reaction-based assay for specific detection of Rhizoctonia solani AG-3 isolates." Mycol. Res. 103: 1-8. Rhizoctonia solani AG-3 causes considerable yield loss in

potato fields in eastern Canada and U.S.A. The accurate identification of AG-3 isolates is strategic prior to planting potatoes. To obtain a fast and reliable identification method, RAPD experiments were carried out to obtain specific genetic markers of AG-3 isolates. DNA from various isolates of R. solani was submitted to RAPD amplification using random 10 mers primers. One of the forty primers used yielded a 2.6 kbp fragment present in all isolates of AG- 3. The specificity of this fragment was assessed by Southern blot analysis. It was partly sequenced and DNA primers were designed for PCR amplification experiments. A PCR-based restriction mapping method, using one restriction endonuclease, Xho I, was developed for specific detection of AG-3 isolates. Analysis of data showed that AG-3 isolates were distinct to other AGs R. solani. The detection method described here is very specific and reliable ; it can be applied on plant tissue and soil infected with R. solani AG-3.

Bourtzis, K. and T. A. Miller (2003). Insect Symbiosis, CRC Press LLC. Bowen, J. K., B. G. Lewis, et al. (1997). "Discovery of the teleomorph of Phoma medicaginis var. pinodella in culture." Mycological Research 101(1): 80-84. The teleomorph of Phoma medicaginis var. pinodella is reported for the

first time. A single isolate, collected from infected plant material in Australia, produced asci and ascospores in culture. The anamorph was identified as Phoma medicaginis var. pinodella on the basis of axenic colony morphology, symptoms on the foliage of a susceptible pea line and characteristic hybridization banding patterns observed during RFLP analysis. The ascospores and asci, although similar in morphology to those produced by Mycosphaerella pinodes, were considerably larger. Therefore, the binomial assignment of the teleomorph remains open to speculation. The potential impact on disease dissemination and effectiveness of control measures against P. medicaginis var. pinodella are discussed.

Bowman, S. M., A. Piwowar, et al. (2005). "Mannosyltransferase is required for cell wall biosynthesis, morphology and control of asexual development in Neurospora crassa." Mycologia, 97(4): 872–879. Two Neurospora mutants with a phenotype that includes a tight

colonial growth pattern, an inability to form conidia and an inability to form protoperithecia

have been isolated and characterized. The relevant mutations were mapped to the same locus on the sequenced Neurospora genome. The mutations responsible for the mutant phenotype then were identified by examining likely candidate genes from the mutant genomes at the mapped locus with PCR amplification and a sequencing assay. The results demonstrate that a map and sequence strategy is a feasible way to identify mutant genes in Neurospora. The gene responsible for the phenotype is a putative alpha-1,2-mannosyltransferase gene. The mutant cell wall has an altered composition demonstrating that the gene functions in cell wall biosynthesis. The results demonstrate that the mnt-1 gene is required for normal cell wall biosynthesis, morphology and for the regulation of asexual development.

Boyd, M. L. and L. M. Crarris (1997). "Molecular relationships among varieties of the Tilletia fusca (T. bromi) complex and related species." Mycological Research 101(3): 269-277. Twenty-six isolates representing six morphologically similar taxa of Tilletia

occurring in the western U.S.A. were compared using randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers and restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) of the 5.8 s rDNA and flanking ITS regions. Two distinct clusters were separated in the dendrogram based on the RAPD analysis. One cluster contained isolates of T. controversa, Apera interrupta-infecting isolates of a potentially new species of Tilletia, and isolates of the Bromus-infecting varieties bromi-tectorum and guyotiana of the T. fusca (=T. bromi) complex. The second cluster contained Vulpiainfecting isolates of T. fusca var. fusca. The separation of the Bromus-infecting varieties from the Vulpia-infecting variety of T. fusca was supported by distinct restriction digest phenotypes. The RAPD analysis was more sensitive than the RFLP analysis, and allowed separation of the Bromus-infecting varieties bromi-tectorum and guyotiana corresponding to host specificity shown in previous studies. The presence of genetically distinct populations of T. fusca var. fusca occurring on V. microstachys and V. octoflora is indicated by RAPD and RFLP analyses. Species status of T. togwatii, a bunt infecting Poa reflexa that was previously removed from the T. fusca complex, is also supported by RAPD and RFLP analyses.

Bradshaw, R. E., A. Bidlake, et al. (1997). "Transformation of the fungal forest pathogen Dothistroma pini to hygromycin resistance." Mycological Research 101(10): 1247-1250. The forest pathogen Dothistroma pini, which produces the polyketide

toxin, dothistromin, was transformed with the pAN7-1 plasmid containing the Escherichia coli hygromycin B phosphotransferase gene (hph). The frequency of hygromycin resistant transformants was 9-48 lg-1 DNA. Southern blot analysis indicated that a single copy of the vector DNA had integrated into the genome in at least six of the eight transformants tested

and that the site of integration was different in each case. All transformants analysed were mitotically stable through several subcultures without selective pressure.

BRADSHAW, R. E., R. J. GANLEY, et al. (2000). "High levels of dothistromin toxin produced by the forest pathogen Dothistroma pini." Mycol. Res. 104: 325-332. The forest pathogen Dothistroma pini (Scirrhia pini) infects the

needles of many pine species, causing needle loss and consequently retarded wood growth. Only one strain of Dothistroma pini is present in New Zealand. Because over 90% of commercial forests in New Zealand are planted with the susceptible species Pinus radiata, a study of the global diversity of D. pini strains was initiated to assess the threat of further unwanted introductions of the pathogen. A collection of D. pini strains from eight countries was studied in the UK. The production of dothistromin toxin by the strains, and DNA sequence analysis of the ribosomal ITS region, confirmed their identification as D. pini, although strains from the central USA contained two nucleotide substitutions in the ITS region.

Colony morphologies and growth rates were diverse, but all strains which sporulated showed a similar wide range of spore size. The morphological features examined did not support separation of the strains into the two groups shown by ITS sequences. Most striking was the production, in axenic culture, of extremely high levels of dothistromin toxin by strains from Germany and, to a lesser extent, some from the USA ("500 times and "40 times as much as the New Zealand strain, respectively). The high level of production of dothistromin toxin by some strains is a concern for forest health as well as for forest workers and needs to be evaluated further.

BRADY, B. L., J. E. M. MORDUE, et al. (1997). "Grace Marion Waterhouse 23 July 1906-9 May 1996." Mycol. Res. 101: 383-384. BRAGA, G. U. L., S. D. FLINT, et al. (2001). "Effect of UV-B on conidia and germlings of the entomopathogenic hyphomycete Metarhizium anisopliae." Mycol. Res. 105: 874-882. The effects of two uv irradiances (920 and 1200 mW m-2

weighted irradiance) on the conidia and germlings of the ARSEF 2575 and ARSEF 23 strains of M. anisopliae were studied. Conidia were exposed to the two irradiance levels for 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, or 8 h. The 30% increase (from 920 to 1200 mW m-2) in uv irradiance caused a significant decrease in culturability following all periods of exposure and reduced the 50% lethal time (TL50) 36% for strain 2575 and 48% for strain 23. Exposure to uv radiation of only 1 h caused a delay of several hours in the germination of surviving conidia. Longer periods of exposure delayed germination for days,

demonstrating that, depending on the dose, the fungus may require a long period of time to recover and to resume germination. The results demonstrated the inability of the fungus to germinate during direct exposure to the uv-B portion of simulated sunlight. Both strains showed a transitory increase in uv tolerance during germination. The beginning of germination increased uv tolerance. However, starting on the 6th hour of germination, a decrease in tolerance was observed, indicating that uv tolerance varies as a function of physiological state and cell-cycle phase.

Braga, G. U. L., D. E. N. Rangel, et al. (2002). "Damage and recovery from UV-B exposure in conidia of the entomopathogens Verticillium lecanii and Aphanocladium album." Mycologia, 94(6): 912-920. We evaluated the effects of exposure to doses supplied at an

environmentally realistic intensity of UV-B radiation (800 mW m22 weighted irradiance) on the culturability and germination of selected strains of the entomopathogenic Hyphomycetes Verticillium lecanii and Aphanocladium album. Increased UV-B exposure decreased relative percent culturability for all strains. Four hours of exposure to UV-B were sufficient to reduce the culturability close to zero. The LT50 (50% lethal time)

ranged from 120 + 5 min for the V. lecanii strain ARSEF 6430 to 86 + 14 min for the A. album strain ARSEF 6433. A strong delay in the germination of surviving conidia was observed. To determine the occurrence of photoreactivation in these two genera, we evaluated the effect of exposure to visible light after exposure to UV-B radiation. There was no significant difference in relative culturability between conidia exposed to visible light after UV-B exposure compared to those incubated in the dark after UV-B exposure. This indicates that photoreactivation, if it occurs, must have limited importance in the repair of the damage induced by UVB radiation in these two genera.

BRASIER, C. and S. KIRK (2004). "Production of gametangia by Phytophthora ramorum in vitro." Mycol. Res. 108: 823-827. Until now gametangia have not been obtained between paired

European A1 and American A2 isolates of Phytopthora ramorum in vitro. Their production in artificial culture relies on interspecific pairings. Using P. drechsleri and P. cambivora testers, 51 of 110 P. ramorum isolates from across Europe were all shown to be A1s; while 32 of 38 American isolates from across California and southwest Oregon were shown to be A2s. However, these interspecific pairings are complex, unusually slow and unpredictable. A range of culture media and conditions are described that were tested, unsuccessfully, with a view to enhancing the efficiency of the interspecific pairings. In further tests, gametangia were obtained between A1 and A2 isolates of P. ramorum when juvenile, pre-chlamydospore producing mycelia were mixed together on carrot agar. The gametangia formed in 3–10 d, sparsely to frequently, initially only within the boundaries

of the mixed inocula but subsequently in the extended mycelial growth. Chlamydospores were also produced. This

inoculum-mixing method, though again sometimes unpredictable, should enhance efficiency of testing for compatibility types and facilitate further studies on whether the sexual outcrossing system of P. ramorum is functional. Differences between sexual reproduction of P. ramorum and that of other heterothallic Phytophthora species are discussed.

BRASIER, C. M., P. A. BEALES, et al. (2005). "Phytophthora kernoviae sp. nov., an invasive pathogen causing bleeding stem lesions on forest trees and foliar necrosis of ornamentals in the UK." Mycol. Res. 109(8): 853-859. A new Phytophthora pathogen of trees and shrubs, previously

informally designated Phytophthora taxon C, is formally named here as P. kernoviae. P. kernoviae was discovered in late 2003 during surveys of woodlands in Cornwall, south-west England, for the presence of another invasive pathogen, P. ramorum. P. kernoviae is self-fertile (homothallic), having plerotic oogonia, often with distinctly tapered stalks and amphigynous antheridia. It produces papillate sporangia, sometimes markedly asymmetric with medium length pedicels. Its optimum temperature for growth is ca 18 xC and upper limit ca 26 °. Currently, P. kernoviae is especially noted for causing bleeding stem lesions on mature Fagus sylvatica and foliar and stem necrosis of Rhododendron ponticum. P. kernoviae is the latest of several invasive tree Phytophthoras recently identified in the UK. Its geographical origins and the possible plant health risk it poses are discussed.

BRASIER, C. M., D. E. L. COOKE, et al. (2003). "Multiple new phenotypic taxa from trees and riparian ecosystems in Phytophthora gonapodyides–P. megasperma ITS Clade 6, which tend to be high-temperature tolerant and either inbreeding or sterile." Mycol. Res. 107: 277-290. Phytophthora isolates associated with Phytophthora major ITS

Clade 6 were grouped into 11 phenotypic taxa. These comprised the described morphospecies P. gonapodyides, P. megasperma s. str. and P. humicola; four previously identified but so far undescribed taxa, informally designated here P. sp. O-group, P. sp. Apple-cherry, P. taxon Pgchlamydo, and P. taxon Walnut; and four previously unknown taxa, designated P. taxon Oaksoil, P. taxon Raspberry, P. taxon Forestsoil, and P. taxon Riversoil. With the exception of P. gonapodyides, each phenotypic taxon represented an unique ITS lineage. Two isolates morphologically identical to P. gonapodyides comprised a separate lineage and probably represent another taxon, designated here P. taxon Salixsoil. P. humicola, P. sp. O-group, P. sp. Apple-cherry and P. taxon Walnut grouped together as subclade I. Within subclade II, P. taxon Oaksoil, P. taxon Raspberry, P. taxon Forestsoil, P. taxon Riversoil and P. taxon Pgchlamydo formed a cluster of closely related but phenotypically distinct lineages basal to P. gonapodyides and P. megasperma, P. taxon

Salixsoil being the most basal member. The taxonomy, adaptation and breeding systems of Clade 6 taxa are discussed. They show a strong association with forests and riparian ecosystems, only a limited association with agriculture and an ability to tolerate high temperatures. Also, in contrast to most other Phytophthora clades, Clade 6 taxa are predominantly sterile or inbreeding in culture. Only one taxon, P. sp. O-group, appears classically A1/A2 heterothallic.

BRASIER, C. M. and S. A. KIRK (2000). "Survival of clones of NAN Ophiostoma novo-ulmi around its probable centre of appearance in North America." Mycol. Res. 104: 1322-1332. 275 isolates of Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, sampled across the

southern Great Lakes region of North America from Wisconsin to Ohio in 1996, were analysed for vegetative compatibility (vc) types. Over 60% of the sample was a clonal vc component, comprising only two vc types (the AMSG and EUSG); the remainder of the sample was highly heterogeneous for vc types. Vc diversity was highest in Indiana and Michigan; close to where NAN O. novo-ulmi probably first appeared in North America. Each vc clone exhibited a uniform RAPD haplotype and a lower frequency of the A compared with the B mating type. This is consistent with the clones

being mainly asexually spread, but with a potential for inbreeding, an unusual feature in a ` genetic clone '. The heterogeneous component, however, exhibited diverse RAPD haplotypes and a near 1:1 ratio of A:B mating types, indicating that the mainly novel vc types of this component arise via sexual recombination. In Europe, dominant vc clones have been quickly replaced by novel vc types. In the Great Lakes region, however, vc clones appear to have survived for over 50 years despite a high potential for emergence of new vc types via sexual recombination. No differences were found between the clonal and heterogeneous components with regard to growth rate and pathogenicity, two important fitness parameters. Two other factors, a low level of selection imposed by deleterious d-factor viruses and a density dependent effect associated with vegetative incompatibility, may have favoured prolonged survival of the clones in North America.

BRASIER, C. M. and S. A. KIRK (2001). "Designation of the EAN and NAN races of Ophiostoma novo-ulmi as subspecies." Mycol. Res. 105: 547-554. The two subpopulations of the Dutch elm disease pathogen

Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, previously known as the Eurasian (EAN) and North American (NAN) races, are redesignated as subspecies novo-ulmi and americana. In addition to their partial reproductive isolation, wide range of physiological and molecular differences and different geographic ranges, the two subspecies can be discriminated by their perithecial form and dimensions. These perithecial differences are described, using perithecia produced in multiple intra-subspecies crosses. Perithecia of

subsp. novo-ulmi have an average neck length of ca 450 lm, base width of ca 103 µm and neck length : base width ratio ca 4.4. Perithecia of subsp. americana have an average neck length of ca 295 µm, base width ca 116 µm and neck length : base width ratio ca 2.6. The average shape and dimensions of subsp. americana perithecia is similar to that of O. ulmi. The average perithecial form of subsp. novo-ulmi, as well as of O. himal-ulmi, is rather distinctive. The current known geographical distribution of subspecies novo-ulmi and americana, based on "6500 samples, is presented.

BRASIER, C. M., S. A. KIRK, et al. (2004). "Phytophthora alni sp. nov. and its variants: designation of emerging heteroploid hybrid pathogens spreading on Alnus trees." Mycol. Res. 108: 1172-1184. In 1993 a destructive new Phytophthora pathogen of riparian

Alnus trees was discovered in the UK and subsequently shown to be present in other parts of Europe. The new Phytophthora comprised a group of emergent heteroploid hybrids, probably between P. cambivora and a species related to P. fragariae. These included a common, near tetraploid standard hybrid, the presumptive allopolyploid; and four scarcer major variant types with chromosome numbers intermediate between diploid and tetraploid, named the Swedish, Dutch, German and UK variants. The standard hybrid type is formally designated here as Phytophthora alni subsp. alni. The Swedish variant is designated as P. alni subsp. uniformis;

and the Dutch, German and UK variants collectively as P. alni subsp. multiformis. The properties of the Dutch, German and UK variants within subsp. multiformis are informally described. The problems of designating emergent species hybrids under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature and the reasons for the taxonomic choices made are discussed.

BRASIER, C. M., S. A. KIRK, et al. (1998). "Rare interspecific hybrids in natural populations of the Dutch elm disease pathogens Ophiostoma ulmi and O. novo-ulmi." Mycol. Res. 102: 45-57. Ophiostoma ulmi and O. novo-ulmi are partly reproductively

isolated, morphologically, behaviourally and molecularly distinct species responsible for the first and current pandemics of Dutch elm disease, respectively. Among >11000 isolates sampled from Dutch elm disease sites across Eurasia and North America since 1973, nine could not be assigned to O. ulmi or O. novo-ulmi. Of these isolates one (P129) was from Poland and eight (d10, d11, e12, e27, e28, e37, f30 and g3) were from a single bark sample in Portugal. These nine isolates were termed ` fast-waxy ' isolates because of their unusual cultural characteristics. The possibility that they were interspecific hybrids was investigated. When compared with O. ulmi and O. novo-ulmi for colony pattern, growth-rate, optimum temperature for growth, vascular wilt ability, elm bark colonizing

ability, cerato-ulmin toxin production, ability to fertilize (as ∗) O. novo-ulmi, and ability to be fertilized (as *) by O. ulmi, they exhibited a combination of O. ulmi-like, O. novo-ulmi-like, intermediate or novel characters (female sterility) consistent with their being hybrids. P129 and representative Portuguese isolates d10 and e27 each exhibited a different combination of characters, indicating each was a different hybrid genotype. When d10 and

e27 were independently crossed to the same O. novo-ulmi isolate, differences in their F1 progeny sets for growth-rate and pathogenicity distributions were consistent with their being different recombinant genotypes. A molecular analysis of P129, d10 and e27 using RAPDs of genomic DNA, rDNA RFLPs and cerato-ulmin gene sequences confirmed that each was a unique interspecific hybrid. The mechanism of origin of these hybrids and their evolutionary significance are discussed. Combined experimental and circumstantial evidence indicates that they are relatively unfit, rare and probably transient, and that they arise when O. novo-ulmi

invades territory occupied by O. ulmi and replaces it. Nonetheless, the possibility that the hybrids act as a genetic bridge, facilitating transfer of novel vegetative compatibility loci and other loci form O. ulmi to O. novo-ulmi at recent epidemic fronts, requires investigation.

BRASIER, C. M., E. SANCHEZ-HERNANDEZ, et al. (2003). "Phytophthora inundata sp. nov., a part heterothallic pathogen of trees and shrubs in wet or flooded soils." Mycol. Res. 107: 477-484. A Phytophthora pathogen of trees and shrubs previously

designated Phytophthora sp. O-group is formally named as P. inundata sp. nov. P. inundata falls within the P. gonapodyides-P. megasperma major ITS Clade 6, its present nearest known relative being P. humicola. It has non-papillate sporangia, fairly large oogonia (average ca 40 mm) with thick walled oospores, amphigynous antheridia, a distinctive colony type, a high optimum temperature for growth of 28–30 °C, fast growth at the optimum, and a high upper temperature limit for growth of ca 35–37 °. A study of the breeding system of eight P. inundata isolates showed them to be classically heterothallic with A1 and A2 compatibility types. However some P. inundata A1rA2 combinations failed to mate even though the same isolates mated successfully with P. drechsleri testers. Others were ‘ silent ’ A1s or A2s, unable to produce their own gametangia but able to induce gametangial formation in the opposite sexual compatibility type of another species. This indicates a partial breakdown of the sexual mechanism in the species. Two isolates (one A1 and one A2) were unpredictably and chimaerically self-fertile, suggesting A1+A2 chromosomal heteroploidy. The association of P. inundata with ponds and rivers and with root and

collar rots of trees and shrubs after flooding is discussed. BRAUN, K., J. ROMERO, et al. (2003). "Production of swainsonine by fungal

endophytes of locoweed." Mycol. Res. 107: 980-988. Consumption of locoweeds, legumes endemic in arid western

USA, has long been associated with locoism, a disease of ruminant animals. To explore the relationship between fungi associated with locoweed and locoweed toxicity, 11 locoweed populations from various sites in New Mexico were assessed for endophytic fungi. Endophytes were isolated from the leaves, stems, seeds, and flowers of eight populations of the toxic locoweeds Astragalus mollissimus, Oxytropis lambertii, and O. sericea. Fungal cultures grew very slowly and sporadically produced subcylindrical conidia with very dark transverse septa. All cultured endophytes produced the alkaloid swainsonine, which causes locoism. Endophyteinfected locoweed populations produced swainsonine, and the swainsonine level of endophyte strains in vitro was highly correlated with the swainsonine level of their host plant populations. The rDNA ITS from mycelia from four endophyte isolates and β-tubulin encoding regions from mycelia of 18 fungal endophyte isolates were amplified using PCR and the nucleic acid sequences were analyzed. The nucleic acid sequences of the β-tubulin encoding regions were essentially identical among all the endophytes regardless of plant genus and locations. Morphological evidence and sequence analysis of the ITS region suggest that the endophytes are most closely related to Embellisia. However, with the paucity of Embellisia species represented in sequence databases, precise taxonomic placement will await further study.

Braun, U., C. Frank Hill, et al. (2006). "New species and new records of biotrophic micromycetes from Australia, Fiji, New Zealand and Thailand." Fungal Diversity 22: 13-35. The following new species of biotrophic fungi were found on leaves of

various hosts and are described: Cladosporium arthropodii, C. oncobae, Distocercospora livistonae, Pseudocercospora arecacearim, P. gunnerae. P. pandoreae, Ramularia subtilis, R. tenella and Stenella anthuriicola. In addition, some other biotrophic fungi are recorded from Australia, Fiji and New Zealand for the first time. Cladosporium idesiae is reduced to synonymy with C. herbarum var. macrocarpum.

BRAUN, U. and J. MOUCHACCA (2000). "Reassessments of Cercospora byrsonimatis and Ramularia ligustrina." Mycol. Res. 104: 1009-1011. Type collections of Cercospora byrsonimatis and Ramularia

ligustrina have been re-examined. Cercospora byrsonimatis is transferred to Pseudocercospora while a second hyphomycete, found on the type material, is described as Ramalia byrsonimatis sp. nov. Ramularia ligustrina is redescribed and its status as a true member of Ramularia is confirmed.

Brayford, D., B. M. Honda, et al. (2004). "Neonectria and Cylindrocarpon: the Nectria mammoidea group and species lacking microconidia." Mycologia, 96(3):

572-597. Neonectria (Hypocreales: Nectriaceae) species having

Cylindrocarpon anamorphs that lack microconidia and chlamydospores include: Neo. discophora var. discophora, Neo. discophora var. rubi, stat nov. et comb. nov., Neo. lucida, comb. nov., Neo. viridispora, sp. nov. and Neo. westlandica, comb. nov. Perithecia of these species are red and perithecial anatomy is of the N. mammoidea type, with a palisade of hypha-like cells in the outer perithecial wall.

These species occur on recently dead or dying trees. Perithecia of Neo. betulae, sp. nov and Neo. dumontii, sp. nov. are anatomically and biologically similar to

those of Neo. discophora. The only known culture of Neo. betulae remained sterile, while Neo. dumontii has not been cultured; their anamorphs are presumed to

be Cylindrocarpon. Analyses of mit ssu rDNA sequences indicate that Neonectria/Cylindrocarpon is monophyletic. Within the genus, species having N. mammoidea type perithecia are paraphyletic. Most species cluster with Neo. discophora, but Neo. westlandica and Neo. trachosa are basal to a clade that includes species that do not have a N. mammoidea-type perithecium. Nectria fuckeliana clusters independently of Neonectria and Nectria. Although reported to have a Cylindrocarpon anamorph, fresh ascospore isolates of N. fuckeliana did not produce Cylindrocarpon macroconidia but produced acremonium- or verticillium-like anamorphs. A key to nectriaceous species of Neonectria that have Cylindrocarpon anamorphs that lack microconidia and chlamydospores and/or that have a N. mammoidea type perithecial wall anatomy is presented. New combinations are proposed for other species formerly included in Nectria that have nonmicroconidial Cylindrocarpon anamorphs: Neonectria cinnamomea, Neo. jungneri, Neo. platycephala, Neo. phaeodisca and Neo. verrucospora.

Bridson, D. and L. Forman (1998). The Herbarium Handbook, The Board of Trustees of The Royal Botanic Gradens, Kew. Britz, H., E. T. Steenkamp, et al. (2002). "Two new species of Fusarium section Liseola associated with mango malformation." Mycologia, 94(4): 722-730. Mango malformation is an economically important disease of

Mangifera indica globally. A recent DNA-based study indicated that two distinct, phylogenetic lineages previously identified as Fusarium subglutinans are associated with this disease in South Africa. The objective of this study was to characterize Fusarium isolates associated with mango malformation, including the two different F. subglutinans groups, based on morphological characteristics. For this purpose we examined Fusarium strains isolated from diseased mango inflorescences from diverse geographical origins. We also used sexual compatibility tests to determine whether sexual reproduction among the strains was possible.

The morphological characters considered were shape of the conidia, presence of mono- and/or polyphialides, origin of the conidiophores from the substrate, presence of chlamydospores and the presence of sterile coiled hyphae. Three unique Fusarium spp. were identified. In this paper, we provide formal descriptions for thetwo new taxa in the section Liseola that we have named F. mangiferae and F. sterilihyphosum. Fusarium mangiferae is conspecific with strains that were previously identified as F. subglutinans and reported to be the causal agent of malformation in mango growing areas throughout the world. Fusarium sterilihyphosum, on the other hand, has been isolated only from malformed mango tissue in South Africa.

Brockelman, W. Y. and A. Nathalang (2003). Establishment of Long Term Forest Plots. Proceedings of the Workshop, First published 2005 by BIOTEC Central Research Unit, NSTDA 113 Thailand Science Park Pathum Thani 12120 Thailand. Brodie, H. J. (1975). The Bird's Nest Fungi. Toronto, University of Toronto. Brundrett, M., N. Bougher, et al. Working With Mycorrhizas in Forestry and Agriculture. BRUNDRETT, M. C., A. SCADE, et al. (2003). "Development of in situ and ex situ seed baiting techniques to detect mycorrhizal fungi from terrestrial orchid habitats." Mycol. Res. 107: 1210-1220. An innovative ex situ fungal baiting method using soil collected

from field sites which allows the simultaneous detection of mycorrhizal fungi for multiple terrestrial orchids is presented. This method demonstrated that coarse organic matter (>2 mm) in the litter and topsoil was the most important reservoir of inoculum of these fungi. A new in situ seed baiting method using multi-chambered packets to simultaneously assess germination for different orchid species within soil is also introduced. These in situ and ex situ methods are compared using seed of orchids in the genera Monadenia, Microtis, Caladenia, Pterostylis and Diuris, using urban Banksia woodland sites with high or low weed cover. Both these seed baiting methods detected compatible fungi for these orchids, but common orchids germinated more frequently than those which were uncommon at the field sites. Germination rates were not significantly affected by weed cover even though adult orchids were rare in areas with high weed cover. The two new seed baiting methods vary in efficiency and applicability depending on the situation where they are used. However, the ex situ method allowed the time-course of germination to be observed, resulting in the production of more protocorms and facilitation of the isolation of mycorrhizal fungi. These techniques provide valuable new tools for detection of compatible mycorrhizal fungi to assist orchid research and conservation.

BRURBERG, M. B., A. HANNUKKALA, et al. (1999). "Genetic variability of Phytophthora infestans in Norway and Finland as revealed by mating type and fingerprint probe RG57." Mycol. Res. 103: 1609-1615. Mating type and RG57 fingerprints were determined for 141

isolates of Phytophthora infestans from 63 fields in all the important potato growing areas in Norway and Finland. Seventy-six multilocus genotypes were identified, of which 53 were detected only once. Norwegian and Finnish isolates were similar in terms of genotypic diversity and the genetic distances between the genotypes. The large number of genotypes and the high genetic distances between the genotypes indicate that sexual reproduction is contributing significantly to the genetic variation of P. infestans in Norway and Finland.

BRYAN, G. T., E. LABOURDETTE, et al. (1999). "DNA polymorphism and host range in the take-all fungus, Gaeumannomyces graminis." Mycol. Res. 103: 319-327. Thirty-®ve isolates of Gaeumannomyces graminis were tested

for ability to infect wheat, rye and oats, and for DNA polymorphisms using nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA) RFLP patterns and RAPD analysis. In general, the cereal-attacking isolates could be readily assigned to the rye-attacking (R) or non-rye-attacking (N) subgroups of var. tritici, or to var. avenae, on the basis of either of these molecular approaches. A small number of isolates gave anomalous rDNA RFLP patterns, but could nevertheless be assigned to one of the three groups by RAPD analysis. Two related G. graminis var. tritici isolates (T1-1 and T1-2) clearly grouped with the N rather than the R var. tritici subgroup on the basis of molecular analysis but were pathogenic to rye, indicating that the ability to infect this host may have arisen more than once. An earlier phylogenetic study of Gaeumannomyces involving DNA sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacers of the rDNA indicated that several oat-infecting isolates originally classified as G. graminis var. tritici could be grouped with var. avenae isolates. From the rDNA RFLP and RAPD analysis described here, however, these isolates appear to be intermediate between var. avenae and var. tritici, although it is not clear whether they represent evidence of inter-varietal sexual hybridization.

BUCKING, H. (2004). "Phosphate absorption and efflux of three ectomycorrhizal fungi as affected by external phosphate, cation and carbohydrate concentrations." Mycol. Res. 108: 599-609. A prerequisite for symbiotic phosphate transfer in an

ectomycorrhizal (ECM) association is hypothesized to be conditions in the interface between both symbiotic partners, that either promote the release of inorganic phosphate (P) from the Hartig net into the interfacial apoplast and/or decrease the fungal reabsorption from this location. To get more information about conditions, which might be involved in the regulation of

P efflux or P reabsorption, the effect of various external conditions on 33P-orthophosphate (33P) uptake or efflux by axenic cultures of the ECM basidiomycetes Hebeloma crustuliniforme, Amanita muscaria and Laccaria laccata was analysed. In short-time experiments the following external conditions were analysed: an external supply of (1) P in the preculture, (2) cations (0.1–100 mM K, 0.1–50 mM Na, Mg and Ca), and (3) carbohydrates (0.5–50 mM glucose, fructose or sucrose).

The P absorption was generally reduced in cultures previously supplied with an abundant P supply and with increased P concentrations in their tissues. The P uptake was also affected by an external supply of cations, whereas carbohydrates had only a slight effect. Compared to Na, Mg and Ca, the P absorption by H. crustuliniforme and L. laccata was increased by 0.1 mM K in the labelling solution but decreased after a supply of 100 mM K and then did not differ from the other cation treatments. Compared to other cations, an addition of 50 mM Ca led to a decrease of P absorption by A. muscaria, whereas 50 mM Mg increased the P uptake by H. crustuliniforme.

The P efflux from the fungi was affected by both the cation and carbohydrate concentration of the bathing solution. High concentrations of the monovalent cations K and Na (5 mM or 50 mM) in the bathing solution increased the P efflux by H. crustuliniforme (only Na) and L. laccata (K and Na), but had little effects on A. muscaria. By contrast, the same concentrations of the divalent cation Mg reduced the P efflux from all fungal basidiomycetes. The P efflux from hyphae of H. crustuliniforme and A. muscaria was also affected by the carbohydrate concentration in the bathing solution. Compared to the hexoses, glucose and fructose, the P efflux by both basidiomycetes was stimulated even by low concentrations of sucrose (0.5 mM) in the bathing solution. The effect of carbohydrates on P efflux especially from hyphae of H. crustuliniforme was clearly concentration-dependent and the maximal efflux rates were observed after a supply of 2.5 mM sucrose or fructose or 5 mM glucose in the bathing solution. A further rise of the carbohydrate concentration led to a progressive decrease of P efflux from hyphae of H. crustuliniforme. The results are discussed with respect to the transfer processes between both symbiotic partners in a mycorrhizal association and a possible regulation of these exchange processes.

BUCKING, H. and W. HEYSER (1999). "Elemental composition and function of polyphosphates in ectomycorrhizal fungi - an X-ray microanalytical study." Mycol. Res. 103: 31-39. The elemental composition of vacuolar granules in different

ectomycorrhizal fungi, Suillus bovinus, Paxillus involutus, Pisolithus tinctorius and Laccaria laccata was analysed by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDXS) either after chemical preparation or cryofixation, freeze-drying and pressure infiltration. Vacuolar inclusions were present in living hyphae and were not an artifact of specimen preparation, and they

can be referred to as polyphosphate granules. These granules were localized in fungal vacuoles and the main counter-ions were K and Mg. The postulated association of these granules with the divalent cation Ca has to be

interpreted as an artifact of the specimen preparation and was caused by the chemical preparation of former EDXS studies. The incorporation of cations, such as K, Na and Zn, depended on the external supply and emphasized the importance of these granules for the intracellular homeostasis of fungal cells. EDXS studies of polyphosphate granules in ectomycorrhizal associations of Pinus sylvestris showed that the elemental composition of granules differed between the sheath and the Hartig net. In polyphosphate granules of the Hartig net a higher content of K was detectable, whereas the incorporation of Mg was reduced. These results indicated a possible role of K in the transfer of short chained, mobile polyphosphates through the hyphae to the Hartig net. The concentration of potassium and phosphate in the fungal vacuole and the cytoplasm was closely correlated, which can be explained by a possible linkage between the phosphate and K uptake, which would maintain the charge balance and the pH of the fungal cell. The estimation of different phosphate pools in axenic cultures and mycorrhizal roots revealed that the fungal metabolism was changed by the association with an ectomycorrhizal host plant. In a mycorrhizal association higher proportions of absorbed phosphate were translocated into the metabolically inactive polyphosphate pool, which demonstrates the importance of this pool for the nutrition of the ectomycorrhizal host plant.

BUDDIE, A. G., P. MARTINEZ-CULEBRAS, et al. (1999). "Molecular characterization of Colletotrichum strains derived from strawberry." Mycol. Res. 103: 385-394. Strains of Colletotrichum species derived from diseased

strawberry plants from a wide geographical range were studied using mitochondrial and ribosomal DNA RFLPs, and acetyl and propionyl esterase isoenzymes. Two major species aggregates were detected, centred on C. acutatum and C. gloeosporioides respectively, with significant further subdivision. There were apparent discrepancies in the hierarchical nesting of some taxon groups based on the different molecular techniques. Strains assigned to C. acutatum fell into several rDNA RFLP groups, but there was less variation in mtDNA RFLP band patterns. There appears to be at

least one probably clonal population in the U.S.A. which is also present in Europe, and a less well-defined series of groups which are at least sometimes sexually reproducing. Strains assigned to C. fragariae were found not to have distinct rDNA band patterns from the teleomorph linked strains studied, which had been referred to as C. gloeosporioides. They did vary in this respect from C. gloeosporioides associated with Citrus, its type host. It was, therefore, concluded that all the strains studied with

cylindrical conidia should be placed within C. fragariae, which is confirmed as separate from C. gloeosporioides and recognized as a holomorphic taxon. Nevertheless, a separate asexually reproducing infraspecific group was distinguishable using mtDNA information. An epitype is designated for C. fragariae.

Bueges, H. D. and N. W. Hussey (1971). Microbial Control of Insect and Mites. London.New York, Academic Press 1971. BULAT, S. A., M. LUBECK, et al. (1998). "UP-PCR analysis and ITS1 ribotyping of strains of Trichoderma and Gliocladium." Mycol. Res. 102: 933-943. Universally primed PCR (UP-PCR) fingerprinting combined

with UP-PCR product cross hybridization, and ITS1 ribotyping were used to study the genetic relatedness of strains of Trichoderma and Gliocladium for two purposes : (1) to evaluate the ability of the methods to discriminate closely related strains and as tools to group strains which is necessary to facilitate ; (2) identification of markers for development of specific detection assays for selected strains. Included among the strains were one T. harzianum, two T. virens, and one G. roseum that had been selected previously for their antagonistic ability against soil-borne phytopathogens. Similarity among strains, found by cross dot blot hybridization using UP-PCR amplification products, was used to group them into 15 genetic entities. ITS1 ribotyping of the strains was performed by digestion of the PCR amplified rDNA spacer region and electrophoresis of the products. The differences obtained from ribotyping as well as the differences in mobility of the intact spacer region were used for grouping of the strains. The UP-PCR hybridization groups and the ITS1 based groups proved to be consistent, but the resolution of the UP-PCR based approach was superior. The results demonstrate that the combination of UP-PCR and

ribotyping can aid in clarifying species distinction in Trichoderma and Gliocladium and has the potential to become a valuable tool for studies of diversity and genetic structure of populations of these fungi. Furthermore, identification of single strains by the specific UP-PCR fingerprint seems feasible.

Bultman, T. L., J. F. White, et al. (1998). "A new kind of mutualism between fungi and insects." Mycological Research 102(2): 235-238. Female flies (Phorbia phrenione) cross fertilize EpichloeX typhina via a

specific behaviour in which they transfer spores among selfincompatible fungi. Flies ingest spores while visiting fungi for egg laying. Only 11% of stromata lacking P. phrenione eggs produced perithecia and these perithecia covered an average of only 8% of the stromatal surfaces. In contrast, 71% of stromata that possessed fly eggs produced perithecia, covering 54% of the stromatal surfaces. Immediately following oviposition, flies stereotypically drag their abdomen across the fungus in a spiral pattern while excreting faeces. Transfer of fly faeces to unfertilized

stromata resulted in cross fertilization. We observed spiralling patterns of perithecial development on fungal surfaces, signifying the behaviour of the fly results in cross fertilization of the fungus. This is the first documentation of active fertilization in an insect-fungus mutualism.

Burdsall, H. H., JR., et al. (1974). "A new Phanerochaeta with a Chrysosporium imperfect state." MYCOTAXON 1(2): 123-133. BURGESS, T., B. D. WINGFIELD, et al. (2001). "Comparison of genotypic diversity in native and introduced populations of Sphaeropsis sapinea isolated from Pinus radiata." Mycol. Res. 105: 1331-1339. Sphaeropsis sapinea is an endophyte and latent pathogen of

pines, assumedly introduced to the Southern Hemisphere along with its host. There are at least three recognised forms of S. sapinea that differ from each other morphologically and can also be separated based on molecular characteristics. Pinus radiata is a native to California but has been used extensively for afforestation in the Southern Hemisphere. For this study, populations of S. sapinea were collected from exotic P. radiata plantations in South Africa, South and Western Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand and from native P. radiata in California. The genotypic diversity of the populations was assessed and compared using vegetative compatibility tests. SSR markers were used to determine the morphotype

of isolates from each vegetative compatibility group. All Californian isolates of S. sapinea were found to be of the `B' morphotype, while all introduced isolates in the Southern Hemisphere were of the `A' morphotype. The genotypic diversities of S. sapinea populations ranged from extremely low in Australia to very high in South Africa with New Zealand having an intermediate genotypic diversity. S. sapinea is an asexual fungus and, therefore, different genotypes in an exotic population represent separate introductions. Our results suggest there have been very few introductions into Australia and multiple introductions into South Africa. In addition, it appears that S. sapinea isolates from P. radiata in the Southern Hemisphere did not originate from native P. radiata, but rather the widely planted exotic P. radiata has acquired this fungal endophyte from other Pinus within the exotic environment.

BURGESS, T. I., T. R. GORDON, et al. (2004). "Geographic isolation of Diplodia scrobiculata and its association with native Pinus radiata." Mycol. Res. 108: 1399-1406. Diplodia pinea (syn. Sphaeropsis sapinea) is a well-known

latent pathogen of Pinus spp. with a worldwide distribution. As such, this fungus is native where pines are endemic in the northern hemisphere and it has been introduced into all countries of the Southern Hemisphere where pines are exotic. The newly described D. scrobiculata (formerly known as the B morphotype of D. pinea) is thought to have a much more limited distribution. D. scrobiculata was first reported as an endophyte and

weak pathogen of P. banksiana, where it was found to coexist with D. pinea. Diplodia scrobiculata is now known to have a much broader distribution in Northern America and Europe. In this study, seven Simple Sequence Repeat (SSR) markers were used to evaluate genetic diversity and gene flow between populations of D. scrobiculata. Results indicate a strong geographic isolation between populations of D. scrobiculata from different regions in North America, with unique alleles fixed in the different populations. The data fits the isolation by distance model indicating limited dispersal. Geographic isolation in combination with isolation by distance suggests prolonged reproductive isolation. Intensive collections of endophytes from native P. radiata in California have yielded only D. scrobiculata and not the significantly more pathogenic D. pinea. SSR analysis of three populations of D. scrobiculata from native P. radiata identified many shared alleles among the populations and moderate to high gene flow between them. The three Californian populations are distant and distinct from populations of D. scrobiculata from elsewhere. Under stress conditions, P. radiata is known to be very susceptible to D. pinea in plantations in the Southern Hemisphere. Native

P. radiata is currently experiencing severe stress due to pitch canker caused by Fusarium circinatum. Such stress would provide ideal conditions for an associated outbreak of D. pinea. Thus, it is critical to prevent the movement of D. pinea into the last remaining native stands of P. radiata. Buritica, P. and J. F. Hennen (1980). Flora Neotropica Monograph Number 24 Pucciniosireae (Uredinales, Pucciniaceae). Flora Neotropica, The New York Botanical Garden. Monograph Number 24: 50. Burk, W. R. and R. E. Rex (1974). "Polyporus squamosus in Utah." MYCOTAXON 1(2): 135-136. Burke, R. M. and J. W. G. Cairney (1997). "Carbohydrolase production by the ericoid mycorrhizal fungus Hymenoscyphus ericae under solid-state fermentation conditions." Mycological Research 101(9): 1135-1139. The ability of Hymenoscyphus ericae to produce 12 carbohydrolytic

activities has been investigated during growth under solid-state fermentation conditions. The fungus produced a complete cellulase enzyme complex (cellulase, cellobiohydrolase and b-d-glucosidase) along with components of the hemicellulolytic (endoxylanase, b-d-xylosidase, a-l- and b-l-arabinosidase and glucoronidase) and mannanolytic (mannanase, b-d-mannosidase, a-d- and b-d-galactosidase) complexes. Specific activities were greatest for endo-acting enzymes and lower for exo-acting and side-branch removing activities in each case. The data indicate that H. ericae possesses a considerable ability to degrade plant polymeric material and are discussed in relation to establishment of the symbiosis and interaction of mycelium with moribund plant organic matter in soil.

Burnett, J. H. (1964). The Vegetation of Scotland. London, Oliver and Boyd Edinburgh and London. Burnett, J. H. (2003). Fungal Populations Species. New York, Oxford University Press. Burton, K. S., M. D. Partis, et al. (1997). "Accumulation of serine proteinase in senescent sporophores of the cultivated mushroom, Agaricus bisporus." Mycological Research 101(2): 146-152. Serine proteinase activity was assayed during sporophore maturation and

postharvest senescence in Agaricus bisporus. Serine proteinase accumulated largely in stipe tissue early during postharvest storage and in the later stages of maturation of unpicked sporophores. Western blot staining correlated with enzyme activity indicating de novo synthesis. The enzyme could not be detected by Western blotting in freshly harvested sporophores at an early maturation stage. Small increases in activity were detected in the cap tissue during the ®nal stages of senescence, postharvest and in unpicked sporophores. The distribution of the serine proteinase in senescent sporophore tissues (high in stipe, low in cap) was con®rmed by histochemical and immunologically stained tissue prints.

BURTON, K. S., J. F. SMITH, et al. (1997). "Extracellular proteinases from the mycelium of the cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus." Mycol. Res. 101: 1341-1347. The edible mushroom, Agaricus bisporus, when cultivated

commercially derives its nitrogen from the proteins present in compost, much of which is firmly bound to the lignin-humic complex. The proteinases involved in mobilization of nitrogen were studied in both the filtrates of liquid culture and mushroom compost. Proteinase activities were detected in liquid culture filtrates with a range of substrate specificities. One activity with chymotrypsin-like specificity was found by Western blotting to be the 27 kDa serine proteinase previously puri®ed from senescent sporophores. Serine proteinase activity and level in the filtrates rapidly increased

during mycelial growth on liquid medium containing humic fraction (extracted from mushroom compost) as sole nitrogen source. Activity and level remained low in filtrates of cultures grown on glutamate or casein. Non-denaturing gel analysis revealed the serine proteinase to be the most prominent proteolytic activity in compost filtrates. Regulation of the activity in compost was indicated by a doubling during the early stages of sporophore growth.

Bussaban, B., P. Lumyong, et al. (2004). Fungi on Zingiberaceae (ginger). Thai Fungal Diversity, BIOTEC, Thailand: 189-195. Studies of microfungi on Zingiberaceae were initiated at Doi Suthep-Pui

National Park, Chiang Mai, Thailand in order to investigate the ecology and biodiversity of endophytic and saprobic fungi from the .....

Bussaban, B., S. Lumyong, et al. (2001). "Two new species of endophytes (ascomycetes) from Zingiberaceae sporulating in culture." Nova Hedwigia 73(3-4): 487-493. Bussaban, B., S. Lumyong, et al. (2003). "Three new species of Pyricularia are isolated as Zingiberaceae endophytes from Thailand." Mycologia 95(3): 519-524. Pyricularia costina and three undescribed Pyricularia species were found

as endophytes on wild ginger Amomum siamense and Alpinia malaccensis in Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Three new species, Pyricularia kookicola, P. longispora, and P. variabilis are described, illustrated and compared to similar Pyricularia species.

Bussaban, B., S. Lumyong, et al. (2005). "Molecular and morphological characterization of Pyricularia and allied genera." Mycologia, 97(5): 1002–1011. The phylogenetic relationships of Pyricularia species and

species from related genera were established from sequences of the internal transcribed spacer ribosomal RNA gene. Phylogenetic analysis disclosed a consistent correlation with spore morphology. Most Pyricularia species studied, and two species of Dactylaria that have obpyriform conidia, fell within the Magnaporthaceae cluster with high bootstrap support. Pyricularia variabilis was more related to Dactylaria, Tumularia or Ochroconis species than to the Magnaporthaceae. Dactylaria and species of Nakataea, Ochroconis, Pyriculariopsis and Tumularia were distinct from the Magnaporthaceae, and the genus Dactylaria is polyphyletic. The combination of morphological and molecular characters, such as spore morphology and ITS ribosomal DNA sequences data, suggested that conidial shape could be a primary character to distinguish Pyricularia from related genera.

BUTEHORN, B., V. GIANINAZZI-PEARSON, et al. (1999). "Quantification of b-tubulin RNA expression during asymbiotic and symbiotic development of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae." Mycol. Res. 103: 360-364. Experimental systems were established for the molecular

analysis of different developmental stages of Glomus mosseae. RNA and DNA were simultaneously extracted from ectocarpic spores, chlamydospores, dormant and germinating sporocarps and extraradical hyphae. A β-tubulin gene fragment was obtained by PCR from spore genomic DNA and further analysed. β-tubulin RNA expression could be monitored during the fungal life cycle with a gene-specific primer by RT-PCR using an internal cRNA standard.

BUTIN, H. and R. KEHR (2000). "Rhizosphaera pseudotsugae sp. nov. and related species." Mycol. Res. 104: 1012-1016.

A new species of the coelomycete genus Rhizosphaera found on needles of Pseudotsuga menziesii in Germany is described, illustrated and compared with related species of the same genus. The conidia of R. pseudotsugae are smaller, especially in diameter, than those of the most similar related species, R. oudemansii, and unlike other Rhizosphaera species the Hormonema state is produced in culture only at temperatures below 18 °C.

BUTLER, G. M. (2000). "Morphology, rate and spatial density of seta differentiation during in vitro development of the fruit body of Phellinus contiguus." Mycol. Res. 104: 1493-1500. Fruiting colonies of Phellinus contiguus growing on an agar

medium and explants from competent regions of dark-grown colonies were used to investigate differentiation of setae, which are a component of the hymenium. The majority of setae arose laterally from intercalary hyphal compartments. The first sign of seta differentiation was generalized swelling of a portion of the hyphal compartment. On explants 50% of the seta population reached the ensuing rounded tip, pointed tip and brown point stages 36, 52 and 68 h post-excision respectively. The distribution of setae on cut surfaces of explants after incubation for three days was in general similar to that of the much larger total hyphal population. However hyphae close to the source outer surface and on explants from older parts of source colonies had reduced capacity for seta differentiation. The spatial density of setae after three days was increased by addition of glucose to the explantation medium and reduced by addition of ammonium chloride. It is concluded that many of the hyphae near to cut surfaces of explants are competent to form setae and that the number which do so is

limited by environment, possibly energy supply. BUTLER, G. M. and R. B. PEARCE (1999). "Fruiting inducing activity amongst isolates and single spore progeny of Phellinus contiguus, other species of Phellinus and certain other wood-rotting fungi." Mycol. Res. 103: 482-486. The responses of a number of wood-rotting fungi to culture

filtrates of Phellinus contiguus strain GWR, which contained a factor active in self-induction of precocious fruiting, were tested by means of a bioassay. Fruiting of a second isolate of P. contiguus was stimulated by active filtrate and the responses of single basidiospore progeny of GWR ranged from nothing to full fruiting. In similar bioassays culture filtrates from 13 out of 16 single spore progeny stimulated fruiting in GWR but production of active filtrate did not correlate with capacity to respond. Other wood-rotting fungi (two other strains of P. contiguus, P. occidentalis, P. ferruginosus, P. igniarius and P. pini, Phylloporia ribis and Trametes versicolor) produced filtrates capable of inducing fruiting in P. contiguus strain GWR. P. pomaceus, lacked inducing activity and the inactive filtrate of Coniophora puteana was also inhibitory to mycelial growth. It is

concluded that production of the factor inducing fruiting in P. contiguus is not species specific.

BUTLER, G. M., R. B. PEARCE, et al. (2000). "Partial characterisation of the fruiting inducing factor from the polypore Phellinus contiguus." Mycol. Res. 104: 1098-1107. Filtrates from cultures of wild isolates of Phellinus contiguus

grown on liquid medium containing malt extract induced precocious fruiting of this resupinate polypore when tested in a bioassay. Active filtrates were analysed using gel filtration, HPLC and GC-MS and were compared with filtrates from single spore progeny, two of which lacked fruiting inducing activity. The active material was polar and heat stable, passed through both anion and cation exchange columns and had a mol. wt less than approx. 1000. Fractionation using HPLC on amino-silica yielded one fraction which was active on its own and a second, later eluting fraction, which had scarcely detectable activity when alone, but when combined with the first fraction had much higher activity than either alone. GC-MS showed that both this first fraction and the most active fraction from P2 gel filtration were rich in mono- and disaccharide sugars. In comparison with fractions from parallel inactive filtrates, all active fractions contained more myo-inositol and a relatively high glucose/disaccharide ratio.

It is suggested that a combination of high concentrations of myo-inositol and apoplastic glucose may be required for initiation of fruiting in P. contiguus. Although additional work is needed, this view is consistent with known features of growth and fruiting in white rot fungi.

Butler, M. J., R. B. Gardiner, et al. (2005). "Fungal melanin detection by the use of copper sulfide-silver." Mycologia, 97(2): 312-319. Silver-staining procedures were investigated for their

effectiveness in identifying cell wall-based fungal melanins in live and fixed plastic embedded samples, particularly 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN) based polyketide melanins. We developed a simple and reliable melanin-staining technique based on a silver accumulation method originally published for histological demonstration of heavy metal sulfides in mammalian tissues. Copper is bound to fungal melanin followed by formation of the copper sulfide at melanin sites in fungal cell walls, which then are amplified into vivid black stains using a silver enhancement step. The method demonstrates patterns of melanization in a range of fungal hyphae and is suitable for light and electron microscopy. Albino mutant fungi and normally nonmelanized fungi do not stain with the sulfide-silver technique. Mammalian melanocytes also were labeled by the technique, indicating its universality as a melanin probe.

Butt, T. M., M. S. Goettel, et al. Directory of Specialists Involved in The Development of Fungi as Biocontrol Agents'99.

Butt, T. M., C. W. Jackson, et al. (2001). Fungi as Biocontrol Agents Process, Problems and Potential, CABI Publishing. BUTTERS, J. A., K. U. DEVI, et al. (2003). "Screening for tolerance to bavistin, a benzimidazole fungicide containing methyl benzimidazol-2-yl carbamate (MBC), in Beauveria bassiana: Sequence analysis of the β-tubulin gene to identify mutations conferring tolerance." Mycol. Res. 107: 260-266. The entomopathogenic Beauveria bassiana is a potential

biopesticide. Fungicide-tolerant isolates of this fungus would have an added advantage of being compatible with the conventional chemical methods of pest control. Therefore, 30 isolates of the fungus were screened for tolerance to bavistin a commonly used benzimidazole fungicide containing methyl benzimidazol-2-yl carbamate (MBC). Germination and growth bioassays in the presence of 0.05% bavistin were conducted for screening. Three tolerant isolates were identified, showing tolerance up to 2% bavistin. Mutation in the b-tubulin gene is known to confer tolerance to MBC; the nine known mutation sites in the gene involved were sequenced in the tolerant strains. The β-tubulin gene from codons 1–405 was amplified using two pairs of degenerate

primers, designed for the conserved region of the b-tubulin gene and sequenced. From the sequence suitable primers were designed for the regions flanking the nine known sites involved in mutations conferring MBC tolerance. The amplified products with these primers from the MBC-tolerant isolates were sequenced and in two (ARSEF 1315 and ARSEF 1316) a mutation was detected in the 198 codon resulting in replacement of glutamic acid with lysine. In the third tolerant isolate (ITCC 913) no mutation could be detected in any of the nine known sites conferring tolerance to MBC. To complete the sequencing of the b-tubulin gene, the remaining part (from codon 405 onwards) of the gene was isolated by a three-prime gene walk. The gene sequence showed a close homology to fungal β-tubulin genes with four introns.

BUUREN, M. L. V., L. LANFRANCO, et al. (1999). "Construction and characterization of genomic libraries of two endomycorrhizal fungi: Glomus versiforme and Gigaspora margarita." Mycol. Res. 103: 955-960. Arbuscular (AM) mycorrhizal fungi form symbiotic associations

with the roots of plants that lead to increased growth and health of many plants. The agricultural application of mycorrhizas has remained difficult since AM fungi are obligate biotrophs that show only very limited growth in the absence of a host. As a first step in the molecular and genetic characterization of these fungi we have constructed genomic libraries of Glomus versiforme and Gigaspora margarita. We demonstrated that in addition to fungal genes these libraries contain clones derived from the genome of endosymbiotic bacteria that are present in fungal spores. A genomic clone

encoding elongation factor 1 alpha (EF-1) was isolated from G. versiforme and to our knowledge this is the first time a low copy number gene was cloned from an AM fungus. The EF-1 promoter is highly active in mycorrhizal roots and will be an important tool for the expression of foreign genes in the fungus.

Buyck, B. and C. L. Ovrebo (2002). "New and interesting Russula species from Panama." Mycologia, 94(5): 888-901. Detailed illustrated descriptions are given for Russula

panamae sp.nov, Russula aucarum, R. puiggarii and R. venezueliana, all of which are reported

for the first time from Panama´. For Russula venezueliana and R. aucarum, it is also the first record since their original description. Taxonomy, systematic position, and related species are discussed for each species. Russula ochrostraminea is probably a synonym of R. venezueliana and section Delicoarchaeae is considered a possible synonym of subsection Lactarioideae or of section Metachromaticae.

BYRDE, R. J. W. (1998). "John Malcolm (`Jim') Hirst, D.S.C., B.Sc., Ph.D., F.I.Biol., C.Biol., F.R.S., 1921±1997: an appreciation." Mycol. Res. 102: 1568-1570. CABELLO, M., A. ARAMBARRI, et al. (1998). "Minimidochium parvum, a new species of hyphomycete from Argentina." Mycol. Res. 102: 383-384. Minimidochium parvum sp. nov. is described from floating litter

collected in polluted water from the Rio Santiago. CAESAR-TONTHAT, T. C. (2002). "Soil binding properties of mucilage produced by a basidiomycete fungus in a model system." Mycol. Res. 106: 930-937. A saprophytic, lignin-decomposing basidiomycete fungal

isolate (BB1), identified as a member of the russuloid lineage closest to the genus Peniophora, plays a role in soil aggregation and stabilization. In liquid media this fungus secretes large amounts of extracellular materials or mucilage that act as soil binding agents. We investigated the nature of these materials using periodate treatment and lectin cytochemistry, and studied whether or not these materials are involved in soil aggregation. Water stability of artificial fungal amended soil aggregates was destroyed by periodate treatment suggesting that polysaccharides produced by the basidiomycete were involved in soil aggregation. Binding patterns of fluorescently labeled lectins were also investigated to determine specific carbohydrate moieties present in the fungal mucilage. Fluorescently conjugated lectins (Ulex europaeus Agglutinin I and Lotus tetragonolobus lectin) bound to extracellular mucilage indicating that this basidiomycete mucilage contains fucosyl sugar residues. We also demonstrated that water stability of artificial soil aggregates prepared with fungal mycelia pretreated with l(--)fucose lectins were significantly reduced. This study

indicates that fungal-derived material containing fucosyl residues plays a role in soil

adhesion. CAIRNEY, J. W. G. (2005). "Basidiomycete mycelia in forest soils : dimensions, dynamics and roles in nutrient distribution." Mycol. Res. 109: 7-20. Basidiomycete mycelia are ubiquitous in forest soils where

they fulfil a range of key ecological functions. Population studies, based largely on basidiome collections, indicate that mycelia of many ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic basidiomycetes can spread vegetatively for considerable distances through soil, but the extent to which these become physically or physiologically fragmented is unclear. This review considers aspects of the distribution, dynamics and translocatory activities of individual basidiomycete mycelia in forest soil, highlighting current gaps in our understanding and possible ways to address these.

CALATAYUD, V. and B. AGUIRRE-HUDSON (2001). "Observations on the genus Cresporhaphis (Trichosphaeriaceae), with a key to the known species, and C. ulmi sp. nov." Mycol. Res. 105: 122-126. A taxonomic and ecological reassessment of the genus

Cresporhaphis is presented, with a key to all 7 species currently known, including C. ulmi sp. nov. from Spain, on twigs of Ulmus minor. Species are facultatively lichenized with chlorococcoid algae, Trentepohlia and other algae, or saprobic.

CALATAYUD, V., P. NAVARRO-ROSINES, et al. (2002). "A synopsis of Lichenostigma subgen. Lichenogramma (Arthoniales), with a key to the species." Mycol. Res. 106(10): 1230–1242. A synopsis of the subgenus of lichenicolous fungi

Lichenogramma is presented. It comprises eight species of Lichenostigma with oval to elongate ascomata connected to superficial strands of vegetative hyphae. Five of them are described here as new: Lichenostigma diploiciae (on Diploicia subcanescens); L. epipolina (on Diplotomma epipolium) ; L. gracilis (on Acarospora fuscata) ; L. rouxii (on Squamarina spp.); and L. subradians (on Acarospora spp., mainly subgen. Acarospora). The concept of the genus Lichenostigma is enlarged to accommodate also species with submuriform ascospores. A key to all the species of the subgenus is provided.

CALATAYUD, V., M. J. SANZ, et al. (2001). "Lichenopyrenis galligena (Pleomassariaceae), a new genus of gall-forming lichenicolous fungi on Leptochidium." Mycol. Res. 105: 634-637. The new genus Lichenopyrenis is described for L. galligena, a

cecidiogenous species parasitic on the lichen Leptochidium albociliatum. This genus is characterized by perithecioid ascomata with a cellular wall, formed by relatively large, somewhat compressed cells, fissitunicate, I-

asci, wide hamathecium filaments, and 1-septate, pale orange brown ascospores with distoseptate thickenings which at maturity are seemingly bulging out of the exospore wall at the septum and apices. The conidia have a rhexolytic type of secession, and are attached to the conidiogenous cells by a separating cell. Lichenopyrenis is referred tentatively to the family Pleomassariaceae.

Calderone, R. A. and R. L. Cihlar (2002). Fungal Pathogenesis Principles and Clinical Applications. New York . Basel, Marcel Dekker, Inc. 14. Calderoni, M., T. N. Sieber, et al. (2003). "Stereum sanguinolentum: Is it an amphithallic basidiomycete?." Mycologia, 95(2): 232-238. Monobasidiospore isolates were prepared from basidiocarps

of Stereum sanguinolentum. Five isolates per basidiome were paired with each other and with isolates from the trama. Interbasidiome pairings of the trama isolates and of a selection of single-spore isolates also were performed. Thin sections of the hymenium were stained with DAPI and examined by fluorescence microscopy to study the nuclei in the basidia. Spore prints were stained with DAPI to count the number of nuclei per spore. SEM was used to determine the number of basidiospores per basidium. All intrabasidiome pairings were compatible. In contrast, interbasidiome pairings, except one, were incompatible, independent of whether single- spore or trama isolates were paired. Fertile basidiomes were formed in single-basidiospore cultures.

Basidia were regularly four-spored. On average, 5% of the basidiospores possessed one nucleus, 82% two, 2% three and 1% four nuclei. Ten percent of the spores appeared to be empty. Karyogamy, meiosis and postmeiotic mitosis were observed in the basidia. Nuclei resulting directly from meiosis, i.e., without having undergone postmeiotic mitosis, sometimes were observed in the sterigmata or spore primordia. The high number of vegetative compatibility groups (VCG) of S. sanguinolentum observed in this study and earlier studies is difficult to explain without sexual or parasexual recombination. We suppose that the majority of spores with >2 nuclei are amphithallic, possessing at least one nucleus of each mating type. Recombination could occur by exchange of nuclei among VCGs via anastomoses between homothallic compartments. Transfer of nuclei from heterothallic to homothallic mycelia or matings between homothallic mycelia, which originate from monokaryotic

spores, might be other paths for gene exchange. Calduch, M., J. Gene, et al. (2002). "Janetia obovata and Stachybotryna excentrica, two new hyphomycetes from submerged plant material in Spain." Mycologia, 64(2): 355-361. Janetia obovata and Stachybotryna excentrica, two new

hyphomycetes from submerged litter collected in different Mediterranean localities in Spain, are described and illustrated. Janetia obovata

possesses denticulate and dark pigmented conidiogenous cells characteristic of the genus, but is mainly distinctive in producing obovoid and unevenly pigmented conidia. Stachybotryna excentrica is hyaline and produces setae as do all members of the genus, but is distinctive by its small conidia that are cylindrical or ellipsoidal in front view and slightly allantoid in side view with a protuberant eccentric scar, and its long subcylindrical setae. A key to Stachybotryna species is provided.

Calduch, M., J. Gene, et al. (2002). "Hyphomycetes from Nigerian rain forests." Mycologia, 94(1): 127-135. Phaeobotrys gen. nov., based on Phaeodactylium acutisporum,

characterized by branched and pigmented conidiophores, and the production of hyaline, appendiculate conidia from denticles on polyblastic conidiogenous cells which usually extend sympodially to form more conidiogenous loci, and Zanclospora stellata sp. nov., recognized by its stellate sterile branches in the distal part of the conidiophore and bacilliform conidia, are described and illustrated from decaying leaf litter from Nigeria. Keys to Phaeobotrys and related genera, and to species of Zanclospora are proposed. Furthermore, a list of hyphomycetes newly reported for Nigeria is provided.

Calduch, M., J. Gene, et al. (2002). "New species of Dictyochaetopsis and Paraceratocladium from Brazil." Mycologia, 94(6): 1071-1077. Two new conidial fungi, Dictyochaetopsis brasiliensis and

Paraceratocladium bacilliformis, both isolated from plant debris collected in Brazil, are described and illustrated. Dictyochaetopsis brasiliensis differs from the previously described species of the genus mainly by small, fusiform conidia with a very thin

apical setula, absence of setae, and lateral, discrete conidiogenous cells with usually numerous sympodial proliferations. Paraceratocladium bacilliformis is characterized by small, bacilliform and aseptate conidia.

Callac, P. and J. Guinberteau (2005). "Morphological and molecular characterization of two novel species of Agaricus section Xanthodermatei." Mycologia, 97(2): 416-424. Agaricus specimens collected in France belong to two novel

entities resembling small forms of A. moelleri and A. xanthodermus, two common species

in section Xanthodermatei. Molecular (IT11ITS2 DNA sequence) and morphological comparisons between eight presumed similar taxa of the section support

the elevation of both entities to species rank. The new entities are described as A. parvitigrinus and A. xanthodermulus. They form a group with A. laskibarii,

a rare species also recently described from France, and A. californicus, a North-American species. The well known A. moelleri and A. xanthodermus are

the most related species among the studied sample. Like other species of the section, both new species have a phenolic odor and are probably toxic.

Callac, P., I. J. d. Haut, et al. (2003). "A novel homothallic variety of Agaricus bisporus comprises rare tetrasporic isolates from Europe." Mycologia, 95(2): 222-231. Among 400 wild specimens of A. bisporus collected in Europe,

only three were tetrasporic. In the case of two of them from France, a previous study showed that one was homokaryotic and hypothetically belonged to a homothallic entity while the other was heterokaryotic and possibly resulted from hybridization between a member of this entity and a classical bisporic strain. A third tetrasporic specimen recently was discovered in Greece. Morphological and genetic comparisons, using alloenzymatic markers, molecular markers and ITS polymorphisms, reveal that this third specimen is homokaryotic and belongs, with the homokaryotic specimen from France, to the same entity. Dissimilarity analysis confirms the hybrid origin of the heterokaryotic specimen. Varietal status is proposed for this homothallic, highly homogeneous entity, and A. bisporus var. eurotetrasporus is described. This novel variety clearly differs from var. bisporus by its tetrasporic basidia and from var. burnettii by its longer spores. It has a complex story because it can interbreed with var. bisporus and shares the same habitat; however, because of its homothallic life cycle and its partial intersterility, it is probably in the process of speciation.

CALLAGHAN, A. A., S. D. WATERS, et al. (2000). "Alternative repetitional conidia in Conidiobolus adiaeretus : development and germination." Mycol. Res. 104: 1270-1275. We report the ability of Conidiobolus adiaeretus to form

repetitional microconidia and capilliconidia. Detailed descriptions of development and germination are given. This is the ®rst report of any entomophthoralean fungus producing both these alternative conidial types. This cuts across current definitions of subgenera in Conidiobolus which are based on the absence of these conidial types or on the presence of either microconidia or capilliconidia but not both. Co-occurrence of both these spore types, along with the unusual mode of formation of the microconidia, and the ability to derive capilliconidia directly from the latter, reinforce other

features which set C. adiaeretus apart. Taxonomic, evolutionary and ecological implications are briefly discussed.

Calonge, F. D., H. Kreisel, et al. (2004). "Bovista sclerocystis, a new species from Mexico." Mycologia, 96(5): 1152-1154. Bovista sclerocystis is described as a new species. It was found

in Mexico, growing on rich soil of a tropical forest. It belongs to section

Globaria, series Albosquamosa. The most striking character of this taxon is the

exoperidium composed of polymorphous mycosclereids. CALONJE, M., C. G. MENDOZA, et al. (2000). "Interaction between the mycoparasite Verticillium fungicola and the vegetative mycelial phase of Agaricus bisporus." Mycol. Res. 104: 988-992. Host-parasite interactions of Agaricus bisporus and Verticillium

fungicola were studied in paired-cultures. Different growth reactions were found according to the culture medium used, but no apparent alterations could be detected by light and electron microscopy in A. bisporus vegetative mycelia. In vitro, different hydrolytic enzymes are produced by V. fungicola in cultures with A. bisporus vegetative mycelial cell walls as the only carbon source. In vitro, this enzyme preparation is able to partially digest isolated A. bisporus vegetative mycelial cell walls. These results suggest that although apparent attachment of the mycoparasite to the host cell surface seems to occur, there is no in vivo A. bisporus vegetative mycelial cell wall degradation.

CALVO-BADO, L. A., M. P. CHALLEN, et al. (2001). "RAPD characterisation of heterogeneity in spore progenies and sexuality in the genus Agaricus." Mycol. Res. 105: 370-376. The genus Agaricus encompasses the cultivated mushroom A.

bisporus, and includes both unifactorial heterothallic and homothallic species. The intractable nature of their life cycles and an absence of diagnostic morphological features, hinder analysis of breeding systems in Agaricus and some other homobasidiomycete species. We utilised RAPD markers to assess genetic variation in single spore progeny from different Agaricus species and to confirm heterokaryon formation in matings. Single spore progeny from heterothallic species should be more heterogeneous than those from homothallics. Homokaryotic progeny from the secondarily homothallic A. bisporus were less variable (12%) with fewer segregating loci than the known heterothallic species, A. bitorquis (50%) and A. nivescens (32 %). Variation in the progeny of A. campestris (36%) was similar to that for the heterothallics. Heterothallism in the field mushroom was confirmed by RAPD analysis of putative matings; the first time A. campestris heterokaryons have been constructed. No variation was observed in progeny from two collections of A. subfloccosus. Homogeneity in RAPD profiles, absence of matings and self-fertility of single spores shows that A. subfloccosus is homothallic. In progeny from A. arvensis very low variation (5%) occurred and proportions of segregating loci were around half of those for A. bisporus. However, matings were observed and RAPD characterised within the A. arvensis progeny. RAPD analysis of genetic variation within spore progeny should have general utility in the characterisation of fungal breeding systems.

Camara, M. P. S., N. R. O’Neill, et al. (2002). "Phylogeny of Stemphylium spp. based on ITS and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase gene sequences." Mycologia, 94(4): 660-662. The phylogenetic relationships among 44 isolates representing

16 species of Stemphylium were inferred from ITS and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

dehydrogenase (gpd) sequence data. The results generally agree with morphological species concepts. There was strong support for monophyly of the genus

Stemphylium. Analysis of the gpd fragment in particular was useful for establishing well-supported relationships among the species and isolates of Stemphylium. Species of Stemphylium that appear to have lost the ability to produce a sexual

state are scattered among the species with the ability to reproduce sexually

(Pleospora spp.). Species that are pathogenic to alfalfa are resolved into two groups. Stemphylium botryosum and two isolates with morphological characters

similar to S. globuliferum had identical sequences at both loci. These two loci in S. vesicarium, S. alfalfae and S. herbarum are nearly identical but differ from

S. botryosum. The separation of S. vesicarium, S. herbarum and S. alfalfae into separate species by morphometric evidence was not supported by the molecular data. Morphological and developmental characters such as size and shape of conidia, conidiophores, and ascospores, and size and time of maturation of pseudothecia are useful for diagnosing species. However, other morphological

characters such as septum development and small variations in conidial wall ornamentation are not as useful.

Camara, M. P. S., M. E. Palm, et al. (2002). "Molecular phylogeny of Leptosphaeria and Phaeosphaeria." Mycologia, 94(4): 630-640. The objectives of this study were to determine the phylogenetic

relationships of species of Leptosphaeria and Phaeosphaeria and evaluate the phylogenetic significance of morphological characters of the teleomorph, anamorph, and host. Sequences of the entire ITS region, including the 5.8S rDNA, of

59 isolates representing 54 species were analyzed and the phylogeny inferred using parsimony and distance analyses. Isolates grouped into three well-supported

clades. The results of this study support the separation of Phaeosphaeria from Leptosphaeria sensu stricto. Leptosphaeria bicolor and the morphologically similar

Leptosphaeria taiwanensis formed a separate, well-supported clade. We conclude that peridial wall morphology, anamorph characteristics, and to a lesser extent host, are phylogenetically significant at the generic level. Ascospore and conidial

morphology are taxonomically useful at the species level.s CAMARA, M. P. S., M. E. PALM, et al. (2001). "Systematics of Paraphaeosphaeria: a molecular and morphological approach." Mycol. Res. 105: 41-56. The genus Paraphaeosphaeria (Loculoascomycetes) was

described as a segregate of Leptosphaeria for species producing brown, usually punctate ascospores with rounded ends, a submedian primary septum, an inflated cell above the primary septum, and a Coniothyrium sensu lato anamorph. This study evaluated the taxonomic value of the morphological characters, host range, ecology, and anamorphs in relation to DNA sequence data in order to determine the relationship between species described in Paraphaeosphaeria. Nine species were characterized morphologically and the ITS and 18S regions of the rDNA were sequenced and a phylogeny was inferred. Morphological studies and results of the sequence analyses provide strong support for polyphyly of this genus. Based on these analyses, the concept of Paraphaeosphaeria should be narrowed to refiect a monophyletic generic concept. Characters such as spore septation and method of conidiogenesis were found to predict relatedness.

CAMARA, M. P. S., A. W. RAMALEY, et al. (2003). "Neophaeosphaeria and Phaeosphaeriopsis, segregates of Paraphaeosphaeria." Mycol. Res. 107: 516-522. Two new genera, Neophaeosphaeria and Phaeosphaeriopsis,

are described to accommodate species of Paraphaeosphaeria that are not congeneric based on morphological characters and results of 18S rDNA sequence analyses. Paraphaeosphaeria s. str. is restricted to species with two-septate ascospores and anamorphs that produce non-septate, smooth, pale brown conidia enteroblastically from phialides which have some periclinal thickening. Species in Neophaeosphaeria have 3–4-septate ascospores and anamorphs that produce ovoid to ellipsoid, non-septate, brown, verrucose or punctate conidia from percurrently proliferating conidiogenous cells. Paraphaeosphaeria barrii, P. conglomerata, P. filamentosa and P. quadriseptata are transferred to Neophaeosphaeria. At present all species in Neophaeosphaeria occur on Yucca (Agavaceae). Phaeosphaeriopsis is described for species that produce 4–5-septate ascospores. Known anamorphs produce cylindrical, 0–3-septate, brown, punctate conidia from percurrently proliferating conidiogenous cells or bacillar conidia from simple phialides. P. agavensis, P. glauco-punctata, P. nolinae and P. obtusispora are transferred to Phaeosphaeriopsis. P. amblyspora is described as a new species.

CAMPBELL, G. F., P. W. CROUS, et al. (1999). "Pyrenophora teres f. maculata, the cause of Pyrenophora leaf spot of barley in South Africa." Mycol. Res. 103:

257-267. Net blotch caused by Pyrenophora teres is a serious disease

of barley in many cereal production areas world-wide, including the Western Cape province of South Africa. The pathogen occurs as two forms, P. teres f. teres, which produces net-blotch symptoms, and P. teres f. maculata which produces leaf spots. Pyrenophora japonica and P. hordei, which have also been reported in South Africa, also produce spots on susceptible barley cultivars. Using RAPD markers, spot-forming isolates from the South African population were found to be relatively uniform. Single ascospores were obtained from pseudothecia after in vitro mating had occurred between a verified P. teres net-blotch isolate from Denmark and a representative Pyrenophora leaf spot isolate from South Africa. Using

amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and RAPD markers, recombination was demonstrated in the progeny which had DNA banding patterns different from the two parental isolates. Pathogenicity trials also confirmed that recombination had taken place during mating. Inoculations were conducted on differential cultivars susceptible to the net-blotch or leaf spot forms. The two parents induced typical net-blotch or leaf spot symptoms whereas the progeny mostly induced a jagged spot symptom on each cultivar. Fungicide sensitivity tests using the ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors triademinol, bromuconazole and triticonazole showed that, due to recombination, some progeny could have increased resistance to these fungicides. Due to mating and subsequent recombination between a net blotch isolate of P. teres and a representative leaf spot isolate, it was concluded that the latter was P. teres f. maculata. These results contrast with the earlier belief that Pyrenophora leaf spot isolates in the Western Cape are P. japonica and P. hordei.

CAMPBELL, G. F., J. A. LUCAS, et al. (2002). "Evidence of recombination between net- and spot-type populations of Pyrenophora teres as determined by RAPD analysis." Mycol. Res. 106: 602-608. The genetic structure of Pyrenophora teres, the causal agent

of net blotch of barley, was examined in two fields 30 km apart in the south-western Cape of South Africa. The two fields respectively represented a net- and spot-type population, the two types being distinguished on the basis of symptom expression on differentially susceptible cultivars. The number of isolates sampled from each ®eld was 36 for the net-type population and 29 for the spot-type population. Samples were collected from infected barley leaves from two separate quadrants in each field, the two quadrants positioned in corners of the fields, diagonal to one another. Of the 40 10-mer random oligonucleotide primers screened, five produced scorable, reproducible DNA bands suitable for the determination of population structure. A total of 65 loci were produced of which 54 were polymorphic. Genetic analysis of bands

produced by one of the primers has revealed single locus segregation in a mating between a net- and spot-type isolate, indicating that RAPD bands can be interpreted as alleles at genetic loci. Total gene diversities determined for all loci resulted in mean indices of 0.063 and 0.082 being obtained respectively for the net- and spot-type populations. Genetic diversity among the two populations was divided into within- (variation between sampling quadrants) and among population components using Nei's GST. A coefficient of genetic differentiation (GS) of 0.0149 was obtained between quadrants within populations while a coefficient (GT) of 0±63 was obtained between the two populations. Genotypic variation revealed 13 distinct multilocus genotypes (haplotypes) in the net-type population while there were 12 in the spot-type population. UPGMA cluster analysis of the two populations together with six progeny from a mating between a net- and spot-type isolate resulted in three main clusters being produced, one for each population and one for the progeny. One isolate collected from the net-type population that did not cluster with the other net-type isolates clustered directly next to the cluster containing the sexual progeny. This isolate also contained a unique spot-type DNA band. This suggested that sexual recombination may be occurring between net- and spot-type isolates under field

conditions. Campbell, J. (2005). "Neotypification of Lulworthia fucicola." Mycologia, 97(2): 549-551. There are no herbarium specimens or culture material for the

type of Lulworthia fucicola G.K. Sutherl. With the absence of original material, and to preserve current usage of the name, a neotype is designated hereby. The neotype chosen for L. fucicola is a specimen from Chile.

Campbell, J., J. L. Anderson, et al. (2003). "Systematics of Halosarpheia based on morphological and molecular data." Mycologia, 95(3): 530-552. The genus Halosarpheia (Halosphaeriales) was established

for marine ascomycetes with obpyriform to sub-globose, coriaceous, brown to black ostiolate

ascomata with long necks; hamathecia of catenophyses; thin-walled, unitunicate, persistent asci with thick-walled apices; and ellipsoid, one septate, hyaline ascospores equipped with coiled, threadlike apical appendages that unfurl in water. Emphasis on ascospore appendage morphology has led to the inclusion in the genus of morphologically disparate fungi from a variety of marine and freshwater habitats. To better understand the evolutionary relationships of Halosarpheia species, phylogenetic analyses were conducted on 16 Halosarpheia species, 13 other species of Halosphaeriales and representatives of the Microascales, Hypocreales, Sordariales and Xylariales using 18S and 28S rDNA sequence data. All of the Halosarpheia species occurred on the Halosphaeriales clade. The

type species of the genus, H. fibrosa, occurred on a well-supported clade with two morphologically similar species, H. trullifera and H. unicellularis. This clade, which phylogenetically was distant from the clades of other Halosarpheia species, represents the genus Halosarpheia sensu stricto. The other Halosarpheia species were distributed among eight other well-supported clades clearly separated from one another based on molecular data. New generic names are established for six of these clades, one new species is described, and one species is transferred to Aniptodera. A table (TABLE I) comparing the morphology, habitat, substrate and distribution of the genera of aquatic ascomycetes with coiled, threadlike apical appendages treated in this study is provided, along with a key for their identification.

Campbell, J. and C. A. Shearer (2004). "Annulusmagnus and Ascitendus, two new genera in the Annulatascaceae." Mycologia, 96(4): 822-833. Two pyrenomycetes in the Annulatascaceae described from

freshwater, Annulatascus triseptatus and Ascolacicola austriaca, are reported from North and South America for the first time. Both species occur commonly on submerged wood in the U.S.A. The two taxa are similar morphologically in having black coriaceous ascomata, cylindrical necks, septate paraphyses, cylindrical pedicellate asci with prominent apical rings and three-septate ascospores. Molecular data demonstrates that Annulatascus is polyphyletic, with A. triseptatus on a clade widely separated from the type species of the genus, A. velatisporus. Ascolacicola austriaca is on a monophyletic clade within the Annulatascaceae as sister taxon of A. triseptatus. Based on morphological data and phylogenetic analyses of 28S rDNA sequence data, new genera Annulusmagnus and Ascitendus are established for Annulatascus triseptatus and Ascolacicola austriaca, respectively.

Campbell, J., C. A. Shearer, et al. (2003). "A reassessment of two freshwater ascomycetes, Ceriospora caudae-suis and Submersisphaeria aquatica." Mycologia, 95(1): 41-53. Ceriospora caudae-suis and Submersisphaeria aquatica, two

freshwater pyrenomycetes reported infrequently since their original description, occur commonly on submerged woody debris in the USA. Based on analyses of 28S rDNA sequence data and morphology, both species belong in the Annulatascaceae.

Ceriospora caudae-suis is transferred to Pseudoproboscispora, a genus in the Annulatascaceae with similar overall morphology and ecology. ubmersisphaeria aquatica is redescribed and illustrated based on additional collections. CAMPBELL, J., B. VOLKMANN-KOHLMEYER, et al. (2005). "A re-evaluation of Lulworthiales: relationships based on 18S and 28S rDNA." Mycol. Res. 109(5): 556-568. The Lulworthiales consists of four genera: three that were

removed from the Halosphaeriales, namely Lulworthia, Lindra, and Kohlmeyeriella; and Spathulospora, reassigned from the Spathulosporales. However, studies have shown that neither Lulworthia nor Lindra are monophyletic genera. This study was therefore undertaken to re-evaluate the genera of the Lulworthiales based on the SSU and LSU rDNA genes. Taxonomic revisions are proposed here for Lulworthia crassa, L. lignoarenaria, L. uniseptata and Lindra marinera: Lulworthia crassa is transferred into the genus Kohlmeyeriella; Lulwoidea gen. nov. is established for L. lignoarenaria; Lulwoana gen. nov. is established for L. uniseptata; and Lindra marinera is reduced to synonymy with L. thalassiae. Taxonomic descriptions are emended for the genus Lulworthia s. str., and for L. grandispora and Lindra thalassiae. A neotype is designated for Lulworthia grandispora.

CAMY, C., E. DREYER, et al. (2003). "Responses of the root rot fungus Collybia fusipes to soil waterlogging and oxygen availability." Mycol. Res. 107: 1103-1109. Collybia fusipes is a common root rot fungus in mature

pedunculate oak forest, that causes drastic destruction of the tree root systems, especially in dry or mildly waterlogged soils. We wanted to check, under controlled conditions or in forest ecosystems, whether reduced O2 during saturation of the soil by water could interact with disease evolution. Susceptibility of waterlogged oak seedlings to C. fusipes was tested in a greenhouse and the survival of the pathogen in woody substrates was assessed in hydromorphic soils in a forest. A direct and detrimental effect of soil waterlogging on C. fusipes survival was evidenced both under controlled conditions and in forest stands. Growth of C. fusipes mycelium on agar media was monitored under low O2 mole fraction and compared to that of Armillaria mellea and Heterobasidion annosum. A drastic reduction in mycelial growth was evidenced in C. fusipes and H. annosum but not in A. mellea.

CANNON, P. F. and H. C. EVANS (1999). "Biotrophic species of Phyllachoraceae associated with the angiosperm family Erythroxylaceae." Mycol. Res. 103: 577-590. The biotrophic species of Phyllachoraceae associated with the

angiosperm family Erythroxylaceae are examined, and five new species and one new subspecies proposed. Five species of Phyllachora are accepted, including the four undescribed taxa P. occultans from Mexico, P. usteriana subsp. piliformis and P. reticulata from Brazil, and P. tanensis from Madagascar. The new genus Fremitomyces is introduced for two undescribed species from East Africa and the Seychelles, which have initially brightly coloured stromata.

Cannon, P. F. and D. W. Minter (1986). The Rhytismataceae of The Indian Subcontinent, C.A.B. International Mycological Institute. 155: 123.

Cannon, P. F. and C. M. Simmons (2002). "Diversity and host preference of leaf endophytic fungi in the Iwokrama Forest Reserve, Guyana." Mycologia, 94(2): 210-220. Endophytic fungi were isolated from living symptomless

leaves of 12 tree species from two locations in the Iwokrama Forest Reserve, Guyana. Sixtyfour

fungal morphotaxa were characterized from 2492 cultures, which were derived from a total of 2520 sample units. Species of Colletotrichum, Nodulisporium,

Pestalotiopsis and Phomopsis were most frequently isolated. Colonization was greater in samples from the midrib than in those from laminar tissue, and slightly greater at the tip of the lamina compared with the base of the leaf. In contrast to studies in temperate ecosystems, no distinct fungal communities were identified for individual plant species, suggesting that the degree of host preference is low. The implications for estimation of fungal diversity in tropical systems are explored. Cano, C. and A. Bago (2005). "Competition and substrate colonization strategies of three polyxenically grown arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi." Mycologia, 97(6): 1201–1214. Intra- and extraradical colonization competition and hyphal

interactions among arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) Glomus intraradices, Glomus proliferum and Gigaspora margarita were investigated in two in vitro experimental systems. AMF were polyxenically cultured with a Ri T-DNA transformed carrot root organ culture (ROC) in either big Petri plates containing three culture compartments and a common hyphal compartment (i.e. an independent host root for each AMF) or two by two in the culture compartment of regular bicompartmented Petri dishes (i.e. a common host root and a common hyphal compartment). Maps of the extraradical mycelial development of the three AMF were obtained. Two distinct substrate colonization strategies (Glomus-type and Gigaspora-type) were identified, reflecting intrinsic differences among AMF genera/families. Our data reveal a general lack of antagonism between the isolates when extraradical hyphae explore and exploit the substrate outside the root influence zone; however certain growth restrictions were imposed by Gi. margarita extraradical mycelium when developing near the host root and by G. proliferum intraradical hyphae. This work highlights once more the appropriateness of AM in vitro culture systems to perform in vivo studies on the

biology of this symbiosis and opens new avenues to the formulation of in vitro AMF inoculants.

CANTONE, F. A. and J. D. VANDENBERG (1998). "Intraspecific diversity in Paecilomyces fumosoroseus." Mycol. Res. 102: 209-215.

Two types of genetic markers, vegetative compatibility and RAPD, were evaluated for their ability to assess genetic variation among 38 isolates of the entomopathogenic fungus, Paecilomyces fumosoroseus. Both markers revealed significant polymorphisms. Nitrate non-utilizing mutants were generated from chlorate-containing media and used as forcing markers to observe heterokaryon formation and determine vegetative compatibility. Nineteen separate vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs) were identified, only seven having at least two members and 12 represented by single isolates. No correlation was observed between VCG and either insect host or geographic origin. Nine RAPD primers produced 365 unique fragments and could distinguish three different phenetic groups. RAPD profiles conclusively showed that strains within some VCGs were genetically unrelated, indicating that these strains were not clonal in origin. The large number of VCGs suggests that formation of heterokaryons and possible genetic exchange are uncommon. DNA fingerprinting with RAPD-PCR provides high resolution of genotype distribution and could be useful in tracking the fate of biocontrol agents released into the environment.

Cantrell, S. A. and J. H. Haines (1997). "New red species of Lachnum from the tropics." Mycological Research 101(9): 1081-1084. Two new tropical species of Lachnum with red or reddish hymenia are

described. Lachnum euterpes occurs on fronds of the palm Prestoea (=Euterpe) and L. victoriani is described from coriaceous leaves of dicotyledonous trees. A full description of each new species is given along with a brief discussion of the morphological differences distinguishing it from other species with which it could be confused. New combinations in Lachnum are made for the tropical fern-inhabiting species Dasyscyphus ulei and D. chermisinus.

CANTRELL, S. A. and D. J. LODGE (2000). "Hygrophoraceae of the Greater Antilles : Hygrocybe subgenus Hygrocybe." Mycol. Res. 104: 873-878. A key to six taxa of Hygrocybe, subgenus Hygrocybe, sections

Chlorophanae and Hygrocybe is provided. One species is new and four species are reported for the ®rst time from the Greater Antilles. The new species is H. chimaeroderma (section Chlorophanae). Hygrocybe acutoconica, H. calyptriformis and H. incolor (section Hygrocybe) are reported for the ®rst time, and two new varieties, H. konradii var. antillana and H. calyptriformis var. domingensis (section Hygrocybe) are described. Three new combinations are made: H. acutoconica var. microspora, H. conica var. brevispora and H. luteistipes (section Hygrocybe).

CANTRELL, S. A. and D. J. LODGE (2001). "Hygrophoraceae (Agaricales) of the Greater Antilles : Hygrocybe subgenus Pseudohygrocybe section Firmae." Mycological Research 105: 215-224. A key to 13 species in the genus Hygrocybe subgenus

Pseudohygrocybe section Firmae is provided for the Greater Antilles. Seven new species and one species that is a new report for the Greater Antilles are described. The new species are H. brunneosquamosa, H. cinereofirma, H. flavocampanulata, H. laboyi, H. miniatofirma, H. neofirma and H. olivaceofirma. The new report is H. trinitensis.

CANTRELL, S. A. and D. J. LODGE (2004). "Hygrophoraceae (Agaricales) of the Greater Antilles : Hygrocybe subgenus Pseudohygrocybe sections Coccineae and Neohygrocybe." Mycological Research 108: 1301-1314. A key to 17 species in the genus Hygrocybe, subgenus

Pseudohygrocybe, sections Coccineae and Neohygrocybe sensu Boertmann is provided for the Greater Antilles. Five new species and five taxa that are new reports for the region are described. The new species in section Coccineae are H. pseudoadonis, H. viridiphylla, and H. zonata. The new species in section Neohygrocybe are H. albomarginata and H. ovinoides. The new reports are H. caespitosa, H. coccinea, H. cf. miniata, H. papillata, and H. subovina. Three new combinations are proposed: Hygrocybe mycenoides, H. papillata and H. subovina.

CAPELARI, M. and M. H. P. FUNGARO (2003). "Determination of biological species and analysis of genetic variability by RAPD of isolates of Pleurotus subgenus Coremiopleurotus." Mycol. Res. 107: 1050-1054. Isolates of Pleurotus cystidiosus and P. smithii were studied to

verifie the occurrence of P. cystidiosus instead of P. smithii in South America. The two species are mainly separated by the growth rate of the anamorph in culture, the morphology of the anamorph and teleomorph, intercompatibility tests, and genetic variability. In order to see if the isolate found in Brazil and previously identified as Antromycopsis macrocarpa (the anamorph of P. cystidiosus) belongs to P. cystidiosus, a species with a world wide distribution, or to P. smithii which is restricted to Mexico and South America, or if P. cystidiosus and P. smithii are the same species, isolates of different geographic origins were studied. Growth rate in culture, mono-dikaryotic matings, and genetic variability determined by RADP were investigated. The results show that the criteria used to separate the two species are unsatisfactory, and that P. smithii should be considered a synonym of P. cystidiosus ; this extends the distribution of this later species to Central and South America.

CARISSE, O. and J. BERNIER (2002). "Effect of environmental factors on growth, pycnidial production and spore germination of Microsphaeropsis isolates with biocontrol potential against apple scab." Mycol. Res. 106: 1455-1462. The potential as biocontrol agents of the apple scab pathogen,

Venturia inaequalis and the effect of environmental factors on growth, pycnidial production and spore germination of four isolates of Microsphaeropsis were examined on culture media and leaf discs. V. inaequalis ascospore production was reduced by 52, 77, 89 and 95% on

leaf discs treated with the isolates IMI 294735, P176A, DAOM 198536 and P130A, respectively. For all isolates, optimum temperature for mycelial growth was 25 °C. More pycnidia were produced on culture media than on leaf discs. On culture media, optimum temperature was from 15 to 25 °, while on leaf discs it varied among isolates. Pycnidial production was inhibited by darkness and a minimum of 8 h light d-1 was required. Spores of isolates P130A and DAOM 198536 germinated at temperatures above 15 ° and at pH 4–5, as compared to 10 ° and pH 4–8 for isolates P176A and IMI 294735. The best candidates were P130A and DAOM 198536 and optimum conditions for growth, pycnidial production and spore germination were temperatures between 20 and 25 °, pH approx. 4 and light.

Carisse, O. and J. Bernier (2002). "Microsphaeropsis ochracea sp. nov. associated with dead apple leaves." Mycologia, 94(2): 297-301. A new saprophyte species of Coelomycetes, Microsphaeropsis

ochracea, is described based on an isolate recovered from apple leaf litter from Quebec,

Canada. Although this isolate possesses conidia similar to those of Microsphaeropsis arundinis (Ahmad), there are several differences between the two species. M. ochracea forms pycnidia of 70 mm up to 120 mm into senescent apple leaf tissue and unlike M. arundinis they are not ostiolate when grown either on a apple leaf or on culture media. Conidiogenous cells are 4.5–10 3 2.5–4.5 mm, which is much larger than those described for M. arundinis. Reverse side of the colony presents a pale luteous to ochreous pigment that diffuses through the media. The description of this new isolate was compared with the published description of M. arundinis as well as with the dry specimen of the paratype.

CARMEN, S. J. D., M. l. L. LARGETEAU-MAMOUN, et al. (2002). "Genetic and physiological variation in isolates of Verticillium fungicola causing dry bubble disease of the cultivated button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus." Mycol. Res. 106(10): 1163–1170. The objectives of this study were to examine genetic variation,

physiological dissimilarities and diversity in pathogenicity between Verticillium fungicola var. aleophilum and var. fungicola and within a population of six V. fungicola var. fungicola strains responsible for dry bubble outbreaks on mushroom farms. Genetic variability was investigated using random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD). Mycelial growth rate, extracellular enzyme production and susceptibility to hydrogen peroxide were used to examine physiological dissimilarities. Variation in pathogenicity was studied both in vitro and during mushroom cultivation. All the physiological properties studied indicated that var. aleophilum isolates were potentially more efficient than var. fungicola isolates for rapid colonisation of the mushroom cultivation medium. They could then interact

more efficiently with Agaricus bisporus to produce dry bubble disease. RAPD analysis confirmed that all the French isolates belonged to var. fungicola, and two isolates were distinguishable from the homogeneous group constituted by the others. These isolates had a higher mycelial growth rate and lower extracellular enzyme activities in liquid media, except for chitinases. Their spores were more susceptible to germination inhibition by hydrogen peroxide, and they were responsible for higher levels of affected mushrooms. The two varieties might be regarded as pathotypes that are geographically isolated, and variation in isolates of var. fungicola might have consequence for mushroom growers.

Carmichael, J. W., W. Bryce Kendrick, et al. (1980). Genera of Hyphomycetes, The University of Alberta Press. CARNEGIE, A. J., P. K. ADES, et al. (2001). "The use of RAPD--PCR analysis for the differentiation of Mycosphaerella species from Eucalyptus in Australia." Mycol. Res. 105: 1313-1320. Mycosphaerella contains some of the most damaging foliar

pathogens of Eucalyptus. Identification of the species has relied mainly on characters such as ascospore morphology and the mode of ascospore germination. Wide variation and overlap in morphological characters, especially ascospore shape and size, has lead to confusion in species concepts. This study examines the potential of RAPD--PCR to differentiate Mycosphaerella species that cause leaf diseases of Eucalyptus in Australia. RAPD--PCR was conducted on 39 isolates representing 10 species of Mycosphaerella collected from southern Australia. Primers were chosen mainly to distinguish between the two most common and damaging species in Australia, M. cryptica and M. nubilosa. The RAPD analysis revealed five

groups within the 39 isolates, four of which represent distinct species : M. cryptica, M. gregaria, M. nubilosa and M. marksii. For these four species, the cluster analysis and RAPD patterns gave results that fitted well with classical taxonomic criteria. Variation within M. cryptica, M. nubilosa and M. marksii was low, even though the isolates within these species originated from diverse hosts and locations. The remaining species in this study grouped together and could not be easily separated using the RAPD data here.

Carnegie, A. J. and P. J. Keane (1997). "A revised Mycosphaerella gregaria nom. nov. for M. aggregata on Eucalyptus." Mycological Research 101(7): 843-844. As a later homonym of Mycosphaerella aggregata (Schweinitz) Stevenson

the name Mycosphaerella aggregata Carnegie & Keane is illegitimate. The name Mycosphaerella gregaria is proposed as a replacement with similar etymology. The original description is revised following further collections and includes new hosts and cultural characteristics. Originally thought to be a saprophyte, this species may be a primary pathogen of leaves of

Eucalyptus. CARNEGIE, A. J. and P. J. KEANE (1998). "Mycosphaerella vespa sp. nov. from diseased Eucalyptus leaves in Australia." Mycol. Res. 102: 1274-1276. Mycosphaerella vespa sp nov. is described from diseased

leaves of Eucalyptus from south-eastern Australia. It is associated with small, circular to irregular lesions that have red-brown margins and amphigenous pseudothecia. These characters, in combination with ascospore morphology and germination, distinguish M. vespa from previously described species of Mycosphaerella on eucalypt leaves. Lesions associated with this pathogen were often found to be harbouring wasps and this observation is discussed.

CARON, S. J., T. J. AVIS, et al. (2005). "Fingerprinting techniques as tools towards molecular quality control of Pseudozyma flocculosa." Mycol. Res. 109: 335-341. In an effort to meet the stringent requirements towards

registration of microorganisms as biopesticides, several molecular techniques were tested as part of a strategy to develop a quality control system for Pseudozyma flocculosa, the active ingredient of Sporodex, a biofungicide used for the control of powdery mildew fungi. In the first approach, multiplex PCR fingerprints generated by three sets of primers allowed differentiation of several isolates of P. flocculosa from closely related species, or genera such as Tilletiopsis. The same set of primers was used in quality control experiments and revealed fungal contamination that was otherwise not observed by standard culture and microscopy techniques. In

addition, the use of random amplified microsatellites generated by (GT)n and (CCA)n primers was applied as a measure of possible genetic variation over 65 repeated subcultures of P. flocculosa. Finally, a novel technique was developed and named reverse intron PCR (RIP), based on the presence of an intron revealed by partial sequencing of mtLSU of P. flocculosa. RIP allowed not only differentiation of P. flocculosa from other species but also separated the isolates of different origins within P. flocculosa. This new technique could find useful applications in phylogenetic studies of closely related fungal species and isolates.

Carpenter, S. E. (1975). "Bisporella discedens and its Cystodendron state." MYCOTAXON 2(1): 123-126. Carrenho, R., S. F. B. Trufem, et al. (1998). "Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in Citrus sinensis/C. limon treated with Fosetyl-Al and Metalaxyl." Mycological Research 102(6): 677-682. The influence of Fosetyl-Al and Metalaxyl on the diversity of arbuscular

mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) was evaluated on naturally established citrus plants. Thirteen AMF species were recovered from rhizospheres of Citrus

sinensis/C. limon treated or not with Fosetyl-Al and/or Metalaxyl. Spores of AMF were obtained from 100 g of rhizospheric soil at two sites in Sa4 o Paulo state, Brazil. The soil samples were treated by the wet-sieving technique and the spores were quantified and identified. The number of spores was low at both sites. Fosetyl-Al reduced the number of spores and the diversity of AMF in one site but not in the other. Metalaxyl at low concentration increased the diversity of species in some experiments, but at higher concentration it tended to reduce the number of spores of AMF. Scutellospora was the genus that presented the largest number of species (7) followed by Acaulospora (3), Glomus (2) and Gigaspora (1). Gigaspora ramisporophora was the dominant species in one site, Glomus macrocarpum and Scutellospora gilmorei were dominant at the other.

CARRILLO-RAYAS, T., J. GARCIA-SOTO, et al. (1999). "The adenylyl cyclase from dormant spores of Phycomyces blakesleeanus is a Type I-like enzyme." Mycol. Res. 103: 943-948. Adenylyl cyclase activity was detected in a mixed-membrane

fraction from dormant spores of Phycomyces blakesleeanus. This enzymatic activity increased linearly as a function of protein concentration up to 300 lg of protein 100 µl-1 and 20 min incubation at 25 °C. It used Mn2+ or Mg2+ indiscriminately as a cofactor, and the addition of both cations together did not have a synergistic effect. The crude enzyme showed a Kmapp for ATP of 0.25 mm, when measured in the presence of Mg2+. It was stable for 48 h at --20°, losing 25% of its activity after 72 h. The addition of 10 lm GTP to the enzymatic assay stimulated the adenylyl cyclase, whereas higher concentrations (500µm) inhibited it. Cholera toxin and 25 µm forskolin caused a two-fold stimulation of the enzymatic activity. The calcium-calmodulin complex stimulated activity two-fold ; this stimulation was inhibited by the anticalmodulin drug trifluoperazine. The enzyme could not be solubilized by NaCl, but was partially solubilized with non-ionic detergents, indicating that the enzyme is an integral membrane protein. The detergent-solubilized enzyme only used Mg2+ as a divalent cation and was also stimulated by calcium-calmodulin, low concentrations of GTP, cholera toxin and forskolin, but was extremely unstable. These results suggest that the adenylyl cyclase present in dormant spores of Phycomyces blakesleeanus is an integral Type I-like membrane enzyme.

CARTER, A. T., D. A. MACKENZIE, et al. (2000). "PCR fingerprinting with a consensus tRNA primer enables strain identification of Mortierella alpina." Mycol. Res. 104: 794-799. Employing a single DNA primer targeted to clustered tRNA

genes, a PCR system has been developed which can be used to uniquely identify different strains of the zygomycete Mortierella alpina. The procedure enjoys advantages over the RAPD-PCR technique in that the single primer operates robustly within a range of PCR conditions, and can be used successfully for members of many fungal genera. As a result of

the tendency of some repetitive DNA elements to integrate near to tRNA gene clusters, the possibility that this technique may be extended to identify new examples of retrotransposons and tRNA-derived short interspersed repetitive elements (SINES) is discussed.

CARVALLO, M., P. D. IOANNES, et al. (2003). "Characterization of an α-L-arabinofuranosidase gene (abf 1) from Penicillium purpurogenum and its expression." Mycol. Res. 107: 388-394. An α-L-arabinofuranosidase gene (abf1) from Penicillium

purpurogenum was identified and sequenced. abf1 has an open reading frame of 1518 bp, does not contain introns and codes for a protein of 506 amino acids. The deduced mature protein has a molecular mass of 49.6 KDa, and its sequence is homologous to arabinofuranosidases of glycosyl hydrolase family 54. Southern blots suggest that abf1 is a single copy gene. Putative sequences for the binding of the transcriptional

regulators XlnR, CreA, PacC, AlcR and AreA are present in the promoter. Northern-blot analysis shows that abf1 is expressed at neutral but not at alkaline or acidic pH values. The presence of binding sites for regulatory elements in the promoter region has been compared to the genes of other fungal enzymes belonging to the same family. This is the first characterization of an abf gene from a Penicillium species.

CARVER, T. L. W., H. KUNOH, et al. (1999). "Release and visualization of the extracellular matrix of conidia of Blumeria graminis." Mycol. Res. 103: 547-560. The time course of release of an extracellular matrix (ECM)

from conidia of the barley powdery mildew pathogen Blumeria graminis was investigated by scanning electron and light microscopy. Conidia released the ECM material preferentially onto a hydrophobic surface and release was detected within 20 s of contact of a conidium with the substratum. No such rapid release of an ECM could be detected when conidia were deposited onto the hydrophilic surface of clean glass. A limited amount of ECM was, however, released from conidia onto the hydrophilic surface of a hydrated cellulose membrane. A time study on hydrophobic plastic revealed

that although the ECM was clearly present within the first hour after contact of the conidium with the substratum, it was much reduced in quantity after 12 h incubation. The ECM was demonstrated by micromanipulation and light microscopy to be present as a liquid at the contact interface of the conidium and the substratum. The ECM could not be detected by SEM beneath conidia on leaves, but light microscopy and micromanipulation demonstrated that the ECM could be detected beneath some conidia on the waxy surface of an epidermal strip taken from the abaxial surface of a barley leaf. The ECM material stained positively for protein and could not be removed from the conidium interface by vacuum desiccation in the scanning electron microscope indicating that the ECM is not simply water.

Cary, J. W., M. A. Klich, et al. (2005). "Characterization of aflatoxin-producing fungi outside of Aspergillus section Flavi." Mycologia, 97(2): 425-432. Most aspergilli that produce aflatoxin are members of

Aspergillus section Flavi, however isolates of several Aspergillus species not closely related to section Flavi also have been found to produce aflatoxin. Two of the species, Aspergillus ochraceoroseus and an undescribed Aspergillus species SRRC 1468, are morphologically similar to members of Aspergillus section Circumdati. The other species have Emericella teleomorphs (Em. astellata and an undescribed Emericella species SRRC 2520) and are morphologically distinctive in having ascospores with large flanges. All these aflatoxin-producing isolates were from tropical zones near oceans, and none of them grew on artificial media at 37 C. Aflatoxins and sterigmatocystin production were quantified by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and confirmed by HPLC-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) detection. Phylogenetic analyses were conducted on these four species using A.

parasiticus and Em. nidulans, (which produce aflatoxin and the aflatoxin precursor sterigmatocystin, respectively) for comparison. Two aflatoxin/sterigmatocystin

biosynthesis genes and the beta tubulin gene were used in the analyses. Results showed that of the new aflatoxin-producers, Aspergillus SRRC 1468 forms a strongly supported clade with A. ochraceoroseus as does Emericella SRRC 2520 with Em. astellata SRRC 503 and 512.

Castaneda Ruiz, R. F., D. Garcia, et al. (1998). "Arthrowallemia, a new genus of hyphomycetes from tropical litter." Mycological Research 102(1): 16-18. Arthrowallemia anam. gen. nov., characterized by holothallic

conidiogenesis, secession randomly schizolytic, and cylindrical, septate, brown conidia emerging from conspicuous unbranched conidiophores, is described and illustrated. The type species, A. formosa sp. nov., was collected on unidentified decaying leaves in Cuba. NotesArthrowallemia anam. on similar genera are given.

Castaneda Ruiz, R. F., B. Kendrick, et al. (1998). "A new species of Hemibeltrania from Cuba." Mycological Research 102(8): 930-932. Hemibeltrania saikawae sp. nov., found on decaying leaves in Cuba and

characterized by cylindrical to clavate, mammillate, one-celled conidia, is described and illustrated. A key to Hemibeltrania species is provided.

CASTILLO, A., C. ILLANA, et al. (1998). "Protophysarum phloiogenum and a new family in the Physarales." Mycol. Res. 102: 838-842. A taxonomic and chorologic study of Protophysarum

phloiogenum, including light and SEM micrographs is presented. The authors propose the new family Protophysaraceae in the Physarales.

Castillo, A., G. Moreno, et al. (1997). "A critical study of some Stemonitales."

Mycological Research 101(11): 1329-1340. Based upon studies of type specimens six species of Stemonitales are

redescribed and illustrated : Comatricha microcarpa, C. laxa, C. nigricapillitium, Stemonitis fusca and S. nigrescens are critically reviewed and illustrated. Comatricha microcarpa is considered to be a nomen ambiguum, and Stemonitis nigrescens is treated as an extreme form of S. fusca. S. virginiensis is recognized as a rare species distinct from the smaller forms of S. fusca. Comatricha nigricapillitium comb. nov. is proposed for Lamproderma nigricapillitium.

Castillo, G. and V. Demoulin (1997). "NaCl salinity and temperature effects on growth of three wood-rotting basidiomycetes from a Papua New Guinea coastal forest." Mycological Research 101(3): 341-344. The growth of three wood inhabiting basidiomycetes (Microporus

xanthopus, Pycnoporus sanguineus and Schizophyllum commune) isolated from a tropical coastal forest of Papua New Guinea is characterized in relation to temperature and NaCl salinity. P. sanguineus and M. xanthopus present a very similar response to NaCl salinity, but P. sanguineus has a wider tolerance for temperature variations. S. commune withstands wide temperature variations, but it is the only one to present a marked salt resistance. This correlates with its abundance along the sea. The presence of P. sanguineus in the same habitat is rather unexpected since it is very sensitive to NaCl salinity. Its high growth rate probably allows it to take advantage of periods of high rains that limit salt accumulation.

Castlebury, L. A., L. M. Carris, et al. (2005). "Phylogenetic analysis of Tilletia and allied genera in order Tilletiales (Ustilaginomycetes; Exobasidiomycetidae) based on large subunit nuclear rDNA sequences." Mycologia, 97(4): 888–900. The order Tilletiales (Ustilaginomycetes, Basidiomycota)

includes six genera (Conidiosporomyces, Erratomyces, Ingoldiomyces, Neovossia, Oberwinkleria

and Tilletia) and approximately 150 species. All members of Tilletiales infect hosts in the grass family Poaceae with the exception of Erratomyces spp., which occur on hosts in the Fabaceae. Morphological features including teliospore ornamentation, number and nuclear condition of primary basidiospores and ability of primary basidiospores to conjugate and form an infective dikaryon were studied in conjunction with sequence analysis of the large subunit nuclear rDNA gene (nLSU). Analysis based on nLSU data shows that taxa infecting hosts in the grass subfamily Pooideae form one well supported lineage. This lineage comprises most of the reticulate-spored species that germinate to form a small number of rapidly conjugating basidiospores and includes the type species Tilletia tritici. Two tuberculate-spored species with a large number of nonconjugating basidiospores, T. indica and T. walkeri, and Ingoldiomyces hyalosporus are also included in this lineage. Most of the species included in the

analysis with echinulate, verrucose or tuberculate teliospores that germinate to form a large number (.30) of nonconjugating basidiospores infect hosts in the subfamilies Panicoideae, Chloridoideae, Arundinoideae and Ehrhartoideae. This group of species is more diverse than the pooid-infecting taxa and in general do not form well supported clades corresponding to host subfamily. The results of this work suggest that morphological

characters used to segregate Neovossia, Conidiosporomyces and Ingoldiomyces from Tilletia are not useful generic level characters and that all included species can be accommodated in the genus Tilletia.

CASTLEBURY, L. A., A. Y. ROSSMAN, et al. (2004). "Multigene phylogeny reveals new lineage for Stachybotrys chartarum, the indoor air fungus." Mycol. Res. 108: 864-872. Stachybotrys chartarum is an asexually reproducing fungus

commonly isolated from soil and litter that is also known to occur in indoor environments and is implicated as the cause of serious illness and even death in humans. Despite its economic importance, higher level phylogenetic relationships of Stachybotrys have not been determined nor has a sexual state for S. chartarum been reported. DNA sequences from four nuclear and one mitochondrial gene were analyzed to determine the ordinal and familial placement of Stachybotrys within the Euascomycota. These data reveal that species of Stachybotrys including S. chartarum, S. albipes, for which the sexual state Melanopsamma pomiformis is reported, species of Myrothecium, and two other tropical hypocrealean species form a previously unknown monophyletic lineage within the Hypocreales. These results suggest that Stachybotrys and Myrothecium are closely related and share characteristics with other hypocrealean fungi. In addition, S. chartarum may have a sexual state in nature that consists of small, black, fleshy perithecia similar to Melanopsamma.

Castlebury, L. A., A. Y. Rossman, et al. (2002). "A preliminary overview of the Diaporthales based on large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences." Mycologia, 94(6): 1017-1031. The ascomycete order Diaporthales includes a number of plant

pathogenic fungi such as Cryphonectria parasitica, the chestnut blight fungus, as well as many asexually reproducing fungi without known sexual states. Relationships among genera in the Diaporthales were evaluated as a basis for the recognition of families and to provide a taxonomic framework for the asexually reproducing diaporthalean fungi. Phylogenetic relationships were determined based on analyses of large subunit (LSU) nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) sequences. Within the Diaporthales 82 sequences representing 69 taxa were analyzed. Results suggest the presence of at least six major lineages within the Diaporthales recognized as the Gnomoniaceae sensu stricto, Melanconidaceae sensu stricto, Schizoparme complex including the anamorph genera Coniella and

Pilidiella, Cryphonectria- Endothia complex, Valsaceae sensu stricto, and Diaporthaceae sensu stricto. In addition, six teleomorphic and anamorphic taxa fell within the Diaporthales but were not allied with any of the six lineages.

CATANIA, M. D. V. and A. I. ROMERO (2001). "Tripospora militaris sp. nov. from Argentina, with a key to the known species." Mycol. Res. 105: 1020-1024. Four field trips in a Podocarpus parlatorei forest in north-west

Argentina yielded 240 collections of Coryneliales. Sixty-eight were of a new species, Tripospora militaris sp. nov., and the remainder belonged to Corynelia oreophila. A key to the four known Tripospora species is given.

Cavender, J. C., E. Vadell, et al. (2005). "New species of small dictyostelids from the Great Smoky Mountains National Park." Mycologia, 97(2): 498-512. Ten new species of small dictyostelids, five belonging to

Acytostelium (A. anastomosans, A. longisorophorum, A. magnisorum, A. serpentarium and A.

singulare) and five to Dictyostelium (D. amphisporum, D. naviculare, D. oculare, D. potamoides and D. stellatum), were isolated from forest soils in the Great

Smoky Mountains National Park. These species were recovered mostly from acidic soils and at higher elevations. They represent a large group of dictyostelids

of small stature (,2 mm total height) on which we are beginning to accumulate more information.

Ceresini, P. C., H. D. Shew, et al. (2002). "Genetic diversity of Rhizoctonia solani AG-3 from potato and tobacco in North Carolina." Mycologia, 94(3): 437-449. Anastomosis group 3 (AG-3) of Rhizoctonia solani (teleomorph

5 Thanatephorus cucumeris) is frequently associated with diseases of potato (AG-3 PT) and tobacco (AG-3 TB). Although isolates of R. solani AG-3 from these two Solanaceous hosts are somatically related based on anastomosis reaction and taxonomically related based on fatty acid, isozyme and DNA characters, considerable differences are evident in their biology, ecology, and epidemiology. However, genetic diversity among field populations of R. solani AG-3 PT and TB has not been documented. In this study, the genetic diversity of field populations of R. solani AG-3 PT and AG-3 TB in North Carolina was examined using somatic compatibility and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) criteria. A sample of 32 isolates from potato and 36 isolates from tobacco were paired in all possible combinations on PDA plus activated charcoal and examined for their resulting somatic interactions.

Twenty-eight and eight distinct somatic compatibility groups (SCG) were identified in the AG-3 PT and AG-3 TB samples, respectively. AFLP analyses indicated that each of the 32 AG-3 PT isolates had a distinct AFLP phenotype, whereas 28 AFLP phenotypes were found among the

36 isolates of AG-3 TB. None of the AG-3 PT isolates were somatically compatible or shared a common AFLP phenotype with any AG-3 TB isolate. Clones (i.e., cases where two or more isolates were somatically compatible and shared the same AFLP phenotype) were identified only in the AG-3 TB population. Four clones from tobacco represented 22% of the total population. All eight SCG from tobacco were associated with more than one AFLP phenotype. Compatible somatic interactions between AG-3 PT isolates occurred only between

certain isolates from the same field (two isolates in each of four different fields), and when this occurred AFLP phenotypes were similar but not identical.

Ceresini, P. C., H. D. Shew, et al. (2002). "Genetic structure of populations of Rhizoctonia solani AG-3 on potato in eastern North Carolina." Mycologia, 94(3): 450-460. A polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length

polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method was developed to identify and differentiate genotypes of Rhizoctonia solani anastomosis group 3 subgroup PT (AG-3 PT), a fungal pathogen of potato. Polymorphic co-dominant single-locus PCR-RFLP markers were identified after sequencing of clones from a genomic library and digestion with restriction enzymes. Multilocus genotypes were determined by a combination of PCR product and digestion with a specific restriction enzyme for each of seven loci. A sample of 104 isolates from one commercial field in each of five counties in eastern North Carolina was analyzed, and evidence for high levels of gene flow between populations was revealed. When data were clone-corrected and samples pooled into one single North Carolina population, random associations of alleles were found for all loci or pairs of loci, indicating random mating. However, when all genotypes

were analyzed, the observed genotypic diversity deviated from panmixia and alleles within and between loci were not randomly associated. These findings support a model of population structure for R. solani AG-3 PT on potato that includes both recombination and clonality.

Chaiprasert, A. (2004). Dermatophytes and Pythiopsis. Thai Fungal Diversity, BIOTEC, Thailand: 213-225. Dermatophytes, the etiologic agents of dermatophytoses or tineas have

been intersively studied in the past. There are more than 40 common species found worldwide. Epidemiological studies in Thailand revealed that tinea pedis,.......

CHAISRISOOK, C. (2002). "Mycelial reactions and mycelial compatibility groups of red rice mould (Monascus purpureus)." Mycol. Res. 106: 298-304. Intraspecific heterogeneity among 27 Asian monoconidial

isolates and four ATCC ex-type cultures of Monascus purpureus from red rice and sufu was revealed as mycelial compatibility groups (MCGs) using mycelial reactions of 496 mycelial parings. Among 88 pairs, at least three

kinds of mycelial incompatible reactions were found at the interaction zone of confronting colonies as: (1) closely forming but not overlapping colonies; (2) sparsely forming aerial mycelia;

and (3) thick mycelial band followed by mycelial deterioration of one partner. A mycelial-free zone was not found in any interaction. Compatible interactions were evidenced by freely intermingled hyphae with no apparent inhibition of growth of either partner. At least six MCGs were found based on compatible reactions. MCG1 and MCG2 consisted of 11 isolates, mostly from Thailand. Also, MCG1 contained two ATCC ex-type cultures, ATCC16365 (from Indonesia) and ATCC26264 (from Taiwan). In addition to nine Thai isolates, MCG2 included T9.1 isolate from China and isolate ATCC16427. Furthermore, four small MCGs of M. purpureus were identified. MCG3 (isolates A4.8 & TT4.2) and MCG4 (isolates 10 & M6) were comprised of isolates from Thailand. MCG6 consisted of Japanese isolate M22, and ATCC16360. Isolate ATCC16360 was of unknown origin and previously had been identified as M. anka. MCG5 consisted of Japanese isolate M20 and two Thai isolates, M13 & M14. The result indicated the Thai isolates of MCG1 (16.1, T8.6, TT2.3, TT5.1, M1, M2, M3, M7 & SR) were the same clone as those isolates from Indonesia and Taiwan. Also, the Thai isolates of MCG2 (4, 8, 11, TT1.1, M4, M8, M15, M17 & M18) along with the Chinese isolate T9.1 and ATCC16427 were from the same genetic origin. This study was correlated to those of RAPD analysis of genetic variation within a collection of Monascus spp. isolated from red rice and sufu. M. purpureus isolates used as a starter culture of red rice production among Asian countries were from a rather restricted genetic pool, e.g. China, Taiwan and Japan, although the isolates of M. purpureus studied were moderately genetically diverse.

Chaleamklin, P. (2006). Rare and Endangered Native Fragrant Flower Species in Thailand, Biodiversity Research and Training Program. Challen, M. P., R. W. Kerrigan, et al. (2003). "A phylogenetic reconstruction and emendation of Agaricus section Duploannulatae." Mycologia, 95(1): 71-73. Agaricus section Duploannulatae comprises the group of

species allied with A. bisporus and A. bitorquis. Disagreement exists in the literature regarding the composition of this group. We used DNA sequence data from the ITS segments of the nuclear ribosomal DNA region, in a sample of European and

North American isolates, to identify characters shared by this group, to further delimit species-level taxa within the section, and to develop a phylogenetic hypothesis. Shared polymorphisms that suggest a natural limit for section Duploannulatae were found. ITS1 data were assessed using parsimony, distance and maximum likelihood methods of phylogeny. The section Duploannulatae comprised six robust clades. Five clades corresponded to well characterized species from the temperate Northern Hemisphere (A. bisporus, A. subfloccosus, A. bitorquis, A. vaporarius, A. cupressicola).

The sixth clade encompassed an A. devoniensis complex. Species concepts, nomenclature, and relationships are discussed and compared with prior reports.

CHAMBERS, S. M., R. M. BURKE, et al. (1999). "Molecular and biochemical evidence for manganese-dependent peroxidase activity in Tylospora fibrillosa." Mycol. Res. 103: 1098-1102. Gel-based and spectrophotometric assays were used to

demonstrate expression of a manganese-dependent peroxidase (MnP) activity in culture filtrates of the ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete Tylospora fibrillosa. PCR amplification using a primer pair specific for a 260 bp fragment from the 5'-end of a gene encoding an H3-like MnP isozyme in Phanerochaete chrysosporium, produced single amplification products of 260 bp from DNA extracted from two isolates of T.fibillosa. The ampli®ed fragment from T. fibrillosa had a 93.7% nucleotide overlap (over 201 bases) with a published sequence for a 260 base amplification product from the P.

chrysosporium H3 MnP isozyme gene, strongly suggesting the presence of a homologous gene in the ectomycorrhizal fungus. The results are discussed in the context of lignin degradation by ectomycorrhizal fungi. CHAMBERS, S. M., P. G.WILLIAMS, et al. (1999). "Molecular identification of Hymenoscyphus sp. from rhizoids of the leafy liverwort Cephaloziella exiliflora in Australia and Antarctica." Mycol. Res. 103: 286-288. Fungi isolated from the leafy liverwort Cephaloziella exiliflora

collected in Australia and continental Antarctica were compared with Hymenoscyphus ericae using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region DNA sequences. The isolates displayed<2.1% sequence divergence within the ITS region, indicating that the endophytes from C. exiliflora are probably H. ericae. The data signi®cantly extend the known host range and geographical distribution of H. ericae and indicate that the fungus has a global distribution.

CHAMBERS, S. M., C. J. HITCHCOCK, et al. (2005). "Ectomycorrhizal mycobionts of Pisonia grandis on coral cays in the Capricorn-Bunker group, Great Barrier Reef, Australia." Mycol. Res. 109(10): 1105-1111. The diversity of ectomycorrhizal mycobionts of Pisonia grandis

(Nyctaginaceae) from coral cays in the Capricorn-Bunker group, Great Barrier Reef, Australia, was examined. Only two ectomycorrhiza morphotypes (brown and black) were identified in soil from seven cays and DNA from both morphotypes was subjected to ITS-RFLP and sequence analysis. The brown morphotype was present in soil from all cays but the black morphotype was only observed in soil from three cays. ITS-RFLP analysis showed that the brown and black morphotypes were formed by different fungal taxa, with the RFLP pattern for the black morphotype being consistent with that of the culture previously obtained

from black ectomycorrhizal roots on Heron Island. Comparison with the GenBank database revealed that closest matches to both morphotypes were sequences for various Thelephoraceae (Basidiomycota), but the brown and black morphotypes had only 80% sequence similarity to each other. Neighbour-joining analysis of these sequences with sequences for other Thelephoraceae grouped the brown and black morphotypes in a well-supported clade with several Tomentella species, suggesting that both belong to this genus. The data are discussed in relation to ectomycorrhizal fungal diversity and the coral cay habitat.

CHAMBERS, S. M., G. LIU, et al. (2000). "ITS rDNA sequence comparison of ericoid mycorrhizal endophytes from Woollsia pungens." Mycol. Res. 104: 168-174. The ITS regions of 14 isolates of endophytic fungi obtained

from the root systems of four Woollsia pungens plants were sequenced and compared to sequences of Hymenoscyphus ericae, Oidiodendron maius and to sequences from other fungal taxa currently available in the GenBank and EMBL nucleotide databases. Sequence data suggested that six distinct taxa were present in the root systems of the four plants and that up to four of these were present in the root system of a single plant. One of the endophytes was identified as an Oidiodendron species, while most other isolates probably belong to the Leotiales.

CHANG, H. S., S.-Y. HSIEH, et al. (1998). "New freshwater species of Ascotaiwania and Savoryella from Taiwan." Mycol. Res. 102: 709-718. Four new taxa are described, each having multiseptate

ascospores with hyaline end cells ; Savoryella limnetica, Ascotaiwania wulai, A. hsilio and A. sawada). Savoryella and Ascotaiwania are evaluated and separated by the following characters : Savoryella has broad, up to 8 µm paraphyses (sparse) that are septate and rounded at their ends, and smaller asci with an apical thickening containing a plugged pore and 3-septate ascospores ; Ascotaiwania has narrow, filiform, septate paraphyses up to 2 µm wide, but these deliquesce early and are rarely observed in mature ascomata. Ascotaiwania also has asci with a well-developed apical ring and plugged pore and ascospores generally with more than 3 septa. Ultrastructural studies of A. lignicola showed that the ascopores are covered by a thin mucilaginous sheath and unitunicate asci with the wall comprising an outer, 30-40 nm electron-dense layer and an inner, 420-450 nm, thick, electron-transparent layer. Asci have a well-developed apical apparatus consisting of an electron-dense apical ring with a plug. The plug deliquesces prior to ascospore release. The ascospore wall comprises an electron-dense episporium and a less electron-dense mesosporium. External to the episporium is a fibro-granular sheath.

Chang, S.-T. (1972). The Chinese Mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) Morphology,

Cytology, Genetics, Nutrition and Cultivation, The Chinese University of Hong Kong. Chang, T. and W. Chou (2003). "Taiwanoporia, a new aphyllophoralean genus." Mycologia, 95(6): 1215-1217. A new genus, Taiwanoporia, is proposed to accommodate a

new species, T. amylospora, recently collected in Taiwan. This species has a monomitic hyphal system with simple septa, and amyloid, hyaline, smooth, subglobose basidiospores.

Chang, T. T. (1997). "Two new species of Hymenochaetaceae from Taiwan." Mycological Research 101(8): 1003-1005. Two new species of Hymenochaetaceae, Phellinus fushanus sp. nov. and

Inonotus fushanus sp. nov., found growing saprotrophically on the stem of Persea zuilhoensis and Quercus longinus, respectively, in Taiwan, are described and illustrated.

Chang, T. T. and W. N. Chou (1998). "Antrodia lalashana sp. nov. and Antrodiella formosana sp. nov. in Taiwan." Mycological Research 102(4): 400-402. Antrodia lalashana sp. nov. and Antrodiella formosana sp. nov. found

growing saprotrophically on the decayed stems of Persea zuilhoensis and Abies kawakamii, respectively, in Taiwan, are described and illustrated. Cultural characters are described for the two species.

CHANG, T. T. and W. N. CHOU (1998). "Two new species of Inonotus from Taiwan." Mycol. Res. 102: 788-790. Two new species of Inonotus, I. chihshanyenus sp. nov. and I.

formosanus sp. nov. found growing saprotrophically on the decayed stems of Melicope merrillii and Persea zuilhoensis, respectively, in Taiwan are described and illustrated. Their cultural characters are described.

CHANG, T. T. and W. N. CHOU (1999). "Two new species of Phellinus from Taiwan." Mycol. Res. 103: 50-52. Phellinus formosanus sp. nov. and P. prunicola sp. nov. found

growing saprotrophically on decayed stems of Schima superba and Prunus mume, respectively, in Taiwan, are described and illustrated. Cultural characters are described.

CHANG, T. T. and W. N. CHOU (1999). "Antrodia taxa sp. nov. and Perenniporia celtis sp. nov. in Taiwan." Mycol. Res. 103: 622-624. Antrodia taxa sp. nov. and Perenniporia celtis sp. nov. found

growing saprotrophically on the decayed stems of Taxus mairei and Celtis sinensis, respectively, in Taiwan, are described and illustrated. A. taxa is distinguished by effused-refiexed to pileate basidiomes and small oblong ellipsoid basidiospores 4x2.5 µm. P. celtis is characterized by large,

subglobose to tear-shaped, non-truncate basidiospores 8.5--10x5--7 µm and encrusted cystidia. Cultural characteristics are described for the two species.

CHANG, T. T. and W. N. CHOU (1999). "Ceriporiopsis microporus and Tyromyces formosanus, two new polypore species from Taiwan." Mycol. Res.: 674-676. Ceriporiopsis microporus sp. nov. and Tyromyces formosanus

sp. nov., found growing saprotrophically on the decayed stems of Chamaecyparis formosensis and unidentified hardwood, respectively, in Taiwan are described and illustrated. C. microporus is distinguished by small hymenial pores and broadly ellipsoid to subglobose basidiospores. T. formosanus is characterized by large, broadly ellipsoid to subglobose basidiospores. Cultural characteristics are described for the two species.

CHANG, T. T. and W. N. CHOU (2000). "Perenniporia nanjenshana sp. nov. on Daphniphyllum in Taiwan." Mycol. Res. 104: 637-639. A new basidiomycete, Perenniporia nanjenshana sp. nov.,

found growing saprotrophically on the basal stem of Daphniphyllum pentandrum var. oldhamii in Taiwan, is described and illustrated. It is distinguished from other species of Perenniporia by the resinous to woody basidiomes and large (9.5--14 µm long) ovoid to subglobose, non-truncate basidiospores. Cultural characteristics are described for the species. A key to the world species of Perenniporia with large (>8 µm long) basidiospores is provided.

CHANG, T. T. and W. W. YANG (1998). "Phellinus noxius in Taiwan: distribution, host plants and the pH and texture of the rhizosphere soils of infected hosts." Mycol. Res. 102: 1085-1088. From 1991 to 1996, Phellinus noxius was collected on 60 host

plant species at 136 different sites in Taiwan, and two host plant species at two different sites on Kinmen Island. It was collected mostly on hosts growing in the low elevation plains and hills of western, eastern and southern Taiwan, while it was found on only a few hosts in northern Taiwan and was absent from the high mountain areas. P. noxius was observed on and isolated from 57 woody species, and three annual herbaceous plants. In the field, basidiomes of P. noxius have only been observed on Casuarina equisetifolia, Delonix regia and Ficus microcarpa. A dark brown mycelial mat on the surface of the roots and up the base of stems was used reliably for the field identification of P. noxius. Although P. noxius

did not favour a particular soil pH, it was not found in extreme pH conditions. It was found in soils from pH 4 to 9 and most frequently in soil from pH 5 to 8. P. noxius occurred mostly in soils with sand, loamy sand and sandy loam textures.

Chapela, I. H. and M. Garbelotto (2004). "Phylogeography and evolution in matsutake and close allies inferred by analyses of ITS sequences and AFLPs." Mycologia, 96(4): 730-741. Matsutake are commercially important ectomycorrhizal

basidiomycetes in the genus Tricholoma. Despite their importance, the systematics of this species complex have remained elusive and little is known about their origin and biogeography. Using DNA analyses on a worldwide sample of matsutake, we present here the first comprehensive definition of natural groupings in this species complex. We infer patterns of migration and propose Eocene origins for the group in western North America by a transfer from an angiosperm-associated ancestor to an increasingly specialized conifer symbiont. From these origins, matsutake appear to have followed migratory routes parallel to those of coniferous hosts. Patterns of vicariance between eastern North America and eastern Asia are resolved and their origins are suggested to stem from migration through Beringia. Using an analysis of genetic dissimilarity and geographical distance, we reject both the possibility that migration into Europe and Asia occurred through Atlantic bridges and the connection between matsutake populations in the Mahgrebi Mountains and those

from Europe. Instead, African and European matsutake appear to be the most recent ends of a westward

expansion of the domain of these fungi from North America. CHARCOSSET, J.-Y. and M. GARDES (1999). "Infraspecific genetic diversity and substrate preference in the aquatic hyphomycete Tetrachaetum elegans." Mycol. Res. 103: 736-742. Spores of Tetrachaetum elegans were isolated in early autumn

from submerged leaves which were randomly collected at a single site from a small stream in southwestern France. In order to investigate potential substrate preferences, spores were sampled in four leaves from seven different plant genera. A total of 96 monosporic isolates were screened for genetic variation in RAPD patterns using nine different primers. Fifty-two fragments were identified and used for calculation of similarity coefficients. A large number of fragments were shared across all isolates, suggesting that the population was genetically homogeneous. The combination of 11 polymorphic fragments contributed to the delineation of 13 RAPD types. Colonization of a single leaf by multiple genotypes was frequently encountered. Fungal genetic assemblages differed between plant genera. Variations in the frequency of occurrence of the various genotypes are discussed in terms of ecological strategies and in reference to previous work at the community level. We suggested two hypotheses: first, substrate preferences are found among aquatic hyphomycete genotypes, and secondly, sequential occupation by distinctive populations may result in different assortments of genotypes on leaf litters of different plants at any given

time of sampling.

Chatmala, I., A. Amen, et al. (1999). The Study of Genetic Variation in Pleurotus spp. by Genetic Engineering Techniques. Applied Biology, King Mongkut' s Institute of Technology Lardkrabang 1999: 45. Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) regions in ribosomal RNA genes which

have different DNA sequences in different organisms were used to detect genetic variation among 7 species of Pleurotus spp.

Chatmala, I., J. Sakayaroj, et al. (2004). "Marine hyphomycetes of Thailand and Cumulospora varia sp nov." Fungal Diversity 17: 1-9. CHAVERR, P., J. F. BISCHOFF, et al. (2005). "A new species of Hypocrella, H. macrostroma, and its phylogenetic relationships to other species with large stromata." Mycol. Res. 109(11): 1268-1275. Two specimens of a new species of Hypocrella with large

stromata were collected in Bolivia and Costa Rica. The morphology of the new species, H. macrostroma sp. nov., was compared with that of other species with large stromata, i.e. H. africana, H. gaertneriana, and H. schizostachyi. In addition, phylogenetic analyses of partial sequences from three genes, large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA (LSU), translation elongation factor 1-α (EF1-α), and RNA polymerase II subunit 1 (RPB1), were conducted to determine the relationships of the new species to other species of Hypocrella/ Aschersonia. Phylogenetic analyses show that H. macrostroma belongs to a strongly supported clade that includes H. africana, H. schizostachyi, and Aschersonia insperata, whereas other Hypocrella species belong to two sister clades. Hypocrella macrostroma is described and illustrated, and a lectotype is designated for H. gaertneriana.

Chaverri, P., J. F. Bischoff, et al. (2005). "Regiocrella, a new entomopathogenic genus with a pycnidial anamorph and its phylogenetic placement in the Clavicipitaceae." Mycologia, 97(6): 1225–1237. A new genus, Regiocrella, is described with two species, R.

camerunensis and R. sinensis, based on specimens collected in Cameroon and China. Both

species are parasitic on scale insects (Coccidae, Homoptera). Morphological and molecular evidence place the new genus in the Clavicipitaceae (Hypocreales),

despite its combination of characters that are atypical of that family; Regiocrella is characterized by having perithecia partly immersed in a subiculum, noncapitate asci, unicellular fusiform ascospores and pycnidial-acervular conidiomata. The two new species, R. camerunensis and R. sinensis, are distinguished based on ascospore and perithecium size. Morphological characters were evaluated and compared to other genera in the Clavicipitaceae, especially those parasitic on scale insects or with pycnidial-acervular anamorphs or synanamorphs (i.e. Aschersonia,

Ephelis or Sphacelia): Atkinsonella, Balansia, Claviceps, Epichloe, Hypocrella, Myriogenospora and Neoclaviceps. The phylogenetic relationships of Regiocrella were examined with three gene loci: large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA (LSU), translation elongation factor 1-a (TEF), and RNA polymerase II subunit 1 (RPB1). The results of this study confirm that Regiocrella is distinct from other genera in the Clavicipitaceae and that its two species form a monophyletic group. Regiocrella is shown to be closely related to the scale insect pathogen Hypocrella and the plant-associated genera Balansia, Claviceps, Epichloe, Myriogenospora and Neoclaviceps. This study also provides insights into the evolution of pycnidial-acervular conidiomata and scale insect parasitism within the Clavicipitaceae. Plant-associated genera form a monophyletic group correlated with Clavicipitaceae subfamily Clavicipitoideae sensu Diehl. We also demonstrate that scale insect parasites have multiple evolutionary origins within the family and genera with pycnidial-acervular anamorphs or synanamorphs have a single origin.

Chaverri, P., L. A. Castlebury, et al. (2003). "Hypocrea/Trichoderma: species with conidiophore elongations and green conidia." Mycologia, 95(6): 1100-1140. Species of Trichoderma and Hypocrea that have green conidia

and sterile or fertile elongations of their conidiophores are described or redescribed and their phylogenetic

position explored. The described species include T. crassum, T. fasciculatum, T. fertile, T. hamatum, T. longipile,

T. oblongisporum, T. pubescens, T. spirale, T. strictipile, T. strigosum, T. stromaticum, T. tomentosum,

Hypocrea aureoviridis f. macrospora, H. ceramica. and H. semiorbis. Trichoderma fasciculatum originally was described from cultures from ascospores of an unidentified Hypocrea specimen; it is considered to be a synonym of T. strictipile. The remaining species of Trichoderma considered here have not been linked to teleomorphs, and the Trichoderma anamorphs of H. aureoviridis f. macrospora and H. semiorbis have not been named. Five new species of Hypocrea are described, viz. H. cremea, H. cuneispora, H. estonica, H. strictipilosa and H. surrotunda. The phylogenetic relationships of these species were inferred based on partial RPB2 and EF-1a DNA sequence data and phenotypic characteristics, including teleomorph, anamorph, colony and growth rates. Trichoderma crassum was found to be a sister species to T. virens, based on molecular sequences and phenotypic data. Hypocrea surrotunda and H. cremea, H. cuneispora and T. longipile, T. fertile and T. oblongisporum, T. tomentosum and H. atrogelatinosa,

and T. hamatum and T. pubescens, respectively, were found to be closely related phylogenetically, based on RPB2 and EF-1a gene genealogies. Anamorph and teleomorph phenotype, including conidiophore

elongations, phialide morphology, conidial morphology, stroma anatomy and ascospore morphology are

not useful predictors of relationships. Despite the shared phenotypic characters of these Trichoderma

and Hypocrea species, they are distributed between two major clades of Trichoderma/Hypocrea. Redescriptions and a key to species of Hypocrea/Trichoderma with green conidia and conidiophore elongations are presented.

Chaverri, P., G. J. Samuels, et al. (2005). "The genus Podocrella and its nematode-killing anamorph Harposporium." Mycologia, 97(2): 433-443. Several genera are described in the literature as having

morphology similar to the clavicipitaceous genus Podocrella, viz. Atricordyceps, phiocordyceps,

Wakefieldiomyces and ‘‘Cordyceps’’ peltata. These genera have capitate-stipitate stromata that gradually expand into a horizontally flattened fertile head that is dark, has strongly protruding perithecia and asci containing eight multiseptate filiform ascospores. These ascospores disarticulate at the middle septum to form two lanceolate multiseptate part-ascospores. In this study several specimens of the above-mentioned genera, including the types, were examined to determine whether they are congeneric with Podocrella. This study also reveals the connection of Podocrella to its anamorph genus, Harposporium, and its relationship to several other clavicipitaceous genera, based on cultural data and large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA (LSU) sequences. Nematode predation of the Harposporium anamorph of P. peltata is demonstrated. The results show Podocrella and selected Harposporium LSU sequences form a monophyletic group and that this clade is closely related to Aschersonia. A new species of Podocrella from Costa Rica, P. fusca, is described, new combinations made for P. peltata and P. harposporifera, and a key to the known species is presented.

Chayamarit, K. (1997). Herbal of Thailand :6, Dimon Printing Company. 6: 166. Chayamarit, K. (2002). Key Classificatiion of Plant, Populace Company. Chayamarit, K. (2005). Taxonomy and The Usages of Euphorbiaceae (in Thai). Chayamarit, K. (2005). Key Characters of Plant Families. Chayamarit, K., R. Puma, et al. (2005). Plant of Doi Chiang Dao. Chayamarit, K. and L. Pupattanapong (2002). Herbal of Thailand :7, Populace Company. 7: 258. CHECA, J., A. W. RAMALEY, et al. (2002). "Paraphaeosphaeria barrii, a new species on Yucca schidigera from Mexico." Mycol. Res. 106: 375-379. Paraphaeosphaeria barrii, a new species of the genus found on

Agavaceae, is described from leaves of Yucca schidigera collected in Baja California, Mexico. The Coniothyrium anamorph is briefly described from cultured ascospores. This species was found to be most closely related to P. conglomerata, P. filamentosa, and P. quadriseptata all of which are from Agavaceae, produce 3 or 4 septate ascospores and pigmented, non-septate conidia from holoblastic, percurrently proliferating conidiogenous cells.

Chelico, L., J. L. Haughian, et al. (2005). "Quantification of ultraviolet-C irradiation induced cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers and their removal in Beauveria bassiana conidiospore DNA." Mycologia, 97(3): 621–627. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation-induced DNA damage leading to

entomopathogenic fungal inactivation is commonly measured by viability counts. Here we report the first quantification of UV-induced cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPD) in DNA of the entomopathogenic fungus, Beauveria bassiana. Changes in the mobility of UV-C irradiated DNA were resolved with CPD specific bacteriophage T4 endonuclease V and alkaline agarose gel electrophoresis. The maximum number of CPD formed in B. bassiana DNA in vitro by UV-C irradiation was 28 CPD/ 10 kb after 720 J/m2 dose. The maximum number of CPDs formed in B. bassiana onidiospore DNA irradiated in vivo was 15 CPD/10 kb after 480 J/m2 dose and was quantified from conidiospores that were incubated to allow photoreactivation and nucleotide

excision repair. The conidiospores incubated for photoreactivation and nucleotide excision repair showed decreased number of CPD/10 kb DNA and a higher percent survival of conidiospore populations than conidiospores not allowed to repair.

Chelico, L. and G. G. Khachatourians (2003). "Permeabilization of Beauveria bassiana blastospores for in situ enzymatic assays." Mycologia, 95(5): 976-981. Vigorous agitation of an aqueous suspension of blastospores

(BS) of Beauveria bassiana mixed with nine volumes of a 1:4 (v/v) mixture of toluene:

ethanol (95%) for 10 min permits blastospore permeabilization. Agitation results in greater membrane permeabilization than heating blastospores in the presence of toluene:ethanol or the detergents Triton X-100, sodium dodecyl sulfate, hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide and Brij-35. The β-galactosidase activity in permeabilized blastospores was determined with these methods. The effectiveness of permeabilization in detecting enzyme activity was assessed by comparison to whole BS lysates prepared by mechanical disruption and pressurized disruption of BS biomass. The toluene:ethanol method was applied to study the incorporation of 3H-thymidine triphosphate into blastospore DNA. Whole BS permeabilization allows the examination of enzyme activity and DNA synthesis at a cellular level in this important mycoinsecticide.

Chen, C.-J. and F. Oberwinkler (2004). "Amauromyces farinaceous, rare known species and new record from Taiwan." Mycologia, 96(2): 418-423. Amauromyces farinaceous is investigated. The species is a

rare corticiaceous Homobasidiomycete recently collected in Taiwan. The unique basidial

morphology, cell walls and septal pores of the hyphae are studied by transmission electron microscopy. The study demonstrates the gradual thickening of

cell walls in the lower parts of young basidia, leaving only a small asymmetric cytoplasmic channel in mature stages. Systematics of genus Amauromyces are discussed by comparing it with Athelia, Athelopsis, Chaetoderma, Columnocystis, Gloeosoma, Paullicorticium, Sistotremastrum, Trechispora, Tulasnella and Veluticeps.

Chen, C.-J., F. Oberwinkler, et al. (2002). "Heterorepetobasidium, a new genus in the Auriculariales1." Mycologia, 94(3): 512-522. A new genus, Heterorepetobasidium, is proposed to

accommodate two new species, H. subglobosum and H. ellipsoideum, recently collected in Taiwan.

These species have apically, partially septate basidia, strongly swollen sterigmata, and repetobasidia. The systematics of the new taxa and related ones, inclusive of Ceratobasidium and the Ceratobasidiaceae, are reinterpreted.

CHEN, D. M. and J. W. G. CAIRNEY (2002). "Investigation of the influence of prescribed burning on ITS profiles of ectomycorrhizal and other soil fungi at three Australian sclerophyll forest sites." Mycol. Res. 106: 532-540. DNA was extracted from soil collected from the upper 15 cm of

the profile at three sclerophyll forest sites in New South Wales three days before, and 14 d after prescribed burning events. rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions were amplified by PCR using fungus-speci®c primers, and ITS products cloned. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis was conducted on the ITS clones using the endonucleases HaeIII, HinfI, MboI and AluI. Cloned ITS products from the three sites were thus separated into 120 RFLP types and the ITS product for each RFLP type was sequenced. Comparison of sequences with those available in the GenBank nucleotide database allowed putative assignment of ITS clones to the following functional groups: ectomycorrhizal (ECM), arbuscular mycorrhizal

(AM), ericoid mycorrhizal (ERM), decomposer basidiomycetes (DEC), other soil fungi (OSF). While abundant ECMlike clones were ampli®ed from pre-fire soils at the North Rocks and South Maroota sites, they were largely absent in the post-fire soils at these sites, being replaced mainly by microfungi. In contrast, no decrease in ECM-like ITS clones was observed at the Ridgecrop site following fire. The data indicate that, while the abundance of extraradical ECM fungal propagules in the upper soil profile

may be reduced by prescribed burning, the effect is site-specific. CHEN, J., Z. WANG, et al. (1998). "Ultrastructural studies of resting spore development in Polymyxa graminis." Mycol. Res. 102: 687-691. Transmission electron microscopy was used to study the

development and structure of resting spores and sporosori of Polymyxa graminis. Osmiophilic bodies generally distributed in the cytoplasm moved to the periphery as spores matured. The spore wall consisted of four or five layers, two of which extended into spines linking adjacent spores. An unstained plug in the wall, faced towards the outside of the sporosorus. Some spores germinated in situ by producing primary zoospores. Bundle-like structures in some spores may have been barley yellow mosaic virus particles.

Chen, J. L., T. L. Huang, et al. (1998). "Dactylella huisuniana, a new nematode-trapping fungus from Taiwan." Mycological Research 102(10): 1269-1273. Dactylella huisuniana sp. nov., is described and illustrated from decaying

leaves. It is characterized by tall, simple, erect, hyaline, septate conidiophores which bear denticulate, terminal or subterminal to lateral conidiogenous cells. The conidiogenous cells elongate and elaborate and become somewhat geniculate or candelabrelloid in age. The conidia are predominantly fusoid, 3-septate, widest at the distal second cell. The organism traps nematodes by adhesive knobs at the apex of erect, flexuous, unicellular pedicels arising from hyphae. The differences between D. huisuniana and D. arcuata, D. asthenopaga, D. drechsleri, D. ellipsospora, D. lysipaga, D. multiformis, Dactylaria candida, D. haptotyla, and D. sclerohypha are briefly discussed.

CHEN, J. L., T. L. HUANG, et al. (1999). "Turturconchata, a new genus of hyphomycetes from Taiwan." Mycol. Res. 103: 830-832. Turturconchata reticulata gen. et sp. nov., isolated from the

decaying stem of an herbaceous dicotyledon, is described and illustrated. It is characterized by dorsiventrally flattened olive brown conidia composed of 19--58 cells. The conidia are borne horizontally on a cuneiform basal cell originating from flexuous, curved to spiral, septate, simple or branched, indeterminate conidiogenous cells. The differences between T. reticulata and the morphologically or ontogenically somewhat related Canalisporium, Hermatomyces, Mycoenterolobium and Oncopodium are briefly discussed.

Chen, J. L., J. H. Yen, et al. (2002). "A new synnematous species of Penicillium from soil in Taiwan." Mycologia, 94(5): 866-872. A synnematous species of Penicillium, P. calidicanium, is described

and illustrated. The fungus was isolated from soil in Taiwan. Penicillium calidicanium

can be placed in subgenus Biverticillium because of its symmetrical, biverticillate

penicilli, ampulliform to acerose phialides, and ability to produce abundant synnemata in Czapek yeast extract agar, malt extract agar, and Czapek’s solution agar. It is close to P. duclauxii and P. vulpinum, but differs in colony morphology, growth rate, morphology of the synnemata, and ornamentation of the conidial wall.

CHEN, W., X. SHI, et al. (2002). "Microsatellite markers and clonal genetic structure of the fungal pathogen Phialophora gregata." Mycol. Res. 106: 194-202. A microsatellite-enriched library was constructed from genomic

DNA of Phialophora gregata f. sp. sojae, the causal agent of soybean brown stem rot. Speci®c oligonucleotide primer pairs were designed to flank individual microsatellite loci, and used in PCR to detect polymorphisms among 118 contemporary and archival isolates of P. gregata from several countries, which represent two distinct, but sympatric populations delineated by rDNA genotypes. In general, low levels of genetic variation were observed and manifested in two ways. First, the number of polymorphic loci was low. Among 24 microsatellite loci screened, four polymorphic loci were detected, and two of them were located on the same clone. Second, the number of alleles in the polymorphic loci was low. Only two alleles were observed in each polymorphic locus. Alleles of the polymorphic microsatellite loci were invariant within, but different between, the two populations of P. gregata. From all evidence available, P. gregata f. sp. sojae exhibits several genetic features characteristic of clonal genetic structure, namely widespread distribution and stability of identical genotypes, absence of recombinant genotypes, and correlation of independent genetic traits including three sets of molecular markers, defoliating and nondefoliating pathotypes, and differential pathogenic fitness.

Chen, W. Q. and T. Y. Zhang (1997). "Two new species of Alternaria from China." Mycological Research 101(10): 1257-1258. Alternaria guangxiensis and A. bannaensis on Passiflora spp. collected

from China are described and illustrated, and their affinities to closely related species are discussed.

Chen, Z., M. A. Nunes, et al. (2004). "Appressorium turgor pressure of Colletotrichum kahawae might have a role in coffee cuticle penetration." Mycologia, 96(6): 1199-1208. The method of penetration of fungi through the host cuticle by

means of cutinase versus mechanical pressure exerted by melanized appresoria has been the subject of debate. Colletotrichum kahawae Bridge & Waller infects green coffee berries in Africa, inducing 70–80% losses. Turgor pressure (TP) of the appresoria was estimated in vitro to be 2.6 MPa, about twice the osmotic pressure (OP) of the green berries. Appresoria exposed in vitro to polyethylene glycol (PEG) solution with OPs of 7.0 MPa and above immediately collapsed. However, collapsed

appresoria subjected to OP as high as 46.5 MPa could recover. Green berries inoculated with conidial suspensions, if subjected to OP of 28.5 MPa, showed 7% of them with necrotic lesions. Total inhibition of infection was achieved at 46.5 MPa. The OP of PEG solutions applied to inoculated green fruit decreased to the OP of the green berries in 48 h. The resistance of appresoria to osmotic stress, combined with the rapid dilution of PEG by solutes (water) from the fruit might explain the rate of infection even at very high OP. Unmelanized appresoria induced by tricyclazole showed TPs as low as onequarter of melanized ones and, as a consequence, the percentage of infection on leaves and green berries was much lower. Cutinase was present in conidial mucilage and in extracellular fluids of germinated conidia in vitro and in planta. Cutinase was induced by growing the fungus in Czapek-Dox medium if cutin

was used as the sole carbon source. Diisopropyl fluorophosphate, a cutinase inhibitor, totally inhibited cutinase activity of culture filtrates and extracellular fluids but did not prevent infection. It is suggested that the TP of C. kahawae appresoria might play a major role in coffee cuticle penetration, according to our results.

Chew, J. S. K., D. B. Strongman, et al. (1998). "Comparisons of twenty isolates of the entomopathogen Paecilomyces farinosus by analysis of RAPD markers." Mycological Research 102(10): 1254-1258. The genetic relatedness of twenty isolates of Paecilomyces farinosus was

determined by comparison of the products of polymerase chain reaction amplification of anonymous regions of genomic DNA with single arbitrary sequence oligonucleotide primers (RAPD analysis). Isolates were collected from seven insect species in eastern Canada and they differed greatly in cultural and morphological phenotype. All P. farinosus isolates were clearly distinguished from three other entomopathogenic fungi, including P. fumosoroseus. RAPD banding patterns did not, however, correlate with ecological backgrounds or morphological phenotypes of P. farinosus isolates. These observations support the conclusion that P. farinosus from eastern Canada is not composed of strains which can be separated on the basis of the ecological or morphological criteria selected.

CHILLALI, M., H. IDDER-IGHILI, et al. (1998). "Variation in the ITS and IGS regions of ribosomal DNA among the biological species of European Armillaria." Mycol. Res. 102: 233-240. Variation within the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and the

intergenic spacer (IGS) of the ribosomal RNA gene of isolates representing seven European species of Armillaria was examined by PCR, coupled with RFLP analysis and partial sequencing of the ITS region.

The amplified-ITS region was about 840 bp long and uniform in length among the European isolates, while the amplified-IGS region showed four different lengths which corresponded to A. mellea, A. tabescens, A. ectypa

and a group including the four other species. A. borealis, A. ostoyae, A. cepistipes and A. gallica.

Restriction digestions of the ITS and IGS regions by Alu I and Rsa I, respectively, gave rise to the same four polymorphic groups. However, A. borealis and A. ostoyae were easily separated from A. cepistipes and A. gallica by digestion of the two rDNA spacers with Hinf I and Taq I. Nde II digests of the amplified ITS could distinguish A. borealis from A. ostoyae and each of the seven species were separated by Alu I digestion of the IGS region. A North American A. mellea isolate, partly examined in this work, was found to be different from the European A. mellea isolates, while there was a close similarity between the European A. ostoyae and an isolate of the same species isolated from the U.S.A.

Cluster analysis based on the presence or absence of comigrating restriction fragments indicated more than 80% similarity between A. borealis and A. ostoyae and between A. cepistipes and A. gallica, while A. mellea, A. tabescens and A. ectypa were found in separate clusters exhibiting, respectively, about 40, 38 and 32% average similarity with the other species.

Although little intraspecific variation was observed in many species, A. gallica and A. cepistipes were found to be heterogeneous. In view of recent results suggesting several groups in A. borealis and A. cepistipes, the Alu I restriction patterns obtained in this work would identify the former species as type B, characterized by an Alu I pattern different from that of A. ostoyae, and the latter species as composed of one isolate (C4) of type B and three isolates (C1, C2 and C3) of type A.

Nucleotide sequences of the rDNA internally transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) of one isolate of each species showed that A. mellea and A. ectypa differed from the other species by several insertions and point mutations giving rise to a level of similarity ranging from 66 to 79%. This DNA region was highly conserved within the other species which revealed a similarity of 97 to 100%.

These results demonstrate that analysis of rDNA spacers provides appropriate data to circumscribe taxonomic entities within the Armillaria complex and that the phylogenic relationships among species deduced from the present study are consistent with previous analyses based on pairing tests as well as morphological and physiological characters.

Chiu, S. W., Y. H. Chan, et al. (1998). "Cadmium and manganese in contrast to calcium reduce yield and nutritional values of the edible mushroom Pleurotus pulmonarius." Mycological Research 102(4): 449-457. Pleurotus pulmonarius is a species of the oyster mushroom which has

become the second most popularly cultivated mushroom in the world. In this study, we show that renewed fruiting from excised stipes can be used as a simple and rapid in vitro bioassay system to detect fruiting modulators. We used this and conventional cultivation techniques to examine the effects of cadmium, a potential contaminant from industrial

sources, calcium, which is an ingredient in mushroom compost, and manganese, which has been claimed to improve the yield of P. ostreatus. All the three metallic salts did not affect sporulation. Calcium chloride addition shortened the time taken for the mushroom to fully cover the cultivation compost and improved yield. Insoluble calcium salts at higher concentrations had a similar though less pronounced effect. The calcium and total amino acid contents of fruit bodies also increased. Compost supplementation with calcium is desirable for cultivation of the oyster mushroom but not indispensable since the strawbased cultivation substrate is itself able to provide the required minerals. By contrast, manganese chloride retarded mycelial growth and decreased yield but increased the total amino acid content in the stipe whilst manganese sulphate did not enhance accumulation of manganese into fruit bodies. Excess manganese induced browning of vegetative tissues. Cadmium ions did not kill the oyster mushroom at 4.5 mm but reduced yield by 50%. At this concentration cadmium decreased the total amino acid content and affected the amino acid profile but did not affect the form and shape of the fruit bodies. Pleurotus pulmonarius concentrated cadmium to such an extent that consumption of as little as 20 g (d.w.) of the most contaminated samples would exceed the weekly limit tolerated by humans and thus pose a health hazard. Monitoring the heavy metal contents of mushrooms marketed for food is, therefore, advised as the source of the substrate for cultivation is usually not known.

CHIU, S. W., M. L. CHING, et al. (1998). "Spent oyster mushroom substrate performs better than many mushroom mycelia in removing the biocide pentachlorophenol." Mycol. Res. 102: 1553-1562. Chlorophenols have been commonly used as disinfectants and

preservatives but their recalcitrant nature, persistence and toxicities make them priority pollutants for treatment. The ability of various fungi (Armillaria gallica, A. mellea, Ganoderma lucidum, Lentinula edodes, Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Pleurotus pulmonarius, a Polyporus sp., Coprinus cinereus and Volvariella volvacea), and the spent mushroom substrate of P. pulmonarius (SMS) to remove pentachlorophenol (PCP) was compared using a batch cultivation system. The PCP content was monitored by reversed phase HPLC, and the breakdown products were determined by GC-MS. Possession of ligninolytic ability was determined by ability to decolourize the dye Poly-R478 at two N levels. Not all the fungi tested

decolourized the dye, and for those that did, not all showed N-modulation response on dye decolourization. All these fungi showed active breakdown in addition to biosorption as their PCP removal mechanisms. The tolerance level of the fungus towards PCP did not correlate with its degradative capacity, nor to its ability to decolourize Poly-R478. The A. mellea strain showed the highest degradative capacity (13 mg PCP g-1 mycelium; d.w.) while the Polyporus possessed the greatest biosorption capacity (31 mg PCP g-1 mycelium, d.w.). In comparison, Pleurotus SMS

harbouring both bacteria and fungi functioned over a wide range of initial PCP concentrations and reached a higher degradative capacity (19 mg PCP g-1) in only 3 d. GC-MS chromatograms revealed only residual PCP peaks in SMS extracts, a contrast with the mycelial incubations in which a variety of breakdown products were detectable. Use of SMS for bioremediation of biocide-contaminated sites seems promising.

CHIU, S. W. and D. MOORE (1999). "Segregation of genotypically diverse progeny from self-fertilized haploids of the Chinese straw mushroom, Volvariella volvacea." Mycol. Res. 103: 1335-1345. The electrophoretic karyotype of the Chinese straw mushroom,

Volvariella volvacea, was determined. The haploid strain V34 of V. volvacea has 15 chromosomes ranging in size from 1.4 to 5.1 Mb. No chromosomal polymorphism in terms of size and number was seen in either of two growth stages : vegetative mycelia or fruit-body gill tissues. DNA fingerprints were prepared by the arbitrarilyprimed polymerase chain reaction. Those obtained from different stages during fruit-body morphogenesis were identical. However, variation in DNA fingerprints was evident in protoplast regenerants derived from the same vegetative mycelium. Thus the haploid mycelium of strain V34 is heterokaryotic but the bulk genotype is stable during fruit-body development. F1 and F2 progenies germinated from the haploid, uninucleate basidiospores from self-fertilized fruit bodies also regularly segregate a range of mycelial morphological variants as well as phenotypic variation revealed by DNA fingerprints. We overview the known mechanisms to generate genetic variation and propose a novel mechanism that could account for the 1:1 segregation ratio of self-fertile to selfsterile progeny regularly obtained from selfed Volvariella volvacea fruit bodies.

CHIU, S. W., Z. M. WANG, et al. (1999). "An integrated study of individualism in Lentinula edodes in nature and its implication for cultivation strategy." Mycol. Res. 103: 651-660. A field study was carried out in a remote broadleaved Fagus

longipetiolata forest in Shaanxi province, China to study the natural local distribution of Lentinula edodes. Following spatial mapping, 24 fruit bodies were collected for tissue isolation into axenic culture. 24 genets distributed on fallen tree trunks within a distance of 120 m were identified and clustered into 7 groups using the unweighted pair-group method algorithm using data based on colony morphologies, abilities to degrade aromatic poly-R478 dye, somatic incompatibility reaction patterns and DNA fingerprints. Among the parameters used, the somatic incompatibility reaction, a

polygenic phenotype, was the most differentiating, identifying 22 incompatible classes. Two sets of fruit bodies of different genets were so close together that they would otherwise have been described as aggregate fruits of presumed identical origin. Eighteen genets found on the same 5.6 m long

tree trunk divided roughly into two clusters, matching their spatial distribution, and a nearby branch bore another distinct cluster. More heterogeneity was encountered between isolates the greater the distance separating them on the original site. Genets on the same tree trunk showed more compatible somatic reactions among themselves, and their DNA fingerprints showed higher similarity. Nevertheless, considering the totality of phenotypic characters, each fruit body is a genet in L. edodes. Such features are concluded to result from a reproductive strategy which depends on basidiospore dispersal. Within each cluster of isolates from the collection site genets seemed to have arisen from multiple sib-mating events. Thus, a cluster may represent a lineage of L. edodes. Individualism in L. edodes is based on a strong somatic incompatibility system. Strong competition from contaminating individuals arriving as air-borne basidiospores could explain decreased and fiuctuating crop yields which are now frequently observed in later fiushes from the outdoor wood log cultivation system. Further, it would also explain why multispore spawn is not favoured in artificial cultivation of this economically important edible mushroom.

CHOI, Y.-J., S.-B. HONG, et al. (2003). "Diversity of the Hyaloperonospora parasitica complex from core brassicaceous hosts based on ITS rDNA sequences." Mycol. Res. 107: 1314-1322. Sequence analysis of the ITS region of rDNA was used to

investigate the level of genetic diversity occurring within Hyaloperonospora parasitica, and to show the relationship between phylogenies of these fungi and their hosts (Brassicaceae). Maximum parsimony and neighbour-joining analyses were performed using sequences from 32 isolates of Hyaloperonospora and Perofascia, which infect core brassicaceous hosts. For comparison, five isolates of Peronospora were also studied. The constructed phylogenetic trees showed trichotomy, showing that Hyaloperonospora, Perofascia, and Peronospora have different evolutionary histories. Although isolates from Peronospora and Perofascia clearly formed respective clades, the Hyaloperonospora group allowed separation of the isolates into four distinct clades, which shared significantly low sequence similarities. We suggest that H. parasitica infecting brassicaceous hosts should be divided into a number of distinct species. The comparison of the phylogeny of H. parasitica and that of the Brassicaceae suggests that this fungus is closely related with tribes Arabidae and Brassiceae within this host family, illustrating the potential of downy mildews for co-evolution with their hosts.

CHOI, Y.-J., S.-B. HONG, et al. (2005). "A re-consideration of Pseudoperonospora cubensis and P. humuli based on molecular and morphological data." Mycol. Res. 109(7): 841-848. Phylogenetic analysis of the ITS rDNA region was carried out

with two economically important downy mildews, Pseudoperonospora

cubensis, which infects species of Cucumis, Cucurbita, and Citrullus belonging to Cucurbitaceae, and P. humuli, which infects plants of the genus Humulus belonging to Cannabaceae. Two closely related species, P. cannabina and P. celtidis, were also included to reveal taxonomic relationships with the first two mildews. All four species formed a well-resolved clade when compared with the ITS sequences of other downy mildew genera, using Bayesian inference and maximum parsimony. The P. cubensis isolates obtained from different hosts and (or) geographical origins in Korea, exhibited no intraspecific variability in the ITS sequences. The phylogenetic analyses of P. cubensis and P. humuli showed that they share a high level of sequence homology; the morphology of the sporangiophores, sporangia, and dehiscence apparatus confirmed the similarity of the two species. We therefore reduce P. humuli to the status of a taxonomic synonym of P. cubensis.

Choieykin, R. (2002). Biodiversity of Macrofungi at Khao Kheow Nature and Wildlife Educational Centre, Chonburi Province. Biotechnology, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang: 280. Surveys and collections of macrofungi in the areas of Khao Kheow

Nature and Wildlife Educational Centre, Chonburi Province, were carried out 16 times and 1-3 days in each time. Among the total of 286 samples collected, 248 samples were identified into Basidiomycetes which were attempted to be identified until species, genera, families, and orders as 108 species, 40 genera (94 samples), 6 families (25 samples) and 2 orders (21 samples). There were 35 samples identified as Ascomycetes and of these 16 were identified until species while the order 19 samples were identified into 4 genera. The 3 samples left were belonged to Myxomycetes which 2 of them were identified until species which the last sample was identified only until genus. Most samples of the Basidiomycetes collected were belonged to Agaricales and Xylaria was the most commonly found genus of Ascomycetes.

CHOU, H.-H. and W.-S. WU (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of internal transcribed spacer regions of the genus Alternaria, and the significance of filament-beaked conidia." Mycol. Res. 106: 164-169. Internal transcribed regions (ITS1 and ITS2) of 11 different

fungi, i.e. 8 species of Alternaria, Nimbya gomphrenae, Stemphylium vesicarium, and Ulocladium botrytis, were sequenced. Their phylogenetic relationships with another 36 species in Pleosporaceae in GenBank were analyzed by parsimony and distance methods. These two methods positioned filament-beaked Alternaria as a monophyletic group discrete from the other members in genus Alternaria. A

hypothesis proposing that the filament-beaked speices of Alternaria evolved a particular evolutionary route distinguishable from other species based on molecular evidence, the unique traits of morphological adaptation for liberation and their subsistent strategies has been discussed.

Christen, P., J. C. Meza, et al. (1997). "Fruity aroma production in solid state fermentation by Ceratocystis fimbriata: influence of the substrate type and the presence of precursors." Mycological Research 101(8): 911-919. Wheat bran, cassava bagasse and sugar cane bagasse were shown to be

adequate substrates for the growth and aroma production by the mould Ceratocystis fimbriata. Among the nutritive media tested, sugar cane bagasse complemented with a synthetic medium containing glucose (200 g l-1) gave a fruity aroma while the leucine or valine-containing medium gave a strong banana aroma. Aroma production was dependent on growth and the maximum aroma intensity was detected at about the time of the maximum respirometric activity. Twenty-four compounds have been separated by GC headspace analysis and 20 were identified, among them: 1 aldehyde, 7 alcohols, 4 ketones and 8 esters. It was clearly demonstrated that the chromatographic profile of the headspace of the culture was dependent on the substrate used and on the eventual precursor added. When leucine or valine was added to the substrate, the production of total volatiles in the headspace reached values up to tenfold higher than that for ripe bananas. The Gompertz model, a logistic-like equation, was used to fit the integrated CO2 and volatiles production data.

CHRISTENSEN, M., J. C. FRISVAD, et al. (1999). "Taxonomy of the Penicillium miczynskii group based on morphology and secondary metabolites." Mycol. Res. 103: 527-541. Multivariate analyses (cluster and correspondence) were used

to assess the taxonomic structure of 34 isolates of Penicillium miczynskii scored for 95 binary characters. Six isolates of P. raistrickii and P. rolfsii were added solely for the purpose of comparison. The characters used were 38 micromorphological, 15 cultural and 42 secondary metabolite characters. With just one exception, allocation of isolates to clusters was equal in the separate analyses using morphological and secondary metabolite data. The combined data set, using 95 characters, resulted in clearly-defined clusters interpretable as species on the basis of the distribution of ex-type cultures. Four species were accepted : P. miczynskii, P. manginii, P. soppii and P. atrosanguineum. Two additional species, P. syriacum and P. chrzaszczii, represented only by ex-type cultures, were interpreted as a nomen ambiguum and a form of uncertain taxonomic status, respectively.

Brief descriptions, illustrations and a synoptic key are included to aid identification of the accepted species.

Christensen, M. J., O. J. P. Ball, et al. (1997). "Fungal and host genotype effects on compatibility and vascular colonization by Epichloe festucae." Mycological Research 101(4): 493-501. Parental and progeny isolates of the endophytic fungus Epichloe festucae

were tested for compatibility with five grass species : Lolium perenne,

Festuca arundinacea, F. longifolia, F. pratensis, and F. rubra subsp. rubra. One parental and some progeny isolates adversely affected the growth of plants, causing increased mortality of inoculated seedlings, stunted growth and chlorotic leaf symptoms. Growth of hyphae from surface-sterilized leaf sheaths and blades was more vigorous and concentrated from stunted than from symptomless plants. In addition, the growth of isolates was influenced by the host species, whereby estimates of hyphal concentration were consistently highest in meadow fescue associations and lowest in tall fescue associations. Light microscopic and transmission electron microscopic examination of stunted plants indicated no changes in host cells. Intercellular hyphae were observed within vascular bundles of leaf blades and sheaths of many of the endophyte-grass associations. The frequency of infected vascular bundles and the concentration of hyphae within them was highest in plants infected with the stunting parental isolate and lowest in plants infected with the symptomless parental isolate. Hyphae within vascular bundles were typically in close contact with sieve-tube elements and appeared to be functioning as powerful sinks, diverting assimilates and restricting growth.

CHRISTENSEN, M. J., R. J. BENNETT, et al. (2001). "Vascular bundle colonisation by Neotyphodium endophytes in natural and novel associations with grasses." Mycol. Res. 105: 1239-1245. Neotyphodium endophytes have not been reported within

vascular tissue of grass hosts even though hyphae were observed in close proximity to vascular bundles. However, examination by light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy of a range of natural and artificially introduced associations involving Neotyphodium spp. has now shown that hyphae of these endophytes can colonize vascular tissue. In natural associations, hyphae were seldom present within vascular bundles and if present the number was low. Small vascular bundles lacking a bundle sheath were more likely to contain hyphae than large vascular bundles that were surrounded by a bundle sheath. Examination of a range of LoliumX hybridium (hybrid rye-grass) and L. multiflorum (annual rye-grass) plants, as well as F. arundinacea (tall fescue) and F. pratensis (meadow fescue) plants, that were inoculated as seedlings with either a strain of N. lolii or a strain of an interspecific hybrid Neotyphodium sp., revealed extensively colonised vascular bundles in four Lolium plants. Each of these plants was infected with the N. lolii strain and each had strong L. multiflorum characteristics. The most extensively colonised large vascular bundles were those first formed during leaf growth. Growth within these vascular bundles was continuous along their length. Hyphal extension and branching of hyphae within these vascular bundles ceased when leaf growth

ceased. Grasses with extensively colonised vascular bundles were not noticeably stunted and formed inflorescences without external stromata.

CHRISTENSEN, M. J., R. J. BENNETT, et al. (2002). "Growth of Epichloe X /Neotyphodium and p-endophytes in leaves of Lolium and Festuca grasses." Mycol. Res. 106: 93-106. EpichloeX spp. (Clavicipitaceae) and their close asexual

relatives, Neotyphodium spp., form systemic endophytic associations with Pooideae grasses. Interactions between Lolium and Festuca host grasses and fungal endophytes were examined in studies focusing on leaves of natural associations and also of plants into which the endophyte was introduced by seedling inoculation. Light microscopy as well as fungal isolation was used to locate the position of hyphae, while transmission electron microscopy was used to examine host/fungus interactions at the cellular level. These studies provide support for synchronised plant and endophyte growth. This characteristic pattern of growth was maintained when both EpichloeX and Neotyphodium spp. were introduced by seedling inoculation into new host species. Hyphae, with few exceptions, grew rapidly as leaves grew and ceased when leaf growth ceased. This pattern of growth offers an explanation for the characteristic appearance of hyphae in leaf sheaths of host grasses; seldom branched and for all species other than N. occultans, aligned parallel to the leaf axis. Hyphal growth of a second group of endophytic fungi, referred to as p-endophytes, was not regulated in the same way, with growth continuing as leaves aged. This

pattern of growth gives rise to high concentrations of branched ramifying hyphae in old leaf sheaths. Although host genotype did not effect the basic pattern of hyphal growth of EpichloeX /Neotyphodium endophytes, it strongly influenced the concentration and distribution of hyphae throughout leaves. Examination by TEM revealed no evidence that penetration of hyphae into dense tissue was aided by the secretion of pectic enzymes that loosen the middle lamella connecting host cells. Instead it appeared that penetration occurred by hyphae physically pushing between cells. The absence of enzymatic loosening of the middle lamella during penetration could explain why hyphae of these endophytes apparently do not elicit host defence reactions in natural associations. However, subtle interactions between the hyphae of EpichloeX /Neotyphodium and host cells in natural associations were observed.

CHRISTENSEN, M. J., W. R. SIMPSON, et al. (2000). "Infection of tall fescue and perennial ryegrass plants by combinations of different Neotyphodium endophytes." Mycol. Res. 104: 974-978. Individual tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) plants infected

with both Neotyphodium coenophialum and N. lolii endophytes, and individual perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) plants infected with both N. lolii and Neotyphodium LpTG-2, were obtained following inoculation of naturally infected seedlings with the second endophyte. Differences in the ability of the endophytes to produce conidia, together with colony characteristics, enabled the endophytes in plants to be identified following

incubation of excised leaf tissue on potato dextrose agar. Most tillers of dually infected plants were infected with just a single endophyte, but tillers infected with two endophytes were identi®ed in three tall fescue plants. In these tillers one endophyte was always present at a much higher concentration than the other. Over time the incidence of dually infected tillers decreased and no tillers with both N. coenophialum and N. lolii were present 5 months after the associations were established. No evidence was obtained of exchange of nuclei between different endophytes present in dually infected tillers giving rise to heterokaryons or interspecific hybrids.

Christiane M. RITZ, Wolfgang F. A. MAIER, et al. (2005). "Different evolutionary histories of two Phragmidium species infecting the same dog rose hosts." Mycol. Res. 109(5): 603-609. Rust fungi in the genus Phragmidium are frequent pathogens

of both wild and cultivated roses. We investigated the occurrence and relationships of rusts on dog roses, Rosa sect. Caninae (Rosa canina, R. corymbifera and R. rubiginosa) in Germany. Two Phragmidium species, P. mucronatum and P. tuberculatum, were able to infect each of the three dog rose species examined. However, the overall infection of R. rubiginosa was significantly lower, which could be important for rose breeding. Despite overlapping host ranges, the evolutionary background of P. tuberculatum and P. mucronatum is quite distinct. Phylogenetic analyses of the D1/D2 region of the LSU rDNA suggest that P. mucronatum shares a common ancestor with other rose rusts, whereas P. tuberculatum evolved from a Rubus-Sanguisorba rust clade and must have undergone a host shift to Rosa spp.

CHRISTIANSEN, S. K., S. WIRSEL, et al. (1998). "The two Cochliobolus mating type genes are conserved among species but one of them is missing in C. victoriae." Mycol. Res. 102: 919-929. Using the mating type genes (MAT-1 and MAT-2) from

Cochliobolus heterostrophus (a pathogen of maize) as probes, MAT genes from C. carbonum (also a maize pathogen) and C. victoriae (an oat pathogen) were cloned. Sequence analyses and functional tests showed that C. carbonum MAT-1 and C. victoriae MAT-2 are structurally similar to their C. heterostrophus homologues, and all three genes function comparably when expressed in C. heterostrophus. Gel blot analyses of DNAs from C. heterostrophus or C. carbonum, probed with C. heterostrophus MAT-specific fragments, revealed that field isolates from diverse geographical locations contained either MAT-1 or MAT-2, but never both. The entire currently existing collection of C. victoriae isolates, however, contained only MAT-2, and all members of the collection were found to be either female sterile or completely infertile. Thus, crosses between isolates of C. victoriae were not possible, although crosses between C. victoriae and C. carbonum (but not C. heterostrophus) were

readily made, confirming previous reports that these two species are interfertile. These observations, combined with careful scrutiny of the literature, have led to the hypothesis that MAT-1 female fertile isolates of C. victoriae have never existed. All available evidence is consistent with the notion that the entire C. victoriae field population was derived from a single progenitor strain, which arose as the result of horizontal transfer of genes for pathogenicity to oats into a strain of C. carbonum that was MAT-2 and female

sterile. CHULZE, S. N., M. L. RAMIREZ, et al. (1998). "Fumonisin production by, and mating populations of, Fusarium section Liseola isolates from maize in Argentina." Mycol. Res. 102: 141-144. The relation between the pattern of fumonisin production and

the mating population and mating type of Fusarium isolates from maize in Argentina at different maturity stages has been evaluated. Fifty-one isolates of Fusarium species belonging to the Liseola section were identified to mating population and tested for their ability to produce fumonisins (FB1, FB2 and FB3). Only mating populations associated with maize, A (Fusarium moniliforme, 23 isolates), D (F. proliferatum, 24 isolates) and E (F. subglutinans, 4 isolates) were found. All but two isolates of populations A and D produced, when grown on maize substrate, high levels of

fumonisins ranging from 0.01 to 3.99 mg g-1 (mean 2.00 mg g-1 and 1.69 mg g-1, respectively), whereas isolates of population E yielded less than 0.02 mg g-1 (mean 0.01 mg g-1). Five isolates of F. proliferatum, all belonging to mating type D-, produced more FB2, than FB1, which is consistent with finding a relatively large amount of FB2 (0.01 mg g-1; FB2/FB1 = 2.27) in one of the maize samples from which these isolates were obtained. Amounts of FB3 were similar to FB2 in cultures of mating population A (mean FB3/FB2 = 0.89), but much lower than FB2 in cultures of mating population D (mean FB3/FB2 = 0.21).

Chung, A. Y. C. (1995). Common Lowland Rainforest Ants of Sabah. The Borneo Nature Series, No.1. Malaysia, Forestry Department, Sabah: 60. Chung, K. R. and C. L. Schardl (1997). "Sexual cycle and horizontal transmission of the grass symbiont, EpichloeX typhina." Mycological Research 101(3): 295-301. EpichloeX typhina is a biotrophic symbiont of grasses with its sexual state

on immature host inflorescences. The ectophytic, presexual structure (stroma) of E. typhina produces spermatia and also serves as the female structure in mating. After fertilization there is proliferation of a dense mycelium which has been suggested to be heterokaryotic. Perithecia form in the thickened stroma. We investigated the possible formation of heterokaryons in matings and the role of ascospores in contagious spread

of E. typhina. In almost all instances the transfer to a stroma of spermatia of opposite mating type leads to thickening of the stroma; however, ascospores were produced only if the parents were of the same mating population. Fertilization of part of a stroma by one spermatial parent often inhibited fertilization by another strain elsewhere on the stroma depending upon the spermatial isolates used. Tests for heterokaryon formation were performed by culturing stromata after matings that produced no ascospores, to avoid analysing meiotic products. In two instances the female was cultured, and in two the nuclear and mitochondrial haplotypes were primarily of the male. In another instance mitochondrial haplotypes and mitochondrial plasmids from the female became associated with the male nuclear haplotype. These results suggest that, following mating, male hyphae proliferate and heterokaryons may sometimes form and also proliferate. To test how ascospores mediate infection, inflorescences of uninfected perennial ryegrass plants were surrounded by fertilized stromata from which E. typhina ascospores were being ejected, seeds were collected and grown, newly infected progeny plants were identified, and isolates from five progeny plants were analysed genetically. As expected for ascospore progeny the rDNA haplotype of the stromal and spermatial parents had segregated, whereas all five isolates had the stromal profile of mitochondrial DNA. This observation demonstrated that ascospores mediate infection of new host plants.

Claridge, A. W. and D. B. Lindenmayer (1998). "Consumption of hypogeous fungi by the mountain brushtail possum (Trichosurus caninus) in eastern Australia." Mycological Research 102(3): 269-272. Faecal samples collected from the Mountain brushtail possum

(Trichosurus caninus) at several sites in eastern Australia showed the presence of spores from at least 21 hypogeous fungi, and several epigeous species. Most were found in faeces of animals at one site, where samples were collected in different seasons. Further collections are needed from the other sites at different times of the year to clarify how widespread the mycophagous habits of T. caninus are. Many of the hypogeous fungi identified are either known or presumed to form mycorrhizal relationships with the roots of forest trees and shrubs and T. caninus may disperse their spores in its faeces.

Clark, J. (2003). "Plasmodial incompatibility in the myxomycete Didymium squamulosum." Mycologia, 95(1): 24-26. A genetic analysis of plasmodial fusion in the CR 10 isolate of

Didymium squamulosum indicated that this isolate was heterozygous for two fusion loci. These loci display dominant and recessive alleles, and any two plasmodia must be phenotypically identical for these loci before they will fuse.

Clark, J., E. F. Haskins, et al. (2003). "Biosystematics of the myxomycete

Badhamia gracilis." Mycologia, 95(1): 104-108. Sixty-four isolates that conformed to the general

morphological description of Badhamia gracilis were isolated from several arid regions in the southwestern USA, northern Mexico, Puerto Rico, and the Canary Islands. These isolates were then subjected to a biosystematic study in which reproductive systems, culture characteristics, and morphology were examined. Five of the isolates were heterothallic and were divided into two separate biological species with multiple allelic mating systems: A1 consisting of three isolates (Arz 4, Arz 5, Arz 6) displaying four alleles, and A2 consisting of two isolates (NM 3, NM 4) also displaying four alleles. The remaining 59 isolates were nonheterothallic and presumably apomictic. All of the isolates had similar culture characteristics in that they had white (rarely with a yellowish tinge) plasmodia that sporulated at a relatively small size. While all of the isolates generally conformed to the standard species description, there were several variations from the norm that occurred at a high frequency. The sporotheca was often laterally flattened instead of globose or ovate, the spores generally averaged 10 mm instead of 14 mm in diam, and the capillitium often appeared physaroid instead of badhamoid. This study indicates that Badhamia gracilis is probably a widespread species complex consisting of a number of local sexual populations and numerous asexual clones that are adapted to arid conditions.

Clark, J., E. F. Haskins, et al. (2004). "Culture and reproductive systems of 11 species of Mycetozoans." Mycologia, 96(1): 36-40. The culture and reproductive systems of 10 species (16

isolates) of myxomycetes and one species (one isolate) of protostelid were investigated. A single isolate of Ceratiomyxa fructiculosa was grown on agar and found to be nonheterothallic. This is the first report of spore-to-spore cultivation of this species and the first report of a reproductive system in the protostelids. Isolates of the myxomycetes Didymium dubium, Didymium iridis, Didymium vaccinum, Licea biforis, Perichaena vermicularis, Physarum gyrosum, Physarum pusillum (six isolates) and Semimorula liquescens all were nonheterothallic. This is the first report of culture and a reproductive system for D. vaccinum, the first report of nonheterothallism for S. liquescens and the second report of nonheterothallic isolates of D. dubium, Licea biforis, Perichaena vermicularis and P. gyrosum. The nonheterothallic isolate of D. iridis is one of many reported for this species, and the six nonheterothallic isolates of P. pusillum add to the seven nonheterothallic and two heterothallic isolates already known. In addition, five of the isolates of P. pusillum apparently represent a small form that is adapted to an ephemeral micohabitat, and the sixth is a yellow form of a species that is typically white. The Didymium ?ovoideum isolate and the two Physarum didermoides isolates have heterothallic reproductive systems. The D. ?ovoideum isolate is somewhat different from most isolates of this species

in its morphology and reproductive system. It is not compatible with any of the heterothallic isolates of long-stalked Didymium, including the A0 biological species already determined for D. ovoideum; therefore, it is either a new biological species of D. ovoideum or a separate new species. The two heterothallic isolates of P. didermoides form a multiple allelic mating-type series with four alleles.

Clark, J. D., S. Snell, et al. (2002). "The effects of dictyostelids on the formation and maturation of myxomycete plasmodia." Mycologia, 94(6): 933-938. Dictyostelids (cellular slime molds) and myxomycetes

(plasmodial slime molds) are two groups of mycetozoans usually present and often abundant in the soil and litter microhabitats of terrestrial ecosystems. Because they utilize the same food resource and occur together in a spatially limited and clearly defined microhabitat, the potential for ecological interactions would seem to exist. However, relatively few previous studies have considered this aspect of mycetozoan ecology. In the present study twenty-eight isolates (8 species) of dictyostelids were co-cultured in all possible pair-wise combinations with fourteen isolates (7 species) of myxomycetes to determine if there were any effects on the production of fruiting bodies. Dictyostelids showed little or no delay in culmination and only random and inconsistent reductions in sorocarp abundance when co-cultured with myxomycetes. In contrast, myxomycetes displayed a number of specific effects. The heterothallic isolates exhibited delays in plasmodial formation and/or maturation, with some pairings showing little to no effect, while others displayed nearly complete inhibition of plasmodial formation or maturation. Apomictic isolates, in general, were much less affected, with only a few combinations displaying significant delays in both formation

and maturation of plasmodia. CLARKSON, J. P., J. STAVELEY, et al. (2003). "Ascospore release and survival in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum." Mycol. Res. 107: 213-222. The release and survival of ascospores of a UK Sclerotinia

sclerotiorum isolate were studied. Apothecia placed in a spore clock apparatus with different lighting regimes at 15 °C released ascospores continuously with an increasing rate for the duration of experiments (72–84 h). Spore release was not confined to light or dark periods in alternating regimes and occurred in continuous dark or light. Ascospores were released in both saturated air (90–95% rh) and at 65–75% rh. High temperature and rh were detrimental to ascospore survival but spore viability was maintained for longer periods than previously reported. The significance of these results in relation to disease control is discussed.

Classen, R. (1987). Anatomical Adaptations for Bird Pollination in Nicolaia elatior (Jack) Horan (Zingiberaceae). The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore, Botanic Gardens Park and Recreation Department Ministry of National Development Cluny Road,

Singapore 1025. 40: 37-43. Clay, C. M. and J. A. Walsh (1997). "Spongospora subterranea f. sp. nasturtii, ultrastructure of the plasmodial-host interface, food vacuoles, flagellar apparatus and exit pores." Mycological Research 101(6): 737-744. Ultrastructural details of sporangial plasmodia and zoosporangia of

Spongospora subterranea f. sp. nasturtii infecting the roots of watercress were observed using transmission electron microscopy. The plasmodial envelope, the interface between host and parasite, was found to be convoluted, having a large surface area. Pseudo-food vacuoles, formed by convolutions of the plasmodial envelope, contained portions of host cytoplasm. True-food vacuoles containing the remains of host organelles were seen within plasmodia. Similar remains also were seen in the central vacuole. The flagellar apparatus including the kinetosome, with microtubular rootlets, the transition zone, the flagellum and the tapering end-piece were examined and described. These observations are discussed in terms of the nutrition of S. subterranea f. sp. nasturtii, its original classification within the fungi (latterly Plasmodiophoromycetes) and affinities with the protists.

Clemencon, H. and T. Hongo (1994). "Notes on three Japanese Agaricales." Mycoscience 35(1): 21-27. Three species of Agaricales from Japan are treated here. 1) From the

examination of the types and additional specimens, ...... CLEMENT, D. J., M. S. STANLEY, et al. (1999). "Complementation cloning of salt tolerance determinants from the marine hyphomycete Dendryphiella salina in Aspergillus nidulans." Mycol. Res. 103: 1252-1258. A preliminary physiological characterization of osmoregulation

in an Aspergillus nidulans salt sensitive mutant carrying cotransformed DNA sequences from the marine hyphomycete Dendryphiella salina is described. A genomic DNA library made in lambda EMBL3 was cotransformed with the plasmid pDJB3 into an A. nidulans host carrying a selectable marker for transformation (pyrG89) and a salt sensitivity mutation (sltA1). In some cases D. salina clones appeared to directly complement the salt sensitivity mutation by restoring salt and arginine insensitivity. Other clones gave marked increases in salt tolerance and yet the hosts remained arginine sensitive. Improvements in salt tolerance correlated with an enhanced ability to induce polyol biosynthesis during salt challenge.

CLEMENT, J. A., R. PORTER, et al. (1998). "The orientation of urediniospores of Uromyces viciae-fabae during fall and after landing." Mycol. Res. 102: 907-913. The orientation of individual urediniospores and spore clusters

of Uromyces viciae-fabae, during fall and after landing in still air, was recorded using high-speed video microscopy. Individual spores and

aggregates fell in a variety of orientations. On landing spore clusters attached to the substratum without rebounding or fragmenting and typically retained their orientation during fall. Some aggregates landed and attached in orientations in which their mass was asymmetrical with respect to their point of contact. Attachment also occurred when spores fell onto spore aggregates which had previously landed on the substratum. Rate of fall was influenced by the orientation and size of cluster. When dispersed and collected on substrata under simulated field conditions, the orientation and attachment of urediniospore clusters were similar to those of aggregates deposited in still air.

Clement, J. A., R. Porter, et al. (1997). "Characteristics of adhesion pads formed during imbibition and germination of urediniospores of Uromyces viciae-fabae on host and synthetic surfaces." Mycological Research 101(12): 1445-1458. To imbibe and germinate urediniospores require free water or near

saturated atmospheres in which both adsorption of water is maximal and capillary condensation pads form. The rate of spore germination is influenced by the amount of free water available. During imbibition, spores swell and capillary pads form beneath spores in contact with the substratum. These pads greatly increase the area of contact with the substratum. Pad area fluctuates and may depend on the balance between the rate of capillary condensation and the rate of uptake of fluid by spores. When spores, on leaves or cellulose acetate, are misted with water they imbibe rapidly and germinate. Adhesion pads which form under fully imbibed, germinating spores are morphologically similar to capillary pads but they differ in composition. On synthetic surfaces, during imbibition of spores and under microscopic glass beads, pads are composed principally of volatile capillary condensation and are removed when samples are freeze-dried. On host surfaces, when spores are fully imbibed and germinating, pads contain non-volatile soluble materials derived from both pathogen and host. These substances are not removed by extended freeze-drying.

COATES, B. S., R. L. HELLMICH, et al. (2002). "Beauveria bassiana haplotype determination based on nuclear rDNA internal transcribed spacer PCR--RFLP." Mycol. Res. 106: 40-50. DNA sequence alignment of the nuclear 5.8S ribosomal RNA

(rRNA) gene and internal transcribed spacers (ITS) from Beauveria bassiana demonstrated that 6.62% sequence variation existed between nine isolates. A higher level of mutation was observed within the ITS regions, where 8.39% divergence occurred. Polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length polymorphism, PCR--RFLP, and DNA sequence alignment of the ITS1 and ITS2 regions identified seven polymorphic restriction endonuclease sites, Alu I, Hha I, Hinf I, Sin I, Tru 9AI and two Tha I restriction sites. The allelic frequency of each genetic marker was determined from 96 isolates. PCR--RFLP defined 24 B.

bassiana genotypes within the sample set, from which eight phylogenetic clusters were predicted to exist. AMOVA and Fst (h) indicated that no significant correlation existed between B. bassiana haplotype and insect host range as defined by insect order from which each isolate was derived.

Coelho, A. C., A. Cravador, et al. (1997). "Highly specific and sensitive non-radioactive molecular identification of Phytophthora cinnamomi." Mycological Research 101(12): 1499-1507. In response to the need for a faster, more reliable method for identifying

Phytophthora cinnamomi in cork oak soils in Portugal, a simple, fast, sensitive molecular identification method is described. It is based on a colorimetric assay which involves an oligonucleotide capture probe covalently immobilised on microtitration wells, a multi-biotinylated oligonucleotide detection probe and the PCR-amplified target DNA. The target DNA is a 349 bp DNA fragment partially covering the 3'-translated and 3'- untranslated regions of the cinnamomin gene. When the specificity of the PCR reaction was evaluated in vitro using isolates of P. cinnamomi and eight other Phytophthora species, including the related P. cambivora, it was specific to P. cinnamomi. When 30 isolates of P. cinnamomi from oak roots in southern Portugal were assayed, 26 gave a strong positive response. The assay has a sensitivity of about 2-5 genome equivalents of P. cinnamomi. The reason for the negative response of four isolates remains unclear.

Coelho, G. (2005). "A Brazilian new species of Auriporia." Mycologia, 97(1): 263-267. Auriporia brasilica sp. nov. is described and illustrated based on

specimens collected from southern Brazil. It is characterized by a dimitic hyphal system, the shape and size of cystidia, small basidiospores and large pores. This is the first report of an Auriporia taxon registered from the tropics.

Coetzee, M. P., B. D. Wingfield, et al. (2003). "Molecular identification and phylogeny of Armillaria isolates from South America and Indo-Malaysia." Mycologia, 95(2): 285-293. Armillaria root rot is a serious disease, chiefly of woody plants,

caused by many species of Armillaria that occur in temperate, tropical and subtropical

regions of the world. Very little is known about Armillaria in South America and Southeast Asia, although Armillaria root rot is well known in these areas. In this study, we consider previously unidentified isolates collected from trees with symptoms of Armillaria root rot in Chile, Indonesia and Malaysia. In addition, isolates from basidiocarps resembling A. novae-zelandiae and A. limonea, originating from Chile and Argentina, respectively, were included in this study because their true identity has

been uncertain. All isolates in this study were compared, based on their similarity in ITS sequences with previously sequenced Armillaria species, and their phylogenetic relationship with species from the Southern Hemisphere was considered. ITS sequence data for Armillaria also were compared with those available at GenBank. Parsimony and distance analyses were conducted to determine the phylogenetic relationships between the unknown isolates and the species that showed high ITS sequence similarity. In addition, IGS-1 sequence data were obtained for some of the species to validate the trees obtained from the ITS data set. Results of this study showed that the ITS sequences of the isolates obtained from basidiocarpsresembling A. novae-zelandiae are most similar to those for this species. ITS sequences for isolates from Indonesia and Malaysia had the highest similarity to A. novae-zelandiae but were phylogenetically separated from this species. Isolates from Chile, for which basidiocarps were not found, were similar in their ITS and IGS-1 sequences to the isolate from Argentina that resembled A. limonea. These isolates, however, had the highest ITS and IGS-1 sequence similarity to authentic isolates of A. luteobubalina and were phylogenetically more closely related to this species than to A. limonea.

COETZEE, M. P. A., B. D. WINGFIELD, et al. (2005). "Phylogenetic analyses of DNA sequences reveal species partitions amongst isolates of Armillaria from Africa." Mycol. Res. 109(11): 1224-1234. The basidiomycete genus Armillaria causes root rot and death

to woody plants in boreal, temperate and tropical regions of the world. Armillaria root rot has been described from various parts of Africa on many different hosts. However, very little is known regarding the evolutionary relationships among Armillaria species in Africa. The aim of this study was to determine the phylogenetic relationships between isolates originating from different regions in Africa using nDNA sequences from two non-coding gene regions. The ITS and the IGS-1 regions of the ribosomal DNA operon were sequenced and analysed using different phylogenetic tree searching methods. Phylogenetic trees grouped the African taxa in two strongly supported clades. One of these represented A. fuscipes and the other an undescribed but distinct species.

COLLADO, J., A. GONZALEZ, et al. (2002). "Monosporascus ibericus sp. nov., an endophytic ascomycete from plants on saline soils, with observations on the position of the genus based on sequence analysis of the 18S rDNA." Mycol. Res. 106: 118-127. A new pyrenomycete, Monosporascus ibericus sp. nov.,

isolated as an endophyte from roots and stems of three plant species growing on sand flats and salt marshes in the Ebro Delta (Spain), is described. The main characteristic of this fungus is the presence of a higher number of ascospores per ascus (up to six), compared to the other species of the genus: M. cannonballus, M. eutypoides, and M.

monosporus. M. ibericus produces a cleistothecial ascomata with a tomentose peridium and lacks an anamorph. In addition to the morphological

data, the comparative analysis of the ITS-region sequences of M. ibericus and the other Monosporascus spp., has supported the recognition of the new species. A phylogenetic study based on the sequences of the 18S rDNA did not allow us to assess clearly the taxonomic position of the genus Monosporascus, although the results indicated the genus might have affinities to the Xylariales rather than to the Sordariales.

COLLIN, R. G., E. ODRIOZOLA, et al. (1998). "Sporidesmin production by Pithomyces chartarum isolates from Australia, Brazil, New Zealand and Uruguay." Mycol. Res. 102: 163-166. Isolates of Pithomyces chartarum obtained from pasture

samples originating from Australia, Brazil, New Zealand and Uruguay were evaluated for their ability to produce sporidesmin. Only isolates that produced enough spores to confirm the presence or absence of sporidesmin were evaluated. Samples from the countries examined gave proportions of sporidesmin-producing isolates of : Australia, 67% of 207 isolates ; Brazil, 2% of 51 isolates ; New Zealand, 86% of 391 isolates and Uruguay, 28% of 182 isolates. Considerable variations in the ability to produce sporidesmin were found, not only between countries but between samples taken from the same country.

COLLIN-HANSEN, C., R. A. ANDERSEN, et al. (2005). "Damage to DNA and lipids in Boletus edulis exposed to heavy metals." Mycol. Res. 109(12): 1386-1396. This study investigates the potential of emissions from a zinc

smelter to induce oxidative damage to DNA and lipids in Boletus edulis, the king bolete. Concentrations of cadmium, zinc, copper, and mercury were determined in 16 fruit bodies collected near the smelter (exposed group), as well as in 15 reference samples. Frequency of apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) sites in DNA (a pre-mutagenic DNA base modification) and concentration of lipid hydroperoxides were chosen as

damage parameters. Concentrations of the four metals, as well as oxidative damage to DNA and lipids were significantly elevated in the exposed group (Mann–Whitney, P<0.001). Both damage parameters correlated positively with concentrations of cadmium, zinc or copper in fruiting bodies (Spearman’s P<0.01). Frequency of AP sites correlated significantly with mercury in the fruit bodies (P<0.05), whereas the association between lipid hydroperoxides and mercury was insignificant. Frequency of AP sites correlated positively with concentration of lipid hydroperoxides (P<0.001). Negative trends for the associations between concentrations of metals and AP sites or lipid hydroperoxides in the reference group (significant only for mercury and lipid hydroperoxides; P<0.05) suggest that in B. edulis low concentrations of mercury, possibly also of other of the metals determined in the present study, may induce dose-response relationships

of a hormetic (‘J-shaped’) nature. Collin-Hansen, C., R. A. Andersen, et al. (2005). "Molecular defense systems are expressed in the king bolete (Boletus edulis) growing near metal smelters." Mycologia, 97(5): 973–983. The induction of defense systems against metal exposure was

investigated in 48 wild-growing fruiting bodies of the king bolete (Boletus edulis) from two areas polluted with several transition metals from smelters, as well as five reference areas. To determine the degree of metal exposure, cadmium (Cd), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) were determined in caps of fruiting bodies by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS), whereas mercury (Hg) was determined by cold vapor atomic fluorescence spectrometry (CVAFS). Caps were analyzed further with respect to relative activities of the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), as well as concentrations of total glutathione (GSHTOT 5 GSH + GSSG) and relative concentrations of heat shock protein 70 kDa (HSP70). The results showed that concentrations of the four metals, as well as SOD, CAT and HSP70, were significantly elevated in the exposed group (Mann-Whitney, P < 0.001). In contrast, GSHTOT was significantly lowered in the exposed group (P < 0.05). Significant positive correlations were established between concentrations of Cd, Zn, Hg, or Cu and activities of SOD (Spearman’s P < 0.01 for the association between SOD and Cd, P < 0.001 for all other metal exposure parameters), CAT (P < 0.001 for all exposure parameters), or expression of HSP70 (P < 0.001 for all exposure parameters). Significant negative correlations were found between total GSH and Cd (P < 0.001),

Zn (P < 0.001), or Hg (P < 0.05). We conclude that antioxidant enzymes are induced in wildgrowing B. edulis exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations of potentially toxic transition metals; whereas the net consumption of GSH that occurs with increasing metal exposure may reflect GSH consumption by mechanisms of metal detoxification. Finally, the induction of HSP70 suggests that the antioxidant response and the mechanisms in which GSH is consumed are insufficient for protection

against the harmful effects of severe metal stress. COMANDINI, O., I. HAUG, et al. (2004). "Uniting Tricholoma sulphureum and T. bufonium." Mycol. Res. 108: 1162-1171. The taxonomic status and relationship of Tricholoma

sulphureum and the similar T. bufonium were investigated using different sets of characters. These included morphological data on fruit bodies, ecological and chorological data, and analysis of the sequence data obtained for the ITS of basidiomes of different ecological and geographic origin. Moreover, the ectomycorrhizas formed by T. bufonium on Abies alba and Quercus sp. were characterised, and anatomical features compared with those of T. sulphureum mycorrhizas on coniferous and

broad-leaved host trees. Our results revealed extensive ITS variation in members of the T. sulphureum group, but this variation was not correlated with morphology,

ecology, or geographical distribution. We conclude that T. bufonium cannot be maintained as an autonomous taxon and should be treated as an infraspecific variant of T. sulphureum.

CONWAY, D. R., J. C. FRANKLAND, et al. (2000). "Effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 on fungal competition and decomposition of Fraxinus excelsior litter in laboratory microcosms." Mycol. Res. 104: 187-197. Evidence that chemical changes in litter exposed to elevated

CO2 might alter the composition and function of fungal communities in soil is presented. Some potential effects of elevated atmospheric CO2 on the decomposition of Fraxinus excelsior leaf litter and the interactions of the colonizing fungi, growing singly or in simple associations in microcosms, were investigated. Fungal colonization was monitored by analysis of the ergosterol content of litter and specific PCR-amplified ribosomal DNA spacer products. After < 42 d, fungal colonization was less on litter with a higher C:N ratio when obtained from seedlings grown in elevated CO2

(600 ppm). After triple-species inoculation percentage α-cellulose and, in some combinations, nitrogen content was reduced on litter from seedlings grown in elevated CO2.

Conway, K. E. and J. W. Kimbrough (1975). "A new Daratomyces from waterhyacinth." MYCOTAXON. Cook, R. T. A., A. J. Inman, et al. (1997). "Identification and classification of powdery mildew anamorphs using light and scanning electron microscopy and host range data." Mycological Research 101(8): 975-1002. Previously undescribed features on the surfaces of powdery mildew

conidia were revealed by the scanning electron microscope (SEM), reinforcing differences observable by light microscopy (LM). Four distinct patterns were observed on the septa and 10 on the outer wall, thus categorizing 15 anamorph taxa. Anamorphs of Leveillula, Phyllactinia and Pleochaeta, all had smooth to moderately verrucose septa, but each bore a different distribution of warts on their verrucose outer wall. Annular septa and an echinulate outer all were unique for the Oidium anamorph of Blumeria. The remaining powdery mildews, all with Oidium states, had either whorled r fibrillar septa. Those with whorled septa are separated into three newly proposed subgenera: Fibroidium for the anamorphs of odosphaera and Sphaerotheca having conidia with fibrosin bodies and a smooth outer wall ; Octagoidium for the dendritic patterned, ight-sided conidia of Sawadaea; and Setoidium for the anamorph of Cystotheca reflecting the setae on the mycelium. Three new ubgenera are proposed for those with fibrillar septa : Reticuloidium for conidia with a roughcast outer wall of Erysiphe sect. olovinomyces; Graciloidium for the unswollen

conidia of Arthrocladiella ; Striatoidium for conidia of E. sect. Galeopsidis with a striate uter wall. The name Pseudoidium is retained as a subgenus for the anamorphs of E. sect. Erysiphe, Microsphaera and Uncinula which ad conidia with a scaly, fibrous outer wall. The patterns on the outer wall of conidia were frequently modified by secondary reasing. These wrinkling patterns, also observable under the LM, proved useful in identi®cation of anamorphs, especially on herbarium specimens. SEM, LM and host range data were used to construct keys for the prediction of the anamorphs of all the powdery mildew genera found in the U.K. The findings, together with teleomorph criteria, also prompted a revision of the Erysiphaceae.

Cooke, D. E. L. and J. M. Duncan (1997). "Phylogenetic analysis of Phytophthora species based on ITS1 and ITS2 sequences of the ribosomal RNA gene repeat." Mycological Research 101(6): 667-677. The internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS1 and ITS2) of the ribosomal

RNA gene repeat from Phytophthora species were amplified using the polymerase chain reaction and sequenced. Sequences from P. cambivora, P. cinnamomi, P. citricola, P. cryptogea, P. drechsleri, P. fragariae var. fragariae, P. fragariae var. rubi, P. megasperma var. megasperma and P. nicotianae were compared with published sequences and phylogenetic trees were produced. The resultant grouping of species generally agreed with groupings established using classical morphological criteria, primarily sporangial morphology. Amongst species with non-papillate sporangia two clades were evident, one consisting of P. fragariae, P. cambivora and P. cinnamomi and the other of P. megasperma, P. drechsleri and P. cryptogea. The latter three were placed in the tree between the non-papillate groups and the papillate and semi-papillate groups which formed three distinct clades. One group comprised P. citricola, P. citrophthora and P. capsici, another P. megakarya and P. palmivora and a third P. pseudotsugae, P. cactorum, P. idaei, P. nicotianae and P. infestans. More isolates of P. megasperma, P. drechsleri and P. cryptogea will need to be examined to settle more precisely the relationship of these species to the others. PCR amplification of ITS sequences using freeze-thawed mycelial scrapings from pure cultures growing on agar followed by digestion with restriction enzymes is a quick and easy way to compare and identify isolates without the need for laborious DNA extraction procedures. With improved technology, rapid automatic sequencing of PCR-amplified ITS regions is now possible and yields detailed information of relationships within the genus as well as allowing the design of species-specific PCR primers for diagnostic purposes.

COOKE, D. E. L., T. JUNG, et al. (1999). "Molecular evidence supports Phytophthora quercina as a distinct species." Mycol. Res. 103: 799-804. Phytophthora quercina, a new species associated with oak

decline in Europe, has been assigned to Waterhouse's Group I of

Phytophthora. The level of intraspecific variation and evidence of affinities to other Group I species and another, as yet unidentified, species from oak, were examined at the molecular level using four random ten-mer primers to amplify total DNA (RAPDs). Sequences and restriction fragment length polymorphisms of a 900 bp PCR product consisting of the ITS1 and ITS2 regions, and the 5.8S subunit of ribosomal DNA were also examined to estimate relatedness to a broader range of Phytophthora species. The RAPD

banding patterns of ten isolates of P. quercina from eight sites in Germany, Hungary and Italy were almost identical and distinct from all the other species tested. Their ITS restriction fragment patterns were also identical, as were the ITS sequences of four selected isolates. Phylogenetic analysis of the ITS sequence data confirmed its unique position in this section of the genus which comprises P. quercina, another five Group I species, P. infestans (Group IV) and P. nicotianae (Group II). Isolates of P. quercina formed a distinct branch at the base of this clade showing no close affinities with any other species. Such data support morphological, physiological and pathological evidence that P. quercina is distinct, although it has some affinity with the other Group I species. The results support earlier reports that Waterhouse's groupings of morphospecies do not fully correspond to phylogenetic relationships indicated by molecular studies. The unidentified Phytophthora sp. 2 from oak was closely related to P. ilicis (Group IV) ; both were distinct on molecular criteria from all other species in the study.

Cooley, C., B. H. Bluhm, et al. (2005). "Glass-fiber disks provide suitable medium to study polyol production and gene expression in Eurotium rubrum." Mycologia, 97(4): 743–750. Eurotium species often dominate the fungal population in stored

grain and are responsible for spoilage. In this study we tested the usefulness of glass fiber disks to aid the analysis of growth, polyol content and gene expression in E. rubrum in response to various water activities. Growth measurements based on ergosterol content and conidial production indicated that E. rubrum grew as well at 0.86 aw as 0.98 aw. The rate of growth was considerably reduced at 0.83 aw and 0.78 aw. In contrast, under our conditions, Aspergillus flavus and A. nidulans were able to grow only in the highest water activity (0.98 aw). Mannitol was the predominant polyol in all three fungal species grown at 0.98 aw. When E. rubrum was grown at 0.86 aw or lower, glycerol comprised greater than 90% of the total polyols. After a shift from 0.86 aw to 0.98 aw, mannitol levels in E. rubrum increased to 89% of the total polyols within 24 h. Of six genes whose expression was measured by quantitative real-time PCR, three were affected by water activity. Expression of putative hydrophobin and mannitol dehydrogenase genes was higher at 0.98 aw than at 0.86 aw. A putative triacylglycerol lipase gene was expressed at higher levels in 0.86 aw. The results of this study indicate that the disk method is

suitable to study the effects of water activity on growth, polyol biosynthesis and gene expression in E. rubrum. The results also indicate the potential competitiveness of

E. rubrum over A. flavus and A. nidulans in low water environments associated with stored grain. CORDEIRO, L. M. C., M. IACOMINI, et al. (2004). "Culture studies and secondary compounds of six Ramalina species." Mycol. Res. 108: 489-497. Mycobiont isolation experiments were performed on six

species of Ramalina from Brazil: R. celastri, R. complanata, R. dendriscoides, R. gracilis, R. peruviana and R. sprengelii. This study aimed to optimize the culture conditions and nutrient requirements of the selected mycobionts. The aposymbiotic R. complanta was successfully isolated from ascospores, while aposymbiotic R. peruviana was obtained from thallus fragments. In R. peruviana the production of secondary metabolites was investigated under aposymbiotical growth conditions using HPLC. When cultivated on solid medium, this mycobiont produced the typical chemosyndrome (sekikaic acid and satellite compounds), found in the voucher lichen thallus. When cultivated in liquid medium (immersed in malt yeast medium in the absence of agar), only one, the major lichen substance, sekikaic acid, was synthesized by the fungus. In addition, atranorin was formed, but was not detected in any of the voucher specimens. Red pigments were found in solid and liquid cultures. These were separated into two compounds, but could not be fully identified. R. celastri spores germinated, but did not form mycelia. R. dendriscoides, R. gracilis and R. sprengelii were not successfully cultivated in aposymbiotic conditions, although eight different culture media were tested.

Corlett, R. T. (1992). The Angiosperm Flora of Singapore 1. Introduction. The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore, National Parks Board Singapore Botanic Gardens Cluny Road Singapore 1025. 44: 3-21. Corner, E. J. H. (1966). A Monograph of Cantharelloid fungi. U.K, Oxford University Press: 260 pages. Corner, E. J. H. (1967). A Monograph of Clavaria and Allied Genera. U.K, Dawsons of Pall Mall Press: 756. Corner, E. J. H. (1968). A Monograph of Thelephora (Basidiomycetes). Nova Hedwigia, J. Cramer (Verlag Von J. Cramer). Beihefte 27: 110. Thelephora was a large genus. It contained most of the coriaceous and

resupinate basidiomycetes that were without gills, pores, or spines. Now, with T. terrestris as the type, it is strictly limited. Fifty one species are included in this monograph but of these Seventeen are here newly described. The nucleus has been the north temperate alliance of T. anthocephala, T. caryophyllea, T. palmata, T. terrestris, and T. vialis. It

has lead to the supposition that Thelephora is essentially north temperate. Twenty eight of the species in this monograph, however, are tropical and among these occur all those with the least modified, studied the genus in the tropics and more discoveries are to be expected. It is for this purpose that the monograph is intended.

Corner, E. J. H. (1970). Supplement to "A Monograph of Clavaria and Allied Genera". UK., J. Cramer (Verlag Von J. Cramer). Corner, E. J. H. (1972). Boletus in Malaysia, The Auspices of the Botanic Gardens, Singapore and Printed at the Goverment Printing Office, Singapore by Lim Bian Han, Government Printer 1972. Corner, E. J. H. (1981). The Agaric Genera Lentinus, Panus, and Pleurotus. Nova Hedwigia. E. J. H. Corner, J. Cramer (Verlag Von J. Cramer). Beiheft 169: 169. Lentinus Fr., re-defined with skeleto-binding hyphae, relates with

Polyporus s. str. Panus Fr. is defined with long, intercalary or terminal, skeletal hyphae without binding hyphae...........

Corner, E. J. H. (1983). Ad Polyporaceas I (Amauroderma and Ganoderma ). Nova Hedwigia, J. Cramer (Verlag Von J. Cramer). Beiheft 75, Vol. 1 (I): 182. The structure of the fruit-body in Amauroderma, Ganoderma, Haddowia,

and Humphreya is analysed. Descriptions of living fruit-bodies are given for some 44 tropical species (16 neotropical, 28 Asian-Australasian) ; hitherto the living features of these tropical fungi have been hardly appreciated. ....

Corner, E. J. H. (1986). The Agaric Genus Panellus Karst. (including Dictyopanus Pat.) in Malaysia. The Gardens, Bulletin Singapore, The Botanic Gardens Parks and Recreation Department Ministry of National DEvelopment Cluny Road, Singapore 1025. 39: 103-147. Panellus, with Dictyopanus as a synonym. has 27 species in Malesia......... Corner, E. J. H. (1987). Ad Polyporaceas IV (the genera Daedalea, Flabellophora, Flavodon, Gloeophylum, Heteroporus, Irpex, Lenzites, Microporellus, Nigrofomes, Nigroporus, Oxyporus, Paratrichaptum, Rigidoporus, Scenidium, Trichaptum, Vanderbylia, and Steccherinum). Nova Hedwigia. Corner, E.J.H, J. Cramer (Verlag Von J. Cramer). Beheft 86, Vol. 4 (IV): 265. The sixteen genera, hear assembled, may seem a curious collection. Iwas

led from one to the other, however, and record my conclusion. Stipitate fruit-bodies with the stature of Amauroderma but with smooth white spores brought me to Cystostiptoporus which, ....

Corner, E. J. H. (1989). Ad Polyporaceas V (The genera Albatrellus, Boletopsis, Coriolopsis (dimitic), Cristelloporia, Diacanthodes, Elmerina, Fomitopsis (dimitic),

Gloeoporus, Grifola, Hapalopilus, Heterobasidion, Hydnopolyporus, Ischnoderma, Loweporus, Parmastomyces, Perenniporia, Pyrofomes, Stecchericium, Trechispora, Truncospora and Tyromyces). Nova Hedwigia. E. J. H. Corner, J. Cramer (Verlag Von J. Cramer). Beiheft 96, Vol. 5 (V): 218. In this contribution I conclude the account of monomitic and dimitic non-

xanthochroic polypores, so as I have met with them. A final contribution will deal with the majority of trimitic species assembled as Trametes, and it will provide the opportunity to review generic relationships. ........

Corner, E. J. H. (1989). Ad Polyporaceas VI (The genus Trametes). Nova Hedwigia. E. J. H. Corner, J. Cramer (Verlag Von J. Cramer). Beiheft 97, Vol. 6 (VI): 197. The citation of these thirteen genera, in current use, as synonyms of

Trametes shows the wide view of the genus which has been forced on me. The genera are discussed in the following pages. It is pointed out that no sharp distinction can be given to any because of bridging species.......

Corner, E. J. H. (1991). Trogia (Basidiomycetes). The Gardens' Bulletin Supplement No. 2. E. J. H. Corner. Singapore, National Parks Broad Singapore Botanic Gardens. No. 2: 100. Corner, E. J. H. (1991). Ad Polyporaceas VII (The Xanthochroic Polypores). Nova Hedwigia. E. J. H. Corner. Stuttgart, J. Cramer (Verlag Von J. Cramer). Beiheft 101, Vol. 7 (VII): 175. These are the polypores referred to Hymenochaetales. They are

distinguished by the yellow-brown or xanthochroic colour of their hyphal walls which intensifies of darkens in dilute potash, by the absence of clamp-connections and by a general lack of inflation of the hyphae. That they are a natural group, distinct from non-xanthochroic polypores, is generally agreed......

Corner, E. J. H. (1992). Notes on the Development of the Fruit-bodies of Four Malayan Species of Amanita (Basidiomycetes). The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore. E. J. H. Corner, National Parks Board Singapore Botanic Gardens Cluny Road Singapore 1025. 44: 43-45. Corner, E. J. H. (1993). Psathyrella (Agaricales) with Ornamented Spores in the Malay Peninsula. The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore, National Parks Board Singapore Botanic Gardens Cluny Road Singapore 1025. 45: 337-357. Corner, E. J. H. (1994). Agarics in Malesia I Tricholomatoid II Mycenoid. Nova Hedwigia, Cramer, J. Beheft 109.: 271. Corner, E. J. H. (1996). The Agaric Genera Marasmius, Chaetocalathus, Crinipellis, Heimiomyces, Resupinatus, Xerula and Xerulina in Malesia. Nova Hedwigia. E. J. H. Corner. Berlin, J. Cramer (Verlag Von J. Cramer). Beiheft

111: 175. Many species of these small agarics occur in Malesian forest. They help

decompose the enormous variety of the litter, such as fallen leaf-blades, petioles, twigs, branches, trunks, inflorescences, fruits and roots...........About 100 species of these agarics are here described. They are the ones for which I have sufficient microscopic detail, but I have c. 250 collections with field-notes from Malesia including c. 90 from Malaya, 73 from Borneo and c. 60 from the Solomons......

Corner, E. J. H. and C. Bar (1962). The Genus Amanita in Singapore and Malaya. Persoonia. 2: 241-304. A rather extensive series of collections of the genus Amanita from Malaya

and Singapore, provided the basis of 22 species described as new. The obscure species Amanita eriophora (Berk.) Gilb., A. fritillaria (Berl.) Sacc., A. virginea Mass., Armillaria squamosa Mass., and Collybia elata Mass. are redescribed and the last two transferred to A. hemibapha (Berk. & Br.) Sacc. and A. hemibapha sensu Boed. described as A. hemibapha subsp. javanica. Amaita rubrovolvata Imai is recoded for the first time from outside Japan.

CORROCHANO, L. M. and J. RUIZ-ALBERT (2004). "Nucleotide composition in protein-coding and non-coding DNA in the zygomycete Phycomyces blakesleeanus." Mycol. Res. 108: 858-863. The zygomycete Phycomyces blakesleeanus has a 30 Mb

genome with a 35% content of guanine and cytosine (GC). We determined the GC content in Phycomyces genes and fragments of genes available in public databases, the frequency of nucleotides in each codon position, and the codon usage. We observed a difference of 18% between the GC content of protein-coding and non-coding DNA. This large difference allowed the visualization of protein-coding DNA by plotting the GC content along a segment of Phycomyces DNA. We have identified a high GC DNA segment linked to the pyrG genes of the zygomycete genera Phycomyces, Mucor, and Blakeslea that corresponds to the 3' end of the gene responsible for the protein kinase C.

Cote, M.-J., M. Prud’homme, et al. (2004). "Variations in sequence and occurrence of SSU rDNA group I introns in Monilinia fructicola isolates." Mycologia, 96(2): 240-248. A group I intron of 418 base pairs in the Monilinia fructicola

ribosomal small-subunit sequence was characterized. The absence of such an intron in M. laxa and M. fructigena led to a PCR test for M. fructicola identification based on the presence of this intron. The failure to amplify a PCR fragment for some isolates of M. fructicola recently lead to speculation that the intron might not be present always in M. fructicola. In this study, we analyzed 13 isolates of M. fructicola and found that the intron was absent in four isolates and we determined from sequence

analysis that there are several nucleotide variations that allow the M. fructicola ribosomal SSU intron to be grouped into 6 polymorphic types.

Cotoras, M. and E. Silva (2005). "Differences in the initial events of infection of Botrytis cinerea strains isolated from tomato and grape." Mycologia, 97(2): 485-492. Various stages of the infection process among B. cinerea

strains isolated from tomatoes or grapes, belonging to different genetic groups, were compared. It was found that strains of B. cinerea isolated from either grapes or tomatoes showed differences in adhesion patterns and in the percentage of germination on tomato cutin. In strains isolated from tomato the first stage of adhesion occurred faster than in strains isolated from grape. At the same time strains isolated from tomato showed a higher percentage of germination on tomato cutin than the other strains after 9 h of incubation.

The production and isoenzymatic patterns of polygalacturonases, pectin methyl esterases, pectin lyases, p-nitrophenylbutyrate esterases and laccases by B. cinerea in solid-state fermentation also were analyzed. Correlation between the production of these enzymes and the origin of the strains was not found. On the other hand all strains produced different isoenzymes and a common pattern between the strains was not observed.

The ability of B. cinerea strains to colonize tomato leaves also differs between the isolated strains obtained from grapes and tomato. Strains isolated from

tomato were more virulent on tomato leaves than strains isolated from grapes. Cotty, P. J. (1997). "Aflatoxin-producing potential of communities of Aspergillus section Flavi from cotton producing areas in the United States." Mycological Research 101(6): 698-704. Communities of Aspergillus section Flavi resident in soils planted with

cotton were compared among several areas in the southern United States. Incidence of A. flavus and A. tamarii differed among areas. A. flavus incidence increased with temperature and decreased with latitude. Less than 1% of isolates were A. nomius or A. parasiticus. A. flavus isolates were assigned to either the S or L strains on the basis of sclerotial morphology. S strain isolates produced numerous small (!400 lm) sclerotia ; L strain isolates produced fewer, larger sclerotia. The S strain of A. flavus was found in all areas. Aflatoxin-producing potential of A. flavus differed among areas and was correlated with S strain incidence. L strain isolates produced only 33% as much aflatoxin B" as S strain isolates. No S strain isolate produced both aflatoxin B" and aflatoxin G". Correlations indicated that L strain toxigenicity but not S strain toxigenicity varied geographically. While toxigenicities of most isolates were stable through single conidial transfer, 28% of isolates expressed altered levels of toxigenicity after transfer. The observed differences among communities may reflect geographic isolation and/or adaptation, and may cause different

vulnerabilities to aflatoxin contamination among crops planted in diverse locations.

Couch, B. C. and L. M. Kohn (2002). "A multilocus gene genealogy concordant with host preference indicates segregation of a new species, Magnaporthe oryzae, from M. grisea." Mycologia, 94(4): 683-698. Magnaporthe oryzae is described as a new species distinct

from M. grisea. Gene trees were inferred for Magnaporthe species using portions of three genes: actin, beta-tubulin, and calmodulin. These gene trees were found to be concordant and distinguished two distinct clades within M. grisea. One clade is associated with the grass genus Digitaria and is therefore nomenclaturally tied to M. grisea. The other clade is associated with Oryza sativa and other cultivated grasses and is described as a new species, M. oryzae. While no morphological characters as yet distinguish them, M. oryzae is distinguished from M. grisea by several base substitutions in each of three loci as well as results from laboratory matings; M.oryzae and M. grisea are not interfertile. Given that M. oryzae is the scientifically correct name for isolates associated with rice blast and grey leaf spot, continued use of M. grisea for such isolates would require formal nomenclatural conservation.

Couch, J. N. (1983). The Genus Septobasidium. North Carolina, The University of North Carolina Press. COVERT, S. F., P. KAPOOR, et al. (2001). "Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation of Fusarium circinatum." Mycol. Res. 105: 259-264. The development of a transformation system is a significant

technical hurdle in the study of many filamentous fungi. Recently Agrobacterium tumefaciens was shown to transform several filamentous fungi, but until now only one independent confirmation of this promising finding has been published. Fusarium circinatum (teleomorph Gibberella circinata) is an important pathogen of pine that has not been transformed previously. A. tumefaciens strain AGL1(pPK2) transformed three different isolates of F. circinatum with an efficiency of 2--150 transformants 10-5 conidia. The T-DNA was integrated into the genome and was stable through mitotic and meiotic cell divisions. Most F. circinatum transformants contained a single T-DNA copy. Half of the tested transformants also contained non-T-DNA vector sequences. These findings should facilitate future analysis of F. circinatum pathogenicity and stimulate wider use of this valuable transformation method in fungal research.

COX, P. W. and C. R. THOMAS (1999). "Assessment of the activity of filamentous fungi using Mag fura." Mycol. Res. 103: 757-763. A new staining method for the examination of active regions of

hyphae is presented. Using a simple protocol, application of the fluorescent stain Mag fura (tetra-potassium salt) in low pH buffer to two

filamentous fungi resulted in bright responses to active hyphal regions. Not only were active apices delineated, but more distal compartments were also found to respond to the stain. Some apices did not stain, presumably because they were inactive. It is believed that all stained regions retained cell membrane integrity and are thought to have had high membrane ATPase activity. All showed high nuclear and mitochondrial complements. The stain

was apparently held within the cell wall structure, close to the cell membrane. It is hypothesized that it was responding to a localized flux of divalent cations from the cell membrane. With non-active regions, only a low level of response to the stain remained, at the exterior of the cell wall. This low emission is thought to be a response to contaminating ions in the buffer. It could be clearly distinguished from the bright response associated with the active regions. Counter-staining with other commonly used

fluorescent probes showed these regions of low response (unless they were completely degenerated) still contained nuclear material and mitochondria.

The fluorescent signal from active regions of fungal hyphae was sufficiently bright and persistent for visualization by a conventional CCD camera. This will allow the development of image analysis protocols to measure the effects of environmental conditions on fungal physiology, using commonly available equipment.

Crane, P. E. (2003). "Caeoma cassiopae sp. nov., a rust on Cassiope tetragona in the Canadian Rocky Mountains." Mycologia, 95(1): 156-159. Caeoma cassiopae sp. nov. (Uredinales) is described on the

arctic–alpine shrub Cassiope tetragona. It was found in three locations in the Rocky Mountains of west-central Alberta, and is the first rust reported on the genus Cassiope. The sori resemble the uredinia of species in the genus Chrysomyxa. The

host in the Ericaceae also suggests affinity with that genus. However, the spore morphology, studied by light and scanning electron microscopy, does not resemble

known species of Chrysomyxa. Crane, P. E. (2005). "Rust fungi on rhododendrons in Asia: Diaphanopellis forrestii gen. et sp. nov., new species of Caeoma, and expanded descriptions of Chrysomyxa dietelii and C. succinea." Mycologia, 97(2): 534-548. Many rust fungi (Uredinales) that infect rhododendrons are

difficult to identify because of similar spore size and overall morphology. As part of a morphological study of rusts in the genus Chrysomyxa, herbarium specimens of Asian rhododendron rusts were examined by light and scanning electron

microscopy. They were compared with similar taxa from Europe and North America. Revised and illustrated descriptions are provided for the uredinia and

telia of Chrysomyxa dietelii and Chrysomyxa succinea; details of the conspicuous

uredinial peridium of both species are described for the first time. A new genus

and species, Diaphanopellis forrestii, is proposed to accommodate a rust fungus with uredinia covered by a peridium of ornamented cells (Aecidium-type) and

teliospores enclosed in transparent outer sheaths. This species includes the previously described anamorphs Aecidium rhododendri and A. sino-rhododendri.

Three new anamorphic species with unique urediniospore morphology also are described: Caeoma clemensii from Philippines, Caeoma spinulospora from

Tibet, and Caeoma yunnanensis from Yunnan, China. For morphological and nomenclatural reasons Uredo rhododendri (‘rhododendronis’) is renamed as Caeoma dumeticola and Uredo rhododendri-capitati is transferred to Caeoma. A key to Asian rhododendron rusts that form uredinia is provided. In general morphological groups of rhododendron rusts correlate with the subgenera of Rhododendron on which they occur, suggesting coevolution of these parasites with their

hosts. CRANE, P. E., Y. HIRATSUKA, et al. (2000). "Clarification of the life-cycle of Chrysomyxa woroninii on Ledum and Picea." Mycol. Res. 104: 581-586. The rust fungus Chrysomyxa woroninii causes perennial

witches' brooms on several species of Ledum in northern and subalpine regions of Europe, North America and Asia. Spruce bud rust has been assumed to be the aecial state of C. woroninii because of the close proximity of infected Ledum plants and systemically infected buds on Picea. The lack of experimental evidence for this connection, however, and the presence of other species of Chrysomyxa on the same hosts has led to confusion about the life-cycle of C. woroninii. In this study, infections on both spruce and Ledum were studied in the field and in a greenhouse. The link between the two states was proven by inoculating spruce with basidiospores from Ledum groenlandicum. After infection of spruce in spring, probably through the needles, the fungus overwinters in the unopened buds until the next spring, when the infected shoots are distinguished by stunting and yellow or red discolouration. Microscopic examination of dormant Ledum shoots showed that C. woroninii overwinters in this host in the bracts and outer leaves of the vegetative buds, and in the pith and cortex of the stem. The telia of C. woroninii, on systemically infected Ledum leaves of the current season, are easily distinguished from the telia of other

Chrysomyxa species on the same hosts. The latter produce localized telia and uredinia only on overwintered leaves, produce aecia on spruce needles in the same year as infection occurs, and are not systemic in spruce. The restricted habitat distribution of C. woroninii and the need for overwintering outdoors suggest that this rust fungus has specific environmental requirements for

survival. Craven, K. D., P. D. Peterson, et al. (2005). "Molecular identification of the turf grass rapid blight pathogen." Mycologia, 97(1): 160-166. Rapid blight is a newly described disease on turf grasses,

primarily found on golf courses using suboptimal water for irrigation purposes. On the basis of shared morphological characteristics, it has been proposed that the rapid blight pathogen belongs to a genus of stramenopiles, Labyrinthula, which had been known to cause disease of marine plants only. We have collected 10 isolates from four species of turf grass in five states and sequenced portions of the SSU (18S) rDNA gene from each to provide a definitive taxonomic placement for rapid blight pathogens. We also included sequences from Labyrinthuloides yorkensis, Schizochytrium aggregatum, Aplanochytrium sp., Thraustochytrium striatum, Achlya bisexualis and several nonturf-grass isolates of Labyrinthula. We found that rapid blight isolates indeed are placed firmly within the genus Labyrinthula and that they lack detectable genetic diversity in the 18S rDNA region. We propose that the rapid blight pathogens share a recent common ancestor and might have originated from a single, infected population.

CRESPO, A., M. C. MOLINA, et al. (2002). "rDNA ITS and β-tubulin gene sequence analyses reveal two monophyletic groups within the cosmopolitan lichen Parmelia saxatilis." Mycol. Res. 106: 788-795. A considerable number of species of lichen-forming fungi have

wide geographical distributions, but studies of their genetic variability are minimal. ITS rDNA sequences of 32 populations of Parmelia saxatilis from five continents revealed two monophyletic groups. β-tublin gene sequences from a subset of nine collections supported these conclusions. While the number of collections sequenced is limited, one monophyletic group (the Atlantic Population. AtP) was recognized as occurring in Arctic and Antarctic regions and also included collections from more atlantic sites. Samples from more mesic environments in the Mediterranean region belonged to a second monophyletic group (the Mediterranean Population, MeP). In addition, four subgroups were distinguishable within the Atlantic Population. Norstictic and protocetraric acids are reported from the species for the first time, the norstictic acid only being found in the Atlantic Population. Living thalli from the Atlantic Population were provenance-tested; specimens transported from the UK to central Spain where the Mediterranean Population occurs showed adverse symptoms after six months.

These results demonstrate that there can be substantial large-scale genotypic variability within widespread lichen phenospecies, something which has implications for comparative ecological, physiological, and air pollution sensitivity studies as well as for lichen conservation.

CROOS, J. N. A. D. and M. J. BIDOCHKA (2001). "Cold-induced proteins in cold-active isolates of the insectpathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae." Mycol. Res. 105: 868-873. The entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae is

generally considered to be mesophylic, although some isolates have the ability to grow at 8 °C. In two cold-active isolates (DAT-1 from Tasmania and CLB2-1vi from Ontario, Canada) and one non-coldactive isolate (Ma 2575 from South Carolina), we (1) analyzed cold-induced intracellular proteins, using two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis, and (2) analyzed cold-active transcripts, using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based subtractive hybridization technique. Protein differences, as observed by 2D gel electrophoresis, were observed in cold active isolates grown at 8 ° when

compared with 25 °, but such differences were not observed in the non-cold active isolate. Fungi were also subjected to various stresses (45 °, pH, and salinity) to determine how proteins induced under these conditions compared to proteins induced under low temperature growth. Proteins induced were either specific to cold-active growth or were general stress proteins and differences were also observed in 2D patterns between the two cold-active isolates. Transcripts upregulated during growth at 8 ° and isolated by a PCR based subtractive hybridization technique also differed between the two cold-active isolates. Analysis of the transcripts showed several novel sequences but also included transcripts with similarities to actin, NADPH quinone oxidoreductase, a thiamine biosynthesis protein and a yeast-like membrane protein. The potential role of these proteins in cold-active growth is discussed.

CROUS, P. W. (1999). "Species of Mycosphaerella and related anamorphs occurring on Myrtaceae (excluding Eucalyptus)." Mycol. Res. 103: 607-611. Six species of Mycosphaerella and eight anamorphs with

unknown Mycosphaerella states occurring on myrtaceous hosts other than Eucalyptus are treated in the present study. Eight additional species that have recently been described elsewhere are discussed, while a further six species remain unconfirmed, and two are excluded from Mycosphaerella. New species are described in Mycosphaerella, Mycovellosiella, Passalora, Pseudocercospora and Stenella, and new combinations proposed in Eruptio and Microthyrium. Keys are provided to distinguish the accepted species occurring on Myrtaceae other than Eucalyptus, while their morphological similarities with taxa known from this host are discussed.

Crous, P. W. and U. Braun (2003). Mycosphaerella and its anamorphs: 1. Names published in Cercospora and Passalora, Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht, The Netherlands Fungal Biodiversity Centre. CROUS, P. W., L. HONG, et al. (2001). "ITS rDNA phylogeny of selected Mycosphaerella species and their anamorphs occurring on Myrtaceae." Mycol.

Res. 105: 425-431. Species of Mycosphaerella and their anamorphs are commonly

found on the leaves of Myrtaceae, many of which are defoliated by these pathogens. The taxonomy of these fungi has been based on minute morphological differences, and virtually nothing is known regarding their relatedness to each other. In this study, we present a phylogeny of 30 species of Mycosphaerella or their anamorphs from myrtaceous hosts, based on sequence data from the ITS regions of the ribosomal RNA operon. Fifteen of the species were also analysed for the 5' end of the large subunit (28S), which produced a phylogeny similar to that obtained for the ITS data set. The Mycosphaerella species included in this analysis are all regarded as representatives of section Plaga, and appear to represent a monophyletic assemblage. Mycosphaerella lateralis was the only species shown to have a wide host range. In general, species clustered together based on their anamorph genera. Species with Colletogloeopsis and Stenella anamorphs always grouped in two respective clusters. However, species with Mycovellosiella, Phaeophleospora, Pseudocercospora and Uwebraunia anamorphs occurred separately, suggesting that they have evolved more than once within Mycosphaerella. Based on the ITS data set, all morphospecies were also shown to be phylogenetic species, although too few isolates were available to address questions relating to intraspecies variation. Nevertheless, ITS sequence data proved sufficient to distinguish morphologically similar taxa that have hitherto only been distinguished based on ascospore germination patterns and anamorph characteristics. Sequence data presented in this study should facilitate the identification of Mycosphaerella species occurring on Myrtaceae in the future.

CROUS, P. W. and M. E. PALM (1999). "Systematics of selected foliicolous fungi associated with leaf spots of Proteaceae." Mycol. Res. 103: 1299-1304. The present study treats several fungi associated with leaf

spots of Proteaceae from Africa, Australia and India. Leptosphaeria leucadendri (anamorph: Sclerostagonospora leucadendri) is described from Leucadendron leaves from Australia, while three previously described African taxa from Protea leaves are transferred to Phaeophleospora as P. abyssinicae, P. congestum and P. protearum. Trimmatostroma protearum and a Phyllosticta sp. are described from Protea leaves collected in South Africa and Australia, respectively. Cercospora agharkarii, which occurs on Grevillea, is redisposed to Pseudocercospora, while a new genus Pseudohendersonia, is proposed for P. proteae occurring on Protea leaves in South Africa.

Crous, P. W., L. Theron, et al. (1997). "Delineation of Cylindrocladium species with 1-3-septate conidia and clavate vesicles based on morphology and rDNA RFLPs." Mycological Research 101(2): 210-214. Unidentified isolates of Cylindrocladium with 1-3-septate conidia and

clavate vesicles were compared with C. theae, C. colhounii var. colhounii, C. colhounii var. macroconidiale, C. gracile, C. pteridis and Calonectria gracilis. Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) of these isolates were digested with the restriction enzymes EcoR I, Hind III and Xho I, and Southern analysis performed with the 6.3-kb rDNA repeat unit of Neurospora crassa as DNA probe. Based on differences in general morphology, supported by their rDNA restriction fragment length polymorphisms, isolates of all species and varieties could be distinguished. Furthermore, the Cylindrocladium anamorph of Calonectria gracilis was shown to be distinct from Cylindrocladium pteridis and C. gracile. The name Cylindrocladium pseudogracile sp. nov. is, therefore, proposed for the undescribed anamorph of Calonectria gracilis.

CROUS, P. W., M. J. WINGFIELD, et al. (1998). "New foliar pathogens of Eucalyptus from Australia and Indonesia." Mycol. Res. 102: 527-532. Mycosphaerella tasmaniensis is newly described from

Mycosphaerella leaf blotch symptoms occurring on Eucalyptus nitens in Tasmania, Australia. Single ascospore cultures produced a Mycovellosiella anamorph, described here as M. tasmaniensis. Both states occurred together, as well as separately on leaf spots. Phaeophleospora epicoccoides (=Kirramyces epicoccoides) is commonly associated with leaf spots of Eucalyptus spp. in Australia. The teleomorph, Mycosphaerella suttoniae, previously known only from Indonesia, was also collected on E. grandis leaves from Australia. A Cylindrocladium leaf blight disease of young E. grandis trees in Indonesia was found to be associated with a new species of Calonectria. Calonectria multiseptata and its anamorph Cylindrocladium multiseptatum is newly described and distinguished from other species based on their larger, multi-septate ascospores and conidia.

Cruse, M., R. Telerant, et al. (2002). "Cryptic species in Stachybotrys chartarum." Mycologia, 94(5): 814-822. Stachybotrys chartarum has received much attention as a

possible cause of sick-building syndrome. Because morphological species recognition in fungi can hide diversity, we applied a phylogenetic approach to search for cryptic species. We examined 23 isolates from the San Francisco Bay Area, and another seven from around the US. Using markers we developed for three polymorphic protein coding loci (chitin synthase 1, beta-tubulin 2, and trichodiene synthase 5), we infer that two distinct phylogenetic species exist within the single described morphological species. We have found no correlation between genetic isolation and geographic distance.

CUBERO, O. F., A. CRESPO, et al. (2004). "Molecular phylogeny of the genus Physconia (Ascomycota, Lecanorales) inferred from a Bayesian analysis of nuclear ITS rDNA sequences." Mycol. Res. 108: 498-505.

A Bayesian analysis of nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences was used to infer phylogenetic relationships of 14 Physconia species. The analysis supports the monophyly of the genus. Three well supported clades can be distinguished within Physconia: the series griseae, venustae and pulverulentae. The relationships of these clades, however, is not resolved with confidence. Cortical characters are re-evaluated on the basis of the phylogenetic hypothesis. Anatomical features of the upper cortex are only diagnostic above the species level for two special forms of two-layered cortices, while morphological characters, such as lower surface and rhizine-type are characteristic for distinct clades. P. venusta and P. perisidiosa are not separated in this analysis, but populations of P. muscigena, and European and North American samples of P. americana are clearly distinct and the monophyly of both P. americana and P. muscigena s. lat. is rejected on the basis of a Bayesian hypothesis testing.

Cummins, G. B. and Y. Hiratsuka (1991). Illustrated Genera of Rust Fungi (Revised Edition). New York, USA., American Pathogen Society Press (APS). CUNNINGTON, J. H., A. C. LAWRIE, et al. (2005). "Genetic variation within Podosphaera tridactyla reveals a paraphyletic species complex with biological specialization towards specific Prunus subgenera." Mycol. Res. 109: 357-362. Podosphaera tridactyla (Ascomycota: Erysiphales) is a

morphologically variable species occurring on Prunus s. lat. In order to assess the genetic variation within this species, the rDNA ITS region was amplified from 29 specimens from a range of Prunus species collected in Australia, Switzerland, and Korea. RFLP analysis of the PCR products revealed six groups, and a comparison of sequences from representatives of these groups revealed three clades: Clade 1 contained all specimens from Prunus subgen. Prunus; Clade 2 specimens from a variety of Prunus subgenera, except subgen. Prunus,

and Podosphaera longiseta was closely allied to this clade; and Clade 3 contained two specimens, from Japan and Korea. Phylogenetic analysis comparing P. tridactyla with of a range of Podosphaera species suggests that P. tridactyla is paraphyletic.

CURRELI, N., A. RESCIGNO, et al. (2004). "Degradation of juglone by Pleurotus sajor-caju." Mycol. Res. 108: 913-918. The toxic naphthoquinone juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4-

naphthoquinone) is efficiently degraded by the ligninolytic fungus Pleurotus sajor-caju, as demonstrated by the total bleaching within 9 d of a conventional liquid culture medium supplemented with 0.6 mM juglone. The oxidative degradation involves the production of hydrogen peroxide arising from both enzymic and non-enzymic oxidation reactions, promoted by the fungus. Juglone is not directly attacked by the oxidative enzymes of the ligninolytic machinery of P. sajor-caju, such as laccase, manganese

peroxidase and arylalcohol oxidase. On the other hand, this naphthoquinone is a good substrate for a reductase, which triggers an auto-oxidative process producing reactive oxygen species and leading to juglone degradation. The degradation process continues to completion by means of a direct, presumably non-catalysed reaction with hydrogen peroxide.

Cushion, M. T., S. P. Keely, et al. (2004). "Molecular and phenotypic description of Pneumocystis wakefieldiae sp. nov., a new species in rats." Mycologia, 96(3): 429-438. Organisms in the genus Pneumocystis are fungi that reside in

the lungs of mammals that can cause a lethal pneumonia once the hosts lose immune

function. The genus Pneumocystis contains many members, but only two species have been described formally to date, P. carinii, the type species

found in rats, and P. jirovecii, resident in human beings. Rats have been shown to harbor another organism in addition to P. carinii, Pneumocystis wakefieldiae

sp. nov., formerly known as Pneumocystis carinii f. sp. ratti, which is described here. Although often found together and morphologically similar, P. carinii and

P. wakefieldiae are phenotypically and genetically divergent. We used the phylogenetic species recognition approach to distinguish these organisms as two distinct species and estimated the evolutionary time of their separation.

Nucleotide sequence comparisons of seven homologous genes showed 4–7% divergence

between the P. wakefieldiae and P. carinii sequences, which was in contrast to the 0–0.8% divergence observed within P. carinii species. Even greater

divergence (30%) occurred in sequences located between genes. The MSG (major surface glycoprotein) gene families of P. carinii and P. wakefieldiae are 35%

divergent from one another and differ with respect to sequence elements associated with regulation of their transcription. Differences in reactivity of monoclonal

antibodies and polyclonal antisera reflected these genetically distinct surface antigens. Karyotypic analysis of P. wakefieldiae produced a single profile

that was distinct from all 12 profiles known for P. carinii. Eight homologous genes were localized to chromosomes of different sizes in the two species. The cumulative genotypic and phenotypic data support a species distinction between these two organisms.

Cushion, M. T., S. P. Keely, et al. (2005). "Validation of the name Pneumocystis wakefieldiae." Mycologia, 97(1): 268. CZEMBOR, P. C. and E. ARSENIUK (2000). "Segregation and recombination of PCR based markers in sexual progeny of Phaeosphaeria species." Mycol. Res.

104: 919-926. Segregation and recombination in sexual progeny of

Phaeosphaeria spp. were analysed using three PCR based techniques which targeted arbitrary DNA sequence (random amplified polymorphic DNA, RAPD--PCR), microsatellites (microsatellite primed PCR, MP--PCR) and dispersed repetitive DNA elements (rep-PCR). Polymorphic DNA markers were not detected in three sets of P. avenae f. sp. triticea ascospores isolated sequentially from single asci. It is hypothesised that ascospores of P. avenae f. sp. triticea were produced from a sexual process in which fusion of genetically identical nuclei took place. On the other hand, polymorphic DNA fragments were found in three sets of eight P. nodorum isolates recovered from ascospores sequentially liberated from single asci

produced by in vitro mated `+' and `-' strains. Among 172 polymorphic markers identified in two sets of isolates (ascospores) of the fungus, 171 segregated in a ratio 1: 1. We have demonstrated for the first time that the inheritance of PCR based markers in P. nodorum progeny follows Mendelian genetics. Thereby, a molecular proof for bipolar heterothallism of the fungus was provided. In contrast, of 48 polymorphic markers detected in the third cross, only 26 segregated in an expected Mendelian frequency 4:4 and the other 22 demonstrated either aberrant segregation pattern or possessed new DNA fragments amplified in PCR which were not detected previously in parental DNA profiles. The reasons underlying the high frequency PMS type markers identified almost exclusively in one cross have yet to be conclusively determined. If such recombinants were found in the progeny of in vitro mated P. nodorum isolates it is obvious that they also occur under natural conditions. Thus, the study provides a molecular evidence for generation of novel genotypes of the pathogen.

Czymmek, K. J., T. M. Bourett, et al. (2002). "Utility of cytoplasmic fluorescent proteins for live-cell imaging of Magnaporthe grisea in planta." Mycologia, 94(2): 280-289. The subcellular expression patterns and fluorescence

intensities of cytoplasm-targeted, constitutively expressed blue-, cyano-, green-, yellow- and red-fluorescent protein were assessed in a number of transformants of the blast pathogen, Magnaporthe grisea. All transformants grew normally, remained pathogenic on barley, and, except for those expressing blue fluorescent protein, exhibited significant cytoplasmic fluorescence. The exceptionally intense brightness of some strains proved very useful for laser scanning confocal microscope imaging during invasion of host tissues. Acquisition of three-dimensional data sets from intact, individual, pathogen encounter sites in planta were generated during the time course of pathogenesis using non-invasive optical sectioning methods. Confocal and multiphoton microscopy imaging in conjunction with fluorescent protein expression allowed for the real time documentation of fungal colonization within plant cells and tissues with

remarkable ease. These methods constitute valuable new tools for the investigation of plant disease.

D.WINGFIELD, B., C. D. VILJOEN, et al. (1999). "Phylogenetic relationships of ophiostomatoid fungi associated with Protea infructescences in South Africa." Mycol. Res. 103: 1616-1620. Five ophiostomatoid taxa have been found associated with the

infructescences of Protea species, an ancient group of flowering plants endemic to South Africa. Two of these fungi are characterized by their unusual Knoxdavesia anamorphs and have been placed in Gondwanamyces. The three remaining species have Sporothrix anamorphs and have accordingly been accommodated in Ophiostoma. The phylogenetic relationships between the fungi associated with Protea spp. and other ophiostomatoid fungi in Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma are unknown. Large subunit ribosomal RNA sequence data was obtained for the fungi associated with Protea infructescences as well as for the type species of Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma. Both groups of ophiostomatoid fungi were phylogenetically distinct from either Ceratocystis or Ophiostoma, despite sharing morphological and physiological characters with these genera. The species of Ophiostoma associated with Protea infructescences group within the Ophiostomatales while species of Gondwanamyces group within the Microascales. Furthermore, the Ophiostoma spp. from Protea should reside in a separate genus and are a fascinating example of convergent evolution towards insect dispersal.

D’Souza, M. and D. J. Bhat (2002). "Didymobotryum spirillum, a new synnematous hyphomycete from India." Mycologia, 94(3): 535-538. A new synnematous hyphomycete, Didymobotryum spirillum

D’Souza & Bhat, collected from decaying culms of bamboo, Dendrocalamus strictus, is

described and illustrated from the forests of Western Ghats in Goa, India. The fungus produces monotretic, catenate didymoconidia on spirally twisted synnemata.

Dahlberg, A. (1997). "Population ecology of Suillus variegatus in old Swedish Scots pine forests." Mycological Research 101(1): 47-54. Spatial characteristics of Suillus variegatus populations, including the size,

distribution and number of genets, were measured in four naturally regenerated stands of Scots pine, Pinus sylvestris in Sweden that were more than 100 years old. In the oldest forest, a continuous tree-layer had been present at least since the last forest fire in 1647. Genets were identified based on somatic incompatibility reactions performed on mycelial cultures from sporocarps. In total, 38 genets were identified from 120 tested sporocarps. The maximal extension of a genet, as reflected by its outermost sporocarps, was 27 m in the oldest stand and ranged between 10 and 17 m in the other stands. On average, genet size was 20

m in the oldest stand and 10 m in the other stands. Other genets were not found within the domains of established genets. The closest detected distance between genets was 1.5 m, and the average distance was 4 m. The number of genets ranged between 56 and 74 ha-1 at the studied sites. Possible reasons for the high degree of resemblance in characteristics in old forests between S. variegatus, the dominant bolete in mature forests, and S. bovinus when present, more a characteristic for younger forests and only scarcely occurring in older forests, are discussed.

Dahlberg, A., I. Nikolova, et al. (1997). "Intraspecific variation in 137Cs activity concentration in sporocarps of Suillus variegatus in seven Swedish populations." Mycological Research 101(5): 545-551. Following the Chernobyl accident in 1986, sporocarps of Suillus

variegatus in Sweden showed a large amount of individual variation in concentration of 137(Cs activity. Our aim was to determine the degrees to which this variability in sporocarp 137(Cs levels could be explained by differences between (i) local populations, (ii) fungal genets and (iii) locations within genets. Five populations in a 100- yr-old Scots pine forest, located within a 1 km2 area, and two populations in Scots pine/Norway spruce forest, located 40 km northwest of Uppsala, were investigated. In total, 154 sporocarps were analysed to determine their 137(Cs content. Of these, the genetic affiliations of 86 were successfully characterized using somatic incompatibility reactions. Twenty-six genets were found which, on average, consisted of 6.5 sporocarps. The genets averaged 7.5 m in size, measured as the length between the most distant sporocarps. The mean sporocarp 137(Cs level was 67.1±2.8 kBq kg-1 d.w. (range between 13.6 and 182). According to analyses of variance, within-population variation accounted for 60% of the total variation in "$(Cs levels, while 40% was ascribed to variation among populations. Within a population, 137(Cs levels did not generally differ significantly between genets. Plausible reasons for intraspecific variation in radiocaesium content in sporocarps are discussed.

DAHLMAN, M., E. DANELL, et al. (2000). "Molecular systematics of Craterellus : cladistic analysis of nuclear LSU rDNA sequence data." Mycol. Res. 104: 388-394. Considerable taxonomic confusion exists regarding many

species of Cantharellus. Several taxa have been classified in either Cantharellus or Craterellus depending on which morphological characters were emphasised. Recent phylogenetic studies based on sequence analyses suggest that some species now classified in Cantharellus should be in Craterellus. We extracted DNA from dried herbarium specimens and amplified, sequenced and cladistically analysed approximately 650 bp of the 5' end of the nuclear large subunit ribosomal DNA gene. Our data confirm earlier results and provide molecular evidence for the classification of additional Cantharellus species (Ca. ignicolor and Ca.

lutescens) within Craterellus. Furthermore, the data enable us to predict that all

Leptocantharellus-like species currently classified within Cantharellus are more accurately classified within Craterellus. The species complexes of Cr. tubaeformis and Cr. cornucopioides were also investigated. These analyses did not support the monophyly of Ca. tubaeformis but the hypothesis that colour varieties of Cr. cornucopioides represent separate species was rejected. DAI, Y.-C., E. J. VAINIO, et al. (2002). "Sexuality and intersterility within the Heterobasidion insulare complex." Mycol. Res. 106: 1435-1448. The sexual system of Heterobasidion insulare was elucidated

and 40 specimens originating from the mainland of China, Taiwan, and Japan were studied with the aid of mating tests. Most of the material was also investigated with DNA fingerprinting using random amplified microsatellite (RAMS) and M13 minisatellite primers. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and sequencing were applied for detecting variation in the internally transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the ribosomal DNA cluster. H. insulare proved to be a species complex with bipolar mating system. Clamp connections occurred in both heterokaryotic and homokaryotic mycelia. Three intersterility groups were found: the ‘T group’ included specimens from Taiwan and Guizhou Province (southern China), the ‘N group’ specimens from northern China and Japan, and the ‘Y group’ specimens from Yunnan (south-west China). The T group seems to be totally intersterile with the two other groups, and was grouped separately in neighbour joining analysis based on DNA fingerprints. As concluded from mating experiments, groups N and Y are partially intersterile, but they are able to produce hybrid heterokaryons, no group specific DNA markers were found, and they were grouped together in neighbour joining analysis. The identity of H. insulare sensu stricto was studied from the type collections. It seems that none of the above-presented taxa can be referred to it, and we propose the term H. insulare sensu lato to be used in future studies.

Dallmeier, F. (1992). Long-Term Monitoring of Biological Diversity in Tropical Forest Areas, UNESCO. Dalpe, Y. and S. Declerck (2002). "Development of Acaulospora rehmii spore and hyphal swellings under root-organ culture." Mycologia, 94(5): 850-855. A strain of Acaulospora rehmii was, for the first time,

successfully grown in vitro on Ri T-DNA transformed carrot roots allowing the in situ observation of Acaulospora spore development and of extraradical thin-walled hyphal swellings. The sporogenous hypha developed intercalarly along thin-walled coenocytic hyphae. The distal part of the sporogenous hypha swelled slightly as a sporiferous saccule primordium followed by the differentiation of a lateral spore primordium along the neck of the sporogenous hypha. Both structures matured

simultaneously, and the sporiferous saccule began to collapse after spore maturation and complete differentiation of the spore wall. Several of the in situ observations on in vitro differentiated A. rehmii spores are concordant with previous ontogenic studies done on other Acaulospora species obtained from in vivo cultures. New and original observations on the early developmental stages of sporiferous saccules and spores and on the occurrence of small diameter intercalary hyphal swellings provide additional elements in the study of Acaulospora sporulation process and life cycle.

DALZOTO, P. R., C. GLIENKE-BLANCO, et al. (2003). "RAPD analyses of recombination processes in the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana." Mycol. Res. 107: 1069-1074. To understand the nature of recombination processes in

Beauveria bassiana, double-auxotrophic complementary mutant strains were used to produce six heterokaryons by three different methods. Conidia from these heterokaryons were plated on selective media and stable haploid (but not diploid) recombinants were isolated. Single colony recombinants were recovered with both parental and non-parental random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) profiles. These results suggest that a range of different recombination mechanisms may be occurring in B. bassiana.

DANELL, E. and G. FLYGH (2002). "Cryopreservation of the ectomycorrhizal mushroom Cantharellus cibarius." Mycol. Res. 106: 1340-1342. Cryopreservation of ectomycorrhizal fungi is often difficult, but

needed for patent deposits and for enabling experiments on model strains with constant characteristics. In this study we report a protocol for successful cryopreservation of the ectomycorrhizal mushroom Cantharellus cibarius, together with a brief summary of some unsuccessful attempts. A slow freezing rate (0.3 °C min-1) of agar cubes carrying the mycelium, and a gentle addition of the cryoprotectants sorbitol and DMSO were important features. This protocol was successfully repeated by ATCC who used it to deposit a patented strain of C. cibarius, and therefore the protocol should also be tested for other ectomycorrhizal basidiomycetes.

DANIEL, G., F. ASIEGBU, et al. (1998). "The saprotrophic wood-degrading abilities of Heterobasidium annosum intersterility groups P and S." Mycol. Res. 102: 991-997. The saprotrophic wood-degrading abilities of strains from the

intersterility groups S and P of the necrotrophic root and white rot fungus Heterobasidium annosum were tested using a conventional soil jar method and small wood blocks of Pinus sylvestris, Picea abies and Betula verrucosa. Weight loss in dry matter of wood blocks was compared with the ability of the same strains to secrete the phenol oxidase laccase under

liquid and solid-state culture conditions. Results showed the much greater ability of H. annosum P strains to degrade wood, with weight losses comparable to those reported for other white rot fungi cultivated under similar conditions. In contrast, the S isolates except Br228 and Fr154 degraded the wood blocks poorly with a maximum weight loss of ca 12% recorded after 5 mo incubation. Light and scanning electron microscopy showed hyphal colonization and decay to be typical for white rot, with both simultaneous attack by cell wall thinning and preferential lignin degradation recorded for P strains. Results for wood block degradation correlated well with the ability of the intersterility groups to produce laccase in liquid culture and solidstate culture conditions, with P strains producing ca 5-6 times more laccase than S strains. Results indicate that great differences

exist between H. annosum intersterility P and S groups ability to cause wood decay, but that P strains have a significantly greater competitive saprotrophic wood-degrading ability than previously realized.

DANTI, R., T. N. SIEBER, et al. (2002). "Endophytic mycobiota in bark of European beech (Fagus sylvatica) in the Apennines." Mycol. Res. 106: 1343-1348. Thirty 3–4 yr-old twigs were collected at each of three

sampling dates between May 1995 and May 1996 from each of ten approximately 120 yr-old European beech trees in the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines to examine the bark for the presence of endophytic fungi. Five trees with low crown transparency (>5%) and five trees with high crown transparency (<25%) were compared. Almost all of the 900 examined bark samples were colonized by endophytic fungi. More than 30% of the twigs appeared to host three or more fungal species. Forty-four endophyte species were detected. An Aposphaeria and a Cryptosporiopsis species, Botryosphaeria quercuum, Discula umbrinella and Neohendersonia kickxii occurred most frequently in all of the three samplings and seemed to play a dominant role as endophytes in beech bark. Significant differences in endophyte assemblages between trees with low and trees with high crown transparency could be detected only with respect to the Aposphaeria species. The colonization of tissues by this fungus, possibly a weak pathogen, was predominant on trees with high crown transparency.

Darumart, P. (2006). Flora in Springwater Swamp Forest at Western Thong Pha Phum, Biodiversity Research and Training Program. DAVIS, D. J., C. BURLAK, et al. (2000). "Osmotic pressure of fungal compatible osmolytes." Mycol. Res. 104: 800-804. Filamentous fungi and yeasts control cytoplasmic osmotic

pressure through ion accumulation and synthesis of compatible osmolytes including polyhydric alcohols (polyols), proline, and trehalose. Authoritative data on the osmotic effects of these compounds were

obtained using vapour pressure deficit osmometry. All osmolytes tested were characterised by nonlinear relationships between concentration and osmotic pressure. At high concentrations larger polyols generated higher osmotic pressures than smaller ones, though differences between the osmotic effects of polyols with three, four, five and six carbon atoms were not pronounced at lower

(physiological) concentrations. Proline shared a similar relationship between concentration and osmotic pressure with polyols with five carbon atoms, while at concentrations above 0.5 m trehalose generated higher osmotic pressures than any of the polyols tested. Mixtures of trehalose and glycerol boosted osmotic pressure in a synergistic rather than additive fashion. These data provide new clues to the adaptive significance of glycerol accumulation, and also suggest that complex patterns of osmolyte synthesis are not due to differences between the osmotic effects of these compounds.

De Almeida Siqueira, E. M., K. Mizuta, et al. (1997). "Pycnoporus sanguineus: a novel source of alpha-amylase." Mycological Research 101(2): 188-190. A novel source of a-amylase has been identified in Pycnoporus

sanguineus. Spores incubated in the submerged system using wheat bran as a carbon source showed a-amylase activity. Induction of a-amylase was also observed from mycelium incubated in submerged fermentation (LM4) using starch or wheat bran as the carbon source. The effect of the inhibitors on the production of enzyme by mycelium incubated in the presence of glucose, suggested the existence of catabolic repression. A comparative study showed that in a solid state fermentation system (SSM), even in the presence of high levels of glucose, the production of a-amylase was 4-fold greater than that in a submerged system. High levels of b-glucosidase and xylanase activities were also found in SSM after 72 h incubation. P. sanguineus produces at least three important hydrolytic enzymes using economical procedures.

De Groot, P. W. J., J. Visser, et al. (1998). "Biochemical and molecular aspects of growth and fruiting of the edible mushroom Agaricus bisporus." Mycological Research 102(11): 1297-1308. The introduction of recombinant DNA technology in the field of mushroom

research has resulted in the cloning and characterization of a large number of genes. In order to study the genetics of compost colonization of A. bisporus, genes encoding enzymes involved in utilization of this substrate have been isolated. In addition, a number of genes which are induced in fruit bodies during fruit body development have been cloned and they will provide more insight in the genetics of this economically important aspect of the life cycle. Other genes that were cloned encode proteins of basic biochemical routes. They provide knowledge on the importance and regulation of these routes in the life cycle of A. bisporus and add to knowledge on the general architecture of A. bisporus genes.

Here we present an overview of the currently available biochemical and molecular data of A. bisporus and we discuss the importance of the available genes as genetic markers for breeding purposes.

De Koker, T. H., J. Zhao, et al. (1998). "Biochemical and molecular characterization of South African strains of Phanerochaete chrysosporium." Mycological Research 102(1): 88-92. Fifty-five strains of Phanerochaete chrysosporium were isolated in South

Africa, and screened for indicators of ligninolytic activity : lignin peroxidase (LiP), manganese peroxidase (MnP) and glyoxal oxidase (GLOX). MnP-production as a function of time was followed in all strains. Nine strains were selected for quantification of MnP, LiP and GLOX activities. Statistically significant variation in MnP and GLOX activities existed among the different strains. Under low nitrogen, LiP activity of selected strains showed no significant variation, whereas strain PP25 had significantly increased LiP levels under high nitrogen conditions. Probing genomic DNA with the genes encoding lignin peroxidase (lipD and lipI1), manganese peroxidase (mnp2), and glyoxal oxidase (glox) showed significant genetic diversity with lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase probes, but not with the glyoxal oxidase probe.

Deacon, J. (2006). Fungal Biology, Blackwell Publishing. Deacon, J. W. and G. Saxena (1997). "Orientated zoospore attachment and cyst germination in Catenaria anguillulae, a facultative endoparasite of nematodes." Mycological Research 101(5): 513-522. Zoospores of the nematode-parasitic Catenaria anguillulae

(Chytridiomycota) were studied by videomicroscopy in sealed films of water on microscope slides in the presence or absence of freeze-inactivated nematodes (Panagrellus redivivus). Zoospores swam for more than 1 h at a mean velocity of 104 lm s-1, interspersed with repeated phases (1-2 min) of amoeboid crawling on glass or nematode surfaces. They were attracted to and encysted near the mouth, excretory pore, and anus of nematodes, or eventually encysted at random on glass and nematode surfaces. The single posterior flagellum was immobile during amoeboid crawling but resumed rapid beating when the last pseudopodium was being retracted. Zoospores encysted by adhesion of the anterior of an amoeboid cell to a surface ; then the cell posterior was raised above the anterior so that the flagellum projected perpendicular to the surface, and the flagellum was retracted by rotation of the cell contents. Cysts germinated within 20-60 min by a narrow germ-tube at the site of adhesion. The germ-tube grew a short distance, then formed an intercalary vesicle into which the cyst contents emptied by expansion of a cyst vacuole. In several cases the germ-tube penetrated a nematode and formed the vesicle inside the host. Rhizoids or assimilative hyphae developed from the vesicle or by growth of the germ-tube tip. An

increasing proportion of zoospores that remained motile after 1 h in water films had a globose body in contrast to the normal elongated form. This seemed to be caused by damage during repeated transitions between the amoeboid and swimming phases, because pseudopodia sometimes remained firmly attached to a glass surface. C. anguillulae showed consistent orientation (polarity) of zoospore encystment and cyst germination. This parallels the behaviour of other zoosporic fungi or fungus-like organisms (Plasmodiophora brassicae, Rozella allomycis, Pythium, Phytophthora and Saprolegnia spp.) suggesting that it is a common feature of zoosporic parasites. Surface-recognition for encystment by C. anguillulae was mediated by the zoospore soma, not the flagellum. In addition, we redefine the early development of C. anguillulae, including flagellar retraction by rotation of cell contents, non-specific adhesion of zoospores and cysts to surfaces, and evacuation of cyst contents into a vesicle from which further growth occurs.

DEACON, J. W. and G. SAXENA (1998). "Germination triggers of zoospore cysts of Aphanomyces euteiches and Phytophthora parasitica." Mycol. Res. 102: 33-41. Zoospore cysts of four isolates of Aphanomyces euteiches with

different host-specific pathogenicity germinated in response to peptone, pea root extract, CaCl2 or gum arabic but, in tests on one isolate, did not respond to several individual sugars, amino acids or polysaccharides. A. euteiches showed differential responses to substances applied at different times in the encystment process. Gum arabic triggered germination only when added to motile zoospores, which it caused to encyst. CaCl2 triggered germination when added to motile zoospores or during vortex-encystment of zoospores, but seldom immediately (<2 min) after encystment. Peptone and pea root extract triggered germination when added to motile zoospores, during vortex-encystment or immediately after encystment, but not ca 20 min after encystment. In comparative tests, Phytophthora parasitica was less stage-specific than A. euteiches, because it germinated in response to gum arabic applied to motile zoospores, during encystment and immediately after encystment.

Zoospore taxis, encystment and germination of A. euteiches and P. parasitica cysts were recorded on pea roots by video microscopy. The speed of germination and pattern of sporeling development on roots were most closely matched by treatment of motile spores with gum arabic in pure culture. The behaviour of A. euteiches conformed to a previous model for Pythium and Phytophthora spp., in which zoospores encyst by recognition of root surface components (simulated by gum arabic), germinate autonomously by a calcium-mediated process (simulated by calcium treatment during vortexing), and the germ-tube produces an

assimilative hypha (simulated by peptone or pea root extract). DEBETS, A. J. M. and A. J. F. GRIFFITHS (1998). "Polymorphism of het-genes

prevents resource plundering in Neurospora crassa." Mycol. Res. 102: 1344-1349. The widespread occurrence of vegetative incompatibility in

fungi and the high level of incompatibility gene polymorphisms in fungal populations means that generally parents in a cross will be vegetatively incompatible. In Neurospora crassa the mating type locus even functions as a vegetative incompatibility locus assuring vegetative incompatibility in a cross. In this paper we have tested the effect of vegetative incompatibility on regulating transmission of mitochondrial plasmids and nuclear genes in sexual interactions of N. crassa. In the absence of mating type vegetative incompatibility between the parents, transmission of plasmids from the conidial paternal parent was found to be approximately ten times higher than in normal crosses. Control experiments in which conidia of a contaminating plasmid bearing strain of similar mating type as (and fully vegetatively compatible with) the established maternal culture were added together with the presumed paternal conidia (opposite mating type) showed plasmid transmission to ascospores. Since trichogynes do not fuse with conidia of the same mating type, it may be concluded that plasmids from the contaminating strain entered the maternal tissue by somatic fusion. The fate of conidial nuclei in such sexual interactions has been investigated as well, both under conditions of vegetative compatibility and incompatibility between the strains. These experiments demonstrated that conidia that are vegetatively compatible to the established protoperithecial strain manage to get access to the resources of the maternal culture and initiate new fruiting bodies. This type of nuclear parasitism was never observed when vegetatively incompatible conidia were used. We propose that vegetative incompatibility may function in sexual crosses to protect unfertilised cultures from looting of maternal resources.

DECKERT, R. J., T. HSIANG, et al. (2002). "Genetic relationships of endophytic Lophodermium nitens isolates from needles of Pinus strobus." Mycol. Res. 106: 305-313. The foliage of Pinus strobus (eastern white pine), as that of all

other conifers examined, is occupied by endophytic fungi, the most frequent of which is Lophodermium nitens. The number and extent of endophytic infections and the genetic relationship of individual isolates within living needles as well as their relationship to isolates from forest floor needles is unknown. To examine these and related questions, forest floor isolates and foliar endophytes from needle

segments were obtained for ribosomal DNA sequencing and randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis. Molecular and morphological data were compared and infection frequency determined as a function of position along the needle. Ribosomal DNA sequences of foliar and ascospore isolates showed high levels of genetic similarity (>97%identity) for the internal transcribed spacer region. RAPD profiles were able to

distinguish ascospore siblings from non-siblings, and also revealed that many needle isolates belonged to the same genotype as adjacent neighbour isolates, as would be expected from mycelial spread within the needle. Morphotype evaluation and RAPD profiles showed similar patterns: identical morphotypes grouped together and showed little or no genetic difference under RAPD analysis. Both morphological and molecular data indicated that the majority of infections were contained within 1 mm needle segments but could extend to about 4 mm in length. Infection frequency increased along the length of the needle from the proximal (shoot) end to the distal tip, with markedly higher rates in the distal quarter. Thus, endophytic infections of L. nitens in white pine needles consist of many localized, discrete infections, originating from ascospores and differentially distributed along the length of the needle. In the course of this work, it was found that GenBank accession no. AF203470 under the name Meloderma desmaszieresii appeared not to be that species but L. nitens on the basis of the ITS sequences.

DECKERT, R. J., L. H. MELVILLE, et al. (2001). "Structural features of a Lophodermium endophyte during the cryptic life-cycle phase in the foliage of Pinus strobus." Mycol. Res. 105: 991-997. Needles of Pinus strobus (white pine) were cleared and

stained to survey the occurrence and location of Lophodermium sp., a fungal endophyte. Cytoplasmically dense endophytic hyphae with a pronounced lobed morphology and containing lipid bodies were localized intercellularly between the epidermis and hypodermis. These fungal infections did not appear quiescent, but rather exhibited signs of continual slow growth. A few associated host cells exhibited a hypersensitive response. Material embedded in resin and examined by light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy confirmed the location of hyphae between epidermal and hypodermal cells, and the presence of lipid bodies within the hyphae. In senescing needles, aggressive colonization of needle tissues occurred. Thus, for Lophodermium in white pine, endophytic infection is active rather than quiescent, and displays an alternate hyphal strategy to that seen in the reproductive phase.

DECLERCK, S., D. D’OR, et al. (2004). "Development of extraradical mycelium of Scutellospora reticulata under root-organ culture: spore production and function of auxiliary cells." Mycol. Res. 108: 84-92. The development of the extraradical mycelium and auxiliary

cells and spore production of Scutellospora reticulata in association with Ri T-DNA transformed carrot roots was followed under root-organ culture conditions. Extraradical mycelium development followed classical lag-exponential-plateau phases, with an additional late decline phase in number of auxiliary cells. Spore production started in parallel with a critical extraradical mycelium biomass produced, continued long after root growth ceased and during the late decline in auxiliary cells number. Isolated

auxiliary cells were shown to exhibit hyphal re-growth, but not root colonization, either in situ or in vitro. These results showed that root and extraradical mycelium development were intimately associated in a sequence where both grew together during active root growth, followed during root aging by a period in which only the fungus developed. Spore production appeared dependent on a critical extraradical mycelium biomass and on the re-allocation of resources from both the intraradical mycelium and the auxiliary cells via the hyphal network.

Decock, C., A. Bitew, et al. (2005). "Fomitiporia tenuis and Fomitiporia aethiopica (Basidiomycetes, Hymenochaetales), two undescribed species from the Ethiopian highlands: taxonomy and phylogeny." Mycologia, 97(1): 121-129. Fomitiporia tenuis sp. nov. and Fomitiporia aethiopica sp. nov.

from the Ethiopian highlands are described. Both are characterized by a resupinate habit, globose, dextrinoid basidiospores, cystidioles, and respectively scarcity or absence of hymenial setae. Fomitiporia pseudopunctata and F. robusta are reported also in the same area. The preliminary phylogenetic relationships of F. tenuis, F. aethiopica and F. pseudopunctata are inferred from parsimony analysis based on partial nuclear ribosomal large subunit (nrLSU). A preliminary key to the poroid Hymenochaetales with dextrinoid basidiospores (Fomitiporia, Phellinus s.l., Pseudoinonotus) is proposed.

Decock, C. and G. L. Hennebert (1997). "A new species of Chaetomium from Ecuador." Mycological Research 101(3): 309-310. A new species of Chaetomium, C. cuyabenoensis, is described from the

Ecuador rain forest. It is similar to Chaetomium longicolleum but differs by having smaller and, in face view, strongly limonifom to quadrangular ascospores.

Decock, C., G. L. Hennebert, et al. (1997). "Nectria serpens sp. nov. and its hyphomycetous anamorph Xenocylindrocladium gen. nov." Mycological Research 101(7): 786-790. A homothallic species of Nectria producing a Cylindrocladium-like

anamorph was collected from bark of a fallen tree in the Amazonian forest in Ecuador. The anamorph, which is placed in a new genus, Xenocylindrocladium, is characterized by forming straight, cylindrical, 1-septate conidia borne on penicillate conidiophores with coiled, avesiculate stipe extensions. The teleomorph, which is best accommodated in Nectria, is distinct in forming yellow-orange perithecia with red ostiolar regions, ellipsoidal, smooth, hyaline, 1-septate ascospores, and long-stalked, cylindrical asci with apical discharge mechanisms. Both the teleomorph and anamorph states are newly described as Nectria serpens and Xenocylindrocladium serpens.

DECOCK, C. and L. RYVARDEN (1999). "Studies in neotropical polypores.

Some coloured resupinate Perenniporia species." Mycol. Res. 103: 1138-1144. The taxonomy of several neotropical resupinate Perenniporia

is discussed. P. xantha is described as new. It is characterized by a bright yellow resupinate basidiocarp, small pores and small ellipsoid, dextrinoid basidiospores in addition to reduced arboriform skeletal hyphae. Two new combinations are proposed, Perenniporia aurantiaca and P. chromatica. Their relation to other Perenniporia species is briefly discussed.

DECOCK, C. and L. RYVARDEN (2003). "Perenniporiella gen. nov. segregated from Perenniporia, including a key to neotropical Perenniporia species with pileate basidiomes." Mycol. Res. 107: 93-103. Perenniporiella gen. nov. is segregated from Perenniporia.

The new combinations Perenniporiella neofulva and Perenniporiella micropora, and the new species Perenniporiella pendula are proposed. Perenniporia piperis and Perenniporia albida are considered as taxonomic synonyms of P. neofulva. The three species are described and their taxonomic position is discussed. A key to the neotropical Perenniporiella and Perenniporia species with pileate basidiomes

is presented. DEGAWA, Y. and S. TOKUMASU (1998). "Zygospore formation in Mortierella umbellata." Mycol. Res. 102: 593-598. Heterothallism was confirmed in Mortierella umbellata from

Japan. Anisogamic zygospore formation is described and illustrated with time-lapse light micrographs. The anisogamic behaviour of the species is discussed with reference to previous studies on anisogamic zygospore and azygospore formation in Zygomycetes.

DELP, G., S. E. SMITH, et al. (2000). "Isolation by differential display of three partial cDNAs potentially coding for proteins from the VA mycorrhizal Glomus intraradices." Mycol. Res. 104: 293-300. A molecular study of the mycorrhizal symbiosis between

barley and Glomus intraradices used differential display PCR and a synchronous colonization method to identify genes that are differentially expressed in symbiosis. Several PCR products were consistently differentially amplified. PCR amplification of genomic DNA from either G. intraradices or barley as templates showed that three such products were encoded by G. intraradices. Sequence analysis of the deduced amino acid sequences of the fungal fragments, following extension by 3'-RACE, revealed similarities to proteins from higher eukaryotes. One (GINMYC1) shows

similarity to TRIP15, a human protein that interacts in a hormone-dependent manner with the thyroid receptor. A second (GINMYC2) is similar to O-linked N-acetylglucosamine transferases from vertebrates, and the third (GINHB1) contains a putative leucine zipper and a homeodomain which indicates that it binds DNA and may act as a transcriptional regulator.

Fragments of the expected sizes were amplified by RT--PCR from mRNA of mycorrhizal barley roots for all three fungal cDNAs, which indicates that the corresponding genes are expressed during intraradical growth of G. intraradices. The results provide a promising insight to fungal

gene expression early in formation of this compatible and mutualistic symbiosis. DELP, G., S. TIMONEN, et al. (2003). "Differential expression of Glomus intraradices genes in external mycelium and mycorrhizal roots of tomato and barley." Mycol. Res. 107: 1083-1093. Relative quantitative RT-PCR and western blotting were used

to investigate the expression of three genes with potentially regulatory functions from the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices in symbiosis with tomato and barley. Standardisation of total RNA per sample and determination of different ratios of plant and fungal RNA in roots as colonisation proceeded were achieved by relative quantitative RT-PCR using universal (NS1/NS21) and organism-specific rRNA primers. In addition, generic primers were designed for amplification of plant or fungal β-tubulin genes and for plant glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) genes as these have been suggested as useful controls in symbiotic systems. The fungal genes Ginmyc1 and Ginhb1 were expressed only in the external

mycelium and not in colonised roots at both mRNA and protein levels, with the proteins detected almost exclusively in the insoluble fractions. In contrast, mRNA of Ginmyc2 was identified in both external and intraradical mycelium. In mycorrhizal roots, Ginmyc2 and fungal β-tubulin mRNAs increased in proportion to fungal rRNA as colonisation proceeded, suggesting that accumulation reflected intraradical fungal growth. Fungal a-tubulin protein and β-tubulin mRNA both appeared to be more abundantly accumulated in AM hyphae within heavily colonised roots than in external hyphae, relative to fungal rRNA. Tomato GAPDH mRNA accumulation was proportional to tomato rRNA, but accumulation of tomato β-tubulin mRNA was reduced in colonised roots compared to non-mycorrhizal roots. These results provide novel evidence of differential spatial and temporal regulation of AM fungal genes, indicate that the expression of tubulin genes of both plant and fungus may be regulated during colonisation and validate the use of multiple ‘control’ genes in analysis of mycorrhizal gene expression.

Delucas, J. R., C. Amor, et al. (1997). "Purification and properties of isocitrate lyase from Aspergillus nidulans, a model enzyme to study catabolite inactivation in filamentous fungi." Mycological Research 101(4): 410-414. In order to facilitate the purification of isocitrate lyase from Aspergillus

nidulans, the isocitrate lyase overexpressing strain JCB4a was derived. Isocitrate lyase was purified to homogeneity by the criterion of polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and anti-isocitrate lyase polyclonal antibodies were raised. Stabilization of purified enzyme, when stored at -

20 °C, required the addition of 1 mm dithiothreitol (DTT) plus 1 mm ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA). Aspergillus nidulans isocitrate lyase is a multimeric enzyme with a native molecular weight of 240 kDa and composed of four monomers of 59 kDa. The enzyme required 5 mm Mg2+ and 1 mm DTT or cysteine for full activity. EDTA at 1 mm replaced the requirement of a thiol compound for activity. The Km for threod S-isocitrate was 0.050 mm, and the enzyme activity was inhibited by succinate, itaconate and structural analogs of glyoxylate as well as by fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.

DELYE, C. and M.-F. CORIO-COSTET (1998). "Origin of primary infections of grape by Uncinula necator : RAPD analysis discriminates two biotypes." Mycol. Res. 101: 283-288. Thirty-one clonal isolates of U. necator were taken from

diseased grapes from three different vineyards in France and Germany. Samples were collected in April from typical `fiagshoot' symptoms, and in July and August from the same plants. The mating-type and the sensitivity to the fungicide triadimenol were determined for all isolates. Techniques for obtaining and characterizing isolates are described. Two isolates in the first sampling and eight in the second were resistant to triadimenol, with resistance factors ranging from 3.4 to 11.8. All isolates in the first sampling and nine out of the 21 isolates in the second were mating-type (+), the

remaining isolates were mating-type (---). Genetic variation between all isolates was assessed using the RAPD technique. Phenetic analysis based on the 364 RAPD fragments obtained revealed two very distinct groups, one group containing nine out of the 10 isolates from the first sampling, the second group containing all the remaining isolates. Isolates clustered in the first group displayed 58 RAPD fragments specific to them. These isolates did not exhibit 60 RAPD fragments present in all other isolates. Molecular and biological data suggested that isolates clustering in the two groups represent two different biotypes of U. necator, which are likely to

be genetically isolated. Denison, W. C. (2003). "Apothecia and ascospores of Lobaria oregana and Lobaria pulmonaria investigated." Mycologia, 95(3): 513-518. Apothecia of Lobaria oregana and L. pulmonaria emerge in

late spring and discharge ascospores throughout the year. Most populations have a few fertile thalli, although the proportion of fertile thalli usually is less than 25 percent. Ascospores fail to germinate in water or on water agar but do germinate on agar containing an adsorbant and either a sugar or the sugar-alcohol ribitol. It is postulated that the ascospores of these species contain an autoinhibitor that must be removed before germination. Widespread ascospore germination in the presence of an adsorbant in Peltigera aphthosa, P. membranacea, and Pseudocyphellaria anthraspis, as well as in Lobaria, suggest that this phenomenon might be widespread in the Peltigerales.

Denman, S., P. W. Crous, et al. (2003). "Circumscription of Botryosphaeria species associated with Proteaceae based on morphology and DNA sequence data." Mycologia, 95(2): 294-307. Botryosphaeria spp. occur on and cause diseases of

Proteaceae, but accurate identification has been problematic due to the lack of clear species circumscriptions of members of this genus. In this study, 46 isolates of Botryosphaeria from proteaceous hosts growing in various parts of the world were studied,

using morphology, cultural characters and sequence data from the ITS region of the rDNA operon. Five Botryosphaeria spp. were found to be associated with

Proteaceae. Botryosphaeria lutea was isolated from Banksia and Buckinghamia spp. in Australia, and a single isolate was obtained from Protea cynaroides in South Africa. Botryosphaeria proteae was associated only with South African Proteaceae, but occurred in many parts of the world. Another Botryosphaeria sp.

that occurred exclusively on South African Proteaceae represents a new taxon that is described as B. protearum. This pathogen was found on South African Proteaceae cultivated in Australia; Hawaii; Portugal, including the Madeira Islands; and South Africa. Botryosphaeria ribis was associated with both South African and Australian Proteaceae and was isolated from material collected in Australia, Hawaii and Zimbabwe. A single occurrence of B. obtusa as an endophyte was recorded from P. magnifica in South Africa. In addition to providing a taxonomic overview of Botryosphaeria spp. associated with Proteaceae, this paper clarifies for the first time the global distribution of these species. A key also is provided to facilitate their identification. A large number of new hostand distribution records are made and a new species of Botryosphaeria from Proteaceae is described.

Dennis, R. W. G. (1951). Some Agaricaceae of Trinidad and Venezuela. Leucosporae: Part I. Transactions of the British Mycological Society. R. W. G. Dennis. London, Her Marjesty's Stationery Office (HMSO). 34: 411-482. Detailed descriptions are given from living material of 107 species and

varieties belonging to the genera: Marasmius, Crinipellis, Chaetocalathus, Collybia, Micromphale, Mycena, Dictyoplca, Tricholomopsis and Tricholoma, collected in the autumn of 1949 in Trinidad, Venezuela and Jamaica. After comparison with herbarium material, twenty-nine of the species and six varieties are named and new. Eighty species are illustrated in colour.

Dennis, R. W. G. (1960). British Cup Fungi and Their Allies An introduction to the Ascomycetes. London. Dennis, R. W. G. (1970). Fungus Flora of Venezuela and adjacent countries. Kew Bulletin Additional Series III. R. W. G. Dennis. London, Her Marjesty's

Stationery Office (HMSO): 1-531. Dennis, R. W. G. (1981). British Ascomycetes, J. Cramer. DEPRIEST, P. T., M. SIKAROODI, et al. (2005). "Marchandiomyces lignicola sp. nov. shows recent and repeated transition between a lignicolous and a lichenicolous habit." Mycol. Res. 109: 57-70. The anamorphic basidiomycete genus Marchandiomyces

presently includes two common lichenicolous (lichen-inhabiting) species, M. corallinus and M. aurantiacus (teleomorph Marchandiobasidium aurantiacum). We describe here a new species, M. lignicola sp. nov., that is similar to M. corallinus in the colour of its sclerotia, but differs in having a wood-inhabiting (lignicolous) habit. The phylogenetic position of this lignicolous fungus was compared with the lichenicolous species of

Marchandiomyces and related species currently placed in the basidiomycetous families Corticiaceae and Ceratobasidiaceae using parsimony, likelihood, and Bayesian analyses of complete sequences of the nuclear small subunit and internal transcribed spacers ribosomal DNA, and a portion of the nuclear large subunit ribosomal DNA. These DNA sequences were obtained from isolated cultures of freshly collected specimens. Significant Bayesian posterior probabilities, as well as maximum likelihood and parsimony analyses, indicate that the new lignicolous species is closely related to M. corallinus, the type species of Marchandiomyces. In most analyses these two species are monophyletic with the lichenicolous M. aurantiacus, although this relationship is not strongly supported. Since M. lignicola is more closely related to M. corallinus than to M. aurantiacus, either a transition to the lignicolous habit occurred recently within an ancestral lichenicolous group or, more likely, transition to the lichenicolous habit arose recently and in parallel from an ancestral lignicolous habit. DESCALS, E. (2005). "Diagnostic characters of propagules of Ingoldian fungi." Mycol. Res. 109(5): 545-555. This first contribution of a planned series on the morphology of

the Ingoldian fungi discusses three aspects useful for conidial identification, something needed principally in stream ecology and biodiversity surveys: (1) types of propagules found; (2) release organ remnants found on propagules; and (3) conidial tails (or caudal appendages).

(1) Propagules can be unexpectedly varied, and difficulty may be encountered in distinguishing, for example, misshapen conidia from expected ranges in conidial form, or in recognizing the outcome of post-release morphogenesis (involving elongation, branching or fragmentation, the latter resulting in part-conidia of several kinds); autonomous hyphal branching systems resembling branched conidia may undergo disorganized in situ fragmentation; propagules may be compound, the components covering more than one generation of the same morph or

even more than one morph; conidial aggregations may behave as single dispersal units; and in one case it may be difficult to distinguish between thalli and propagules.

(2) Conidia secede by means of various specialized structures (release organs) which leave behind remnants of diagnostic value. Among ascomycetous anamorphs are scars (half-septa resulting from schizolysis of release septa), basal collars (portions of lateral walls resulting from rhexolysis or fracture of release or separation cells), and in one case mucilaginous masses (probably the result of the gelification of release cells). The location of scars can sometimes only be inferred by means of other diagnostic characters, and in some instances it cannot even be inferred. This may lead to problems in orientating conidial and consequently in their identification. In the case of release cells, the remnants on the conidium frequently disappear or become indistinct. Among basidiomycetous anamorphs are twin scars (the result of paired schizolysis of the two septa, i.e. the axial and bridge septa, in the release clamp), excentric collars (seemingly the result of a combination of schizo- and rhexolysis of clamp components) and basal collars (the outcome of lysed evacuate conidiogenous cells).

(3) The presence of tails is often inconstant, but where recognizable three types occur which may significantly aid in conidial orientation and hence identification. In addition, three methodological aspects are emphasized: the effect of the position of the conidium on the appreciation of some diagnostic characters, the need to observe spent conidiogenous structures, and in some cases the necessity of directly observing morphogenesis in order to interpret the conidial form.

Desjardin, D. E. (2003). "A unique ballistosporic hypogeous sequestrate Lactarius from California." Mycologia, 95(1): 148-155. Lactarius rubriviridis sp. nov., characterized by hypogeous,

sequestrate basidiomes with red latex, green stains, and forcibly discharged, reticulate

basidiospores is described and illustrated. During the Spring, the new species forms basidiomes associated with conifers at 1400–1800 m elevation in the Sierra

Nevada, and is known from two specimens collected 19 yr apart. Comparisons with the putatively polyphyletic genera Arcangeliella and Zelleromyces, and an accounting of all known members of these genera are provided.

Desjardin, D. E., T. Boonpratuang, et al. (2002). "An accounting of the worldwide members of Mycena sect. Longisetae." Fungal Diversity 11: 69-85. Eleven species are accepted in a redefined Mycena sect. Longisetae. Two

species, M. palmicola and M. khonkhem, are described as new , and M. clavulifera is redescribed based on material collected recently in Thailand. Mycena trichocephala, previously accepted in sect. Sacchariferae is herein accepted in sect. Longiseta. two stirps are provisionally accepted to

accommodate the 11 species: Brunneisetosa (4 species) and stirps Longiseta (7 species). All members of sect. Longiseta develop primordia covered with numerous, erect, stiff pileosetae that aid to deter animal predation on the immature hymenophore. All included species develop pileipellis with acanthomycyst cells and stipitipelli with non-spinulose cortical hyphae. The center of diversity for Mycena sect. Longiseta in southeast Asia...

Desjardin, D. E., T. Boonpratuang, et al. (2003). "New spinose species of Mycena in sections Basipedes and Polyadelphia from Thailand." Fungal Diversity 12: 7-17. Three new species of Mycena with spinose pilei are described from

material collected recently in Thailand. Mycena pseudoseta and Mycena mimicoseta are provisionally accepted in sect. Basipedes, and have recurved pileus spines formed from agglutinated, cylindrical, spinulose hyphae. Mycena dermatogloea is provisionally accepted in sect. Polyadelphia and has pileus spines formed from exudative gloeocystidia. Illustrations and comparisons with allied taxa are provided.

Desjardin, D. E., T. Boonpratuang, et al. (2000). "A new species of Incrustocalyptella from Thailand." Fungal Diversity 4: 75-79. lncrustocalyptella orientalis, a pseudostipitate cyphelloid agaric, is

described as new from material collected in Khao Yai National Park in Thailand. This is the first report of the genus from continental southeast Asia. A key is provided to the known species of Incrustocalyptella.

Desjardin, D. E., T. W. Flegel, et al. (2004). "Basidiomycetes." Thai Fungal Diversity: 37-49. Basidiomycetes are a diverse assemblage of fungi represented by over

20,000 species worldwide. They include the familiar, agarics, boletes, club and coral fungi, chanterelles, jelly fungi, polypores, puffballs and tooth fungi, and the not so familiar basidiomycetous yeasts. They obtain their nutrition as saprotrophs, pathogens and mutualists, and play an important role in ecosystem functions. Basidiomycetes are abundant and diverse in Thailand although they are currently poorly known. We estimate that the approximately 300 species reported in the literature from Thailand represent less than 20% of the actual diversity.

Desjardin, D. E., G. Guzman, et al. (1995). 1. A preliminary accounting of the worldwide members of Mycena sect. Sacchariferae, 2. Supplement to the monograph of the genus Psilocybe, 3. Mycena and related genera from Papua new Guinea and New Caledonia. Bibliotheca Mycologica. D. E. Desjardin, G. Guzman and R. A. M. H. Geesteranus, E., J. Cramer in der Gebruder Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung, Berlin-Stuttgart, 1995. Band159: 1. 1-89, 2. 91-141, 3. 143-229.

Desjardin, D. E. and E. Horak (1995). Marasmius and Gloiocephala in the South Pacific Region: Papua New Guinea and New Caledonia Taxa., Part1 : Papua New Guinea and New Caledonia, and New Zealand Taxa., Part: 2 : New Zealand Taxa. Bibliotheca Mycologica. D. E. Desjardin and E. Horak, J. Cramer in der Gebruder Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung, Berlin-Stuttgart, 1995. Band168: 152. Desjardin, D. E., Z. Wang, et al. (2004). "Sparassis cystidiosa sp.nov. from Thailand is described using morphological and molecular data." Mycologia 96(5): 1010-1014. Sparassis cystidiosa, collected recently from a primary montane cloud

forest in northern Thailand is described as new. It is distinct from all others species in the genus because of the presence of hymenial cystidia, relatively large basidiospores and flabellae composed of six distinct layers of tissue. Analyses of a combined dataset of DNA sequences from three genes support its distinction and suggest that the S. cystidiosa lineage is the sister group of all other Sparassis.

DESJARDINS, A. E., R. D. PLATTNER, et al. (2000). "Gibberella fujikuroi mating population A and Fusarium subglutinans from teosinte species and maize from Mexico and Central America." Mycol. Res. 104: 865-872. Seed samples of maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) from Mexico

and of teosintes (Zea spp.), the nearest wild relatives of maize, from Mexico, Guatemala, and Nicaragua were assessed for infection with Fusarium species. Strains similar in morphology to Fusarium moniliforme and F. subglutinans were the most frequent isolates from maize and from teosinte species including Z. diploperennis, Z. luxurians, Z. mays ssp. mexicana, and Z. mays ssp. parviglumis. Analysis of fertility, vegetative compatibility and mycotoxin production identified 63% of the 70 F. moniliforme strains from teosinte as genetically diverse members of Gibberella fujikuroi mating population A, a common pathogen of maize. The F. subglutinans strains from maize and teosinte were similarly genetically diverse,

but were not fertile with standard testers of G. fujikuroi mating populations B and E, common pathogens of Poaceae, or of mating population H, which causes pitch canker disease of pine. Fifty-four percent of the 80 F. subglutinans strains were fertile when crossed with female tester strains from teosinte and maize collected in a field at Netzahualcoyotyl in the state of Mexico. These strains from Mexico and Central America may comprise a new and distinct G. fujikuroi mating population, but a strain from the Netzahualcoyotyl field site was fertile with a strain of G. fujikuroi mating population H from California. Thus, F. subglutinans from teosinte and maize may have a close relationship to mating population H from pine.

Dey, J. P. (1974). "New records and distributions for several lichens in the

southeastern United States." MYCOTAXON 1(2): 143-145. DIAMANTOPOULOU, A., J. LITKEI, et al. (2000). "Effects of inhibitors of sclerotium formation on the sclerotial mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans and its host Sclerotinia sclerotiorum." Mycol. Res. 104: 1449-1452. The formation of sclerotia is inhibited by certain chemicals.

These resting fungal structures are also parasitized by mycoparasites. This study reports results of experiments on the effect of four sclerotial inhibitors on the sclerotial mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans and was carried out in an attempt to determine possible compatibilities between sclerotial inhibitors and mycoparasites. Thioglycolic acid was the most toxic to mycelial growth while its sodium salt was totally non-toxic. Mercaptoethanol and mercaptoethylamine were intermediate. At low concentrations, pycnidial formation by C. minitans was not hindered by any of the compounds tested. All four compounds inhibited the formation of sclerotia in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Sclerotia are also parasitized by C. minitans. Na-thioglycolate should be tested further as it had no adverse effect on the mycelial growth and pycnidium formation in C. minitans, while it inhibited extensively the formation of sclerotia in S. sclerotiorum. These data suggest that Na-thioglycolate and C. minitans should be considered for use in integrated control.

DIANESE, J., C. FURLANETTO, et al. (1999). "Pseudocercospora zeyheriae, a new combination for Cercospora zeyrae." Mycol. Res. 103: 40-42. A study of the holotype and several collections of Cercospora

zeyrae on leaves of Zeyheria digitalis from the Brazilian cerrado showed that it is actually a Pseudocercospora species with amphigenous fruit structures, here designated as P. zeyheriae (Henn.) comb. nov.

Dick, M. W. (1997). "Fungi, flagella and phylogeny." Mycological Research 101(4): 385-394. Osmotrophic eukaryotes with a cell wall during the assimilative phase are

` fungi ' : the term ` fungus' is an essentially physiological concept, thus flagellate fungi conforming to this definition are not ` pseudofungi'. But mycologists may also work with flagellate organisms which are phagotrophic or lack a plasmodial cell wall and, therefore, are not strictly ` fungi '. In fungi the flagellate stage is confined to planonts (asexual zoospores and gametes). Flagellar form and function have many conserved characteristics, but although ultrastructural diversity, particularly in kinetosome/flagellar root structure, has been intensively studied, other morphological features of the zoospore have been less thoroughly explored. The numbers, lengths, orientations and structural ornaments of flagella all provide data for biodiversity assessments at the species and ecological levels. The structural and functional biodiversity of fungal flagella and zoospores are reviewed, particularly with respect to the isokont}anisokont flagellar lengths and the isokont}heterokont flagellar

ornaments of the zoospore. The straminipilous ornamentation has particular functional significance. Correlations between molecular biology and flagellar ultrastructure indicate that several independent phylogenetic lines have evolved flagellate fungi. The strengths and weaknesses of the databases for these phylogenies are discussed in historical and current contexts.

Dick, M. W. (1997). "The Myzocytiopsidaceae." Mycological Research 101(7): 878-882. The formal taxonomy of the new family Myzocytiopsidaceae, with three

new genera Myzocytiopsis, Chlamydomyzium and Syzygangia, is presented. The family also includes Gonimochaete.

DICK, M. W. (1998). "The species and systematic position of Crypticola in the Peronosporomycetes, and new names for Halocrusticida and species therein." Mycol. Res. 102: 1062-1066. Crypticola is re-evaluated, following a commentary on the

nature of its straminipilous ornamentation, zoosporogenesis and habitat range. Atkinsiella entomophaga is transferred to Crypticola, but because this species was made the type species of Halocrusticida, new names are required for Halocrusticida and species therein (Halodaphnea hamanaensis - type species ; H. parasitica, H. awabi, H. okinawaensis, H. panulirata). A new family, the Crypticolaceae, is erected for Crypticola. The family is placed, with reservations, in the Myzocytiopsidales, Peronosporomycetes.

DICK, M. W., M. C. VICK, et al. (1999). "18S rDNA for species of Leptolegnia and other Peronosporomycetes: justification for the subclass taxa Saprolegniomycetidae and Peronosporomycetidae and division of the Saprolegniaceae sensu lato into the Leptolegniaceae and Saprolegniaceae." Mycol. Res. 103: 1119-1125. The 18S rDNA data base for mainstream Peronosporomycetes

has been substantially increased. The sub-class divide between the Peronosporomycetidae and the Saprolegniomycetidae is supported. The deep clade separation of the Leptomitales within the Peronosporomycetidae is reinforced and support is provided for divergences within the Phytophthora and Pythium lines. A new family for the Leptolegnia lineage is proposed from the Saprolegniaceae sensu lato.

Dickinson, T. A. and L. J. Hutchison (1997). "Numerical taxonomic methods, cultural characters, and the systematics of ectomycorrhizal agarics, boletes and gasteromycetes." Mycological Research 101(4): 477-492. One hundred and sixty isolates of ectomycorrhizal agarics, boletes, and

related gasteromycetes were examined for 25 morphological and biochemical characters. A wide range of analytical methods are available with which to obtain efficient summaries of the patterns of variation

present in data such as these. Agglomerative clustering of 156 isolates and 18 characters for which no data were missing resulted in partitions of the sample corresponding to recognizable taxonomic and ecological groupings. Key characters useful for delimiting these groups are highlighted by means of divisive clustering and classification trees. For example, boletes (Boletinus, Suillus, Xerocomus) and related gasteromycetous allies (Pisolithus, Rhizopogon, Scleroderma) are distinguished by the production of pigment on media containing high levels of glucose. Numerical taxonomic analyses of cultural characters thus can be useful for examining taxonomic relationships, as in the way in which these characters support not only the close relationship between boletes and some gasteromycetes but also the generic circumscriptions of genera such as Laccaria and Lactarius. However, the taxonomic level at which cultural characters prove most effective must be evaluated carefully, in view of the possibility that, in response to selection, cultural characters have evolved in parallel in separate clades. Thus, ecological as well as taxonomic groups were also recognized. Species of both Hebeloma and Laccaria failed to produce pigment, tolerated low temperatures, and metabolized urea. This suggests that great care must be taken in using cultural characters in phylogenetic studies.

DIDUKH, M., R. VILGALYS, et al. (2005). "Notes on Agaricus section Duploannulati using molecular and morphological data." Mycol. Res. 109(6): 729-740. The position of several endemic and rare species in Agaricus

sect. Duploannulati and the limits of the section were investigated by analysis of sequence data from the ribosomal DNA ITS. The results supported the recognition of two groups, which we treat as subsections Chitonioides and Duploannulati. Most of the species studied proved to belong to subsect. Chitonioides. Species excluded from the section, as well as other potential members of sect. Duploannulati, are considered. Morphological traits deemed important for identification of A. nevoi, A. pequinii, A. gennadii, A. rollanii, and A. padanus are discussed. Taxonomic positions of these species in morphologically-based systems and according to molecular systematics data are compared and analyzed.

DIEDERICH, P., B. SCHULTHEIS, et al. (2003). "Marchandiobasidium aurantiacum gen. sp. nov., the teleomorph of Marchandiomyces aurantiacus (Basidiomycota, Ceratobasidiales)." Mycol. Res. 107: 523-527. The name Marchandiobasidium aurantiacum gen. sp. nov. is

introduced for the teleomorph of Marchandiomyces aurantiacus. Dolipore septa and septal pore caps of the closely related Marchandiomyces corallinus are typical of the Ceratobasidiales, and the basidiomatal characters of Marchandiobasidium aurantiacum are reminiscent of those of the monotypic genus Waitea. Morphological, ultrastructural and molecular data suggest that Marchandiobasidium should not be included

in Waitea, but should be treated as a distinct genus. DIEGUEZ-URIBEONDO, J. and L. CERENIUS (1998). "The inhibition of extracellular proteinases from Aphanomyces spp. by three different proteinase inhibitors from crayfish blood." Mycol. Res. 102: 820-824. Three different proteinase inhibitors purified from cray®sh

blood, a 23 kDa inhibitor of subtilisin, a 155 kDa trypsin-inhibitor (pacifastin) and an α2-macroglobulin were tested for their inhibitory activities against extracellular proteinases from the specialized crayfish parasite Aphanomyces astaci, the saprotrophic A. laevis and the plant parasitic A. chochlioides and A. euteiches. All three crayfish inhibitors were effective against extracellular proteinases from the different Aphanomyces species when defined peptides were used as substrates for the proteinases. Proteolytic activities from A. astaci against a complex substrate, casein were reduced by any of the three crayfish proteinase inhibitors tested. It is, therefore, possible that these proteinase inhibitors may reduce the proteolytic breakdown exerted by A. astaci proteinases during an infection.

DIEPENINGEN, A. D. V., A. J. M. DEBETS, et al. (2004). "Efficient degradation of tannic acid by black Aspergillus species." Mycol. Res. 108: 919-925. A set of aspergillus strains from culture collections and wild-

type black aspergilli isolated on non-selective media were used to validate the use of media with 20% tannic acid for exclusive and complete selection of the black aspergilli. The 20% tannic acid medium proved useful for both quantitative and qualitative selection of all different black aspergilli, including all recognized species: A. carbonarius, A. japonicus, A. aculeatus, A foetidus, A. heteromorphus, A. niger, A. tubingensis and A. brasiliensis haplotypes. Even higher concentrations of tannic acid can be utilized by the black aspergilli suggesting a very efficient tannic acid-degrading system. Colour mutants show that the characteristic ability to grow on high tannic acid concentrations is not causally linked to the other typical feature of these aspergilli, i.e. the formation of brown-black pigments. Sequence analysis of the A. niger genome using the A. oryzae tannase gene yielded eleven tannase-like genes, far more than in related species. Therefore, a unique ecological niche in the degradation of tannic acid and connected nitrogen release seems to be reserved for these black-spored cosmopolitans.

Diez, J., J. L. Manjon, et al. (2002). "Molecular phylogeny of the mycorrhizal desert truffles (Terfezia and Tirmania), host specificity and edaphic tolerance." Mycologia, 94(2): 247-259. Terfezia and Tirmania, so called desert truffles, are mycorrhizal

fungi mostly endemic to arid and semi-arid areas of the Mediterranean Region, where they are associated with Helianthemum species. The aim of this work was to study the phylogenetic relationships in these

pezizalean hypogeous fungi. The restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and DNA sequences of internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of the nuclear rDNA were studied for several morphological species, Terfezia arenaria, T. boudieri, T. claveryi, T. leptoderma, T. terfezioides (5Mattirolomyces terfezioides), Tirmania nivea and T. pinoyi. The sequences were analyzed with distance and parsimony methods. Phylogenetic analyses indicated a close genetic relationship between Tirmania and Terfezia. They may have arisen from a single evolutionary lineage of pezizalean fungi that developed the hypogeous habit as an adaptation to heat and drought in Mediterranean ecosystems. This analysis also supports the re-establishment of the genus Mattirolomyces. The genera Tirmania and Terfezia were monophyletic, and morphological species corresponded to phylogenetic species. The Tirmania clade comprises desert truffles with smooth spores and amyloid asci, which were found in deserts. The Terfezia clade grouped species found in semi-arid habitats having ornamented and spherical spores. These species are adapted to exploit different types of soil (either acid or basic soils) in association with specific hosts (either basophilous or acidophilous species). Although other factors might also play a role, host

specialization and edaphic tolerances (fungus and/or host tolerances) might be the key in the species diversity of these genera.

Dighton, J. (2003). Fungi in Ecosystem Processes. Mycology. New York . Basel, Marcel Dekker, Inc. 17: 432. DIMOU, D. M., A. GEORGALA, et al. (2002). "Mycelial fatty acid composition of Pleurotus spp. and its application in the intrageneric differentiation." Mycol. Res. 106: 925-929. The mycelial fatty acid pro®les of several Pleurotus strains and

their application in intrageneric differentiation were investigated. In the lipids produced by strains of Pleurotus abalonus, P. calyptratus, P. columbinus, P. cornucopiae, P. cystidiosus, P. ostreatus, P. pulmonarius, P. sajor-caju and P. sapidus, the predominant fatty acid was linoleic (33--68% total lipids), while in P. eryngii strains the major fatty acid was oleic (43--46%). In all strains studied, oleic

and palmitic acids were present in signi®cant concentrations (>12%), whereas stearic acid was found in lower ones. By using the ratios C18:1/C18:0, C18:2/C18:1 and RC18/C16:0 as variables, Pleurotus strains were clustered into six groups. Group I (P. ostreatus) ; group II, divided in three sub-groups (IIa : P. columbinus, IIb: P. eryngii, IIc : P. cornucopiae), group III, divided in two sub-groups (IIIa : P. sajor-caju, IIIb: P. pulmonarius), group IV (P. sapidus), group V (P. abalonus) and group VI divided in two sub-groups (VIa: P. cystidiosus and VIb: P. calyptratus). It is concluded that the mycelial fatty acid composition of Pleurotus can be used in the intrageneric taxonomy of the genus.

DINGLE, J. and P. A. MCGEE (2003). "Some endophytic fungi reduce the density of pustules of Puccinia recondita f. sp. tritici in wheat." Mycol. Res. 107: 310-316. The interaction between Puccinia recondita f. sp. tritici (now

widely referred to as P. triticina) and endophytic fungi in wheat was examined in laboratory experiments to determine whether the presence of fungal endophytes suppresses leaf rust disease caused by this fungus. Endophytes and cell-free washings from culture plates of the endophytes reduced the density and size of pustules in a susceptible cultivar when inoculated 3, 7 and 14 d prior to the pathogen. Disease at 12 d

was reduced when the endophytes were inoculated simultaneously up to 50 mm from the fungus. Interactions between endophytes and this Puccinia are most probably mediated by defence mechanisms induced in the host plant.

Dixon, G. K., L. G. Copping, et al. (1995). Antifungal Agents Discovery and Mode of Action, BIOS Scientific Publishers Limited, 1995. Dixon, J. R. (1974). "Chlorosplenium and its segregates . I. Introduction and the genus Chlorosplenium." MYCOTAXON 1(2): 65-104. Dixon, J. R. (1974). "Chlorosplenium and its segregates. II. The genera Chlorociboria and Chlorencoelia." MYCOTAXON 1(2): 193-237. DIXON-HARDY, J. E., V. I. KARAMUSHKA, et al. (1998). "Influence of the carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus source on the solubilization of insoluble metal compounds by Aspergillus niger." Mycol. Res. 102: 1050-1054. The effects of varying carbon (glucose), nitrogen ((NH4)2SO4,

KNO3) and phosphate (KH2PO4) source on solubilization of insoluble Co3(PO4)2.8H2O, Zn3(PO4)2.2H2O and ZnO by the soil fungus Aspergillus niger were assessed. Solubilization activity was quantified by measuring the clear zones produced around colonies of A. niger growing on solidified mineral salts medium amended with the insoluble metal compounds. Effects of nutrient variation on solubilizing properties were compared using ratios of colony growth rate on the metal compounds (Rm) to control growth rate (Rc) and the rate of extension of the zone of solubilization (Rs) compared to the colony growth rate on the metal compound (Rm), i.e. Rm:Rc and Rs :Rm. Ratios of solubilization rate to growth rate (Rs :Rm) on all the compounds decreased with decreasing glucose concentration ; there was no solubilization of ZnO below 60 mm glucose and no solubilization of the metal phosphates below 6 mm glucose. Reducing the concentration of ammonium sulphate in the growth medium decreased Rs :Rm but these values were increased when the nitrogen source was nitrate. Reducing the phosphate concentration increased solubilization of Co3(PO4)2 but reduced solubilization of Zn3(PO4)2. These findings demonstrate that manipulation of carbon, nitrogen and phosphate sources

in the growth medium, and variation of the form of the nutrient source, can be used to alter the solubilizing ability of A. niger. Whilst, in the natural environment, this response to different nutrient sources allows optimal exploitation of resources, the potential to manipulate nutrients for maximum solubilizing ability may prove beneficial for the optimization of the solubilization of metal compounds with respect to the bioremediation of metal-contaminated wastes and polluted ecosystems. It could also prove useful in other biotechnological applications such as metal recycling and extraction of metals from low-grade ores.

DOBINSON, K. F., N. A. PATTERSON, et al. (1998). "DNA fingerprinting and vegetative compatibility analysis indicate multiple origins for Verticillium dahliae race 2 tomato isolates from Ontario, Canada." Mycol. Res. 102: 1089-1095. RFLP, DNA fingerprinting and VCG methods were used to

characterize fourteen Verticillium dahliae isolates collected from southwestern Ontario, Canada. The isolates were typed as not pathogenic to tomato (NP), race 1 (avirulent on cvs carrying the Ve resistance gene) or race 2 (virulent on Ve cvs). On the basis of RFLPs, RAPDs, and DNA fingerprints detected by hybridization to a dispersed, repetitive genomic DNA probe, the isolates were classified into five DNA types. Type I included two NP isolates. Type II included four race 2, and three NP isolates. Types III and V were represented by single race 2 and race 1 isolates, respectively. Type

IV included one race 2, and two race 1 isolates. Vegetative compatibility was determined for selected NP, race 1, and race 2 isolates of each race type/DNA type combination. Isolates of the same DNA type were compatible, as were type II and III isolates (VCG 4B), and type IV (VCG 2A) and V isolates (VCG 2B). These data show a level of genetic diversity not previously identi®ed in the V. dahliae tomato pathogen population, and suggest multiple origins for the Ontario race 2 pathotype.

DODD, S. L., R. N. CROWHURST, et al. (2000). "Examination of Trichoderma phylogenies derived from ribosomal DNA sequence data." Mycol. Res. 104: 23-34. Ribosomal DNA sequences were assessed for their

usefulness in distinguishing among Trichoderma isolates and for their robustness in resolving their phylogenetic relationships. DNA sequences from the D2 region of the 28S rRNA gene were determined for 50 Trichoderma isolates representing seven species. Eight distinct sequence types existed, and were mostly consistent with groupings based on morphology. Sequence variability within the D2 region alone was not sufficient to provide a reliable phylogeny. Sequences from the ITS1, 5.8S and ITS2 regions were subsequently determined for 18 of the isolates. Eight distinct ITS sequence types were detected among these 18 isolates. The ITS sequence types were generally consistent with morphology, ITS1 sequence data supported the identification of the Th3 T. harzianum group

of Muthumeenakshi et al. (1994) as T. atroviride. The data also confirmed that the biocontrol strains of this study were different from those causing disease problems in the mushroom industry in Europe and North America. Results from the phylogenetic analysis stress the importance of testing the robustness of data used to predict phylogenies. Two ITS sequence data sets for the same group of isolates produced significantly different phylogenies. Congruence analysis detected that T. inhamatum (GJS90-90) was corrupting tree topologies and ` first order pruning' was performed by removing its sequence from the two ITS data sets. Subsequent differences in the topologies of pruned ITS1 and ITS2 trees were attributed to a lack of phylogenetic information in the ITS2 sequence region. Although ITS sequences successfully differentiated among morphologically distinct isolates within Trichoderma, it did not provide a sufficient phylogenetic signal to resolve all of their relationships.

Dodd, S. L., E. Lieckfeldt, et al. (2003). "Hypocrea atroviridis sp. nov., the teleomorph of Trichoderma atroviride." Mycologia, 95(1): 27-40. A new species, Hypocrea atroviridis, is described for the

teleomorph of Trichoderma atroviride. Based on sequences of ITS-1, 5.8S, and ITS-2 regions

of the rDNA complex and translation-elongation factor (EF-1a), T. atroviride and H. atroviridis form a well-supported clade within Trichoderma sect. richoderma.

The conserved anamorphic phenotype of T. atroviride, observed for both conidial and ascospore derived cultures, was only found within that clade. In contrast, the teleomorph phenotype of H. atroviridis was morphologically indistinguishable from H. rufa, the teleomorph of T. viride. This Hypocrea phenotype may, therefore, be considered to be plesiomorphic within Trichoderma sect. Trichoderma, suggesting that genes controlling the expression of the teleomorph and anamorph evolve at different rates and that the genes controlling expression of the teleomorph are more conserved than are those controlling the expression of the anamorph.

Doherty, K. R., E. W. Zweifel, et al. (2003). "Random amplified polymorphic DNA markers reveal genetic variation in the symbiotic fungus of leaf-cutting ants." Mycologia, 95(1): 19-23. RAPD markers were used to examine the degree of genetic

variation within the putatively asexual basidiomycete fungus (Lepiotaceae: provisionally named Leucoagaricus gongylophorus) associated with the leaf-cutting ant species Atta cephalotes. We analyzed fungal isolates from ant nests in two geographically

distant sites, two isolates from Panama and five isolates from Trinidad. Ten decamer primers were used to amplify total DNA from these seven fungal isolates, and RAPD banding patterns were compared. Genetic similarity among isolates was determined by pair-wise comparisons of the shared number of DNA bands on an agarose gel. There was considerable genetic

variation among isolates of the symbiotic fungus even within sites. Pairs of fungal isolates from the two different sites shared an average of only 36% of the bands in their RAPD profiles, while pairs from the within sites shared an average of 72% of the bands. RAPD markers may be useful for further investigation of the genetic structure of the fungal symbiont within species of leaf-cutting ants.

Domnguez, L. S. and A. Sersic (2004). "The southernmost myco-heterotrophic plant, Arachnitis uniflora: root morphology and anatomy." Mycologia, 96(2): 1143-1151. Root morphology and anatomy of the myco-heterotrophic

Arachnitis uniflora (Corsiaceae) were studied in relation to their association with a Glomus species (Glomeromycota). The mycorrhizal features were studied in three distinctive stages of development: (i) shoot and flower restricted to a small,

underground bud; (ii) shoot and flower bud up to 1.5 cm; and (iii) shoot and flower already withered. The hyphae penetrate through and between the epidermal

and exodermal cells; the exodermis and outer cortical cells become colonized in an inter- and intracellular manner, with some coils being formed in these layers. The fungi colonize the middle cortex, where intracellular vesicles in bundles are abundant. Arbuscules are formed profusely at very early stages of development, while in older stages they almost disappear and abundant vesicles are formed. Except for some details, the pattern of root colonization corresponds to a Paris-type. Presence of storage substances (starch and oil) also was recorded. Starch is produced and stored within root cells, mainly in the outer and inner root cortex. In senescent stages, plant and fungal tissues collapse.

Domsch, K. H., W. Gams, et al. (1993). Compendium of Soil Fungi, IHW-Verlag. 1: 860. Domsch, K. H., W. Gams, et al. (1980). Compendium of Soil Fungi. Compendium of Soil Fungi. London, Academic Press (London) LTD. 2: 405. Donahue, J. M. (2004). "Quest for the right word rewards both authors and readers." Mycologia, 96(6): 1179-1182. Donald T. WICKLOW, Shoshannah ROTH, et al. (2005). "A protective endophyte of maize: Acremonium zeae antibiotics inhibitory to Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides." Mycol. Res. 109(5): 610-618. The maize endophyte Acremonium zeae is antagonistic to

kernel rotting and mycotoxin producing fungi Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides in cultural tests for antagonism, and interferes with A. flavus infection and aflatoxin contamination of preharvest maize kernels. Chemical studies of an organic extract from maize kernel

fermentations of Acremonium zeae (NRRL 13540), which displayed significant antifungal activity against Aspergillus flavus and F. verticillioides, revealed that the metabolites accounting for this activity were two newly reported antibiotics pyrrocidines A and B. Pyrrocidines were detected in fermentation extracts for 12 NRRL cultures of Acremonium zeae isolated from maize kernels harvested in Illinois (4/4 cultures), North Carolina (5/5), Georgia (1/2) and unrecorded locations within the USA (2/2). Pyrrocidine B was detected by LCMSMS in whole symptomatic maize kernels removed at harvest from ears of a commercial hybrid that were wound-inoculated in the milk stage with A. zeae (NRRL 13540) or (NRRL 13541). The pyrrocidines were first reported from the fermentation broth of an unidentified filamentous fungus LL-Cyan426, isolated from a mixed Douglas Fir hardwood forest on Crane Island Preserve, Washington, in 1993. Pyrrocidine A exhibited potent activity against most Gram-positive bacteria, including drug-resistant strains, and was also active against the yeast Candida albicans. In an evaluation of cultural antagonism between 13 isolates of A. zeae in pairings with A. flavus (NRRL 6541) and F. verticillioides (NRRL 25457), A. zeae (NRRL 6415) and (NRRL 34556)

produced the strongest reaction, inhibiting both organisms at a distance while continuing to grow through the resulting clear zone at an unchanged rate. Maximum colony diameters for A. zeae (NRRL 6415) and (NRRL 13540), on potato dextrose agar after 14 d, were attained within the range of 25–30 °C, with less growth recorded at 15° and 37.5° and no growth at 5°. Potential interactions between A. zeae and other maize endophytes are considered and the significance of these interactions relative to the aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination of preharvest maize is presented. This is the first report of natural products from Acremonium zeae.

DONG, J., W. CHEN, et al. (1998). "Phylogenetic studies of the Leptosphaeriaceae, Pleosporaceae and some other Loculoascomycetes based on nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences." Mycol. Res. 102: 151-156. Eleven cultures representing eight genera of five families of

Loculoascomycetes were obtained from ATCC and IMI. Partial 18S and 28S nuclear ribosomal DNA (rDNA) were amplified using PCR and sequenced. About 1100 bps of 18S rDNA (NS1/NS4 region) and 459 bps of 28S rDNA (F63/R635 region) for each taxon were subject to phylogenetic analysis using parsimony. The reconstructed phylogenetic trees supported the separation of two monophyletic groups, containing the type genera of the Leptosphaeriaceae and the Pleosporaceae, respectively. The members of the Leptosphaeriaceae (sensu Barr) consisted of the paraphyletic clade in the phylogenetic trees. The members of the Pleosporaceae (sensu Barr) plus Pyrenophora trichostoma formed a monophyletic clade. The results generally supported the separation of the Leptosphaeriaceae from Pleosporaceae and the placement of P. trichostoma, and Comoclathris baccata in the

Pleosporaceae. The taxonomic position of Pleospora betae, whose coelomycetous anamorph is more closely related to Leptosphaeriaceae, was not well resolved because of low bootstrap values and decay indices. Leptosphaeria bicolor, whose ascospore morphology is not congeneric with the type of the genus, L. doliolum, does not belong to Leptosphaeria based on the 18S sequence data. The taxonomic disposition of Lewia, Pyrenophora, and Comoclathris based on the phylogenetic analyses are discussed.

Donnelly, D. P. and L. Boddy (1997). "Development of mycelial systems of Stropharia caerulea and Phanerochaete velutina on soil : effect of temperature and water potential." Mycological Research 101(6): 705-713. Effect of temperature and water potential on extension rate, extra-

resource biomass and fractal dimension of Stropharia caerulea and Phanerochaete velutina growing in trays of soil was determined non-destructively with time, by image analysis. S. caerulea responded differently from P. velutina, mycelial extension and biomass production rates of the former being considerably affected by changes in temperature and water potential, with greater aggregation of mycelia into cords at 25 °C and at and below -0.02 MPa. These morphological changes were reflected in the fractal dimension values. Mycelial extension of S. caerulea on agar was sensitive to temperatures above 25° and water potentials below -1.3 MPa. This is the first reported work on abiotic effects on fractal dimension of cord-forming fungi on soil, and these results are discussed in terms of the function of mycelial cords and foraging strategies.

DORFELT, H. and A. R. SCHMIDT (2005). "A fossil Aspergillus from Baltic amber." Mycol. Res. 109(8): 956-960. A piece of Baltic amber (Tertiary, Eocene) contains an

inclusion of a springtail (Collembola) which is overgrown by an Aspergillus species. The fossil fungus is described as A. collembolorum sp. nov. The excellent mode of preservation of the numerous conidiophores is remarkable and can be explained by sporulation in liquid resin. This is the second report of a fossil Aspergillus, the first being from Dominican amber.

DORFELT, H., A. R. SCHMIDT, et al. (2003). "The oldest fossil myxogastroid slime mould." Mycol. Res. 107: 123-126. A piece of Baltic amber (Tertiary, Eocene) contains a

sporocarp of a slime mould which is assigned to the recent genus Arcyria and described as A. sulcata sp. nov. Apart from a fossil stemonitoid myxomycete, there are no further unambiguous fossil records of slime moulds and therefore the fossil gives new insights into the evolutionary history of the Myxomycetes.

Dornelo-Silva, D. and J. C. Dianese (2003). "Hyphomycetes on the

Vochysiaceae from the Brazilian cerrado." Mycologia, 95(6): 1239-1251. New hyphomycetes are described in association with leaves

of native plants of the family Vochysiaceae, as part of studies of cerrado fungi. Six new species are described belonging to genera Alternaria (A. qualeae sp. nov.), Janetia (J. salvertiae sp. nov.), Passalora (P. qualeae sp. nov.) and Periconiella (P. longispora sp. nov., P. qualeae-grandiflorae sp. nov. and P. campo-grandensis sp. nov.). A key to the species of Periconiella on Qualea is provided.

Dornelo-Silva, D. and J. C. Dianese (2004). "New hyphomycete genera on Qualea species from the Brazilian cerrado." Mycologia, 96(4): 879-884. As part of studies on cerrado fungi three new hyphomycetes are

described in association with trichomes on leaves of native species of Qualea (Vochysiaceae). These are: Trichomatomyces gen. nov. (type species: T. byrsonimae comb. nov.), Trichosporodochium gen. nov. (type species: T. cerradensis sp. nov.), and Phaeoidiomyces gen. nov. (type species: P. qualeae).

DOUHAN, G. W. and D. M. RIZZO (2003). "Host-parasite relationships among bolete infecting Hypomyces species." Mycol. Res. 107: 1342-1349. Host specificity of the mycoparasite Hypomyces microspermus

to the Xerocomus chrysenteron group has been observed, but primarily from European collections. Our objectives were to test host specificity among Hypomyces spp. associated with boletes in California oak-woodlands, investigate population biology of these parasites, and to initiate studies on host-parasite coevolution. Bolete samples were collected from four locations separated by up to 600 km. Hypomyces

isolates were cultured and host tissue samples taken for molecular identification. Based on AFLP analysis, four distinct Hypomyces clades were found with little genotypic diversity within each group. ITS-rDNA regions of selected isolates from each group were sequenced and analyzed along with sequences from a previously published phylogeny. Isolates from two AFLP groups clustered with H. microspermus whereas isolates from the other two AFLP groups clustered with H. chrysospermus. ITS-RFLP followed by sequence analysis identified three bolete hosts: (1) X. dryophilus; (2) a Xerocomus species closely related to X. dryophilus with affinities to X. chrysenteron; and (3) a Xerocomus species related to the X. subtomentosus group, which is not closely related to X. dryophilus and X. chrysenteron. H. microspermus infected X. dryophilus and the species with affinities to X. chrysenteron, whereas H. chrysospermus infected the species with affinities to X. chrysenteron and the species related to the X. subtomentosus group. These results support previous observations that H. microspermus is host-specific to the X. chrysenteron group, and that H. chrysospermus is more of a generalist pathogen. We also conclude that host-parasite coevolution studies within this system will not be possible until a phylogeny of North American boletes is in place.

Douhan, G. W. and D. M. Rizzo (2003). "Amplified Fragment Length Microsatellites (AFLM) might be used to develop microsatellite markers in organisms with limited amounts of DNA applied to Arbuscular Mycorrhizal (AM) fungi." Mycologia, 95(2): 368-373. Developing microsatellite markers for organisms with limited

amounts of DNA can be difficult because sequence information is needed. To overcome

this problem in the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi Glomus etunicatum and Gigaspora gigantea, global amplification of the genomes of each species was performed with linker-adaptor-PCR from single spores. Amplified fragments were enriched for microsatellite motifs with 59-biotinylated oligonucleotides and recovered by magnetic streptavidin beads. The recovered fragments were reamplified and separated on denaturing polyacrylamide gels, and 16 selected bands were excised, cloned and sequenced. Seven microsatellite motifs were detected from six clones (efficiency rate of 43.8%). Primers were designed for all putative microsatellite loci and most were successfully amplified from three single-spore preparations and from pools of five, 10 and 20 spores after global amplification. This approach, termed

amplified fragment-length micosatellites (AFLM), might aid investigations of organisms that cannot or are not readily cultured in vitro and where DNA is a limiting factor for genetic studies. However, the technique also can be used to isolate microsatellite loci in any organism.

DOWN, G. J., L. J. GRENVILLE, et al. (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of Spongospora and implications for the taxonomic status of the plasmodiophorids." Mycol. Res. 106: 1060-1065. Spongospora nasturtii is a plasmodiophorid pathogen of

watercress (Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum), causing crook root disease. In the past, some authors have considered the plasmodiophorids as protists, and others have considered them as true fungi. This study was performed with the aims of elucidating both the relationship of S. nasturtii to other plasmodiophorids, and also the placement of the plasmodiophorids as a group when compared to other organisms.

Analysis of partial 18S ribosomal DNA sequences of a range of plasmodiophorids by phylogenetic techniques including parsimony, neighbour-joining, and principal co-ordinate analysis, indicated that there was a close relationship between S. nasturtii, S. subterranea and Plasmodiophora brassicae. However, analyses incorporating 1.2 kb of 18S rDNA sequence from S. subterranea cast doubt over the long-held view that S. subterranea and S. nasturtii are more closely related to each other than to other genera of plasmodiophorids. Consideration of the entire 18S rDNA of both S. nasturtii and P. brassicae showed that they are not closely related to a range of protists and true fungi examined

DRESLER-NURMI, A., S. KAIJALAINEN, et al. (1999). "Grouping of lignin degrading corticioid fungi based on RFLP analysis of 18S rDNA and ITS regions." Mycol. Res. 103: 990-996. Twelve wood decaying species of Phlebia and Phanerochaete

were analysed by RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism) analysis of an 18S rRNA gene fragment and an ITS region. The data obtained by different restriction endonucleases were used to construct phenograms based on the UPGMA algorithm. PCR-RFLP within the 18S rRNA gene was sufficient to distinguish between Phlebia species but did not show variation among Phanerochaete spp. ITS region amplified from Phlebia spp. varied in length from 570--745 bp. The smallest ITS fragment was amplified from P. subcretacea and the longest from P. hydnoides. The size of ITS fragments amplified from Phanerochaete spp. was uniform (635 bp), except for the ITS from two P. sanguinea strains (690 bp). RFLP analysis within ITS amplified from Phanerochaete spp. distinguished between them. Results from PCR-RFLP of 18S rRNA and ITS strongly suggest that Phiebia gigantea is closely related to Phanerochaete. Morphological characteristics (lack of clamp connections in hymenium, well developed subiculum) further support this hypothesis.

Dring, D. M. (1964). Gasteromycetes of West Tropical Africa. Mycological Papers, commonwealth mycological institute kew, surrey, england. No. 98: 60. Dring, D. M. (1980). Clathraceae. Kew Bulletin, Kew Bulletin. 35: 96. DRIVER, F., R. J. MILNER, et al. (2000). "A taxonomic revision of Metarhizium based on a phylogenetic analysis of rDNA sequence data." Mycol. Res. 104: 134-150. The taxonomy of Metarhizium has been reassessed using

sequence data and RAPD patterns from 123 isolates recognised as M. anisopliae, M. flavoviride or M. album. A high level of genetic diversity was found which was best resolved at the species/variety level by sequence data from the ITS and 28S rDNA D3 regions. RAPD patterns correlated closely with the sequence data and revealed a much greater degree of diversity useful for distinguishing strains within a variety. Ten distinct clades were revealed by the cladogram based on the combined sequence data set. Several major evolutionary lines were revealed, but the taxonomic relationships at the base of the tree are poorly resolved. The data support the monopoly of the M. anisopliae group, and recognise four clades within it. Two correspond with M. anisopliae var. anisopliae and M. anisopliae var. majus. The other two are described as new varieties based on their distinctive ITS sequence data : M. anisopliae var. lepidiotum and M. anisopliae var. acridum vars nov. M. album, M. flavoviride var. flavoviride and M. flavoviride var. minus are recognised and redefined according to ITS sequence data. Three clades represent two new varieties, M. flavoviride var. novazealandicum and M. flavoviride var.

pemphigum vars nov., based on their distinct ITS sequence data. The third, with two isolates, has not been named pending further data.

Drucker, P. F. Management Challenges for the 21 st Century, Harper Business. Du, M., C. L. Schardl, et al. (2005). "Using mating-type gene sequences for improved phylogenetic resolution of Collectotrichum species complexes1." Mycologia, 97(3): 641–658. Colletotrichum species are defined primarily on the basis of

host preference and morphology of the organism in planta and in culture. However the genus contains several species complexes that encompass such a broad range of morphological and pathological variation that the species name is of relatively little use either to the taxonomist or plant pathologist. Phylogenetic analyses, primarily based on variable regions of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequences, have indicated that these species complexes comprise a variable number of identifiable monophyletic clades. However rDNA sequences often are insufficiently diverse to fully resolve such closely related lineages. A group of isolates representing three species complexes (C. graminicola, C. gloeosporioides and C. acutatum) were analyzed by using the high mobility group (HMG)-encoding sequence of the MAT1–2 mating type sequence, which has been shown in other fungi to be especially suitable for distinguishing relationships among closely related groups. Results were compared with those obtained from analysis of variable regions of the rDNA as well as from standard morphological classification methods. Results achieved through analysis of MAT1–2 sequences correlated well with those obtained by analysis of rDNA sequences but provided significantly better resolution among the various lineages. Morphological traits, including hyphopodia size, colony appearance, spore size, appresorial shape and size and host preference, frequently were unreliable as indicators of phylogenetic association. Spore shape and hyphopodia shape more often were useful for this purpose.

DULYMAMODE, R., P. F. CANNON, et al. (1998). "Fungi from Mauritius: Anthostomella species on Pandanus." Mycol. Res. 102: 1319-1324. Anthostomella petrinensis and A. theobromina are described

from endemic Pandanus species in Mauritius. They are compared with other Anthostomella species reported on Pandanaceae and Palmae. A table is included, facilitating comparison between the new species and previously published taxa with similarly sized ascospores.

DULYMAMODE, R., P. F. CANNON, et al. (1998). "Fungi from Mauritius: three Astrocystis species from Pandanus." Mycol. Res. 102: 1325-1330. Astrocystis fimbriata, A. rarissima and A. cepiformis spp. nov.

are described and illustrated from dead leaves of Pandanus. Their affinities

with related taxa are discussed, especially with Astrocystis species on Palmae and with Rosellinia as interpreted in recent studies. One

species has stromata which develop from a mat of superficial hyphae, which has not previously been reported for Astrocystis.

DULYMAMODE, R., P. F. CANNON, et al. (1998). "Fungi from Mauritius: Linocarpon species on Pandanus." Mycol. Res. 102: 1331-1337. Four species of Linocarpon on Pandanus are described and

illustrated. L. spathulatum and L. sulcatum spp. nov. have ascospores with grooved appendages and ascomata with eccentric ostioles. L. fasciatum sp. nov. is similar to L. pandanicola, but its ascospores lack appendages and the ascomata are smaller. A collection of L. elaeidis, not previously reported from Mauritius, has ascomata with distinct black papillate necks, in contrast to the type material which lacks these structures.

DULYMAMODE, R., P. F. CANNON, et al. (2001). "Fungi on endemic plants of Mauritius." Mycol. Res. 105: 1472-1479. The saprobic microfungi associated with endemic plants of

Mauritius have been studied. Over 200 taxa were identified of which approximately 90% are new records for Mauritius including one genus and 38 new species. The mycobiota encountered on the monocotyledonous genus Pandanus is more distinct than that on three dicotyledonous hosts Sideroxylon, Cordemoya and Olea. Arguments are presented to support the inclusion of microfungi in in situ conservation management policies.

DULYMAMODE, R., P. F. CANNON, et al. (2001). "Fungi from Mauritius: four new ascomycetes on native plants." Mycol. Res. 105: 247-254. Englerodothis oleae and Lepteutypa tropicalis spp. nov.,

Pellucida pendulina gen. et sp. nov., and Pseudorhynchia mauritiana sp. nov., collected from the Mauritian native plants Cordemoya integrifolia, Olea lancea and species of Pandanus, are described, illustrated and compared with related taxa. A key is provided to the currently accepted species of Lepteutypa.

DULYMAMODE, R., D. W. MINTER, et al. (1998). "Fungi from Mauritius: Rubikia splendida sp. nov., a coelomycete with unusual features." Mycol. Res. 102: 1242-1244. Rubukia splendida sp. nov. from Mauritius is described,

illustrated and compared to the only other species in the genus, R. samsonii from Honduras.

DUNCAN, K. E. and R. J. HOWARD (2000). "Cytological analysis of wheat infection by the leaf blotch pathogen Mycosphaerella graminicola." Mycol. Res. 104: 1074-1082. We have investigated the wheat infection process of

Mycosphaerella graminicola (teleomorph of Septoria tritici) through the

combined application of differential interference contrast light, confocal laser scanning, and cryo-scanning electron microscopies. Several aspects of fungal development have been documented, including the presence of extracellular cirrus and germling matrices, as well as nutrient-sensitive morphogenesis. The use of confocal laser scanning microscopy was invaluable in documenting the time course of pathogen invasion and symptom development. These data were used to generate summary diagrams of the asexual infection cycle of M. graminicola, to benchmark the efficacy of various crop protection strategies.

DUNHAM, S. M., T. E. O’DELL, et al. (2003). "Analysis of nrDNA sequences and microsatellite allele frequencies reveals a cryptic chanterelle species Cantharellus cascadensis sp. nov. from the American Pacific Northwest." Mycol. Res. 107: 1163-1177. In the Pacific Northwest, yellow chanterelles have long been

referred to as Cantharellus cibarius, synonymous with the European yellow chanterelle. Broad scale genetic surveys of North American chanterelles with C. cibarius-like morphology have demonstrated that the nrDNA internal transcribed spacer exhibits length variability, suggesting that this common morphology masks a species complex. Recently researchers have used morphological and genetic data to identify the yellow chanterelle most frequently harvested from American Pacific Northwest forests as C. formosus, a species once thought to be rare in the region. We present three genetic data sets and one morphological data set that characterize a previously undescribed, species of yellow chanterelle from the central Cascade Mountains of Oregon. Phylogenetic analyses of the nrDNA large subunit and ITS regions show that C. cascadensis sp. nov., along with two other yellow chanterelle taxa (C. cibarius var. roseocanus and European C. cibarius), are more closely related to white chanterelles (C. subalbidus) than they are to C. formosus. Data from five microsatellite loci provide evidence that C. formosus, C. subalbidus, and C. cascadensis sp. nov. do not interbreed when they co-occur spatially and temporally in Douglas fir-western hemlock forests. This demonstrates that these three sympatric chanterelles are biological species with boundaries congruent with those delineated by nrDNA phylogenetic clades. Morphological data indicate that the colour of the pileus and shape of the stipe can be used to separate fresh collections of the two yellow species now known to co-occur in Douglas fir-western hemlock forests in Oregon.

Duong, L. M., R. Jeewon, et al. (2006). "DGGE coupled with ribosomal DNA gene phylogenies reveal uncharacterized fungal phylotypes." Fungal Diversity 23: 121-138. Most fungal diversity studies have previously been based on

morphological examination and cultivation methods. In this study we use a molecular method based on DGGE coupled with sequence analysis of

18S rRNA gene to assess fungal diversity on leaves of Magnolia liliifera. To achieve this, we extracted total genomic DNA and used fungal specific primers (NS1 and GCFung) to obtain fungal sequences. PCR-DGGE analysis recovered 14 operational taxonomic units (OTU) from different parts of the studied leaves. Phylogenetically, 8 OTUs belonged to the order Pleosporales and other bitunicate ascomycetes; 2 and 3 were related to the Xylariaceae, (Xylariales) and Hypocreales, respectively; 1 OTU was phylogenetically affiliated with the Rhytismatales. While this molecular approach identified taxa that were not recovered from morphological or cultural studies, it did not detect other taxa that were predominantly isolated using traditional methods. The three different parts of one leaf tested (petioles and midribs, leaf blade lower and upper parts) yielded different fungal taxa that possible indicate tissue-recurrence. The findings are compared with previous studies on the same host where endophytes were investigated using traditional culturing techniques.

Duong, L. M., S. Lumyong, et al. (2004). Fungi on leaf litter. Thai Fungal Diversity, BIOTEC, Thailand: 163-171. Fungal communities occurring on leaf litter have been studied for a

relatively long time in temperate regions but few studies have been undertaken in the tropics.....

DUPONT, J., W. LALOUI, et al. (1998). "Partial ribosomal DNA sequences show an important divergence between Phaeoacremonium species isolated from Vitis vinifera." Mycol. Res. 102: 631-637. A morphological and molecular analysis was performed on 25

individuals of Phaeoacremonium isolated from diseased European and Californian grapevines (Esca disease). An unexpectedly high intra-generic molecular divergence was evidenced by partial rDNA sequencing between P. chlamydosporum isolates on one hand and an aggregate including P. angustius and P. aleophilum isolates and some undescribed ones on the other. These two groups show 26% nucleotide differences within the 26S rDNA fragment sequenced and were unalignable within the ITS2, suggesting distant phylogenetic relationships. Moreover, P. chlamydosporum appeared more closely related to Phialophora verrucosa (supposed to be an anamorph of the Herpotrichiellacae), than to the type species of the genus, P. parasiticum (more related to Magnaporthaceae).

DUPONT, J. l., S. MAGNIN, et al. (2002). "ITS and β-tubulin markers help delineate Phaeoacremonium species, and the occurrence of P. parasiticum in grapevine disease in Argentina." Mycol. Res. 106(10): 1143–1150. Restrictions patterns of the ITS rDNA and a partial fragment of

the β-tubulin gene were shown to help identify Phaeoacremonium species associated with diseased grapevines. PCR-RFLP markers revealed a high frequency of P. parasiticum, together with P. aleophilum, in fungi isolated from stems and trunks of mature diseased vines showing ‘hoja de malvo´

n’ disease, and from young declining plants in Argentina. This distribution is different from that in vineyards in other parts of the world, where P. aleophilum is dominant. Indeed, this is the first report associating P. parasiticum with diseased vines.

Dyer, A. T. and C. E. Windels (2003). "Viability and maturation of Aphanomyces cochlioides oospores." Mycologia, 95(2): 321-326. Plasmolysis, tetrazolium bromide staining and microscopic

appearance were tested for their usefulness in determining viability of oospores of

Aphanomyces cochlioides. For comparison, three lethal treatments were employed to contrast the reaction of dead oospores and untreated, presumably viable oospores. Few oospores stained with tetrazolium bromide, even though plasmolysis and microscopic appearance indicated that 85% were viable. Cytoplasm of viable oospores was densely organized and uniformly granular (DOUG),

whereas cytoplasm of oospores exposed to lethal treatments was loosely organized

and non-uniformly granular (LONG). Doseresponse bioassay experiments were conducted with untreated oospores of varying inoculum densities or with mixtures of untreated DOUG and heat-treated LONG oospores in varying proportions. The number of DOUG oospores was correlated (R2 5 0.62, P , 0.001) with severity of damping-off of sugar beet seedlings caused by A. cochlioides. Thus, the granular appearance of cytoplasm offered a fast, easy and reliable indicator of viability of A. cochlioides oospores. Tests with newly formed oospores/oogonia showed that .80% harvested at 3–4 d after inoculation of hypocotyls stained with tetrazolium, but by 8–9 d ,10% stained, apparently because of declining permeability of the spore wall to tetrazolium as oospores matured.

Dyer, R. A. (1951). National Herbarium. Bothalia a Record of Contributions. Union of South Africa Pretoria, The Government Printer, Pretoria. VI: 248. Dyer, R. A. (1954). National Herbarium. Bothalia a Record of Contributions. Union of South Africa Pretoria, The Government Printer Pretoria 1954. VI: 451. Dyer, R. A. (1958). National Herbarium. Bothalia a Record of Contributions. Union of South Africa Pretoria, The Government Printer, Pretoria. VII: 187. EAGEN, R., S. H. KIM, et al. (2001). "An hydroxynaphtalene reductase gene from the wood-staining fungus Ophiostoma floccosum complements the buff phenotype in Magnaporthe grisea." Mycol. Res. 105: 461-469. To understand the mechanism of wood discolouration

employed by the staining fungus Ophiostoma floccosum, a gene involved in dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN) melanin biosynthesis was cloned from this organism and its function was examined. Degenerate oligonucleotide

primers were designed according to conserved regions of hydroxynaphthalene (HN) reductases and used to PCRamplify a 380 bp fragment from genomic DNA of O. floccosum. The amplified product was used as a probe to screen an O. floccosum genomic phage library. A genomic clone containing a full-length HN reductase gene was retrieved and a total of 1681 bp of its

nucleotide sequence was determined. The determined sequence contained 673 bp of 5' untranslated sequence, 807 bp of putative open reading frame (ORF) encoding a protein of 269 amino acids and 197 bp 3' untranslated sequence. The ORF contained a 76-bp intron. Based on the similarity of the inferred amino acid sequence to other known fungal HN reductases, the cloned O. floccosum gene was considered an HN reductase gene. Disruption of the O. floccosum reductase gene was unsuccessful due to integration anomalies during homologous recombination. As an alternative, we complemented an HN reductase deficient buf mutant of the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe grisea by introducing the cloned O. floccosum reductase gene using hygromycin B resistance plasmid pCB1004. The complemented M. grisea buf mutants produced a black pigment like a wild type strain, indicating that the O. floccosum reductase is functionally homologous to other fungal HN reductases. These results suggest that O. floccosum uses the DHN pathway for pigmentation.

EASTWOOD, D. C., C. S. KINGSNORTH, et al. (2001). "Genes with increased transcript levels following harvest of the sporophore of Agaricus bisporus have multiple physiological roles." Mycol. Res. 105: 1223-1230. We screened a cDNA library generated from harvested and

stored sporophores of Agaricus bisporus and identified 19 genes with higher transcript levels than at the time of harvest. Five of these genes had no detectable mRNA levels prior to detachment from the mycelium. Sequence analysis of ten clones revealed significant similarities to known genes, these code for proteins involved in polymer breakdown and metabolism, cell wall synthesis, stress tolerance, cytochrome P450 activity and DNA binding. The diversity of functions of these genes suggests the changes in the sporophore after harvest involve several different physiological processes.

Eaton, G. K. and M. P. Ayres (2002). "Plasticity and constraint in growth and protein mineralization of ectomycorrhizal fungi under simulated nitrogen deposition." Mycologia, 94(6): 921-932. Ectomycorrhizal fungi allow their host plants access to organic

forms of N through enzymatic mineralization of the substrate and enhanced absorption of amino acids and mineral N. The cost to the plant is carbohydrates that support fungal growth and metabolism. Enrichment of soils with mineral N, as through atmospheric deposition, may affect the growth and function of these fungi by direct effects of increased N availability on fungi and indirect effects through reduced plant C allocation

to roots. We tested the potential of N enrichment and altered carbohydrate supply to affect the growth and protein mineralization activity of 10 ectomycorrhizal fungi in sterile liquid media. Nitrogen treatments consisted of organic N only vs organic plus mineral N. Carbon treatments consisted of 5 g per liter glucose vs. no glucose added. Fungi differed widely in their growth and mineralization responses to these variables. Seven of 10 fungi had at least 20% reduced growth with reduced carbohydrates. Only 2 of 10 increased growth by 20% or more with increased mineral N. Carbohydrates affected growth more in a purely organic N environment suggesting an energy limitation to mineralization. Protein mineralization activity tended to be depressed by reductions in carbohydrates and increased by increased mineral N. The high sensitivity of fungal growth to carbohydrates suggests important indirect effects of N enrichment via altered C allocation in host trees. Principal

Components analysis separated most fungal species along an axis representing a gradient from high protein mineralization efficiency to high intrinsic growth rate. Those fungi with slow growth and effi- cient mineralization activity corresponded closely to fungi often cited as late successional species, while fungi with high growth rates and low mineralization efficiency are often categorized as early successional.One fungus, Cenococcum geophillum, separated from others on an axis representing strong N dependence in growth. Nitrogen enrichment has the potential to alter the composition and function of the ectomycorrhizal fungus community. Physiological differences among species provide a starting point for predicting community responses and anticipating ecosystem consequences.

EBERHARDT, U. and A. VERBEKEN (2004). "Sequestrate Lactarius species from tropical Africa: L. angiocarpus sp. nov. and L. dolichocaulis comb. nov." Mycol. Res. 108: 1042-1052. Lactarius angiocarpus sp. nov. is described from miombo

woodlands in Zambia. It is the third sequestrate representative of the Russulaceae described from tropical Africa. Morphological characters and DNA sequence data support its placement in Lactarius subgen. Plinthogali. Molecular kinship analyses confirm a multiple origin of sequestrate Russulaceae spp. As none of the previously sequenced sequestrate Russulaceae spp. has been assigned to the Plinthogaliclade, the placement of L. angiocarpus indicates an additional point of origin of derivative sporocarp types within the Russulaceae. Within the same subgenus, another tropical African sequestrate species, L. dolichocaulis comb. nov. (syn.

Arcangeliella dolichocaulis) is recognized. Edel, V., C. Steinberg, et al. (1996). "Evaluation of restriction analysis of polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-amplified ribosomal DNA for the identification of Fusarium species." Mycological Research 101(2): 179-187.

Eighty-seven strains belonging to 18 species of Fusarium were characterized by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of ribosomal DNA (rDNA). The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to amplify a fragment including internal transcribed spacers and variable domains of the 28S rDNA. Data from RFLP analysis of amplified rDNA using eight frequent-cutting restriction enzymes permitted the definition of 23 rDNA haplotypes. The combination of only four restriction enzymes was sufficient to resolve the 23 haplotypes. Each haplotype could be assigned to a single Fusarium species, except for two haplotypes which were common to two or three closely related species. Polymorphism was found within some Fusarium species. Grouping among Fusarium strains derived from restriction analysis was, on the whole, in agreement with other molecular and morphological classification criteria. Therefore, the PCR/RFLP method described in this paper provides a simple and rapid procedure for the differentiation of Fusarium strains at the species level.

EDEL, V., C. STEINBERG, et al. (2000). "Ribosomal DNA-targeted oligonucleotide probe and PCR assay specific for Fusarium oxysporum." Mycol. Res. 104: 518-526. A PCR assay and a hybridisation assay were developed for

identi®cation of Fusarium oxysporum. Based on sequence data from the 28S rDNA, two primers (PFO2 and PFO3) and one 20-mer probe (HFO1) were designed. These oligonucleotides were tested with 16 strains of F. oxysporum and 80 strains of 23 other Fusarium species or of eight species from other fungal genera. A PCR procedure for specific amplification of DNA from the F. oxysporum strains using primers PFO2 and PFO3 was set up. Under the conditions defined, no PCR product was obtained with these primers from the 80 other strains. The oligonucleotide probe HFO1

was labelled using a non-radioactive method and evaluated for specificity in dot blot hybridisation experiments with rDNA amplified by PCR. Under optimised conditions, the probe hybridised exclusively with DNA from F. oxysporum strains. Both PCR and hybridisation procedures were validated with 53 additional isolates of F. oxysporum representative of the populations present in four different soils. These speci®c assays appear to be reliable tools for the identification of F. oxysporum and may have various applications in ecological studies.

Edman, M. and M. Gustafsson (2003). "Wood-disk traps provide a robust method for studying spore dispersal of wood-decaying basidiomycetes." Mycologia, 95(3): 553-556. Spore traps consisting of disks containing monokaryotic

mycelia as bait were tested to find a robust, long-time sampling method for studying dispersal of wood-decaying basidiomycetes. In total, 288 disks, 48 for each of six fungal species, were exposed 2 wk at 12 sites in

northern Sweden. Both common and rare fungi were used, and the longest distance to a potential dispersal source exceeded 3 km. After 3–16 wk of incubation in the laboratory, the disks were investigated for spore hits. These were detectable both microscopically, by the presence of hyphal clamps, and macroscopically, by mycelial incompatibility zones. Spore traps resisted rain and freezing temperatures well, and spore hits from all species were found at all 12 sites. We argue that lengthy sampling makes it possible to detect low rates of spore

deposition, aiding in the study of long-distance dispersal and dispersal of rare species. In addition, because several spore hits can be recognized in the same trap, spore deposition of wood-decaying fungi can be characterized with quantitative data.

EDWARDS, I. P. and R. F. TURCO (2005). "Inter- and intraspecific resolution of nrDNA TRFLP assessed by computer-simulated restriction analysis of a diverse collection of ectomycorrhizal fungi." Mycol. Res. 109: 212-226. An assessment of the inter- and intraspecific resolution of 5'

nrDNA ITS TRFLP was conducted by computer-simulated restriction analysis of 316 ectomycorrhizal GenBank sequences. Generally, sequences with a similarity of <90% could be distinguished with two to three independent enzyme digests, although sequences with similarity >95% were likely to remain unresolved. Choice of restriction enzyme strongly influenced resolution, especially when less than three enzymes were used. Although our results showed that 5k nrDNA ITS TRFLP is a powerful tool for distinguishing between species of ectomycorrhizal fungi, closely related species, including species of Rhizopogon, Dermocybe, Hebeloma, and Lactariusproduced indistinguishable 5' nrDNA ITS TRFLP – profiles. 5k nrDNA ITS TRFLP may also split a species, and the

probability of this occurring reflected intraspecific sequence variation. For groups of closely related species, the use of 3' nrDNA ITS in conjunction with 5k nrDNA ITS produced improved resolution comparable with RFLP analyses. Overall, our results show that nrDNA ITS TRFLP is a valuable addition to the array of molecular tools available to ectomycorrhizal ecologists. However, simple assessments of ectomycorrhizal species diversity based on numbers of unique TRF created with a single restriction enzyme must be viewed with caution, as for each enzyme we examined, identical TRF common to groups of unrelated species were observed. In addition, to maximize the effectiveness of TRFLP in surveys of ectomycorrhizal fungi it will be useful to combine information from at least two independent enzyme digests in order to distinguish and track species in the field.

EDWARDS, J., P. K. ADES, et al. (1999). "Morphological and molecular variation between Australian isolates of Puccinia menthae." Mycol. Res. 103: 1505-1514. Puccinia menthae is highly variable, with several varieties and

variants within varieties. Two principal groups of races, nominated

spearmint rust and peppermint rust, have been recognized according to their host range on commercially-important Mentha species, yet both belong to the same variety, P. menthae var. menthae. Ten collections of P. menthae teliospores from four Mentha species in Victoria, Australia, were examined using light microscopy and SEM. The teliospores from M. spicata, M.x cordifolia and M. suaveolens, all hosts to spearmint rust, were verrucose with two equally-sized cells, whereas those from M. x piperita, host to peppermint rust, were generally smooth-walled, and the apical cell was larger and thicker-walled than the basal cell. Fifteen isolates

of P. menthae collected from four Mentha species in Victoria were assessed for genomic variation using RAPD analysis and PCRgenerated length polymorphism of the ITS region of rDNA. Six out of 113 RAPD primers amplified reproducible marker profiles, 58 polymorphic bands were scored and simple matching distances were computed between the isolates. UPGMA cluster analysis was used to produce a dendrogram and non-metric multi-dimensional scaling to produce a two-dimensional map of the isolates. The spearmint rust and peppermint rust isolates clustered into two non-overlapping groups, providing good evidence that there is limited gene flow between them. All isolates had the same sized ITS fragments. The taxonomic implications of these results are discussed and it is suggested that the peppermint and spearmint rusts should be accorded separate varietal or specific status.

Edwards, J., D. Chamberlain, et al. (1998). "A comparative physiological and morphological study of Dendryphiella salina and D. arenaria in relation to adaptation to life in the sea." Mycological Research 102(10): 1198-1202. A series of comparative physiological and morphological analyses are

described for eighteen Dendryphiella isolates. Conidial characteristics of ten isolates showed relatively little variation as a result of different incubation conditions. Isolates were markedly tolerant to NaCl and KCl, although some variation between isolates was noted. A variety of nitrogen compounds could be utilized by most isolates although some grew poorly with certain nitrogen sources. Most isolates showed a wide pH growth range, particularly at alkaline values, and broad temperature growth profiles. The relevance of these physiological characteristics to the survival and fitness of Dendryphiella species in the marine environment is discussed.

Edwards, S. G., A. H. Fitter, et al. (1997). "Quantification of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus, Glomusfmosseae, within plant roots by competitive polymerase chainfreaction." Mycological Research 101(12): 1440-1444. An assay based on the competitive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was

developed to quantify Glomus mosseae, an arbuscularfmycorrhizal (AM) fungus, within plant roots. Using previously designed G. mosseae specific primers, a heterologous internal standardfwas constructed by amplifying Pseudomonas DNA under low stringency annealing conditions. Co-

amplification of G. mosseae andfinternal standard DNA within leek root extracts provided accurate quantification of target DNA. Colonization of leek roots by G.fmosseae was monitored in a comparative study by competitive PCR and microscopy, a conventional method of quantification. Theseftwo methods gave closely parallel data for G. mosseae colonization from three different inoculum levels over a 6 week period.Results indicate that competitive PCR is a sensitive and accurate method of quantification. The majorfadvantage of competitive PCR fover microscopy is that it can quantify specific AM fungi.

EDWARDS, S. J., S. ISAAC, et al. (1999). "Stereological analysis of celery leaves infected by Septoria apiicola." Mycol. Res. 103: 750-756. Changes caused by Septoria apiicola during the development

of leaf spot disease in celery were quantified stereologically in susceptible cvs, a partially resistant parental wild celery line, fully resistant parsley and lovage. Thick sections, cut in vertical orientation, were stained and using a camera lucida, were superimposed on a lattice grid for stereological analysis. The volume of each component within the leaf space was calculated using the Cavalieri method.

In healthy tissue volume fractions of intercellular space, palisade layers and, to a lesser extent, collenchyma, vascular tissue and oil ducts were greater in the more resistant genotypes. This coincided with a reduction in the volume fraction of mesophyll tissue. Estimates of absolute volume fraction were similar. In both resistant and susceptible celery the principal response to infection was a substantial decrease in the volume fractions and absolute volumes of palisade and mesophyll tissue. Volume fractions of mesophyll and palisade tissues declined by 97% in susceptible lesions and by 98% in resistant lesions. The fungus was not observed in xylem

or phloem cells. No appreciable changes were observed in either collenchyma or oil duct tissues in response to infection in resistant and susceptible genotypes. Infection had no effect on the epidermis or stomata and these remained intact until late in the infection cycle, when pycnidia erupted through the epidermis of the upper and lower leaf surfaces.

No hyphae were found in leaf sections of lovage or parsley, and fungal growth was severely restricted in all resistant material bred from wild celery. In wild celery lines, S. apiicola did not produce any, or produced very few, pycnidia and the volume fraction of vegetative hyphae was lower than that in susceptible cvs, where the fungus proliferated extensively within the lesions and many pycnidia were produced. This accounted for 30--50% of the fungal material in lesions on susceptible celery plants. The amount of fungus (21%) was less in lesions on resistant celery and in this material 96% of the fungus was present as vegetative hyphae. In lesions formed on susceptible celery 26% of the fungal tissue was reproductive and of that 11% was conidia whereas in resistant celery, where pycnidia were present, these structures were morphologically

abnormal and did not contain conidia. Stereological analysis demonstrated clear differences in plant and pathogen response during infection of resistant and susceptible celery by S. apiicola.

EIKEMO, H., S. S. KLEMSDAL, et al. (2004). "Genetic variation between Phytophthora cactorum isolates differing in their ability to cause crown rot in strawb." 108: 317-324. Analysis of 44 isolates of Phytophthora cactorum, isolated from

strawberry and other hosts, by AFLP showed that the crown rot pathotype is different from leather rot isolates and from P. cactorum isolated from other hosts. 16 of 23 crown rot isolates, including isolates from Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand, were identical in an analysis based on 96 polymorphic bands from seven primer combinations. Leather rot isolates of strawberry could not be distinguished from isolates from other hosts. The pathogenicity test of all 44 isolates on strawberry plants mostly gave unambiguous results, except for three American isolates, which seemed to have reduced aggressiveness compared to the crown rot isolates. These isolates also differed in the AFLP analysis. Comparing information on the origin of the isolates with results from the pathogenicity test, showed that isolates from strawberry fruits or petioles could be either leather rot or crown rot pathotypes. None of the isolates from hosts other than strawberry caused crown rot symptoms in strawberry.

EKMAN, S. (2001). "Molecular phylogeny of the Bacidiaceae (Lecanorales, lichenized Ascomycota)." Mycol. Res. 105: 783-797. The phylogeny of the family Bacidiaceae (Lecanorales,

Ascomycota) was investigated using 65 nuclear ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 ribosomal DNA sequences, 63 of which were newly determined. After exclusion of ambiguous alignment, the data set contained 285 variable characters, 212 of which were parsimony-informative. Phylogenetic estimations were performed with maximum parsimony (unweighted and weighted) and maximum likelihood optimality criteria. Four different phylogenetic hypotheses were tested using a parametric bootstrap approach to simulate the expected null distribution of the difference between the globally optimal tree and the

best (constrained) tree agreeing with the null hypotheses under unweighted and weighted parsimony, and maximum likelihood : (1) the genus Bacidia is monophyletic; (2) the genus Bacidina is monophyletic; (3) the genus Toninia is monophyletic; and (4) the family Ramalinaceae is monophyletic and distinct from a monophyletic Bacidiaceae. The monophyly of Bacidia, Toninia, and the Ramalinaceae was rejected under all circumstances. Hence, Bacidiaceae is likely to be a younger synonym of Ramalinaceae. The monophyly of Bacidina was not rejected under any optimality criterion. Furthermore, the data set suggests that the Bacidia beckhausii and B. sabuletorum groups are unrelated to Bacidia s. str., that Megalaria is monophyletic, and that Lecania auct. is polyphyletic.

EKMAN, S. and T. T∅NSBERG (2002). "Most species of Lepraria and Leproloma form a monophyletic group closely related to Stereocaulon ." Mycol. Res. 106: 1262-1276. The phylogenetic position of members of the entirely asexually

reproducing lichen-forming genera Lepraria and Leproloma was investigated using sequence data from the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 and small subunit (SSU) nuclear ribosomal DNA. Phylogenetic reconstructions were carried out using a likelihood-based Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) tree sampling technique and the unweighted least squares optimality criterion, the latter based on maximum likelihood distances obtained via an alignment-free distance estimation technique. The results indicate that most species currently referred to Lepraria and Leproloma form a single monophyletic group. This monophyletic group is the sister group to Stereocaulon and Muhria and belongs in the Stereocaulaceae (Lecanorales, Lecanoromycetes, Ascomycota). This indicates that an ancestor of Lepraria switched from a sexual to an asexual mode of dispersal. Subsequent speciation must have taken place in the absence of sexual processes, which contradicts the view of asexual taxa as ‘evolutionary dead ends’. Leproloma is polyphyletic and nested within Lepraria. Lepraria flavescens is a Lecanora, probably belonging in subgenus Glaucomaria. Lepraria lesdainii and L. obtusatica are unrelated to each other and to other species currently referred to Lepraria or Leproloma. Leprocaulon and Crocynia are distantly related to the core group of Lepraria and Leproloma.

EKRAMODDOULLAH, A. K. M., G. D. JENSEN, et al. (2000). "Ultrastructural localization of chitin in the five spore stages of the blister rust fungus, Cronartium ribicola." Mycol. Res. 104: 1384-1388. Ultrathin sections of five spore stages of C. ribicola were

incubated with wheat germ agglutinin (WGA), which binds to chitin, followed by an ovomucoid-gold complex, which binds to WGA and examined by TEM. Labelling experiments showed the presence of chitin in all five stages of the fungus, although the distribution of chitin varied among spore stages. Competitive inhibition studies with triacetyl chitotriose showed that WGA bound to cell walls of basidiospores much more strongly than other spore types, requiring a 10-fold increase in concentration over that required for the other spore types to achieve complete inhibition.

Ellingsen, H. J. (1982). "Some gasteromycetes from Northern Thailand." Nordic of Botany 2: 283-285. 11 species of gasteromycetes are recorded from Thailand. 8 are new to

the area. viz. Arcangeliella rosea (Harkn.) Zeller & Dodge, Cyathus berkeleyanus (Tul.) Lloyd. Hymenogaster cf. abellus Massee & Rodw., Morganella compacta (Cunn.) Kreisel & Dring, Mutinus bambusinus (Zoll.)

Fischer, Nidula niveo-tomentosa (Henn.) Lloyd. Phallus rubicundus (Bosc) Fr., Phallus rubicundus Mont. Further a compiled Check-list of the gasteromycetes know from Thailand is provided.

Elliott, M. L. (2005). "Survival, growth and pathogenicity of Gaeumannomyces graminis var. graminis with different methods of long-term storage." Mycologia, 97(4): 901–907. The fungal plant pathogen Gaeumannomyces graminis var.

graminis was preserved with 12 different storage methods. Five strains, each with unique morphological and pathological characteristics, were used for comparison of the methods. The storage treatments included potato-dextrose agar slants, with or without mineral oil, stored at either 4 C, 28 C or ambient temperature; colonized agar plugs placed in glycerol solution at either 275 C or 220 C; colonized agar plugs placed in sterile deionized water at either 4 C or ambient temperature; and mycelial growth on intact or precut pieces of filter paper, desiccated and stored at ambient temperature.

Survival was evaluated at 6, 12, 24, 36, 48 and 120 mo. The three best treatments for survival were PDA slants, with or without mineral oil, and colonized agar plugs stored in water, all at ambient temperature. All five fungal strains were recovered from all four replicates at each sampling date for agar plugs stored in water at ambient temperature. The worst treatments were agar slants and agar plugs in water stored at 4 C and agar plugs stored in glycerol at 220 C. Morphological characteristics were not affected by storage treatments. In general, there were minimal or no effects on growth and pathogenicity for all strains for all storage treatments with survival. Colonized agar plugs stored in water at ambient temperature provides an economical storage method (materials and labor) that does not need an electrical

power for long-term maintenance. Ellis, M. B. (1971). Dermatiaceous Hyphomycetes. U.K, CAB International. Ellis, M. B. (1976). More Dermatiaceous Hyphomycetes. U.K., CAB International. ELLIS, R. J., G. A. BRAGDON, et al. (1999). "Properties of the blue light requirements for primordia initiation and basidiocarp maturation in Coprinus stercorarius." Mycol. Res. 103: 779-784. Primordia formation and basidiocarp maturation have separate

requirements for light. Both show maximum activity in the 440--470 nm range but with slightly different peak values. Maturation requires over 2 orders of magnitude longer exposures to light than does initiation. Fluence±response relationships of primordia initiation are complex and do not show reciprocity.

ELMHOLT, S., R. LABOURIAU, et al. (1999). "Detection and estimation of

conidial abundance of Penicillium verrucosum in soil by dilution plating on a selective and diagnostic agar medium (DYSG)." Mycol. Res. 103: 887-895. Penicillium verrucosum is one of the main producers of

ochratoxin A (OA) in agricultural commodities. To forecast the risk of OA contamination, there is a need to improve our knowledge on the ecology of P. verrucosum in the field. Dilution plating on ` dichloran yeast extract sucrose 18% glycerol agar ' (DYSG) offers a simple and very sensitive method of detecting P. verrucosum propagules in soil. The properties of DYSG are illustrated in a suspension mixture experiment and confirmed in a soil mixture experiment. In the latter, P. verrucosum could be detected in conidial concentrations below 200 colony forming units (cfu) g-1 soil even when it constituted no more than 0.3% of the cfu. Furthermore, the DYSG method can be used to estimate the abundance of P. verrucosum propagules in soil with good precision. In some of the analysed cases, however, it was necessary to use appropriate mathematical models to treat results with high numbers of cfu on the Petri dishes.

El-Morsy, E.-S. M. (2004). "Cunninghamella echinulata a new biosorbent of metal ions from polluted water in Egypt." Mycologia, 96(6): 1183-1189. Thirty-two fungal species were isolated from a polluted

watercourse near the Talkha fertilizer plant, Mansoura Province, Egypt. Aspergillus niger,

A. flavus, Cunninghamella echinulata and Trichoderma koningii were isolated frequently. On the basis of its frequency, Cunninghamella echinulata was chosen

for biosorption studies. Free and immobilized biomass of C. echinulata sequestered ions in this decreasing sequence is: Pb > Cu > Zn. The effects of biomass concentration, pH and time of contact were investigated. The level of ion uptake rose with increasing biomass. The maximum uptake for lead (45 mg/g), copper (20 mg/g) and zinc (18.8 mg/g) occurred at 200 mg/L biomass. The uptake rose with increasing pH up to 4 in the case of Pb and 5 in the case of Cu and Zn. Maximum uptake for all metals was achieved after 15 min. Ion uptake followed the Langmuir adsorption model, permitting the calculation of maximum uptake and affinity coefficients. Treatment of C. echinulata biomass with NaOH improved biosorbent capacity, as did immobilization with alginate. Immobilized biomass could be regenerated readily by treatment with dilute HCl. The biomass- alginate complex efficiently removed Pb, Zn and Cu from polluted water samples. Therefore,

Cunninghamella echinulata could be employed either in free or immobilized form as a biosorbent of metal ions in waste water. EMAMI, K. and E. HACK (2001). "Characterisation of a xylanase gene from Cochliobolus sativus and its expression." Mycol. Res. 105: 352-359. A xylanase gene, XYL2, was identi®ed and characterised in

Cochliobolus sativus (anamorph Bipolaris sorokiniana), a necrotrophic

cereal pathogen that attacks both shoots and roots. The fungus was grown on a xylanase inducing medium containing mineral salts, oat spelt xylan, cellulose, and peptone, RNA was isolated, and a complementary DNA (cDNA) library constructed. The library was screened with a xylanase (XYL1) cDNA clone from the maize pathogen Cochliobolus carbonum. Xylanase cDNA clones, all representing a single gene, were identified. Corresponding genomic DNA was amplified by PCR. Sequencing of the cDNA and the PCR products gave a nucleotide sequence of 2211 bp containing two introns in an open reading frame of 693 bp that codes for a xylanase from glycosyl hydrolase family 11. The most similar sequences to this gene in nucleotide sequence databases are the XYL2 gene of C. carbonum and a xylanase (XYL1) cDNA from a saprophytic fungus, Humicola insolens. Northern blot analysis and reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) showed expression of the gene when the fungus was grown on xylan or cellulose, but not when peptone or sucrose was the only carbon source. Expression of XYL2 in inoculated barley seedlings was detected by RT-PCR.

EMERY, K. M., P. R. BEUSELINCK, et al. (2003). "Genetic diversity and virulence of Rhizoctonia species associated with plantings of Lotus corniculatus." Mycol. Res. 107: 183-189. Species of Rhizoctonia cause a blight of Lotus corniculatus, a

perennial forage legume. We characterized genetic variation and virulence in populations of R. solani and binucleate Rhizoctonia’s associated with diseased L. corniculatus in field plantings over several years. Isolates of anastomosis groups AG-1 and AG-4 accounted for the R. solani recovered from diseased leaf and shoot tissues. Isolates of binucleate Rhizoctonia were recovered predominantly from soil and associated plant debris. Isolates of R. solani were more virulent on leaves and shoots of L. corniculatus than were binucleate Rhizoctonia isolates. Numerous unique DNA restriction patterns were observed among binucleate isolates and anastomosis groups of R. solani. Variation in restriction patterns was greater among isolates of AG-1 from the lower plant canopy than from the upper canopy. No restriction pattern was shared by any isolate from AG-1 and AG-4. Allelic and genotypic heterogeneity of AG-1 isolates were also greater in the lower plant canopy. Binucleate isolates exhibited greater heterogeneity than AG-1 isolates from either canopy region. L. corniculatus offers significant opportunities for investigating temporal and spatial dynamics of genetic structure of Rhizoctonia populations in perennial plant systems.

Engelbrecht, C. J. B. and T. C. Harrington (2005). "Intersterility, morphology and taxonomy of Ceratocystis fimbriata on sweet potato, cacao and sycamore." Mycologia, 97(1): 57-69. Ceratocystis fimbriata is a large, diverse complex of species

that cause wilt-type diseases of many economically important plants.

Previous studies have shown that isolates in three monophyletic lineages within the Latin American clade of C. fimbriata are host-specialized to cacao (Theobroma cacao), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and sycamore (Platanus spp.), respectively. We paired testers of opposite mating type from isolates of these lineages to find intersterility groups. Two intersterility groups corresponded to the sweet potato and sycamore lineages, respectively. The cacao lineage contained two intersterility groups, corresponding to two genetic sublineages centered in western Ecuador and Brazil/ Costa Rica/Colombia. Six isolates from cacao that were not members of the cacao lineage and were not pathogenic to cacao in an earlier study also were intersterile with members of the two cacao intersterility groups. Some pairings between testers from different lineages or sublineages yielded perithecia from which a few abnormal progeny could be recovered, typical of interspecific hybrids. These progeny showed abnormal segregation of the MAT-2 gene and mycelial morphology, showing that they were indeed the result of crosses. Isolates of the sweet potato, cacao, and sycamore lineages were indistinguishable morphologically except for the presence or absence of a doliform (barrel-shaped) conidial state and minor differences in size of perithecial bases and necks and ascospores. C. fimbriata originally was described from sweet potato. We describe the cacao pathogen as a new species, Ceratocystis cacaofunesta and we raise the sycamore pathogen from a form to species Ceratocystis platani.

ENGLISH, J. T., M. LADAY, et al. (1999). "Phenotypic and molecular characterization of species hybrids derived from induced fusion of zoospores of Phytophthora capsici and Phytophthora nicotianae." Mycol. Res. 103: 1003-1008. Phenotypes of species hybrids created from in vitro fusion of

zoospores from Phytophthora nicotianae and P. capsici were characterized and compared. The species hybrids were created as part of a study of sources of genetic variation in populations of the parent species that are pathogenic over a similar range of plants. Four isolates of species hybrids proved to be similar to both P. capsici and P. nicotianae in relation to vegetative and reproductive morphologies. As in a previous study, DNA of P. capsici was detected more readily than that of P. nicotianae in all hybrid isolates. In the present study, DNA of P. nicotianae was detected in three of four hybrids by hybridization of RAPD-PCR products with species-specific DNA from P. nicotianae. By thermal denaturation analyses, DNA melting temperatures and GC contents of parent species and species hybrids were similar. The mean GC content of 47.2% was similar to GC contents reported for other Phytophthora spp. Additionally, the distributions of GC-rich regions of hybrids were more similar to the distribution in P. capsici than in P. nicotianae. By these molecular analyses, the hybrids were shown to be more similar to P. capsici than to P. nicotianae. Even though interspecific somatic fusion is likely to occur rarely under natural conditions, it could contribute to the genetic diversity

of heterothallic species of Phytophthora. Enjalbert, F., G. v. Cassanas, et al. (2004). "Amatoxins in wood-rotting Galerina marginata." Mycologia, 96(4): 720-729. Amatoxins, bicyclic octapeptide derivatives responsible for

severe hepatic failure, are present in several Basidiomycota species belonging to four genera, i.e. Amanita, Conocybe, Galerina and Lepiota. DNA studies for G. autumnalis, G. marginata, G. oregonensis, G. unicolor and G. venenata (section Naucoriopsis) determined that these species are the same, supporting the concept of Galerina marginata complex. These mostly lignicolous species are designated as white-rot fungi having a broad host range and capable of degrading both hardwoods and softwoods. Twenty-seven G. marginata basidiomes taken from different sites and hosts (three sets) as well as 17 A. phalloides specimens (three sets) were collected in French locations. The 44 basidiomes were examined for amatoxins and phallotoxins using high-performance liquid chromatography. Toxinological data for the wood-rotting G. marginata and the ectomycorrhizal A. phalloides species were compared and statistically analyzed. The acidic and neutral phallotoxins were not detected in any G. marginata specimen, whereas the acidic (β-Ama) and neutral (α-Ama and γ-Ama) amanitins were found in all basidiomes from either Angiosperms or Gymnosperms hosts. The G. marginata amatoxin content varied from 78.17 to 243.61 mg.mg21 of fresh weight and was elevated significantly in one set out of three. The amanitin amounts from certain Galerina specimens were higher than those from some A. phalloides basidiomes. Relationship between the amanitin distribution and the chemical composition of substrate was underlined and statistically validated for the white-rot G. marginata. Changes in nutritional components from decayed host due to enzymatic systems and genetic factors as well as environmental conditions seem to play a determinant role in the amanitin profile. Variability noticed in the amanitin distribution for the white-rot G. marginata basidiomes was not observed for the ectomycorrhizal A. phalloides specimens.

ENKERLI, J., F. WIDMER, et al. (2001). "Strain-specific microsatellite markers in the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria brongniartii." Mycol. Res. 105: 1079-1087. We have identi®ed ten microsatellite markers in the

entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria brongniartii from three genomic libraries enriched for (AAG)n-, (TG)n-, or (TC)n-repeats. The levels of polymorphism of the identified microsatellite loci were assessed in a collection of Beauveria strains originating from different countries, areas, and host insects. Two geographically separated Swiss populations of B. brongniartii originating from European cockchafer (Melolontha melolontha) were also analysed. Microsatellites containing (AAG)n-repeats generally displayed high levels of polymorphism, whereas microsatellites containing

either (TG)n- or (TC)n-repeats displayed lower levels of polymorphism. Cluster analysis revealed that strains isolated from M. melolontha larvae, and two strains isolated from Melolontha hippocastani or Amphimallon solstitiale larvae, formed one cluster which was separated from strains isolated from adult M. melolontha and other adult insects. A high degree of biodiversity was detected among B. brongniartii strains of the two separated Swiss populations. Distinct haplotypes were identified in 29 of 35 B. brongniartii strains from population A and in 12 of 28 B. brongniartii strains from population B. The high discrimination power of the identified microsatellites makes them a valuable tool, suited for the characterization and identification of B. brongniartii strains used as biocontrol agents. In addition, they may be applied to monitor biological control strains of B. brongniartii in the field and possibly to investigate their interactions with indigenous B. brongniartii isolates.

ENTZ, S. C., D. L. JOHNSON, et al. (2005). "Development of a PCR-based diagnostic assay for the specific detection of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae var. acridum." Mycol. Res. 109(11): 1302-1312. The entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae var.

acridum is registered as a mycopesticide for acridid control in Africa and Australia. Traditionally, identification of M. anisopliae var. acridum infection in grasshoppers and locusts has relied upon development of fungal growth in infected cadavers. Conventional methods of detection of this entomopathogen in the environment and non-target organisms have been based on culture and bioassay. A PCR-based method for the detection of M. anisopliae var. acridum was developed. Sequence data from the distinct ITS rDNA regions facilitated the design of PCR primers that were used in PCR-based diagnostic assays for the detection of fungal DNA. The amplified sequence was 420 bp in length and specific to M. anisopliae var. acridum. Isolates of M. anisopliae var. anisopliae and M. flavoviride produced no PCR product with these primers. Other fungal entomopathogens, plant pathogens, mycopathogens, and soil saprophytes were also not detected by the pathogen-specific primers. The assay was also effective for the detection of M. anisopliae var. acridum DNA in the presence of soil DNA extracts and in infected grasshoppers.

EPSTEIN, L., S. BARTNICKI-GARCIA, et al. (2001). "Catastrophic wall rupture during conidial germination of a genetically tagged mutant of Glomerella graminicola." Mycol. Res. 105: 132-137. Video microscopy was used to examine a genetically tagged

mutant (T30) of Glomerella graminicola whose conidia have a propensity to burst during the germination process. Before the germ tube is produced, the cell wall ruptures and the cytoplasm is extruded. The bursting takes place in less than 0.1 second. Bursting can be prevented by adding osmotica to the germination medium. By phasecontrast microscopy of alkali-washed conidia, we found that each ruptured

conidium had a single gaping hole that was oriented parallel to the long axis of the spore. The holes were more frequent in the middle region of the conidia than at the apices. A

mathematical model for stress based on conidial shape indicated that conidia ruptured where the stress on the wall was greatest. The microscopic observations on the orientation and distribution of the rupture sites are consistent with the hypothesis that T30 conidia have weaker walls than the wild-type. Comparative tests of resistance to mechanical breakage support this hypothesis.

Eriksson, J., K. Hjortstam, et al. (1978). The Corticiaceae of North Europe : Mycoaciella - Phanerochaete. The Corticiaceae of North Europe Vol. 5. Oslow, Norway, Gronlands Eskefabrikk. 5: 889-1047. Eriksson, J., K. Hjortstam, et al. (1981). The Corticiaceae of North Europe : Phlebia - Sarcodontia. The Corticiaceae of North Europe Vol. 6. Oslow, Norway, Gronlands Eskefabrikk. 6: 1051-1276. Eriksson, J., K. Hjortstam, et al. (1984). The Corticiaceae of North Europe : Schizopora-Suillosporium. The Corticiaceae of North Europe Vol. 7. Oslow, Norway, Gronlands Eskefabrikk. 7: 1283-1449. Eriksson, J. and L. Ryvarden (1973). The Corticiaceae of North Europe : Aleurodiscus - Confer to basidium. The Corticiaceae of North Europe Vol. 2. Oslow, Norway, Gronlands Eskefabrikk. 2: 60-261. Eriksson, J. and L. Ryvarden (1975). The Corticiaceae of North Europe : Coronicium - Hyphoderma. The Corticiaceae of North Europe Vol. 3. Oslow, Norway, Gronlands Eskefabrikk. 3: 288-546. Eriksson, J. and L. Ryvarden (1976). The Corticiaceae of North Europe : Hyphodermella - Mycoacia. The Corticiaceae of North Europe Vol. 4. Oslow, Norway, Gronlands Eskefabrikk. 4: 549-886. Eriksson, O. E. and D. L. Hawksworth (2003). "Saccharicola, a new genus for two Leptosphaeria species on sugar cane." Mycologia, 95(3): 426-433. Leptosphaeria bicolor, causal agent of a leaf scorch disease of

sugar cane, is referred to the new genus Saccharicola. The ascospores are 1–3 transseptate and hyaline at first but become melanized and rough after release, as is the case in some members of Massarina and Lophiostoma. SSU rDNA data indicate that it is closely related to M. eburnea but is biotrophic in leaves of sugar cane and not corticolous, the ascomata are less melanized, and it has Stagonospora- and Phoma-like synanamorphs, not a Ceratophoma- like anamorph. A second species, Leptosphaeria taiwanensis, is transferred to Saccharicola. It differs in slightly larger, normally 1-septate, hyaline spores with more attenuated

ends. The family Massarinaceae is resurrected to accommodate Massarina s. str., Keissleriella, Saccharicola and Helminthosporium. These genera formed a clade with 100% bootstrap support in a parsimony analysis of SSU rDNA sequences from 38 ascomycetes, 30 of them members of Pleosporales (including Melanommatales).

Esslinger, T. L. (1974). "A new North American species of the lichen genus Gomphillus." MYCOTAXON 1(2): 189-192. ESTEVE-RAVENTOS, F. (2001). "Two new species of Inocybe (Cortinariales) from Spain, with a comparative type study of some related taxa." Mycol. Res. 105: 1137-1143. Inocybe barrasae and I. ortegae spp. nov. from Spain are

illustrated and described. Type collections of I. cryptocystis, I. cicatricata, I. dolichospora, I. mystica and I. rennyi were compared with the two, and different interpretations of I. confusa in the literature are discussed.

Estrada-Torres, A., T. W. Gaither, et al. (2005). "The myxomycete genus Schenella: morphological and DNA sequence evidence for synonymy with the gasteromycete genus Pyrenogaster." Mycologia, 97(1): 139-149. The genus Schenella has proven difficult to classify since its

description as a new genus in 1911. Macbride placed it with the Myxomycetes but it was unclear with which myxomycete, if any, it should be grouped. Recent identification of abundant samples of Schenella has aided a re-evaluation of its classification as a myxomycete. Morphological evidence based on light and scanning electron microscopy of recently collected specimens and on the type specimen of Macbride suggested that it might be synonymous with the gasteromycete Pyrenogaster. Analysis of DNA sequences from freshly isolated samples indicates that the genus Schenella is related closely to an anciently diverged, monophyletic group of fungi that includes several gasteromycete genera, among them Geastrum, Sphaerobolus and Pseudocolus. Comparisons of the morphology and DNA sequences of authentically identified specimens of Pyrenogaster atrogleba indicate that it is synonymous with Schenella simplex. The nomenclatural implications of this discovery are discussed.

Estrada-Torres, A., J. M. Ramirez-Ortega, et al. (2003). "Calonema foliicola a new myxomycete from Mexico." Mycologia, 95(2): 354-359. A new species of myxomycete, Calonema foliicola Estrada, J.

M. Ramý´rez & Lado, recorded in the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Hidalgo and Tlaxcala

is described. The most relevant characters of this species are the scattered, minute and stalked sporocarps, the red color of the sporotheca and the capillitium, with a faint and irregular reticulum.

Evans, H. C. and C. A. Ellison (2005). "The biology and taxonomy of rust fungi

associated with the neotropical vine Mikania micrantha, a major invasive weed in Asia." Mycologia, 97(4): 935–947. Three microcyclic rust species were collected during surveys

of the perennial asteraceous vine Mikania micrantha (Eupatorieae: Asteraceae)

throughout its native range in the Neotropics but were absent in its invasive range in Asia. The commonest species, Puccinia spegazzinii with brown telioid

telia, occurred wherever M. micrantha was found in South and Central America including the Caribbean island of Trinidad. Dietelia portoricensis, with occasional vestigial spermogonia and grayishwhite to pale yellow columnar aecioid telia, was collected only in Costa Rica; while D. mesoamericana sp. nov., apparently restricted to Mesoamerica, can be distinguished by its abundant, yellowish-orange, fertile spermogonia, yellow to pale brown telial columns, larger teliospores, and 4-spored rather than 2- spored metabasidia. The fact that all three species share a fundamentally similar symptomatology suggests a common origin.

EVANS, H. C. and P. A. SHAH (2002). "Taxonomic status of the genera Sorosporella and Syngliocladium associated with grasshoppers and locusts (Orthoptera: Acridoidea) in Africa." Mycol. Res. 106: 737-744. The occurrence of disease outbreaks associated with the

genus Sorosporella on grasshoppers and locusts (Orthoptera: Acridoidea) in Africa is reported. Infected hosts, representing ten genera within five acridoid subfamilies, are characterized by red, thick-walled chlamydospores which completely fill the cadaver. On selective media, the chlamydospores, up to seven-years-old, germinated to produce a Syngliocladium anamorph which is considered to be undescribed. The new species Syngliocladium acridiorum is described and two varieties are delimited: var. acridiorum, on various grasshopper and locust genera from the Sahelian region of West Africa; and, var. madagascariensis, on the Madagascan migratory locust. The ecology of these insect-fungal associations is discussed. Sorosporella is treated as a synonym of Syngliocladium.

Evans, K. J., D. L. Whisson, et al. (1997). "DNA markers identify variation in Australian populations of Uncinula necator." Mycological Research 101(8): 923-932. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) were identified

among total DNA from clonal lines of Uncinula necator when cloned sequences of total U. necator DNA were used as probes. Four probes, pUnP14, pUnP27, pUnE21 and pUnE4, hybridized to cloned sequences of total U. necator DNA were used as probes. Four probes, pUnP14, pUnP27, pUnE21 and pUnE4, hybridized to multiple-copy sequences and, with the exception of pUnE4, detected genetic variation among clonal lines of U. necator. Clones pUnP14, pUnP27 and pUnE4 produced banding

patterns that were stable for DNA extracted from different asexual generations of U. necator clonal lines over at least 15 months. In addition, clones were evaluated for species specificity. Clones pUnP27 and pUnE4 detected only U. necator sequences in total DNA from infected grapevine leaves. Clones pUnP14 and pUnE4 did not hybridize to total DNA from a range of fungi. Genetic diversity in a sample of the Australian U. necator population was investigated ; 15 genotypes were identified among 29 U. necator clonal lines examined. Genetic variation was detected in samples collected within micro-geographical areas, for example, different genotypes representing both mating types of U. necator were detected on a single plant of Vitis amurensis. RFLP analysis of the banding patterns produced using pUnP14, pUnP27 and pUnE21, identified two broad genetic groups, designated A and B. Analysis of DNA fragment patterns obtained using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the plant intron splice junction (ISJ) primer R1 also supported the allocation of U. necator clonal lines into groups A and B.

EWEN, R. J., P. R. H. JONES, et al. (2004). "Identification by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of the volatile organic compounds emitted from the wood-rotting fungi Serpula lacrymans and Coniophora puteana, and from Pinus sylvestris timber." Mycol. Res. 108: 806-814. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by two wood-

rotting basidiomycete fungi, Serpula lacrymans (dry rot fungus) and Coniophora puteana (cellar fungus), and the timber of Pinus sylvestris (Scots pine), were identified. Several volatile collection techniques were employed including dichloromethane solvent extraction, solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and thermal desorption of VOCs entrained on Tenax GR. In addition, a new method of solid sample injection (SSI) is described which utilises a low injector temperature and an all-glass deactivated injector liner designed to minimise both the formation of pyrolysis products and analyte degradation. All the volatile compounds collected were analysed using electron impact capillary gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) on HP-5, HP-Innowax and

β-cyclodextrin columns. SSI and Tenax thermal desorption were found to be the most effective extraction methods. A total of 19 VOCs were observed from S. lacrymans grown on glass slides and pine, 15 from C. puteana grown on glass slides and 12 from P. sylvestris timber. S. lacrymans was found to emit, in low abundance, six unique VOCs, of which 2-methylbutanal was the greatest. The major volatile compound emitted by S. lacrymans was 1-octen-3-ol, which was also found in lower abundance from C. puteana. Six VOCs, including diethylene glycol and 4-methyl methylbenzoate, were found to be unique to C. puteana, all in medium abundance. From P. sylvestris, the major volatiles identified were S-α-pinene and 3-carene. EYSSARTIER, G., B. BUYCK, et al. (2001). "New species and combinations in cuboid-spored Entoloma species from Madagascar." Mycol. Res. 105: 1144-

1148. This revision of cuboid-spored Entoloma in Madagascar is

based on the examination of type material described earlier by Romagnesi and new collections made by the first two authors. Entoloma pseudoheimii sp. nov. and E. rufovinascens sp. nov. are described, and two new combinations made: E. cuboidosporum var. chromostomum, and E. heimii combs nov. A key to the madagascarian cuboid-spored species of Entoloma is provided.

Fabre, E. (1997). "Changes in concentration of aquatic hyphomycete conidia in water passing through a concrete pipe." Mycological Research 101(8): 908-910. Changes in conidial numbers of aquatic hyphomycetes in water passing

through a concrete pipe were investigated by water filtration. Retention in the pipe was low and concentrations of conidia of Alatospora acuminata, Anguillospora longissima, Clavariopsis aquatica, Clavatospora longibrachiata, Heliscella stellata, Lemonniera terrestris, Lunulospora curvula, Pyricularia submersa, Tetrachaetum elegans and Tetracladium marchalianum were unchanged after 1.8 km drift. Only one species, Articulospora tetracladia, showed significant decrease, resulting in part from fragmentation of the conidia. These results suggest that studies of communities of aquatic hyphomycetes in natural environments by sampling conidia by water filtration need to account for differences in stream retention as well as species specific differences in conidial fragmentation.

Fan, K. W., L. L. P. Vrijmoed, et al. (2002). "Zoospore chemotaxis of mangrove thraustochytrids from Hong Kong." Mycologia, 94(4): 569-578. Zoospores of mangrove isolates of Schizochytrium mangrovei

KF6, KF7, KF12 (three strains), Thraustochytrium striatum KF9 and Ulkenia sp. KF13

were examined for their chemotactic responses to amino acids, carbohydrates, ethanol, and leaf extracts using a capillary root model. Most leaf extracts of

mangrove plants and a marsh grass tested were shown to induce moderate chemotactic responses in zoospores of both S. mangrovei KF6 and Ulkenia sp. KF13. Of the remaining amino acids and carbohydrates evaluated, glutamic acid and pectin induced strong attraction in zoospores of S. mangrovei KF6 and Ulkenia sp. KF13, suggesting these are the major components in leaves which may be responsible for the chemotactic response of thraustochytrid zoospores in nature. Zoospores of T. striatum KF9, in general, showed a weak chemotactic response to all the tested compounds and extracts except cellulose, which elicited a moderate response. The ecological significance of the data presented is discussed.

FARGUES, J., M.-C. BON, et al. (2002). "Genetic variability among Paecilomyces fumosoroseus isolates from various geographical and host insect

origins based on the rDNA-ITS regions." Mycol. Res. 106: 1066-1074. The entomopathogenic hyphomycete Paecilomyces

fumosoroseus is a promising candidate for biocontrol of economically important agricultural pests. Assessment of genetic relatedness of this species appears to be essential to gain insight into the monitoring of such biocontrol products. Intraspecific variation within the internal transcribed spacer region of the ribosomal RNA gene (rDNA-ITS) was studied in 48 isolates of P. fumosoroseus. These strains were isolated from different geographical and biological origins, more particularly from the silverleaf whitefly, Bemisia tabaci-argentifolii (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae), a major insect pest in field and greenhouse crops. PCR amplification of the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 rDNA region followed by restriction analysis of the PCR products underlined the overall highly

variable nature of this region. Digestion with the six endonucleases AluI, HaeIII, Hin6I, HpaII, NdeII, and SmaI allowed the separation of the isolates into three distinct groups. The group 1, representing 25 isolates, is composed of strains isolated only from the host B. tabaci-argentifolii. By contrast, the group 3 is more diffuse as it included strains from various insect host and geographical origins. Phylogenetic analysis of rDNA-ITS sequence data strongly supported the conclusions of the PCR-RFLP analysis and recognized three monophyletic groups within the P. fumosoroseus complex. The high level of polymorphism within the P. fumosoroseus species is discussed in the light of their biological origin.

FARMER, D. J. and D. M. SYLVIA (1998). "Variation in the ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer of a diverse collection of ectomycorrhizal fungi." Mycol. Res. 102: 859-865. Amplification of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of

ribosomal RNA genes using PCR and subsequent RFLP analysis offers promise for improved species-level identification of ectomycorrhizal fungi. Intrageneric homogeneity and intraspecific heterogeneity of these characters are, however, frequent. A diverse group of ectomycorrhizal fungi with worldwide distribution was characterized by ITS-RFLP analysis. DNA of 64 identified and five unknown ectomycorrhizal fungi was extracted and their ITS regions were selectively amplified with ITS1-F and ITS4 ribosomal RNA gene primers. Each PCR product was digested with seven restriction

enzymes. The resulting restriction fragments were compared by distance matrix analysis. Restriction enzyme analysis of amplified fragments was sufficient for distinguishing all but two closely related species. Intraspecific variation was observed in Cenococcum geophilum and Pisolithus arhizus, providing further evidence that these taxa represent species complexes.

Farnet, A. M., S. Criquet, et al. (2002). "Purification of a new isoform of laccase from a Marasmius quercophilus strain isolated from a cork oak litter (Quercus suber L.)." Mycologia, 94(5): 735-740.

A new isoform of laccase from Marasmius quercophilus is described in this study. The strain of this white-rot fungus was isolated for the first time on a cork oak litter. This isoform exhibited certain common properties of laccases (a molecular weight of 65 Kda, an optimum pH of 6.2 with syringaldazine). But this laccase has also particularly novel features: the best activity measured was observed at high temperatures (80 C) and this isoform was not inhibited with EDTA. Furthermore, this induced laccase was able to transform most of the aromatic compounds tested without the addition of mediators to the reaction mixture, and the transformation of certain chlorophenols (2-chlorophenol and 2,4-dichlorophenol) by a laccase isoform from M. quercophilus is reported here for the first time. We also demonstrate the importance of 2,29-azinobis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonate) (ABTS) as a mediator since it allowed veratryl alcohol and p-hydroxybenzoic acid transformation.

Moreover, new products of transformation were observed using the combination of ABTS with this isoform of laccase.

Farr, D. F., L. A. Castlebury, et al. (2002). "Morphological and molecular characterization of Phomopsis vaccinii and additional isolates of Phomopsis from blueberry and cranberry in the eastern United States." Mycologia, 94(3): 494-504. Forty isolates of Phomopsis were obtained from twigs and

berries of highbush blueberry, Vaccinium corymbosum, and cranberry, Vaccinium acrocarpon, isolated primarily from plants grown in the eastern United States. They were characterized using conidiomatal morphology, conidial dimensions, colony

appearance and growth rate, and sequences of ITS rDNA. Based on morphological and molecular similarities, most isolates grouped together with an authentic culture of Phomopsis vaccinii Shear. This taxon is described and illustrated. However, some Phomopsis isolates from Vaccinium differed in colony and conidiomatal morphology from P. vaccinii and, based on ITS sequences, were related to isolates of Phomopsis from diverse hosts. These isolates were excluded from P. vaccinii.

FARR, D. F., L. A. CASTLEBURY, et al. (2002). "A new species of Phomopsis causing twig dieback of Vaccinium vitis-idaea (lingonberry)." Mycol. Res. 106: 745-752. A fungus was discovered causing a progressive twig dieback

on stems of Vaccinium vitis-idaea (lingonberry) in Oregon. Both morphological and molecular data suggest that the fungus belongs in Diaporthe/Phomopsis but is distinct from P. vaccinii, cause of a dieback and fruit rot of blueberry and cranberry (Vaccinium spp.). This fungus is described and illustrated as a new species, Phomopsis columnaris. It is distinguished from other species of Phomopsis by the distinctive conidiophores that consist of vertically aligned cells lining the base and sides of the conidiomata. Another species of Phomopsis described on

Vaccinium, Phomopsis myrtilli, known from V. myrtillus, is redescribed and illustrated based on authentic herbarium material.

Farr, D. F., M. Elliott, et al. (2005). "Fusicoccum arbuti sp. nov. causing cankers on Pacific madrone in western North America with notes on Fusicoccum dimidiatum, the correct name for Scytalidium dimidiatum and Nattrassia mangiferae." Mycologia, 97(3): 730–741. Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii) is a broadleaf evergreen

tree native to western North America that has been in decline for the past 30 years. A fungus has been isolated and was verified as the cause of cankers on dying trees. It was determined to belong in the genus Fusicoccum, an asexual state of Botryosphaeria. This genus in both its sexual and asexual states commonly causes canker diseases of deciduous woody plants. Using morphological and

molecular data the fungus causing cankers on Pacific madrone is characterized, described and illustrated as a new species of Fusicoccum, F. arbuti D.F. Farr &

M. Elliott sp. nov. No sexual state is known for F. arbuti. Evidence from the literature, cultures and specimens suggests that F. arbuti, often mistakenly

identified as Nattrassia mangiferae, has been causing madrone canker since at least 1968. Authentic isolates of Nattrassia mangiferae as the synanamorph Scytalidium dimidiatum were sequenced and determined to be different from Fusicoccum arbuti and to belong in Botryosphaeria/Fusicoccum. In addition to molecular sequence data, the morphology of the pycnidial and arthric conidial states of Nattrassia mangiferae/ Scytalidium dimidiatum resembles that of Fusicoccum. Therefore the correct name for Nattrassia mangiferae and its numerous synonyms (Dothiorella mangiferae, Torula dimidata, Scytilidium dimidiatum, Fusicoccum eucalypti, Hendersonula toruloidea, H. cypria, Exospor-ina fawcetii, H. agathidia, and S. lignicola) is Fusicoccum dimidiatum (Penz.) D.F. Farr, comb. nov.

Fatehi, J. and P. Bridge (1998). "Detection of multiple rRNA-ITS regions in isolates of Ascochyta." Mycological Research 102(6): 762-766. Internally transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of the rRNA gene cluster in

isolates of Ascochyta spp. were amplified and digested with restriction endonucleases. Addition of fragment sizes from conventional gel electrophoresis gave anomalous sizes which suggested the presence of more than one PCR product. Separation in HA-Yellow containing agarose gel allowed the detection of fragments of the same size but with different sequences. Isolates of Ascochyta spp. were shown to possess multiple PCR-amplification products of the same sizes, but with significant sequence differences.

FEAU, N., J. E. WEILAND, et al. (2005). "Specific and sensitive PCR-based detection of Septoria musiva, S. populicola and S. populi, the causes of leaf spot

and stem canker on poplars." Mycol. Res. 109(9): 1015-1028. The development of a PCR assay for the detection of the

poplar pathogenic fungi Septoria musiva (teleomorph Mycosphaerella populorum), S. populicola (M. populicola) and S. populi (M. populi) is described. Three pairs of speciesspecific PCR primers were designed using interspecific polymorphisms in the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal RNA gene (rDNA) repeats. The specificity of the three primer pairs was successfully tested on a collection of 40 S. musiva, 39 S. populicola and six S. populi isolates. Using stringent PCR conditions, no cross-reaction was observed with any of the isolates tested. The specificity of the PCR assay was further confirmed with DNA extracted from 12 additional Septoria species and 17 other fungal species obtained from stems or leaves of poplars. Specific amplification of the fragments for S. musiva and S. populicola was sensitive relatively to the technique used, detecting as low as 1 pg template DNA, and 10 pg of DNA of the target species in a background of 1 ng of DNA of the other species. Moreover, using DNA purified directly from disrupted conidia, it was possible to detect with a probability of 90%, using one unique PCR assay, the DNA equivalent of 166 conidia per ml of S. musiva and 156 conidia per ml of S. populicola. The procedures developed in this work can thus be applied for rapid and accurate detection and identification of Septoria species from poplars.

Feibelman, T. P., R. L. Doudrick, et al. (1997). "Phylogenetic relationships within the Cantharellaceae inferred from sequence analysis of the nuclear large subunit rDNA." Mycological Research 101(12): 1423-1430. DNA was extracted from dried specimens of nine taxa of the

Cantharellaceae. Approximately 325 bases near the 5' end of the nuclear 28S ribosomal gene were sequenced, and the sequences were compared. Sequence analyses demonstrated that Cantharellus and Craterellus should be treated as distinct genera. The phylogeny generated using parsimony suggests that Cantharellus tubaeformis and Pseudocraterellus sinuosus should be considered species of Craterellus. As a result of this study, we recognize the first placement of these two species in Craterellus by Fries and Que! let. A reassessment of the morphological characters used to separate Cantharellus and Craterellus is indicated.

FERDMAN, Y., S. AVIRAM, et al. (2005). "Phylogenetic Studies of Terfezia pfeilii and Choiromyces echinulatus (Pezizales) support new genera for southern African truffles: Kalaharituber and Eremiomyces." Mycol. Res. 109: 237-245. The ITS region including the 5.8S rRNA gene as well as the 5'

end of the 28S rRNA gene of hypogeous Pezizaceae and Tuberaceae were studied to clarify the generic placement of two southern African desert truffles, Terfezia pfeilii and Choiromyces echinulatus. The results show that neither species belongs in the genus to which it has been assigned on the basis of morphological characters. As expected, two

Choiromyces spp. grouped close to the representative of the Tuberaceae (Tuber melanosporum). However, C. echinulatus diverged from the other Choiromyces species and emerged near members of the genus Terfezia, being even closer to that genus than T. pfeilii. Two new genera and new species

combinations, Kalaharituber gen. nov. with K. pfeilii (syn. T. pfeilii) comb. nov. and Eremiomyces gen. nov. with E. echinulatus (syn. C. echinulatus) comb. nov. are therefore introduced to accomodate these taxa. Both genera are closely related to Terfezia, and thus are placed in the Pezizaceae.

Ferna´ndez, F. A., A. N. Miller, et al. (2006). "Systematics of the genus Chaetosphaeria and its allied genera: morphological and phylogenetic diversity in north temperate and neotropical taxa." Mycologia, 98(1): 121–130. Chaetosphaeria is a common saprobic pyrenomycete genus

with simple, homogeneous teleomorphs and complex, diverse anamorphs. As currently

circumscribed in the literature, the genus encompasses 30 species distributed in four ‘natural groups’, and includes morphological entities in 11 anamorphic genera. Species frequently have been defined primarily based on characters of the anamorphs resulting in species with almost indistinguishable teleomorphs. This study aimed to assess the value and significance of morphological characters in resolving phylogenetic relationships in Chaetosphaeria and its allied genera. Phylogenetic relationships of 42 taxa, representing 29 species distributed in Chaetosphaeria and five related genera, were estimated with partial sequences of the nuclear LSU rDNA and btubulin genes. Sequences were analyzed with maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian methods. Phylogenetic analyses of these two genes combined revealed two major lineages. The Chaetosphaeria lineage includes 21 species possessing both typical and new sexual and asexual morphologies.

The lineage contains a strongly supported monophyletic clade of 13 species and eight paraphyletic taxa; the latter includes C. innumera, the type species of the genus. The second major lineage includes groupings concordant with the morphological circumscriptions of the genera Melanochaeta, Melanopsammella, Striatosphaeria, Zignoe¨lla and the new genus Tainosphaeria.

Fernandez, F. A., J. D. Rogers, et al. (2004). "Paramphisphaeria costaricensis gen. et sp. nov. and Pachytrype rimosa sp. nov. from Costa Rica." Mycologia, 96(1): 175-179. Paramphisphaeria is described as a new genus on the basis of

the single species, P. costaricensis. It differs from Amphisphaeria spp. primarily in having

bicellular ascospores with a germ slit and in having an ascus apical ring that does not become blue in iodine. It resembles Amphisphaeria in its brown

color and lack of constriction at the septum of the ascospore. An anamorph is unknown. It tentatively is placed in the Xylariaceae for reasons discussed. Pachytrype rimosa is described as a new species.

Fernando, L. and P. Gusmao (2004). "Porobeltraniella gen. nov. to accommodate two species of Beltraniella." Mycologia, 96(1): 150-158. The genus Beltraniella Subramanian is characterized by

setiform conidiophores with radially lobed basal cells, separating cells and lageniform conidia

with the distal free end truncate, proximal end rostrate, with a subhyaline transverse band at equatorial zone. Beltraniella porosa and Beltraniella patilii are two species that show characteristics distinct from Beltraniella: They have sterile lateral setae arising at the conidiogenous apparatus and several equatorial

pores in place of the continuous band. A new genus, Porobeltraniella, is described to accommodate them.

FERNANDO, T. H. P. S., C. K. JAYASINGHE, et al. (2000). "Factors affecting spore production, germination and viability of Colletotrichum acutatum isolates from Hevea brasiliensis." Mycol. Res. 104: 681-685. Colletotrichum acutatum is cosmopolitan and causes diseases

in many crops including Hevea brasiliensis. It sporulated freely on PDA at 10--40 °C with peaks at around 15° and 25°. Self-inhibition of spore germination occurred at concentrations above 8x106 spores ml-1. Ultraviolet radiation (especially 254 nm) inactivated the spores. Spore germination was around 90% between 15--35°. Free water promoted spore germination but was not essential ; high relative humidity (95%) was sufficient. Spores could also withstand temperatures up to 35°. It is concluded that the most favourable conditions for the spread of C. acutatum are prevalent

in the major rubber growing areas in Sri Lanka throughout the monsoons. FERNANDO, T. H. P. S., C. K. JAYASINGHE, et al. (2001). "Cell wall degrading enzyme secretion by Colletotrichum acutatum, the causative fungus of secondary leaf fall of Hevea brasiliensis." Mycol. Res. 105: 195-201. Colletotrichum acutatum is the major causative agent of

secondary leaf fall disease of rubber. All isolates of the fungus examined secreted polygalacturonase (PG), pectin lyase (PL) and the cellulolytic enzymes, β-glucosidase, and cellobiase in culture. Molecular weight determinations suggest that PG as well as the PL produced by all isolates are similar. PG activity was absent in infected rubber leaves. However, PL activity was detected in infected tissues associated with the enlargement of lesions. β-glucosidase was present in both healthy and infected leaves while cellobiase was detected only in infected leaf tissue.

Fewell, A. M. and J. G. Roddick (1997). "Potato glycoalkaloid impairment of

fungal development." Mycological Research 101(5): 597-603. Of the two potato glycoalkaloids, a-chaconine and a-solanine, a-chaconine

was the more inhibitory on spore germination in Alternaria brassicicola and Phoma medicaginis, and on growth in liquid culture of these species and also Ascobolus crenulatus and Rhizoctonia solani. At 50 lm or less, solanine caused little (!20%) or no inhibition but, in combination with comparable concentrations of chaconine (which were sometimes also below the activity threshold), synergistic inhibitory effects (up to 100% inhibition) were apparent. A scanning electron microscopic examination of agar-grown cultures of P. medicaginis revealed that both glycoalkaloids at 100 lm inhibited hyphal extension, but that chaconine particularly increased branch formation (three-fold) as well as hyphal thickness and ` beading'. Glycoalkaloid-containing liquid medium from R. solani cultures did not contain glycoalkaloid hydrolysis products. There was a 17% reduction in the solanine content of the medium, but the chaconine level was not significantly different from that in uninoculated controls. Neither glycoalkaloids nor their hydrolysis products were detectable in the washed mycelium of such cultures.

Filipello Marchisio, V., D. Airaudi, et al. (1997). "One-year monitoring of the airborne fungal community in a suburb of Turin (Italy) and assessment of its functional relations with the environment." Mycological Research 101(7): 821-828. The composition and concentration of airborne fungal propagules are

probably determined by many interrelated environmental factors, such as temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind speed, rainfall and gas pollutants. The importance of these variables was assessed in an outdoor sampling survey conducted at regular intervals for 12 months at a single site in Turin. Samples were collected with a single-stage volumetric sieve sampler on potato dextrose agar supplemented with 15 mg lThe composition and concentration of airborne fungal propagules are probably determined by many interrelated environmental factors, such as temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind speed, rainfall and gas pollutants. The importance of these variables was assessed in an outdoor sampling survey conducted at regular intervals for 12 months at a single site in Turin. Samples were collected with a single-stage volumetric sieve sampler on potato dextrose agar supplemented with 15 mg l-1streptomycin and 50 mg l-1 chloramphenicol. Canonical Correspondence Analysis showed that the four ordination axes accounted for 93.5% of the variance in relationships between fungal entities present in more than 20% of samples and the environmental variables. The Monte Carlo permutation test demonstrated that the ordination was highly significant (P=0.01). The community's qualitative and quantitative composition mainly depended on the factors that have the greatest influence on Turin's climate, i.e., in descending order, temperature, relative humidity and rainfall. The relative importance of these environmental variables on different groups of fungi

was assessed. Wind speed positively correlated with the fungi producing conidia of larger sizes.streptomycin and 50 mg l-1 chloramphenicol. Canonical Correspondence Analysis showed that the four ordination axes accounted for 93.5% of the variance in relationships between fungal entities present in more than 20% of samples and the environmental variables. The Monte Carlo permutation test demonstrated that the ordination was highly significant (P=0.01). The community's qualitative and quantitative composition mainly depended on the factors that have the greatest influence on Turin's climate, i.e., in descending order, temperature, relative humidity and rainfall. The relative importance of these environmental variables on different groups of fungi was assessed. Wind speed positively correlated with the fungi producing conidia of larger sizes.

Fischer, M. (1987). Biosystematische Untersuchungen an den Porlingsgattungen Phellinus Quel. und Inonotus Karst., J. Cramer in der Gebruder Borntraeger Verlagsbuchhandlung. Fischer, M. and M. Binder (2004). "Species recognition, geographic distribution and host-pathogen relationships: a case study in a group of lignicolous basidiomycetes, Phellinus s.l." Mycologia, 96(4): 799-811. Morphological, phylogenetic (sequencing of the ribosomal ITS

region) and, if applicable, biological (pairings of single-spore testers) species recognition have been used to resolve relationships among 69 collections belonging to the Hymenochaetales genera Phellinus s.str. and Fomitiporia. The isolates originate from a variety of host plants in Europe, North America and Asia. Separate application of recognition modes led to differing results concerning the number of species, geographic distribution and host range. Sole application of morphological criteria was of limited value, especially in taxa exhibiting a wide distribution, both in terms of geographic origin and ecological niche. Relationships of putatively conspecific collections originating from different continents preferably should be resolved by using an integrative approach. In this study, application of a strict morphological approach led to the recognition of seven species. When using molecular and pairing test data, at least 12 species were detectable. Two of them, F. hesleri and F. polymorpha, are described as new. The number of Phellinus s.str. and Fomitiporia species supposed to have Northern Hemispheric or cosmopolitan distribution, when morphological characters are applied for species recognition, has been reduced significantly. As firm tendencies within morphological species, genetic divergence was more distinct in uniparental than in biparental taxa. In the latter, a strong correlation was observed between phylogenetic and biological species recognition. Overall length of the ribosomal ITS region clearly separated Phellinus s.str. and Fomitiporia but was of limited value as a diagnostic tool at species level. The level of innerspecific morphological plasticity of fruit bodies differs widely between

even closely related species, suggesting that morphological transitions occur quitefrequently in this fungal group. Considerable instability of the reproduction mode was evident in strains belonging to Phellinus tremulae and among closely related species of Fomitiporia.

FISHER, A. J., T. R. GORDON, et al. (2005). "Geographic distribution and diversity in Claviceps purpurea from salt marsh habitats and characterization of Pacific coast populations." Mycol. Res. 109: 439-446. Claviceps purpurea specific to grasses in salt marsh habitats

(Group G3) has previously been identified on Spartina spp. in two locations: New Jersey, USA and southern England. We have identified this subgroup of C. purpurea (G3) in 11 distinct populations including western Europe, South America, and along the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts of the USA. In addition, G3 C. purpurea was discovered on a new host grass genus, Distichlis. Unweighted pair group mean analyses of AFLP and RAPD data reveal distinct structure in G3 C. purpurea populations. Pacific coast populations show little diversity, suggesting they may have been introduced recently in that region. 43 isolates, representing 11 populations were identified as G3 based on the presence of an EcoRI restriction site in the 5.8S ribosomal DNA, and a clear genetic separation from isolates representing the other two C. purpurea subgroups (G1 and G2). In addition, all isolates

originating from Spartina densiflora, S. foliosa, S. alterniflora, and S. anglica were identified as belonging to G3. RAPD and AFLP analyses supported the recognition of three discrete groups within C. purpurea and revealed high genetic variability between groups, with only 1.8% of polymorphic markers shared across all isolates. Similarly, analysis of molecular variation (AMOVA) revealed that genetic variability was mainly due to variations between groups (63.5%) rather than within groups (28.5%) or within populations (7.96%). G3 isolates were 35% similar, Pacific coast isolates 83% similar. Ninety percent similarity among isolates from the San Francisco Bay Area suggests this is a recently introduced population.

Fisher, M. C., G. L. Koenig, et al. (2002). "Molecular and phenotypic description of Coccidioides posadasii sp. nov., previously recognized as the non-California population of Coccidioides immitis." Mycologia, 94(1): 73-84. Coccidioides posadasii sp. nov., formerly known as non-

California (non-CA) Coccidioides immitis, is described. Phylogenetic analyses using single

nucleotide polymorphisms, genes, and microsatellites show that C. posadasii represents a divergent, genetically recombining monophyletic clade. Coccidioides

posadasii can be distinguished from C. immitis by numerous DNA polymorphisms, and we show how either of two microsatellite loci may be used as diagnostic

markers for this species. Growth experiments show that C. posadasii has

significantly slower growth rates on high-salt media when compared with C. immitis,

suggesting that other phenotypic characters may exist. FISHER, P. J. (2005). "John Webster: a personal perspective." Mycol. Res. 109(5): 519-524. A personal perspective of John Webster, with an emphasis of

studies of aero-aquatic hyphomycetes and the techniques pioneered to enable them to be studied, illustrated by examples particularly from the genera with helicoid conidia, Helicodendron and Helicoon, showing flotation devices.

FITZGERALD, A. M., A. M. MUDGE, et al. (2003). "Agrobacterium and PEG-mediated transformation of the phytopathogen Venturia inaequalis." Mycol. Res. 107: 803-810. We report the development of two new transformation

systems, polyethylene glycol (PEG)-mediated transformation of protoplasts and Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation of mycelium, for the filamentous ascomycete Venturia inaequalis. New binary vectors have been created for the latter. Although transformation was initially achieved using a PEG-mediated method, this was superseded by the A. tumefaciens-mediated approach. The advantages of the latter include: ease of the protocol, no requirement for protoplasts; higher transformation efficiency; and single-site integration. A comparison between the two transformation methods is presented.

FLEET, C. and C. BREUIL (2002). "Inhibitors and genetic analysis of scytalone dehydratase confirm the presence of DHN-melanin pathway in sapstain fungi." Mycol. Res. 106: 1331-1339. The presence of the 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN) melanin

biosynthesis pathway was demonstrated in several sapstain fungi including Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma, using both chemical inhibitors and molecular techniques. The inhibitor compounds tricyclazole and carpropamid effectively reduced pigmentation at low concentrations in all tested fungal species, but also lead to growth inhibition at higher concentrations. The inhibitor cerulenin prevented fungal growth in all tested fungi at all tested concentrations, likely due to its inhibitory effect on another enzyme, the metabolically critical fatty acid synthase. Partial DNA sequences for the gene encoding scytalone dehydratase (SD) were obtained from species of Ceratocystis and Ophiostoma and found to have homology with known respective DHN-SD gene sequences. Sequence analysis of the partial SD amino acid sequences showed greater than 80% similarity among the sapstain species, and corresponded well with known phylogenies of sapstain fungi based on rDNA sequences. Aside from the work carried out on the isolate O. floccosum 387N, this is the first known documentation of the melanin pigmentation pathway used by species of

the sapstain fungi Ceratocystis, Leptographium and Ophiostoma. Furthermore, since no fungus has ever been found, to our knowledge, to have more than one melanin synthesis pathway, we can state that these species are likely only to use the DHN pathway for melanin production.

Flegel, T. W. (2004). Mycology SCBT 301, 2004, Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University. FLIER, W. G., N. J. GRUNWALD, et al. (2001). "Formation, production and viability of oospores of Phytophthora infestans from potato and Solanum demissum in the Toluca Valley, central Mexico." Mycol. Res. 105: 998-1006. Aspects of the ecology of oospores of Phytophthora infestans

were studied in the highlands of central Mexico. From an investigation of a random sample of strains, it was found that isolates differed in their average capability to form oospores when engaged in compatible pairings. Most crosses produced large numbers of oospores but a few yielded none and some yielded only a few oospores. The results reveal that oospore production and fecundity is dependent on both isolates and the combining ability of a specific combination of parental strains. On average, 14% of the oospores produced were viable as determined by the plasmolysis method. Viability ranged from a low 1% in one cross to a high of 29% in another cross. Oospores were found in 10--20% of naturally infected Solanum demissum leaves from two different collections, and leafiets with two lesions per leafiet produced more oospores than did leafiets with 3±5 lesions per leafiet. There was no consistent trend for preferential mating between isolates from the same location or host.

FLIER, W. G., N. J. GRUNWALD, et al. (2002). "Phytophthora ipomoeae sp. nov., a new homothallic species causing leaf blight on Ipomoea longipedunculata in the Toluca Valley of central Mexico." Mycol. Res. 106: 848-856. A Phytophthora species was found on blighted foliage of

Ipomoea longipedunculata, a morning glory native to the highlands of central Mexico. Based on host range, morphology, allozymes, mitochondrial DNA haplotype and rDNA sequences it is concluded that a new Phytophthora species, P. ipomoeae sp. nov., is the causal agent of leaf blight disease on I. longipedunculata.

Flores, J. M., I. Gutierrez, et al. (2005). "The role of pollen in chalkbrood disease in Apis mellifera: transmission and predisposing conditions." Mycologia, 97(5). Chalkbrood in honeybees (Apis mellifera L. Himenoptera:

Apidae) is a fungal disease caused by Ascosphaera apis (Maassen ex Claussen) Olive and

Spiltoir. This disease requires the presence of fungal spores and a predisposing condition in the susceptible brood for the disease to develop. In this study we

examined the role of pollen in the development of chalkbrood disease under two

experimental conditions: (i) pollen combs were transferred from infected to uninfected beehives and (ii) colonies were deprived of adequate pollen supplies to feed the brood. The results of both treatments confirmed that pollen is an element that should be taken into account when controlling this honeybee disease.

FOMINA, M. and G. M. GADD (2002). "Influence of clay minerals on the morphology of fungal pellets." Mycol. Res. 106: 107-117. The objective of this study was to assess the influence of clay

minerals on the morphology of mycelial pellets produced under submerged conditions as a prelude to the development of biomineral sorbents for toxic metals. The macro- and microscopic morphology of fungal pellets of melanin-containing microfungi Cladosporium cladosporioides, C. herbarum and Humicola grisea grown in liquid clay-containing medium was studied using scanning electron microscopy. It was found that the inclusion of clay minerals (bentonite, palygorskite and kaolinite) in the liquid medium influenced size, shape and structure of the mycelial pellets produced. In general, a reduction of pellet size, an increase in the length of surface hyphae of the pellets (except for H. grisea), and a reduction in exopolymer production were observed with increasing clay mineral concentrations up to 5% (w}v). For C. herbarum, an increasing concentration of bentonite changed the normal pelleted growth form to diffuse star-like growth, which was also observed for C. cladosporioides in the presence of kaolinite. The presence of bentonite and kaolinite in the medium for H. grisea and palygorskyte for C. cladosporioides led to the formation of numerous bulbous hyphae in pellets. However, bentonite decreased such bulbous growth in C. herbarum compared to control pellets which grew as bulbous mycelium. The dynamics of C. cladosporioides growth and pellet formation in the presence of bentonite (0.5% (w/v)) was investigated. It was found that the clay particles were involved in the formation of pellet structure at all stages of fungal growth. The porosity of a growing pellet (evaluated as the ratio of surface hyphae length to pellet radius) increased during early growth (17--24 h) and then decreased up to the stationary phase. A general model of the structure of a fungal pellet grown in clay-containing medium is proposed. The pellets consist of three main layers : a central core, with densely packed mycelium aggregated with solid clay minerals or a matrix of clay/polysaccharides; a middle layer with looser mycelium

mixed with clay mineral ¯akes; and an outer, or `hairy' zone, with loose hyphae surrounded by clay mineral flakes. The relevance of these studies to fungal growth and morphology, and to the development of biomineral sorbents for metal removal is discussed.

FOMINA, M., K. RITZ, et al. (2003). "Nutritional influence on the ability of fungal mycelia to penetrate toxic metal-containing domains." Mycol. Res. 107: 861-871. Metal-contaminated soils often contain a spatially

heterogeneous distribution of metal concentrations, and the ability of fungi to colonize such metal-contaminated domains will be influenced by the nutritional resources available. An experimental system based upon tessellated agar tiles was used to study the influence of nutrients upon the ability of soil fungi Trichoderma virens and Clonostachys rosea to colonize spatially discrete toxic metal (copper and cadmium) containing domains. The growth parameters recorded demonstrated a decrease in apparent metal toxicity with increasing concentration of available carbon source. It was shown that maximum hyphal extension rates and the efficacy of carbon substrate utilization of both species decreased with increasing concentration of toxic metals. It was also observed that in the gap between metal-free and metal-containing tiles, the presence of toxic metals led to negative chemotropic reactions and cessation of growth, swelling and lysis of some hyphal tips. Penetration of the hyphae into the metal-containing domain was often followed by the formation of very dense mycelia or mycelial ‘bushes’ representing an associative (constraining, exploitative or ‘phalanx’) growth strategy of the mycelial system. After the fungi entered the toxic metal-containing domains, they often produced long sparsely-branched or branchless explorative hyphae representing a dissociative (expansive, explorative or ‘guerrilla ’) growth strategy. Our data therefore demonstrate that fungi efficiently use both ‘phalanx’ and ‘ guerrilla’ states of the mycelial system as well as shifts in these growth strategies as a response to toxic metal stress combined with nutritionally-poor conditions.

FOOS, K. M. (1997). "Pilobolus and lungworm disease affecting elk in Yellowstone National Park." Mycol. Res. 101: 1535-1536. Dictyocaulus viviparus and Pilobolus coexist in individual elk of

the Yellowstone National Park's northern herd. It is suggested that Pilobolus transfers infective larvae to forage grasses, so spreading the lungworm disease.

FORBES, P. J., S. MILLAM, et al. (1998). "Transformation of the arbuscular mycorrhiza Gigaspora rosea by particle bombardment." Mycol. Res. 102: 497-501. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are obligate symbionts

which can only be propagated in association with intact plants or root explants. Molecular study of these fungi has been hampered by the inability to grow them in vitro and to obtain protoplasts. With the advent of advanced gene transformation systems, the opportunity has arisen to use biolistic technology to introduce foreign DNA linked to molecular markers into these fungi. The biolistic transformation system chosen for the AMF was GUS-based as this system was shown to work effectively for ectomycorrhiza. In this study the plasmid pNOM102 was used for transformation of

Gigaspora rosea and transient GUS gene expression was detected in 40-50% of

spores by colorimetric and immunological based methodologies. FORSTER, H., M. P. CUMMINGS, et al. (2000). "Phylogenetic relationships of Phytophthora species based on ribosomal ITS I DNA sequence analysis with emphasis on Waterhouse groups V and VI." Mycol. Res. 104: 1055-1061. Phylogenetic relationships among Phytophthora species were

investigated by sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer region I of the ribosomal DNA repeat unit. The extensive collection of isolates included taxa from all six morphological groups recognized by Waterhouse (1963) including molecular groups previously identified using isozymes and mtDNA restriction fragment length polymorphisms. Similar to previous studies, the inferred relationships indicated that molecular groups of P. cryptogea/drechslerilike and P. megasperma-like taxa are polyphyletic. Morphological groups V and VI, which are differentiated by the presence of amphigynous or paragynous antheridia, are not monophyletic: species of the two groups are interspersed in the tree. Species with papillate and semi-papillate sporangia (groups I±IV) clustered together and this cluster was distinct from those of species with nonpapillate sporangia. There was no congruence between the mode of antheridial attachment, sporangial caducity, or homo- or heterothallic habit and the molecular grouping of the species. Our study provides evidence that the antheridial position together with homo- or heterothallic habit does not refiect phylogenetic relationships within Phytophthora. Consequently, confirming studies done previously (Cooke & Duncan 1997), this study provides evidence that the morphological characters used in Phytophthora taxonomy are of limited value for deducing phylogenetic relationships, because they exhibit convergent evolution.

Foster, A. J., R. A. Bird, et al. (2004). "FITC-lectin avidity of Cryptococcus neoformans cell wall and capsular components." Mycologia, 96(1): 1-8. Flow cytometry and confocal microscopy were used to quantify

and visualize FITC-lectin binding to cell-surface carbohydrate ligands of log and stationary phase acapsular and capsular Cryptococcus neoformans strains. Cell populations demonstrated marked avidity for terminal a-linked mannose and glucose specific FITC-Con A, mannose specific FITCGNL, as well as N-acetylglucosamine specific FITCWGA. Exposure to other FITC-lectins specific for mannose, fucose and N-acetylgalactosamine resulted in little cell-surface fluorescence. The nature of cellsurface carbohydrates was investigated further by measurement of the fluorescence from surfaces of log and stationary phase cell populations after exposing them to increasing concentrations of FITCCon A and FITC-WGA. Cell fluorescence increased significantly with small increases in FITC-Con A and FITC-WGA concentrations attaining reproducible maxima. Measurements of this nature supported calculation of the lectin binding determinants EC 50, Hn, Fmax and relative Bmax values. EC50 values indicated that the yeast-cell surfaces had greatest

affinity for FITC-WGA, however, relative Bmax values indicated that greater numbers of Con A binding sites were present on these same cell surfaces. Hn values

suggested a co-operative lectin-carbohydrate ligand interaction. Imaging of FITC-Con A and FITC-WGA cell-surface fluorescence by confocal microscopy

demonstrated marked localization of both lectins to cell surfaces associated with cell division and maturation, indicative of dynamic carbohydrate ligand exposure

and masking. Some fluorescence was associated with entrapment of FITC-Con A by capsular components, but FITC-Con A and FITC-WGA readily penetrated the capsule matrix to bind to the same cell surfaces labelled in acapsular cells.

Fournier, E., T. Giraud, et al. (2005). "Partition of the Botrytis cinerea complex in France using multiple gene genealogies." Mycologia, 97(6): 1251–1267. In micro-organisms biodiversity is often underestimated

because relevant criteria for recognition of distinct evolutionary units are lacking. Phylogenetic approaches have been proved the most useful in fungi to address this issue. Botrytis cinerea, a generalist fungus causing gray mold, illustrates this problem. It long has been thought to be a single variable species. Recent population genetics studies have shown that B. cinerea is a species complex. However conflicting partitions were proposed. To identify the most relevant partitions within the B. cinerea complex we used a multiple-gene genealogies approach. We sequenced portions of four nuclear genes, of which genealogies congruently clustered into two well supported groups corresponding to Groups I and II previously described, indicating that they represent phylogenetic species. Estimates of migration rates and genetic differentiation showed that these groups had been isolated for a long time, without detectable gene flow. This was confirmed by the high number of polymorphic sites fixed within each group. The genetic diversity was lower within Group I, as revealed by DNA polymorphism and vegetative incompatibility tests. Groups I and II exhibited phenotypic differences in their phenology, host range, size of asexual spores and vegetative compatibility. All these morphological and molecular aspects suggest that B. cinerea Groups I and II may be different cryptic species, isolated for a long time. Phylogenies and molecular analyzes of variance revealed no genetic structure according to the other suggested partitions for the B. cinerea complex (i.e.,among host plants, between strains with and without transposable elements, nor between strains responsible for noble rot and gray mold. This suggests that recombination regularly occurs, or occurred until recently, within B. cinerea Group II. This also was supported by recombination rates at each locus. Multiple-gene genealogies showed their utility by providing a relevant partition criterion for the B. cinerea complex.

Fournier, E., C. Levis, et al. (2003). "Characterization of Bc-hch, the Botrytis

cinerea homolog of the Neurospora crassa het-c vegetative incompatibility locus, and its use as a population marker." Mycologia, 95(2): 251-261. The Botrytis cinerea homolog (Bc-hch) of Nc-het-c and Pa-hch

(vegetative incompatibility loci of Neurospora crassa and Podospora anserina respectively) was cloned and sequenced. The gene structure of Bc-hch is very close to those of Nc-het-c and Pa-hch. A PCR-RFLP approach on a 1171 bp fragment was used to screen polymorphism at this locus among 117 natural isolates of B. cinerea. Restriction patterns by the restriction enzyme HhaI fell into two allelic types. Moreover, haplotypes at the Bc-hch strictly corresponded to the resistance phenotypes to fenhexamid, a novel Botryticide. The use of Bc-hch as a population marker thus reveals a new structuring of B. cinerea natural populations into two groups (I and II). This result was confirmed by genic differentiation tests

performed with five other markers on a sample of 132 B. cinerea isolates from the French region of Champagne.

Francisco Adriano DE SOUZA, Stephane DECLERCK, et al. (2005). "Morphological, ontogenetic and molecular characterization of Scutellospora reticulata (Glomeromycota)." Mycol. Res. 109(6): 697-706. The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus Scutellospora

reticulata (CNPAB11) was characterized using morphological, ontogenetic and molecular approaches. Spore ontogenesis was studied using Ri T-DNA transformed carrot roots and observations were compared with those published for eight other, pot-cultured, Scutellospora species. The sporogenesis of S. reticulata exhibited an unreported pattern of outer spore wall differentiation. In addition, Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis (DGGE), targeting the V9 region of the SSU nrDNA, was used to differentiate S. reticulata from 16 other Scutellospora species and results were confirmed by sequencing analysis. Phylogenetic analyses, using nearly full length SSU nrDNA sequences, grouped S. reticulata in a cluster together with S. cerradensis and S. heterogama, species that share similar spore wall organization and also possess ornamented external walls. PCR-DGGE and sequence

analysis revealed intragenomic SSU nrDNA polymorphisms in four out of six Scutellospora species tested, and demonstrated that SSU nrDNA intragenomic polymorphism could be used as a marker to differentiate several closely related Scutellospora species.

FRANKLAND, J. C. (1998). "Fungal succession +unravelling the unpredictable." Mycol. Res. 102: 1-15. The nature and mechanisms of successions of fungi in soil and

plant litter are discussed, and an autecological study of a basidiomycete used to illustrate some methods of approach.

Frankland, J. C., J. N. Hedger, et al. (1982). Decomposer Basidiomycetes: Their

Biology and Ecology. UK, Cambridge University Press. FREDERICK, B. A., T.-C. CAESAR-TONTHAT, et al. (1999). "Isolation and characterisation of Gaeumannomyces graminis var. graminis melanin mutants." Mycol. Res. 103: 99-110. Gaeumannomyces graminis var. graminis produces 1,8-

dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN) melanin in its hyphal and hyphopodial cell walls. We isolated G. graminis mutants that were affected in their melanin biosynthesis. One was unable to synthesize DHN-melanin and, because it accumulated 2-hydroxyjuglone, a DHN melanin pathway shunt product, it is most likely to be defective in the reductase that catalyzes the conversion of 1,3,8-trihydroxynaphthalene to vermelone, the penultimate reaction in DHN synthesis. Genetic crosses with our wild-type strain indicated that this trihydroxynaphthalene reductase deficiency was the result of a single mutation. Another mutant constitutively synthesized DHN melanin and genetic crosses with our wild-type strain suggested that this heavily melanized mutant had a single mutation responsible for its phenotype. This mutant produced more melanin than the wild-type strain as measured by Azure A binding to melanin. The wild type and constitutively melanized mutant hyphae were more hydrophobic and more resistant to lytic enzymes, benomyl, restrictive temperature, and uv light than the non-melanized mutant, which also autolysed more readily. The non-melanized mutant was not more sensitive to heavy metal than the melanized strains. In addition,

the non-melanized mutant was unaltered in pathogenicity to rice, whereas the constitutively melanized mutant was less pathogenic. The constitutively melanized mutant produced less extracellular lytic enzymes than the wild-type and the non-melanized mutant, which may explain its reduced virulence.

FRIEDERS, E. M. and D. J. McLAUGHLIN (2001). "The heterobasidiomycete moss parasites Jola and Eocronartium in culture : cytology, ultrastructure, and anamorph." Mycol. Res. 105: 734-744. The heterobasidiomycete moss parasites Eocronartium and

Jola have figured prominently in theories of the evolution of the rust fungi and of the basidiomycetes. Such theories made implicit assumptions about the moss parasites, although very little of their life history was known. This is the first in a series of studies to elucidate the life history of the moss parasites. Polyspore monokaryotic cultures were obtained from basidiospores, and dikaryotic cultures were obtained from hyphae inside the moss host plant. In culture, the moss parasites produced Sporothrix-like anamorphs. The uninucleate conidia germinated by a germ tube, by production of single secondary conidia, or by iterative germination. Conidial-hyphal fusion was observed. A dikaryon was produced by mating single conidial isolates of Eocronartium muscicola, completing a part of its life history. Ultrastructural characteristics of wall break at branching,

condensed chromatin during interphase, and simple septal pore morphology from fruiting bodies of Jola spp. and cultured isolates of Jola javensis and E. muscicola were consistent with those of related auricularioid phytoparasitic taxa, the rust fungi, and Pachnocybe ferruginea. Jola and Eocronartium can be grown in axenic culture and are not obligate parasites. In nature, the Sporothrix-like anamorph of these fungi may function in dispersal and mating. The previously unknown anamorph of the moss parasites may be

instrumental in our understanding of the origin and evolution of the rust uredinial stage.

FRIZZI, G., G. LALLI, et al. (2001). "Intraspecific isozyme variability in Italian populations of the white truffle Tuber magnatum." Mycol. Res. 105: 365-369. Eleven enzymes from 139 specimens of thirteen Italian

populations of Tuber magnatum were analysed with multilocus horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. The research was carried out to obtain insight into the genetic variability of this species across its geographic range. All the gene-enzyme systems scored appear to be fixed in homozygosity in accordance with what is hitherto known in the genus Tuber ; nine seemed monomorphic, whereas two, that is MDH-1 and ME-2, showed three alleles each. These results indicated a self-reproductive system and the low genetic variability is in agreement with the restricted endemism of the white truffle. The distribution of the electrophoretic types is discussed as a basis for further molecular applications.

Frohlich, J., K. D. Hyde, et al. (1997). "Fungi associated with leaf spots of palms in north Queensland, Australia." Mycological Research 101(6): 721-732. Twenty-six fungi associated with leaf spots of palms in north Queensland

have been identified, including 12 ascomycetes, one basidiomycete and 13 deuteromycetes. Eight were identified as species new to science. A new species of Pseudospiropes is described and descriptions of two unnamed species of Glomerella are also given.

FROHLICH, J., K. D. HYDE, et al. (2000). "Endophytic fungi associated with palms." Mycol. Res. 104: 1202-1212. Endophytic fungi were isolated from three unidenti®ed

Licuala sp. palms in Brunei Darussalam and from three L. ramsayi palms in Australia. Endophytes were very common in both species, with overall colonisation rates of 81±89%. Taking into account a lower sampling frequency in Australia, endophyte diversity was similar in the two Licuala species. The endophyte assemblages examined were very diverse, consisting of 75 fertile species and 60 sterile morphospecies. The endophyte communities of both palms were composed of a single, dominant xylariaceous species, approximately ten less common but equally ubiquitous species and a large number of species occurring at very low frequencies. Differences were observed between the endophytic

mycotas of different palm tissues and of tissues of different ages. The results presented suggest that most

of the endophytes entered the petiole via the leaf and that transmission of palm endophytes is likely to be horizontal (via airborne propagules) rather than vertical (via seed). Seasonal differences were not observed in Brunei. Increased sampling effort could be expected to yield more endophyte taxa in both species investigated.

FROSLEV, T. G., D. K. AANEN, et al. (2003). "Phylogenetic relationships of Termitomyces and related taxa." Mycol. Res. 107: 1277-1286. Phylogenetic relationships of termitophilic fungi were estimated

with Bayesian as well as other phylogenetic methods from partial sequences of the nuclear encoded large subunit ribosomal DNA (nLSU-rDNA) and the mitochondrial encoded small subunit ribosomal DNA (mtSSU-rDNA). Sequences were obtained from basidiomes covering the morphological, taxonomical, and geographical span of termitophilic mushroom-forming fungi, and analysed together with sequences from termite nests and termite guts from most known genera of fungus growing termites from geographically diverse regions. Topologies of trees resulting from the combined analyses of the two ribosomal genes generally show no positive conflicts with those obtained from separate analyses. We show that termitophilic fungi constitute a strongly supported monophyletic group within lyophylloid species. The genera Sinotermitomyces and Podabrella are derived within Termitomyces, and do not form monophyletic groups. Identical sequences were frequently found among samples of basidiomes from the same continents and among fungi utilized by termites from the same continent. However, only two sequences were identical between basidiome samples and termite nest/gut samples suggesting fruiting species do not form a representative sample of termitophilic fungi. No sequences were identical between samples from Asia and Africa indicating some geographic differentiation between these continents.

Fryar, S. C., J. Davies, et al. (2004). "Succession of fungi on dead and live wood in brackish water in Brunei." Mycologia, 96(2): 219-225. We observed the sequence of fungi appearing on submerged

wood of Hibiscus tiliaceus that initially was either dead or alive. Branches that were dead, but still attached to the tree, and live branches were cut from H. tiliaceus in the riparian vegetation in a brackish habitat on the Tutong River, Brunei. Branch segments were connected to the riverbank using monofilament line. Samples were examined for fungi before the branches were placed in the river and after the branches had been submerged 3 or 6 mo. Fifty taxa were found on the samples. Before being placed in the water different fungal assemblages were found on live as compared to deadwood. Branches that were alive when cut supported a distinctly different fungal assemblage after 3 mo in the water. Dead branches after 3 mo and both dead and

initially live samples after 6 mo had been colonized by a fungal assemblage that is typical at this site. It is unknown whether the differences in colonization of dead and initially live wood can be attributed to differences in the substratum (i.e., the presence or absence of bark), inhibitory substances in more recently live wood or to assembly rules resulting from the different fungi that already were present in dead and live branches.

Fsan and J. Schmidt (1902). "Flora of Koh Chang." Botanisk Tidsskrift 24: 355-367. FUKUDA, M., E. NAKASHIMA, et al. (2003). "Identification of the biological species of Armillaria associated with Wynnea and Entoloma abortivum using PCR-RFLP analysis of the intergenic region (IGR) of ribosomal DNA." Mycol. Res. 107: 1435-1441. Polymerase chain reaction restriction fragment length

polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis of the first intergenic region (IGR1) of nuclear ribosomal DNA was used to clarify the relationship between IGR1 variations and six Japanese biological species of Armillaria: A. gallica, A. nabsnona, A. ostoyae, A. cepistipes, A. mellea and Nagasawa’s E (Nag. E: taxonomically unknown species). The procedure was then used to identify Armillaria species associated with Wynnea species (W. americana and W. gigantea) and Entoloma abortivum. By combining the RFLP patterns obtained using three endonucleases, HaeIII, HinfI and MspI, the IGR1s from 18 isolates of six Armillaria species were assigned to nine different RFLP phenotypes and the six species were distinguished from each other. Each of the RFLP phenotypes from the Armillaria isolates associated with Wynnea species or E. abortivum matched a corresponding phenotypes observed among the six Armillaria species. Based on this, all four isolates from W. gigantea were identified as A. mellea, two from W. americana as A. cepistipes, and all three from E. abortivum as Nag. E. These results provide new information on the biological species of Armillaria associated with Wynnea and E. abortivum.

Fuller, M. S. and A. J. JAWORSKI (1987). Zoosporic Fungi in Teaching & Research, Southeastern Publishing Corporation. Funk, A. (1981). Parasitic Microfungi of Western Trees, Department of Supply and Services. FURLANETTO, C. and J. DIANESE (1999). "Some Pseudocercospora species and a new Prathigada species from the Brazilian cerrado." Mycol. Res. 103: 1203-1209. Pseudocercospora bolkanii sp. nov., and P. luzardii sp. nov.,

were collected in the Brazilian cerrado on leaves of Strychnos pseudoquina, and Hancornia speciosa, respectively. Prathigada backmanii sp. nov., is described on leaf spots of Bowdichia virgilioides.

Pseudocercospora curatellae on Curatella americana is illustrated in detail.

FURLANETTO, C. and J. C. DIANESE (1998). "Some coelomycetes from Central Brazil." Mycol. Res. 102: 19-29. As part of an inventory of mycodiversity in the Brazilian

Cerrado new coelomycetes were collected and are herein described : Phyllosticta xylopiae-sericeae sp. nov., Dinemasporium duguetiae sp. nov., Harknessia salvertiana sp. nov., Harknessia qualeae sp. nov. on living leaves of Xylopia sericea, Duguetia furfuracea, Salvertia convallariodora, and Qualea grandi¯ora, respectively. Pseudothiopsella hirtellae is reported on a new host, Hirtella gracilipes, and for the first time illustrated in detail.

Furst, H. M., G. Kraepelin, et al. (1998). "Detection of Amorphotheca resinae in German soil by an improved selective isolation method." Mycological Research 102(3): 323-326. This is the first report demonstrating Amorphotheca resinae to be a natural

member of the soil mycobiota in Germany. The fungus was detected at 19 out of 68 collection sites and was most frequently isolated from soil under or in the vicinity of yew trees (Taxus baccata). This finding is in contrast to reports from other countries, where no correlation was found between the presence of the fungus and the kind of soil or vegetation. A. resinae could not be re-isolated by standard methods like the soil dilution technique or the soil plate method, unless the fungus was present in high numbers of colony forming units. By a modification of the creosoted matchstick method it was possible to detect the fungus when as few as 11 viable spores were present in a plate with 20 g of soil.

FURST, H.-M., G. KRAEPELIN, et al. (1998). "Detection of Amorphotheca resinae in German soil by an improved selective isolation method." Mycol. Res. 102: 323-326. This is the first report demonstrating Amorphotheca resinae to

be a natural member of the soil mycobiota in Germany. The fungus was detected at 19 out of 68 collection sites and was most frequently isolated from soil under or in the vicinity of yew trees (Taxus baccata). This finding is in contrast to reports from other countries, where no correlation was found between the presence of the fungus and the kind of soil or vegetation. A. resinae could not be re-isolated by standard methods like the soil dilution technique or the soil plate method, unless the fungus was present in high numbers of colony forming units. By a modification of the creosoted matchstick method it was possible to detect the fungus when as few as 11 viable spores were present in a plate with 20 g of soil.

Gadd, G. M. (2001). Fungi in Bioremediation, Cambridge University Press.

GADKAR, V. and A. ADHOLEYA (2000). "Intraradical sporulation of AM Gigaspora margarita in long-term axenic cultivation in Ri T-DNA carrot root." Mycol. Res. 104: 716-721. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are obligate biotrophic

organisms. Root organ culture (ROC) can be used to grow these fungi under in vitro conditions. The ROC technique was used with Gigaspora margarita and Ri T-DNA transformed carrot roots to examine the fungal growth and physiology under long-term axenic symbiosis. The fungus formed spores inside the host roots under in vitro conditions. Sporulation was a temporal phenomenon found in dual cultures more than 18--20 mo old. The spores were formed singly or in rare cases clusters of two or three. No preferential zone of formation was found. The spores formed intraradically were

10--15% of the total spores formed in a single culture. These intraradical spores were analysed for their morphology and DNA polymorphism pattern with spores which had formed conventionally in the medium. Both analyses showed no detectable variation. This is the first report of spore formation by Gigaspora inside the roots of a host.

GAITAN, A., A. M. VALDERRAMA, et al. (2002). "Genetic variability of Beauveria bassiana associated with the Coffee Berry Borer Hypothenemus hampei and other insects." Mycol. Res. 106: 1307-1314. Genetic variability of 95 isolates of Beauveria bassiana from

different geographical regions and hosts was assessed using RAPDs and ITS-RFLP molecular markers in order to characterize its genetic variability. Clusterings were obtained using UPGMA and Principal Coordinates Analysis. Four groups were identified with RAPDs. A 930 bp fragment was amplified with primers ITS1 and PN16, and polymorphisms were observed with AluI and MspI, generating two main clusters.

Results indicate low genetic variability present in the Colombian B. bassiana population, no association to host type or geographic locality, and a population structure that is not clonal. This characterization sets criteria for determination of bio-insecticide potentiality, introduction of foreign strains and improvement of entomopathogens within an IPM program.

Gal, L. M. (1953). Les Discomycetes de Madagascar. Paris. Gams, W. and W. Holubova-Jechova (1976). Chloridium and Some Other Dermatiaceous Hyphomycetes Growing on Decaying Wood. Studies in Mycology, centraalbureau voor schimmelculyures baarn. No.13: 99. GANLEY, R. J. and R. E. BRADSHAW (2001). "Rapid identification of polymorphic microsatellite loci in a forest pathogen, Dothistroma pini, using anchored PCR." Mycol. Res. 105: 1075-1078. A microsatellite-based DNA profiling system was developed

that can be used to distinguish genetically diverse isolates of a forest

pathogen, Dothistroma pini. All isolates of this pathogen identified in New Zealand so far appear to be isogenic and the disease is kept under control by aerial applications of copper fungicide. Although New Zealand has strict importation controls in place, the possibility of genetically diverse isolates of D. pini being introduced from other countries poses a severe biosecurity threat to forest health. Therefore a DNA-based monitoring system was developed. Two informative microsatellite loci were found serendipitously in D. pini sequence data available in our laboratory. Further microsatellite loci were obtained using a rapid 5'-anchored PCR amplification technique. For each informative locus identified, specific primers were designed to flank the repeated sequence and subsequently used to generate DNA profiles for the D. pini strains. The profiles obtained from five microsatellite loci were sufficient to distinguish most isolates tested. The anchored primer technique provides an efficient tool for the identification of polymorphic loci that can be used to screen for genetic differences between fungi.

Garca, D., A. M. Stchigel, et al. (2002). "A new species of Syspastospora from tropical soils." Mycologia, 94(5): 862-865. Syspastospora tropicalis sp. nov. isolated from soil samples

from different tropical regions is described and illustrated. The fungus can be easily separated from the other species of the genus by its setose perithecial ascomata with a short papillate neck.

GARCIA, D., A. M. STCHIGEL, et al. (2004). "A synopsis and re-circumscription of Neurospora (syn. Gelasinospora) based on ultrastructural and 28S rDNA sequence data." Mycol. Res.: 1119-1142. Neurospora and Gelasinospora are traditionally distinguished

by the ornamentation pattern of the surface of their ascospores, which are ribbed in the former and pitted in the latter. However, a detailed examination of the morphology of numerous strains of most of the species of both genera confirm the hypothesis that there are not enough criteria to distinguish them from each other. The names Neurospora and Gelasinospora are synonymized and the circumscription of the genus Neurospora amended. Partial sequences of the 28S rDNA gene from 27 species of both genera were analysed to infer their phylogenetic relationships. Species of the two genera were interspersed in the different clades and confirmed that

they are genetically very similar. The grouping obtained demonstrates that the morphology of the episporial-layer of the ascospores is an informative phylogenetic character. Two recent isolates from soils of Nigeria and Spain, which could not be classified as any known species of Neurospora are described, illustrated, and recognized as new: N. nigeriensis and N. uniporata spp. nov. A synopsis and key to the 49 species of Neurospora now recognized in the genus is presented, and the new genus Pseudogelasinospora described to accommodate P. amorphoporcata

(syn. Gelasinospora amorphoporcata comb. nov.). Garcia, D., A. M. Stchigel, et al. (2003). "A new species of Poroconiochaeta from Russian soils." Mycologia, 95(3): 525-529. Poroconiochaeta tetraspora sp. nov., isolated from soil of

Russia, is described and illustrated. The new taxon differs from P. discoidea in its four-spored

asci (eight-spored in P. discoidea) and from P. punctulata in the pattern of ascospore ornamentation, which is conspicuously pitted in P. tetraspora (punctulate

in the other species). The new combination Poroconiochaeta savoryi is proposed and discussed.

Garcia, D., A. M. Stchigel, et al. (2003). "Soil ascomycetes from Spain. XIII. Two new species of Apiosordaria." Mycologia, 95(1): 134-140. Apiosordaria hispanica sp. nov. and Apiosordaria globosa sp.

nov. isolated from soil samples collected in Tarragona, Catalonia, Spain, are described

and illustrated. Both species are morphologically close to A. otanii. The ascospores of A. hispanica have tuberculate walls, while those of A. otanii have small

warts. Apiosordaria globosa differs from those species by the globose upper cell of the ascospores, which has a small apical protrusion with sub-apical germ pore when young. In A. hispanica and A. globosa the lower cells of the ascospores are slightly warted, while in A. otanii the lower cell of the ascospores is smoothwalled.

GARCIA-GARRIDO, J. M., A. REJON-PALOMARES, et al. (1999). "Effect of xyloglucan and xyloglucanase activity on the development of the arbuscular mycorrhizal Glomus mosseae." Mycol. Res. 103: 882-886. The effect of xyloglucan on spore germination, hyphal length

and mycorrhizal colonization of alfalfa plants was studied. The presence of high concentrations of xyloglucan in the rooting medium inhibited mycorrhizal colonization in plants inoculated with Glomus mosseae. Intermediate xyloglucan concentrations had no effect on arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) colonization, but a low concentration increased mycorrhization of host plants. The effects of these doses on spore germination and hyphal length of G. mosseae were similar to those observed for mycorrhizal colonization. Production of xyloglucanase was assayed during colonization by the AM fungus G. mosseae in lettuce and onion. Endoxyloglucanase activity peaked 15 d after inoculation, whereas exoxyloglucanase activity peaked at 30 and 50 d. Extracts from external mycelia of G. mosseae showed endo- and exoxyloglucanase activities. Some of the endoxyloglucanase activities detected in AM colonized plant roots may be derived from the AM fungus, as endoxyloglucanase proteins found in the external mycelia of G. mosseae and in mycorrhizal root

extracts showed similar electrophoretic mobility. These results suggest that xyloglucanase is involved in

the process of colonization of plants by G. mosseae. GARDNER, K., M. G. WIEBE, et al. (2000). "Production of chlamydospores of the nematode-trapping Duddingtonia flagrans in shake flask culture." Mycol. Res. 104: 205-209. Duddingtonia ¯agrans was grown in shake flask culture on

Sabouraud's dextrose medium with and without the addition of agar (to form a slightly more viscous medium). The addition of agar increased the number of chlamydospores produced in late stationary phase, with 8.6x105 chlamydospores ml-1 being obtained on a medium containing 5 g agar l-1. The pH optimum for growth was between 5.5--7.5 but colonies formed on plate cultures buffered at pH 10.5. When grown in shake flask culture at 25 °C and pH 7 on malt extract±yeast extract±peptone±glucose medium (MYPG), D. flagrans had a specific growth rate of 0.21 h-1 (doubling time

3.3 h) and produced 5.1±0.07 mg biomass ml-1. To increase chlamydospore production in a liquid medium, D. flagrans was also grown in a two phase culture system in which late exponential phase biomass produced in MYPG medium was transferred to Vogel's mineral salts medium containing various nitrogen (mycological peptone, casein) and carbon (sodium acetate, starch and glycerol) sources. The highest chlamydospore concentrations (6.2x105 and 5.6x105 ml-1) were observed when the biomass was transferred to Vogel's medium containing 10 g starch or glycerol l-1, respectively.

GARIEPY, T. D., C. A. LEVESQUE, et al. (2003). "Species specific identification of the Neofabraea pathogen complex associated with pome fruits using PCR and multiplex DNA amplification." Mycol. Res. 107: 528-536. Five species of pathogenic fungi belong to Neofabraea. One

of these, N. krawtzewii (syn. N. populi), is responsible for bark lesions on poplar (Populus) trees. The other four species cause post-harvest bull’s eye rot of pome fruits, and at least two of these also cause bark cankers on pome fruit trees. Morphological variation among these species is slight, and overlap in geographic range sometimes occurs. As a consequence, identification based on conventional criteria can be tenuous. PCR primers with putative species specificity were developed following genetic analysis of the β-tubulin gene for isolates of each of the five species of Neofabraea. PCR conditions required to achieve specificity of the primer sets were determined, and a multiplex PCR protocol was developed to optimize their diagnostic utility on apple fruits. A protocol with higher annealing temperatures in the initial PCR cycles followed by lower temperatures in later cycles gave complete species-specificity when the primer sets were used individually and in multiplex, resulting in successful detection of the pathogens from axenic culture and infected apple fruits.

GARNERO, L., B. LAZZARI, et al. (2000). "TMchs4, a class IV chitin synthase gene from the ectomycorrhizal Tuber magnatum." Mycol. Res. 104: 703-707. Chitin synthase genes of Tuber magnatum were sought in

order to investigate the molecular bases of its growth. Primers designed from highly conserved Chs domains were used to identify a chs gene portion. A genomic library was used to obtain the full gene sequence (TMchs4) with an open reading frame which encodes a predicted protein of 1230 amino acids. The sequence is similar (62%) to the class IV chitin synthase from Neurospora crassa. The putative protein shows hydrophobicity pattern that suggests the presence of several intramembranous domains and other peculiar features common to the other chs of class IV. Northern experiments demonstrated that the gene is expressed in ascomata sampled at different maturation steps. These data suggest that ascomata growth requires new chitin deposition, which is based on a chs gene activation and not only on an enzymatic activity.

GARNICA, S., M. WEI, et al. (2003). "Morphological and molecular phylogenetic studies in South American Cortinarius species." Mycol. Res. 107: 1143-1156. Thirty South American species of Cortinarius belonging to the

subgenera Telamonia, Dermocybe, Myxacium, Phlegmacium, and Cystogenes were studied using an integrated approach that included morphological, anatomical, and ultrastructural data, and also molecular phylogenetic analysis of nuclear rDNA sequences. The micromorphology of the basidiomes was studied by light microscopy, and the principal structures were illustrated by line drawings. Basidiospore ornamentation was studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Nuclear internal transcribed spacers (ITS, including the 5.8S gene) and the rDNA coding for the D1/D2 domains of the large ribosomal subunit (LSU) were sequenced and analysed using a Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo method to estimate phylogenetic relationships between the studied Cortinarius species. Morphology and anatomy of the pileus surface and basidiome pigmentation appeared to be the most useful characters to delimit some natural groups, whereas microcharacters related to the structure of pileus context, hymenophoral and stipe trama were of little taxonomic value. Basidiospore morphology and cheilocystidia seem to be taxonomically relevant at the species level. The following five infrageneric groups were supported by the morphological, chemical and molecular data: (1) Telamonia characterized by wide hyaline hyphae of the veil and by small basidiomes; (2) Dermocybe spp. with an epicutis as the most external layer of the pileus, and skyrin and hypericin pigments; (3) Dermocybe spp. with a thin viscid layer on the pileus, and endocrocin and dermolutein pigments; (4) Phlegmacium spp. characterized by a long and radicating stipe; and (5) Phlegmacium spp. that overlap in some macrocharacters with Telamonia species. Our analyses suggest that classification concepts based mainly on macromorphological characters are likely to lead to artificial grouping, whereas certain microscopical and

chemical characters seem to be useful in constructing a more natural classification system for Cortinarius.

Garnica, S., M. Weiβ, et al. (2002). "New Cortinarius species from Nothofagus forests in South Chile." Mycologia, 94(1): 136-145. Four new Cortinarius species are described from Nothofagus

forests in South Chile. Cortinarius aurantiorufus and C. punctatisporus, subgenus

Phlegmacium, stirps Inflatipes, are mainly characterized by a viscid to glutinous pileus and a bulbous whitish stipe. They differ in the color of the pileus, and shape, ornamentation, and size of the basidiospores. Futhermore, C. punctatisporus has a translucently striate pileus. Cortinarius rubrivelatus and C. parahumilis belong to subgenus Telamonia, stirps Brunneivelatus and Scabrisporus, respectively. Cortinarius rubrivelatus has a reddish veil, a viscid pileus, and large, ellipsoid to amygdaliform basidiospores. Cortinarius parahumilis has small, subglobose to broadly elliptical, minutely verrucose basidiospores and a viscid pileus. Garnica, S., M. WeiB, et al. (2003). "Phylogenetic relationships of European Phlegmacium species(Cortinarius, Agaricales)*." Mycologia, 95(6): 1155-1170. Phylogenetic relationships of 54 European Phlegmacium

species, including members of most of the sections of classical systematics, were studied, integrating macro-,

micromorphological and chemical characters of the basidiomes, as well as molecular phylogenetic analysis of

nuclear rDNA sequences. Microscopical structures of the basidiomes were studied by light microscopy. Basidiospore morphology was examined by scanning electron microscopy. Internaltranscribed spacers (ITS 1 and 2, including the 5.8S)

and the D1/D2 (LSU) regions of nuclear rDNA were sequenced and analyzed with a Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo approach. Many subgroups detected by the molecular analysis are related to groups known from classical systematical concepts. Among others, these subgroups were significantly supported: i) a group containing most of the members of section Fulvi ss. Brandrud and the species Cortinarius arcuatorum,

C. dibaphus and C. multiformis; ii) a group comprising taxa of section Calochroi ss. Brandrud and the species C. fulvocitrinus and C. osmophorus; iii) a group containing species of section Glaucopodes ss. Brandrud and C. caerulescens; iv) a group including members of section Phlegmacioides ss. Brandrud; v) a group that includes the species C. cephalixus, C. nanceiensis and C. mussivus. Stipe shape, color of flesh, pigment contents, KOH reaction on pileipellis and gelatinous layer, degree of development of a gelatinous layer on the pileipellis, and pileipellis structurewere useful characters in delimiting subgroups in Phlegmacium, while basidiospore morphology was significant at species level. With the exception of C. glaucopus, C. infractus and C. scaurus, ITS and D1/ D2 sequences obtained

from collections of the same species from different geographical origins showed very little variation. Our

molecular and morphological analyses suggest revisions of the traditional concepts of the subgenus

Phlegmacium in Europe. Gasoni, L. and B. S. D. Gurfinkel (1997). "The endophyte Cladorrhinum foecundissimum in cotton roots: phosphorus uptake and host growth." Mycological Research 101(10): 7. Intercellular hyphae of Cladorrhinum foecundissimum were observed in a

dense layer surrounding the stele of cotton roots and were distinguished inside root hairs of plants grown in substrate containing the endophyte. No damage was observed in the epidermis of roots from infested substrate. At the blossom stage height of plants grown in substrate with the endophyte was 50% greater than in the controls. In the same group of plants growing in phosphorus-deficient substrate the endophyte doubled the phosphorus concentration compared to the control plants. In 25 day-old plants growing in substrate with high phosphorus content, the use of 32P showed a L value [available P (mg P 100 g-1)] 29% greater in soil colonized by the endophyte than in the non-infested substrate, but dry matter and phosphorus content in plants were not significantly different.

Gavino, P. D. and W. E. Fry (2002). "Diversity in and evidence for selection on the mitochondrial genome of Phytophthora infestans." Mycologia, 94(5): 781-793. Two extant nomenclature systems were reconciled to relate six

mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes of Phytophthora infestans, the oomycete pathogen causing late blight disease on potato and tomato. Carter’s haplotypes I-a and I-b were included in Goodwin’s haplotype A, while Carter’s haplotypes II-a and II-b were included in Goodwin’s haplotype B. In addition, haplotypes E and F were included in Carter’s haplotype I-b. The mutational differences separating the various haplotypes were determined, and we propose that either haplotype I-b(A) or haplotype I-a(A) is the putative ancestral mtDNA of P. infestans, because either can center all the other haplotypes in a logical stepwise network of mutational changes. The occurrence of the six haplotypes in 548 isolates worldwide was determined. Haplotypes I-a and II-a were associated with diverse genotypes worldwide. As previously suggested, haplotype I-b was found only in the US-1 clonal lineage and its variants (n = 99 isolates from 16 countries on 5 continents), and haplotype II-b was limited to the US-6 clonal lineage and its derivatives (n = 36). In a confirmation

of a previous suggestion, the randomly mating population in the Toluca Valley of central Mexico (n = 78) was monomorphic for mtDNA haplotype I-a(A). We hypothesize that selection there may be driving the dominance of that single mtDNA haplotype.

Gay, H., E. Hennipman, et al. (1993). The Taxonomy, Distribution and Ecology of the Epiphytic Malesian Ant-Fern Lecanopteris Reinw. (Polypodiaceae). The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore, National Parks Board Singapore Botanic Gardens Cluny Road Singapore 1025. 45: 293-335. GEA, F. J., M. J. NAVARRO, et al. (2005). "Reduced sensitivity of the mushroom pathogen Verticillium fungicola to prochloraz-manganese in vitro." Mycol. Res. 109(6): 741-745. 105 isolates of Verticillium fungicola from Spanish mushroom

crops collected between 1992 and 1999 were tested in vitro for their sensitivities to prochloraz-manganese. Dose response relationships for inhibition of mycelial growth by the fungicide were assessed in radial growth experiments on fungicide-amended malt extract agar. The ED50 values recorded for all 105 isolates studied ranged between 0.8 ppm in 1992 and 8.8 in 1998, with an average of 2.9. 86% of the isolates tested were more sensitive to prochloraz-manganese and had ED50 values below 5 ppm, while the other 14% were slightly tolerant with ED50 values equal or above 5 ppm. Of those tested from 1999, 60% (21 isolates) grew with 50 ppm and 40% (14) also at 100 ppm, although mycelial growth was inhibited at least by 82 and 87%, respectively. The resistance factor calculated ranged from low fungicide resistance (RF=3.0) in 1992 to moderate resistance (RF=12.6) in 1998.

These data confirm that the sensitivity of V. fungicola to the prochloraz-manganese gradually diminishes.

Geiser, D. M., M. L. L. Ivey, et al. (2005). "Gibberella xylarioides (anamorph: Fusarium xylarioides), a causative agent of coffee wilt disease in Africa, is a previously unrecognized member of the G. fujikuroi species complex." Mycologia, 97(1): 191-201. Tracheomycosis or coffee wilt has emerged as a major

disease of robusta coffee in Uganda in the past 10 years. Coffee wilt historically has been associated with Fusarium xylarioides Steyaert (teleomorph Gibberella xylarioides Heim and Sacc.), a species that has been classified as a member of Fusarium section Lateritium. We investigated the molecular phylogenetics of fusarial coffee wilt isolates by generating partial DNA sequences from two protein coding regions, translation elongation factor 1-α and beta-tubulin, in 36 isolates previously identified as F . xylarioides and related fusaria from coffee and other woody hosts, as well as from 12 isolates associated with a current coffee wilt outbreak in Uganda. These isolates fell into two morphologically and phylogenetically distinct groups. The first group was found to represent previously unidentified members of the Gibberella fujikuroi species complex (GFC), a clade that replaces the artificial Fusarium section Liseola. This group of isolates fit the original description of F. xylarioides, thus connecting it to the GFC. The second group, which was diverse in its morphology and DNA sequences, comprised four distinct lineages related

to Fusarium lateritium. Our finding of unrelated species associated with coffee wilt disease has important implications regarding its epidemiology, etiology and control.

Geistlinger, J., S. Maqbool, et al. (1997). "Detection of microsatellite fingerprint markers and their Mendelian inheritance in Ascochyta rabiei." Mycological Research 101(9): 1113-1121. DNA fingerprinting with a set of synthetic oligonucleotides complementary

to simple repetitive sequences was used to develop molecular markers for Ascochyta rabiei, the most important fungal pathogen of chickpea (Cicer arietinum). Two compatible mating type isolates (MatI and MatII) from the U.S. Pacific Northwest with the same low level of aggressivity were compared to highly virulent isolates from the Mediterranean region and Pakistan to find suitable mating partners for the production of a mapping population. After Hinf I or Taq I restriction, electrophoresis and in-gel hybridization with ten different simple repetitive oligonucleotides, all tested single-spored isolates exhibited unique fingerprint patterns. The analysis revealed that the two U.S. mating types share a considerable amount of genetic variability. A total of 77 polymorphic marker bands were detected. A higher number of polymorphic bands (up to 104) was observed between these isolates and those from different geographical regions. The isolates from the Mediterranean region and Pakistan shared a lower degree (between 80 and 90 bands) of detectable genetic diversity. These data permit selection of highly virulent crossing partners for the different mating types with a high degree of detectable polymorphism. A sexual cross was performed to prove the Mendelian segregation of fngerprint bands for future linkage analysis. Additionally, the fingerprint data based on 268 informative characters combined with phenetic and phylogenetic algorithms allow determination of the genetic identity, relatedness and diversity of the different isolates. To confirm the phylogenetic data, two outgroupers Ascochyta fabae and Ascochyta pisi, were included. Results indicate that A. pisi is more closely related to A. rabiei than A. fabae.

GEISTLINGER, J., S. MAQBOOL, et al. (1997). "Detection of microsatellite Ængerprint markers and their Mendelian inheritance in Ascochyta rabiei." Mycol. Res. 101: 1113-1121. DNA Ængerprinting with a set of synthetic oligonucleotides

complementary to simple repetitive sequences was used to develop molecular markers for Ascochyta rabiei, the most important fungal pathogen of chickpea (Cicer arietinum). Two compatible mating type isolates (MatI and MatII) from the U.S. Pacific Northwest with the same low level of aggressivity were compared to highly virulent isolates from the Mediterranean region and Pakistan to Ænd suitable mating partners for the production of a mapping population. After Hinf I or Taq I restriction, electrophoresis and in-gel hybridization with ten different simple repetitive oligonucleotides, all tested single-spored isolates exhibited unique

fingerprint patterns. The analysis revealed that the two U.S. mating types share a considerable amount of genetic variability. A total of 77 polymorphic marker bands were detected. A higher number of polymorphic bands (up to 104) was observed between these isolates and those from different geographical regions. The isolates from the Mediterranean region and Pakistan shared a lower degree (between 80 and 90 bands) of detectable genetic diversity. These data permit selection of highly virulent crossing partners for the different mating types with a high degree of detectable polymorphism.

A sexual cross was performed to prove the Mendelian segregation of fingerprint bands for future linkage analysis. Additionally, the fingerprint data based on 268 informative characters combined with phenetic and phylogenetic algorithms allow determination of the genetic identity, relatedness and diversity of the different isolates. To conÆrm the phylogenetic data, two outgroupers Ascochyta fabae and Ascochyta pisi, were included. Results indicate that A. pisi is more closely related to A. rabiei than A. fabae.

Geml, J., D. D. Davis, et al. (2005). "Systematics of the genus Sphaerobolus based on molecular and morphological data, with the description of Sphaerobolus ingoldii sp. nov." Mycologia, 97(3): 680–694. Despite mycologists’ interest in its unique spore-dispersal

mechanism, systematic studies of the genus Sphaerobolus have received little attention. In our previous work multiple gene genealogies indicated the existence of three divergent lineages in the genus Sphaerobolus, each representing a phylogenetic species. Macro- and micromorphological analyses of colony and fruit-body characters presented here confirmed that these three phylogenetic species correspond to two

known species, S. iowensis and S. stellatus, and a newly discovered species. In addition, an expanded gene genealogical analysis is presented for the three species. The new species, named Sphaerobolus ingoldii Geml, Davis et Geiser, is described based on both molecular and morphological data. In addition, while S. iowensis previously had been reported in only two localities, we found that it is as common as or more common than S. stellatus in North America. Despite the considerable amount of DNA polymorhism found in all species, nested clade analyses of S. iowensis and S. stellatus indicated little phylogeographic structure in either species, perhaps due to heavy movement mediated by human activities.

GENE, J., A. MERCADO-SIERRA, et al. (2000). "Dactylaria cazorlii and Hansfordia catalonica, two new hyphomycetes from litter in Spain." Mycol. Res. 104: 1404-1407. Dactylaria cazorlii sp. nov. and Hansfordia catalonica sp. nov.

from plant debris collected in different localities of Spain are described and illustrated. The first species is characterized by its hyaline, usually 4±6-septate, ellipsoid or subclavate conidia. The second one is distinguished

by its brown, smooth, thick-walled, broadly obovoid, turbinate or ellipsoid conidia.

George O. POINAR, j. and A. E. BROWN (2003). "A non-gilled hymenomycete in Cretaceous amber." Mycol. Res. 107: 763-768. Palaeoclavaria burmitis gen. et sp. nov. (Palaeoclavariaceae

fam. nov., Hymenomycetes) is described from a series of fruit bodies and hyphae in Cretaceous amber from Burma (about 100 Myr). This is the first fossil record of the Aphyllophorales and establishes certain basic morphological and ecological characters for the group.

Georgiou, C. D. (1997). "Lipid peroxidation in Sclerotium rolfsii : a new look into the mechanism of sclerotial biogenesis in fungi." Mycological Research 101(4): 460-464. Evidence is presented that the biogenesis of sclerotia in Sclerotium rolfsii

is associated with lipid peroxidation. Sclerotial initials show 100-fold increase in lipid peroxides of their total lipids as compared with young mycelia grown under reducing conditions (in 2- mercaptoethanol) in dark and without Fe(II). There was a direct relationship between the number of sclerotia formed and lipid peroxidation levels in the mycelial colonies. Lipid peroxides of possible membranous and cytoplasmic origin were found in sclerotial exudate. In this paper a new approach is advanced for the understanding of the mechanism of sclerotial formation in Sclerotium rolfsii and in other fungi. The data in this work on lipid peroxidation -the most frequently evoked consequence of oxygen free radicals - as well as the data of past experiments, strongly suggest that this phenomenon may be associated with oxidative stress caused by growth conditions.

GEORGIOU, C. D. and K. P. PETROPOULOU (2001). "Role of erythroascorbate and ascorbate in sclerotial differentiation in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum." Mycol. Res. 105: 1364-1370. Sclerotinia sclerotiorum produced erythroascorbate at levels

dependent on oxidative growth conditions, developmental stage and strain differentiating capacity. The transition of S. sclerotiorum from the undifferentiated to differentiated state under high oxidative stress growth conditions, was accompanied by a shift in the ratio of reduced/oxidized erythroascorbate towards its oxidized form. At low oxidative stress, the reduced form of erythroascorbate predominated. In a non-differentiating strain of S. sclerotiorum, reduced erythroascorbate predominated over the oxidized form during growth. The reduced/oxidized erythroascorbate ratio in this strain was 5-fold higher than the corresponding ratio in the differentiating strain. The level of oxidative stress (lipid peroxidation) in colonies of the differentiating strain (one day before they differentiated) was 3-fold higher than that formed in colonies of the nondifferentiating strain. Exogenous ascorbate exhibited its antioxidant activity in the differentiating strain by causing a dose-dependent decrease in lipid

peroxidation, and proportional inhibition of sclerotial development. It is suggested that during its initial growth stages, S. sclerotiorum cannot decrease lipid peroxidation to levels found in the non-differentiating strain, and then forms sclerotia. We propose that oxidative stress triggers differentiation in sclerotium-producing filamentous phytopathogenic fungi.

GEORGIOU, C. D., N. TAIRIS, et al. (2001). "Production of β-carotene by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and its role in sclerotium differentiation." Mycol. Res. 105: 1110-1115. Sclerotinia sclerotiorum differentiates by forming terminal-type

sclerotia. We found that the fungus produces b-carotene in low and high levels during its undifferentiated and differentiated stages, respectively, and at low (in dark) and high (in light) oxidative growth conditions, respectively. In contrast, a sclerotium non-producing strain of S. sclerotiorum produces very low amounts of b-carotene in constant levels throughout its entire growth period, irrespective of oxidative stress degree of growth conditions. When b-carotene was added to the growth medium of the sclerotium producing strain, it caused a concentration-dependent inhibition of sclerotia formation. We propose that b-carotene inhibits sclerotial differentiation in S. sclerotiorum by lowering oxidative stress via its antioxidant scavenging properties.

GEORGIOU, C. D., N. TAIRIS, et al. (2000). "Hydroxyl radical scavengers inhibit sclerotial differentiation and growth in Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Rhizoctonia solani." Mycol. Res. 104: 1191-1196. The effect of hydroxyl radical scavengers dimethyl sulphoxide,

p-nitrosodimethylaniline, ethanol, benzoate, salicylate and thiourea was studied on sclerotial differentiation and growth of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Rhizoctonia solani. There is a correlation between both scavenger concentration and scavenger-hydroxyl radical reaction rate with delay and inhibition of differentiation at growthnoninhibiting scavenger concentrations. Growth-inhibiting scavenger concentrations further increased delay and inhibition of differentiation, and eventually stopped fungal growth, acting as antifungal antioxidant alternatives to traditional fungicides. pnitrosodimethylaniline (with the highest hydroxyl radical reaction rate) was the most effective inhibitor of sclerotial differentiation and growth. The results strongly support the theory that oxygen free radicals induce differentiation in sclerotium-producing phytopathogenic fungi.

Georgiou, C. D., G. Zervoudakis, et al. (2003). "Ascorbic acid might play a role in the sclerotial differentiation of Sclerotium rolfsii." Mycologia, 95(2): 308-316. Certain phytopathogenic fungi differentiate by forming sclerotia

by an unclear biochemical mechanism. We have proposed that sclerotial differentiation

might be regulated by fungal antioxidant defense. Part of this defense might be

ascorbic acid, which in its reduced form is a well-known antioxidant. This natural antioxidant was studied in Sclerotium rolfsii in relation to oxidative-growth conditions, developmental stages and strain-differentiating ability. The transition of a sclerotial strain from the undifferentiated to the differentiated stage was accompanied by a sharp shift in the ratio of reduced/oxidized ascorbate toward the oxidized form. Ascorbate profiles and lipid peroxidation levels were different between the sclerotial strain grown under high- and low-oxidative stress conditions, as well as between a nonsclerotial S. rolfsii strain grown under high-oxidative stress conditions. In addition, the ratio of reduced/ oxidized ascorbate in the nonsclerotial strain

remained unchanged throughout growth. Lipid peroxidation under high-oxidative stress conditions in sclerotial S. rolfsii colonies one day before differentiation was 3.6-fold higher than in same-day colonies of this strain grown under low-oxidative stress conditions and 2.5-fold higher than in similar-day colonies of the nonsclerotial strain grown under highoxidative stress conditions. Exogenous ascorbate caused a concentration-dependent reduction of lipid peroxidation and a proportional inhibition of the degree of sclerotial differentiation in the sclerotial strain grown under high-oxidative stress conditions by lowering its lipid peroxidation before differentiation to levels similar to the strain grown under lowoxidative stress conditions and to the nonsclerotial strain. Ascorbic acid might be produced by the sclerotial

strain to reduce oxidative stress, although less efficiently than the nondifferenting strain. The data of this study support our theory that oxidative stress might be the triggering factor of sclerotial differentiation in phytopathogenic fungi.

Geradit, P. (2002). Professional training. GEUE, H. and B. HOCK (2004). "Determination of Acaulospora longula and Glomus subgroup Aa in plant roots from grassland using new primers against the large subunit ribosomal DNA." Mycol. Res. 108: 76-83. Molecular techniques have become increasingly important for

the identification of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). In this work Acaulospora longula and Glomus mosseae have been detected in plant roots from pastures using specific nucleotide primers for the two species. Part of the 5' end of the large subunit of the ribosomal RNA gene was amplified by nested PCR and sequenced. The distribution of the fungi within three different plant species, Plantago lanceolata, Trifolium repens, and Holcus lanatus, and two different types of grassland, have been studied. Neither the fungi nor the plants showed specific preference for their symbiotic partnership.

GHARIEB, M. M. (2000). "Nutritional effects on oxalic acid production and solubilization of gypsum by Aspergillus niger." Mycol. Res. 104: 550-556.

The effects of varying carbon, nitrogen, phosphate and sulphate source on solubilization of natural gypsum by Aspergillus niger were assessed. The fungus was grown on Czapek Dox agar amended with 0.5% (w/v) gypsum. Solubilization activity was monitored by measuring the clear zone formed underneath and around the growing colonies. On different concentrations of glucose, nitrate, ammonium, urea, phosphate and sulphate, linear growth rate [Rg] was not significantly correlated with gypsum solubilization rate [Rs], but the solubilization ratio [Rs/Rg] was increased by increasing the concentration of glucose, nitrate, and urea. On ammonium

nitrogen, the mycelial dry weight was negatively correlated with linear growth, and gypsum solubilization activity was markedly lower than that on nitrate or urea. Gypsum solubilization was strongly correlated with both biomass dry weight and oxalic acid production. The fungus was unable to grow on carbonate, as a carbon source, but the addition of sucrose alleviated the effect of alkalinity caused by sodium carbonate. The optimum C:N ratio for gypsum solubilization was 50:1, and the importance of

phosphate, rather than sulphate, was also shown. Implication of critic acid in the solubilization process was also suggested. This work emphasizes the importance of organic acids, particularly oxalic acid, production by fungi in gypsum solubilization and revealed the optimum nutritional conditions for the solubilization process.

GHARIEB, M. M. and G. M. GADD (1999). "Influence of nitrogen source on the solubilization of natural gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and the formation of calcium oxalate by different oxalic and citric acid-producing fungi." Mycol. Res. 103: 473-481. The ability of six fungi to solubilize natural-occurring gypsum

was tested in vitro. The solubilization process was monitored by the production of a clear zone (halo) around or underneath the growing colony on Czapek-Dox agar containing 0.5% (w/v) gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). Aspergillus niger, Penicillium bilaii, P. simplicissimum and Paxillus involutus displayed differential solubilization activities depending on the supplemented nitrogen source. Colonies grown on nitrate-containing medium showed the ability to solubilize gypsum, but when ammonium (at equivalent nitrogen) was used there was a significant reduction in solubilization. It was found that liquid cultures of nitrate-grown fungi produced substantial amounts of oxalic acid, whereas in ammonium-containing medium oxalic

acid was only detected in small amounts. The production of citric and gluconic acid under these experimental conditions was low in both media, although the involvement of citric acid in gypsum solubilization is possible. Coriolus versicolor and Phanaerochaete chrysosporium did not exhibit any solubilization activity in nitrate- or ammonium-containing medium. Additionally these two fungi excreted small quantities of oxalic acid in both media with no citric acid being produced in liquid medium. Concomitant

with the solubilization process and inside the clear solubilized zone, A. niger, Pax. involutus and P. bilaii produced crystals of differing shapes and abundance depending on the fungal strain. No crystals were produced by P. simplicissimum. These crystals were identified as calcium oxalate based on HPLC analysis and energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis. Abundance of these crystals was found to be correlated with both oxalic acid production and the acidity of the medium. It is concluded that gypsum solubilization was predominantly achieved by both oxalic acid, which was accompanied by formation of calcium oxalate crystals, and citric acid production rather than the acidity of the medium. The results are discussed in relation to the signi®cance of such an activity in agricultural applications, e.g. land reclamation, as well as the possible roles played by these fungi in mineral cycling.

GHARIEB, M. M. and G. M. GADD (2004). "The kinetics of 75[Se]-selenite uptake by Saccharomyces cerevisiae and the vacuolization response to high concentrations." Mycol. Res. 108: 1415-1422. Uptake of 75[Se]-selenite by Saccharomyces cerevisiae has

been characterized. At a 0.5 mM selenite, ∼0.14 nmol Se (106 cells)x1 was rapidly accumulated by the cells at a rate of ∼56 pmol . min-1 (106 cells)-1 which was independent of temperature and glucose. This rapid phase was followed by a slower uptake phase which was sensitive to glucose, temperature and metabolic inhibitors [2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP), carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenyl hydrazone (CCCP), potassium cyanide (KCN) and sodium azide (NaN3)] and therefore presumed to be metabolism-dependent. Two transport systems appeared to be involved in selenite uptake. At the low range of selenite concentrations used (0.025–0.1 mM), a high affinity transport system occurred with apparent Km and Vmax values of 54.0 µM and 3.14 pmol . min-1 (106 cells)-1 respectively. A low affinity system was present at higher concentrations (0.1–1.0 µM) with apparent kinetic parameters of Km=435 µM and Vmax=11.6 pmol . min-1 (106 cells)-1. Elevated sulphate concentrations (up to 2.5 µM) did not affect the accumulation of selenite. However, the transport rate from 0.5 µM selenite was

stimulated by sulphite, with the maximum effect occurring at 0.5 µM sulphite. Methionine had a detectable inhibitory action on selenite uptake whereas cystine and cysteine completely inhibited active transport of selenite. Transmission electron microscopy of 5 mM selenite-grown cells revealed the presence of abundant small cytoplasmic vesicles containing electron-dense granules which could represent an intracellular selenium-detoxification mechanism.

GHARIEB, M. M., M. KIERANS, et al. (1999). "Transformation and tolerance of tellurite by filamentous fungi: accumulation, reduction, and volatilization." Mycol. Res. 103: 199-305. Accumulation and transformation of tellurite (TeO3

2-) by a

species of Fusarium and Penicillium citrinum was examined using both solid and liquid Czapek Dox medium. In liquid medium, tellurite partitioned into soluble and insoluble species, and in telluritecontaining (1 mm) liquid medium at pH 6, approx. 60% of added tellurite precipitated after 48 h. Experiments showed that in liquid medium containing 1 mm sodium tellurite, the Fusarium sp. accumulated a maximum of ~0.6 µmol Te (mg d.w.)-1 after 48 h. P. citrinum accumulated a much lower amount of tellurium, ~0.07 µmol (mg d.w.)-1 falling to <0.02 µmol (mg d.w.)-1 after 48 h. Both organisms showed marked differences in the pattern of pH change of the medium, with the pH increasing during growth of the Fusarium sp. in 1 mm tellurite to ~ pH 6.7 after 2 wk. In contrast, the pH decreased during growth of P. citrinum in 1 mm tellurite, to a level of ~ pH 2.7 after 2 wk. On agar medium, test fungi exhibited tolerance to high levels of tellurite (up to 100 mM Na2TeO3) and this was associated with blackening of the growing colonies as well as the surrounding agar. TEM revealed the

deposition of large black granules, apparently in vacuoles, which corresponded with the reduction of tellurite to amorphous elemental tellurium. Precipitation of amorphous tellurium on and around the biomass was also observed and confirmed by energydispersive X-ray microprobe analysis. In addition to the reductive transformation of tellurite, Fusarium sp. also displayed transformation of tellurite into a volatile form. The production of volatile tellurium by Fusarium sp. occurred over the whole growth period and amounted to an average value of 7.8 µmol Te (~ 0.16%) from 51 growth medium with an initial concentration of 1 mm Na2TeO3. Although P. citrinum also transformed tellurite to elemental tellurium, volatilization of tellurium was not detected. It is concluded that different mechanisms of tellurium transformation are species-dependent and can be influenced by physico-chemical changes in the medium, e.g. pH, which can affect tellurium speciation into soluble and insoluble forms and bioaccumulation. In view of the extremely small amounts of Te volatilized by the Fusarium sp., this process cannot be considered to be an important detoxification mechanism.

GHARIEB, M. M., J. A. SAYER, et al. (1998). "Solubilization of natural gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and the formation of calcium oxalate by Aspergillus niger and Serpula himantioides." Mycol. Res. 102: 825-830. The natural dihydrate form of calcium sulphate, CaSO4.2H2O

(gypsum), particularly found in gypsiferous soils and in certain building constructions, was found to be effectively solubilized by both Aspergillus niger and Serpula himantioides. When the fungi were grown on malt extract agar (MEA) medium amended with up to 1% (w/v) of gypsum, solubilization activity was evident by the appearance of a clear zone (haol) around and}or under the growing colonies. The haloes were found subsequently to enclose concentric rings of newly formed crystalline precipitate. The pH profile of the medium underneath the growing mycelium of A. niger was not affected by the presence of gypsum, while

the S. himantioides pH profile displayed a slight reduction in pH values when grown on gypsum-containing media compared with the control. Electron microscopy and X-ray microanalysis of the crystals revealed the formation of calcium-containing crystals with the characteristic morphology typical of different forms of calcium oxalate. The complexing activity of fungal-produced organic acids with calcium was suggested to be the prevalent mechanism of solubilization with the production of oxalic acid resulting in precipitation of oxalate. Such activity resulted in the release of available sulphate which increased over the incubation period. The concentrations of sulphate released from 0.5% (w/v) gypsum after growth of A. niger and S. himantioides for 8 d were 14.7+0.7 and 7.4+0.9 µmol cm-3 respectively. These results are discussed in the light of their relevance to land reclamation and plant nutrition, as well as the weathering of building materials containing gypsum.

GHOSH, A., J. C. FRANKLAND, et al. (2003). "Enzyme production by Mycena galopus mycelium in artificial media and in Picea sitchensis F1 horizon needle litter." Mycol. Res. 107: 996-1008. Mycena galopus is among the most important leaf litter

decomposers in UK coniferous and angiosperm woodlands, having the potential to utilise all the major constituents of plant litter. Even so, the enzyme or combination of enzymes produced by M. galopus responsible for lignin depolymerisation was previously unknown. A range of media from liquid and semi-solid cultures to more natural substrata was tested to determine whether laccase was produced by an isolate of

M. galopus, M9053. Malt extract liquid medium (MEL) with 2,5-xylidine favoured laccase production as compared with the same medium containing the inducers veratryl alcohol, veratryl aldehyde, veratric acid, homoveratric acid, vanillic acid or p-anisic acid. A semi-solid medium of cereal bran in phosphate buffer and a solid medium of Picea sitchensis F1 horizon needle litter were also not as effective as MEL with 2,5-xylidine as an inducer. Compared with six other isolates of the same species grown in MEL without inducers, M9053 exhibited rates of laccase activity fairly typical for M. galopus. An isolate from a dark coloured basidiome of M. galopus, but not var. nigra, exhibited the greatest activity while var. candida showed relatively low laccase activity. Marasmius androsaceus exhibited peak laccase production several days later than M. galopus. In addition, a manganese-dependent peroxidase that was responsible for 15% (in MEL culture fluid) and 39% (in needle litter extract III) of ligninolytic activity was produced by M9053. A further peroxidase was found to be the major ligninolytic constituent in MEL extracts (53%), and had a similar contribution to total activity (29%) as laccase (32%) in needle litter fraction III. Mycena galopus produced water- and buffer-extractable mannases and xylanases when grown on needle litter. Giatgong, P. (1980). Host Index of Plant Diseases in Thailand. Mycology Branch Plant Pathology Microbiology Division Department of Agriculture Ministry of

Agriculture and Cooperatives Bangkok, Thailand: 118. GIBB, E. A. and G. HAUSNER (2003). "A group I intron-like sequence in the nuclear small ribosomal subunit gene of the ophiostomatoid fungus Gondwanamyces proteae." Mycol. Res. 107: 1442-1450. During a phylogenetic study of ophiostomatoid fungi, a group I

intron-like sequence was noted in the SSU rDNA gene of Gondwanamyces proteae. Secondary structure and sequence characteristics assigned the intron to the I E class. We then examined 27 related Group I-like sequences deposited in GenBank, and as a result 15 additional and previously uncategorized I E rDNA introns were identified. This study, with other recent publications, suggests that the I E class

might represent a major family of group I introns that are located within the nuclear SSU and, to some extent LSU, genes in fungi.

GIBB, E. A. and G. HAUSNER (2005). "Optional mitochondrial introns and evidence for a homing-endonuclease gene in the mtDNA rnl gene in Ophiostoma ulmi s. lat." Mycol. Res. 109(10): 1112-1126. Strains of Ophiostoma ulmi, O. novo-ulmi subsp. americana,

O. novo-ulmi subsp. novo-ulmi and O. himal-ulmi were examined for optional introns/insertions within the following mitochondrial genes: small subunit RNA gene (rns), large ribosomal subunit gene (rnl) and the cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene (coxI). Insertions were noted in the rns and coxI genes in strains of O. ulmi, the less aggressive species, but absent in strains of the more aggressive O. novo-ulmi subsp. americana. Strains of all species examined had a group I intron present in the U11 region of the mitochondrial-rnl gene. In all but two strains of O. novo-ulmi subsp. americana, this rnl-U11 intron was about 1.5 kb in length whereas a 2.6 kb version of this element was present in all strains representing O. ulmi, O. novo-ulmi subsp. novo-ulmi, and Ophiostoma himal-ulmi. Irrespective of size, this intron based on RNA folds is a class IA1 group I intron and it encodes a putative ORF for the rps3 ribosomal protein. The size variation of the rnl-U11 intron was examined in detail for two strains of O. novo-ulmi subsp. americana and sequence data suggests the presence of a complex ORF within the 2.6 kb version of this intron; here a homing endonuclease-like gene has been inserted in frame and fused to the carboxyl-terminus of the putative rps3 coding region. The mitochondrial optional introns/insertions in combination with nuclear markers might be useful in distinguishing among the various species and subspecies of the O. ulmi s. lat. complex.

GIBSON, B. R. and D. T. MITCHELL (2004). "Nutritional influences on the solubilization of metal phosphate by ericoid mycorrhizal fungi." Mycol. Res. 108: 947-954. Four ericoid mycobionts (two isolates of Hymenoscyphus

ericae, and two dark, sterile ericoid mycobionts isolated from metal-

contaminated mine sites) were grown on solid agar plates supplemented with zinc phosphate (0.25%) containing different forms of nitrogen (nitrate, ammonium or alanine) and different concentrations of carbon (glucose) and phosphorus (K2HPO4). The influence of nutrient variation on solubilizing ability of the fungi was assessed by measuring the zones of solubilization appearing beneath the growing colonies. All four mycobionts were capable of zinc phosphate solubilization in the presence of all three nitrogen sources and in media containing no nitrogen. No solubilization was observed at 0 mM glucose-C but was observed with increasing glucose concentration from 300 to 600 mM C. Increasing phosphorus concentration (0–5 mM P) had no effect on the solubilizing ability of the isolates. All but one of the mycobionts were capable of solubilizing calcium phosphate (CaHPO4), while no solubilization was

observed in media containing aluminium phosphate (AlPO4), iron phosphate (FePO4 . 4H2O) or copper phosphate (Cu3O8P2 . 2H2O) under conditions which were found to be optimal for zinc phosphate solubilization. Under conditions of glucose at 300 mM C and alanine as the N source in the zinc phosphate-amended agar medium, one of the mycobionts produced new crystals, which were morphologically distinct from the original zinc phosphate crystals. It is concluded that medium composition influences the metal-phosphate solubilizing ability of ericoid mycobionts. The results are discussed in relation to the possible mechanisms involved in solubilization and the potential benefits of metal-phosphate

solubilization to ericoid mycobionts and their host plants. GIBSON, B. R. and D. T. MITCHELL (2005). "Phosphatases of ericoid mycorrhizal fungi: kinetic properties and the effect of copper on activity." Mycol. Res. 109: 478-486. Ericoid endomycorrhizal fungi (two isolates of

Hymenoscyphus ericae obtained from unpolluted heathlands and two H. ericae-type endophytes isolated from Calluna vulgaris growing on Cu-contaminated mine spoil) were grown for 14 d on 10% Rorison’s solution containing sodium phytate as the sole P source and either trace (0.16 µM) or elevated (0.25 µM) concentrations of Cu. The elevated levels of Cu in the medium had no effect on the growth of the two H. ericae-type endophytes from mine spoil sites but caused a significant reduction in growth of the two H. ericae isolates from unpolluted sites. Wall, cytoplasmic and extracellular fractions were assayed for phosphomonoesterase (PMEase) and phosphodiesterase (PDEase) activity. Km and Vmax values varied between the different endophytes and both were highest in the wall fractions. Wall-bound phosphatase activity, excluding PDEase of one H. ericae-type endophyte, was generally unaffected after the isolates had been grown on medium containing 0.25 µM Cu. Extracellular PDEase of the two H. ericae-type endophytes from mine spoil sites was stimulated by 0.25 µM Cu in the growth medium. Cu concentrations up to 5.0 µM in the assay medium did not inhibit wall-

bound phosphatase activity whereas three of the isolates showed a stimulation of extracellular activity with increasing Cu. The results are discussed in relation to phosphatase activity of ericoid endophytes on Cu-contaminated substrates.

Gilbertson, R. L. and K. K. Nakasone (2003). "New taxa of Hawaiian corticioid fungi are described with keys to Crustoderma, Radulomyces, and Scopuloides." Mycologia, 95(3): 467-473. Four new species of corticioid fungi from Hawaii are described

and illustrated. The new genus Hemmesomyces is described to accommodate the new

species H. puauluensis. Radulomyces tantalusensis, Crustoderma fuscatum and Scopuloides magnacystidiata also are described as new. In addition, the new

combination Crustoderma vulcanense is proposed. Keys to the species of Crustoderma, Radulomyces and Scopuloides are provided.

GILLES, T., A. M. ASHBY, et al. (2001). "Development of Pyrenopeziza brassicae apothecia on agar and oilseed rape debris." Mycol. Res. 105: 705-714. The development of apothecia of Pyrenopeziza brassicae

(anamorph Cylindrosporium concentricum) on oilseed rape debris and compost malt agar was observed by scanning electron and light microscopy. On oilseed rape debris, apothecia developed directly beneath the epidermis as small globular structures of dense mycelium, which protruded through the epidermis as they increased in size. The apices of erumpent immature apothecia then developed small ostiolar openings which increased in diameter to expose the hymenia of mature apothecia containing dome-shaped asci interspersed with filiform paraphyses. On compost malt agar, hyphae of one mating type grew towards hyphae of the opposite mating type 3--4 d after inoculation of conidia onto agar surfaces. The subsequent development of apothecia on compost malt agar was similar to that on oilseed rape debris.

Ginns, J. and N. L. Lefebvre (1993). Lignicolous Corticioid Fungi (Basidiomycota) of North America. The Mycological Society of America: Mycologia Memoir No. 19. J. Ginns and N. L. Lefebvre. Mininesota, American Phytopathological Society (APS). Mycologia Memoir No. 19: 247. GIOIA, T. D., D. SISTO, et al. (2005). "Genetic structure of the Pleurotus eryngii species-complex." Mycol. Res. 109: 71-80. Assessment of genetic and phenotypic diversity is necessary

to confidently distinguish genotypes of Pleurotus eryngii when seeking traits of interest and to identify strains with high yield potential. We studied 154 strains from Italy for quantitative (shape, size and yield), qualitative (colour, malformations and growing behaviour), and molecular (RAPD and minisatellite) traits. This population consisted of isolates mostly belonging

to P. eryngii var. eryngii, var. ferulae or var. nebrodensis, from different regions of Italy. A replicated cultivation trial, with three blocks and three replicates for each strain within the block, was used as an experimental design to calculate trait estimates. Significant differences were observed between strains for basidiome number and weight, while no significant differentiation for quantitative morphological traits was observed between geographical origins and taxonomic groups. Qualitative morphological traits were efficient in differentiating isolates of P. eryngii var. nebrodensis. On average, yield per strain (basidiome weight) was correlated more with basidiome number than with size. The most stable yield traits were basidiome number and weight per strain. An average heritability of 0.31 was estimated for yield related traits. A significant difference between var. ferulae and var. eryngii populations was detected for basidiome production measured as ‘average harvest time’. Molecular markers showed a high level of heterogeneity within populations and a low, but significant, degree of differentiation among populations defined a priori. No population-specific marker was detected and the differential pattern of variation between vars. ferulae and eryngii was due to frequency-dependent alleles. The nebrodensis type was more differentiated from var. eryngii than from var. ferulae using either molecular or qualitative morphological traits.

GLARE, T. R. and A. J. INWOOD (1998). "Morphological and genetic characterisation of Beauveria spp. from New Zealand." Mycol. Res. 102: 250-256. Beauveria spp. from New Zealand were compared with isolates

from other countries using morphological and genetic methods. The New Zealand isolates could be divided into B. bassiana and B. brongniartii based on conidial dimensions; isolates with conidia longer than 3µm were classified as B. brongniartii, isolates with shorter, spherical conidia were B. bassiana. RAPD analyses using 10 random primers and scoring 330 bands divided isolates into four large groups: a heterogeneous B. bassiana/B. brongniartii group from New Zealand and other countries, a group containing only New Zealand B. bassiana, a group of only B. brongniartii from both New Zealand and overseas, and a group of other Beauveria species (B. velata, B. caledonica, B. amorpha and B. vermiconia). Restriction digestion of the internal transcribed spacer regions of the nuclear rDNA supported the existence of a genetically distinct New Zealand group of B. bassiana isolates, separating these from a heterogeneous group of B. bassiana and B. brongniartii.

GLEASON, F. H., P. M. LETCHER, et al. (2005). "The growth response of some Chytridiomycota to temperatures commonly observed in the soil." Mycol. Res. 109(6): 717-722. Chytridiomycota were isolated into pure culture from cool

temperate and warm semi-arid soils of eastern Australia. In pure culture these fungi responded variably to the range of temperatures commonly

recorded in their environment. All members of the Blastocladiales, Spizellomycetales and Chytridiales grew in culture at temperatures up to 30 °C. Some isolates from the Blastocladiales and Spizellomycetales continued to grow at or above 37 °. Some isolates of the Chytridiales grew up to but not beyond 35°. All isolates in the Chytridiales were able to resume growth at 20 ° after brief exposure to temperatures higher than the maximum growth temperature, but were killed by exposure to higher temperatures for 7 d. Because in the natural soil habitat temperature may exceed the maximum for growth it may be a limiting factor that determines the distribution of chytrids in the soil.

GLEASON, F. H., P. M. LETCHER, et al. (2004). "Some Chytridiomycota in soil recover from drying and high temperatures." Mycol. Res. 108: 583-589. Rhizophlyctis rosea was found in 44% of 59 soil samples from

national parks, urban reserves and gardens, and agricultural lands of eastern New South Wales, Australia. As some of the soils are periodically dry and hot, we examined possible mechanisms that enable survival in stressful environments such as agricultural lands. Air-dried thalli of R. rosea in soil and pure cultures of R. rosea, two isolates of Allomyces anomalus, one isolate of Catenaria sp., one of Catenophlyctis sp. and one of Spizellomyces sp. recovered following incubation at 90°C for two days. Powellomyces sp. recovered following incubation at 80 °. Sporangia of all seven fungi shrank during air-drying, and immediately returned to turgidity when rehydrated. Some sporangia of R. rosea released zoospores immediately upon rehydration. These data indicate that some Chytridiomycota have resistant structures that enable survival through periodic drying and high

summer temperatures typical of soils used for cropping. Eleven Chytridiomycota isolated from soil did not survive either drying or heat. Neither habitat of the fungus nor morphological type correlated with the capacity to tolerate drying and heat.

GLEN, M., I. C. TOMMERUP, et al. (2001). "Specificity, sensitivity and discrimination of primers for PCR--RFLP of larger basidiomycetes and their applicability to identification of ectomycorrhizal fungi in Eucalyptus forests and plantations." Mycol. Res. 105: 138-149. Techniques to rapidly identify the basidiomycete fungal partner

of ectomycorrhizal associations would be a major advantage for ecological, fungal population dynamics and life history studies of epigeous and hypogeous forms in plantations, forests, wild lands and other native or natural vegetation. PCR--RFLP (Polymerase Chain Reaction--Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) identification of DNA regions is an available technique ; however, primers which have a high probability of amplifying only the basidiomycete DNA are needed. Here we have assessed the specificity, sensitivity and discrimination of six different primer pairs, three targeting nuclear and three mitochondrial regions, for

use in identification of Australian basidiomycete fungi from Eucalyptus forests by matching PCR--RFLP patterns to morphologically defined species. Two sets of primers, one newly designed and targeting the nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and the other amplifying a fragment of mitochondrial large subunit ribosomal DNA met the requirements of high specificity and sensitivity, amplifying DNA from a broad range of larger

basidiomycetes, with no amplification of plant, bacterial or ascomycete DNA. The specificity of the ITS primer pair was compared with that of ITS1-F/ITS4-B. PCR--RFLP of the two regions discriminated fungi to species level for 91 fungal species from 28 families. Hence these two DNA regions and the specific primers are a potential practical PCR--RFLP tool for identifying basidiomycetes associated with plants from field samples.

GLEN, M., I. C. TOMMERUP, et al. (2001). "Interspecific and intraspecific variation of ectomycorrhizal fungi associated with Eucalyptus ecosystems as revealed by ribosomal DNA PCR--RFLP." Mycol. Res. 105: 843-858. Gondwanan vegetation, and the Australian region in particular,

is species rich for ectomycorrhizal fungi in epigeous and hypogeous forms with over 100 species recorded in small (1 ha) patches of forests. Distinguishing co-occurring ectomycorrhizal fungi as root associations in native (natural or wildlands) vegetation or plantations and discriminating them from other larger basidiomycetes, e.g. wood and leaf litter decomposer fungi, places large demands on molecular identification, especially if interspecific similarities and intraspecific variation occur in target sequences. One hundred and nine species of larger basidiomycetes from a single forest location were characterised by PCR--RFLP profiles of two genomic regions (nuclear rDNA ITS and mtLSU). Over one-third of the species for which multiple isolates were tested showed intraspecific variation in either one or both genomic regions. This remarkably high variation questions previous assumptions about intraspecific ITS sequence variation and highlights the value of integrated molecular and morphological databases including voucher specimens. It also emphasises the value of molecular investigations that use more than one genomic region. Interspecific similarities were common among the Cortinariaceae, especially in the ITS region.

Discrimination of most Cortinariaceae species was achieved using variation in the mtLSU region in conjunction with the ITS. This new information raises the possibilities that the ITS sequence is more conserved and the mtLSU more variable than among species of the other 23 families. In the other families, interspecific ITS variation was greater and the mtLSU profiles grouped species within families. The high variation in the two genomic regions indicated possible differences in the fungal population structure between two adjacent, differently managed blocks of Eucalyptus marginata forest. The significance of this variation to ecology, biodiversity

assessment and ecosystem management are discussed.

Glenn, A. E., E. A. Richardson, et al. (2004). "Genetic and morphological characterization of a Fusarium verticillioides conidiation mutant." Mycologia, 96(5): 968-980. Enteroblastic phialidic conidiation by the corn pathogen

Fusarium verticillioides (teleomorph Gibberella moniliformis) produces abundant, mostly single-celled microconidia in distinctive long chains. Because conidia might be critical for establishing in planta associations, we characterized a spontaneous

F. verticillioides conidiation mutant in which phialides were incapable of enteroblastic conidiogenesis. Instead of producing a conidium, the phialide apex developed a determinate, slightly undulating, germ tube-like outgrowth, in which nuclei rarely were seen. Electron microscopy showed that the apical outgrowth possessed a thick, rough, highly fibrillar outer wall layer that was continuous with the thinner and smoother outer wall layer of the phialide. Both the inner wall layer and plasma membrane also were continuous between the apical outgrowth and phialide. The apical neck region of mutant phialides lacked both a thickened inner wall layer and a wall-building zone, which were critical for conidium initial formation. No indication of septum formation or separation of the apical outgrowth from mutant phialides was observed. These aberrations suggested the apical outgrowth was not a functional conidium of altered morphology. The mutation did not prevent perithecium development and ascosporogenesis. Genetic analyses indicated that a single locus, designated FPH1 (frustrated phialide), was responsible for the mutation. The conidiogenesis mutants were recovered only during certain sexual crosses involving wild-type conidiating parents, and then only in some perithecia, suggesting that mutation of FPH1 might be meiotically induced, perhaps due to mispairi between homologous chromosomes and deletion of the gene from a chromosome. GLENN, A. E., D. M. RYKARD, et al. (1998). "Molecular characterization of Myriogenospora atramentosa and its occurrence on some new hosts." Mycol. Res. 102: 483-490. Myriogenospora atramentosa produces partial to complete

sterility of host grasses. Geographical and host species distributions were assessed and updated. It is reported only from the New World and appears to be limited to the highly evolved grass tribes Andropogoneae and Paniceae. Included in these tribes are the previously unreported host species Panicum scoparium, Paspalum urvillei, Erianthus brevibarbis, E. contortus, E. giganteus, and hybrids from crosses with Erianthus spp. Additionally, M. atramentosa is reported for the first time growing on Paspalum notatum (bahiagrass), and Panicum hemitomon in South Carolina, U.S.A. Sequence data (ITS regions 1 and 2 and 5.8S rDNA) from several isolates indicated that there is a significant level of DNA sequence differentiation

between isolates of M. atramentosa, which suggests that there are at least two distinct sequence groups, or cryptic species, within the currently defined

morphological species. Glockling, S. L. (1997). "Zoophagus cornus : a new species from Japan." Mycological Research 101(10): 1179-1182. A new species of Zoophagus, Z. cornus, capturing loricate rotifers on short

peg-like traps, was isolated from paddy field mud in Ibaraki, Japan. The fungus produced long, narrow, cylindrical, aseptate conidia. Azygospores containing a large vacuole were produced directly from the hyphae.

Glockling, S. L. (1998). "Accessory conidium production in three species of Harposporium and an evaluation of nematophagous members of the genus." Mycological Research 102(7): 891-896. Harposporium arcuatum, H. dicorymbum and H. subuliforme were isolated

from nematodes and grown in pure culture. All three species produced accessory conidia in culture and two species also produced arthroconidia. A comparative study of spore production within nematophagous members of the genus Harposporium was made.

GLOCKLING, S. L. (1998). "Two new species of rotifer-attacking fungi, Rotiferophthora, from Japan and records of Verticillium bactrosporum in rotifer hosts." Mycol. Res. 102: 145-150. Rotiferophthora ellipsospora and R. japonica spp. nov., are

described as endoparasites of bdelloid rotifers, forming large dictyochlamydospores and small infection conidia. Verticillium bactrosporum was found in association with a new host species of bdelloid rotifer and was cultured for the first time : resting spores were formed in culture.

GLOCKLING, S. L. (1998). "Isolation of a new species of rotifer-attacking Olpidium." Mycol. Res. 102: 206-208. Olpidium paradoxum sp. nov. was found to attack adult loricate

rotifers and their eggs in a sample of pond water in Japan. The fungus produced zoosporangia inside the host from which exit tubes of variable length grew to the outside environment. Pyriform zoospores with a single long posterior flagellum were released from the sporangia.

GLOCKLING, S. L. (1998). "Three new species of Rotiferophthora attacking bdelloid rotifers in Japan." Mycol. Res. 102: 1142-1148. Three new species of Rotiferophthora (R. minutispora, R.

amamiensis and R. lacrima) were isolated from samples of soil, rabbit dung and farmland waste in Japan. All species infected bdelloid rotifers and produced dictyochlamydospores in addition to conidia, but their modes of conidiogenesis differed. R. minutispora had small spherical conidia and long tapered conidiogenous cells which formed in verticils around the conidiophores ; R. amamiensis had ovoid conidia produced from flask-shaped conidiogenous cells and aphanophialides, and R.

lacrima produced long tear-shaped conidia enveloped in a mucoid sheath from short conidiogenous cells produced in a Drechmeria-like formation. A summary table of all known species of Rotiferophthora is shown.

GLOCKLING, S. L. and G. W. BEAKES (2000). "Two new species of Haptoglossa, H. erumpens and H. dickii, infecting nematodes in cow manure." Mycol. Res. 104: 100-106. Two species of Haptoglossa isolated from nematodes from cow

manure from N.E. England are described. H. erumpens sp. nov., infecting Bunonema nematodes, is aplanosporic, the cysts being released after rupture of the nematode cuticle in the absence of an evacuation tube. H. dickii sp. nov. is zoosporic, infecting several species of rhabditid nematodes. Aplanospores and zoospore cysts germinated to produce secondary spores (gun cells) with which to infect further nematode hosts. Some key ultrastructural features in both species have been included.

Glockling, S. L. and G. W. Beakes (2006). "An ultrastructural study of development and reproduction in the nematode parasite Myzocytiopsis vermicola." Mycologia, 98(1): 1-5. An isolate of Myzocytiopsis vermicola, a holocarpic parasite of

Rhabditis nematodes, was studied with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to follow development during infection, asexual and sexual reproduction. Nematodes became infected after attachment of apical cystospore buds to the nematode cuticle. Apical buds were packed with vesicles with dense fibrillar contents, which were absent from the thallus. Some thalli developed into sporangia while others became paired gametangial cells. Zoospore cleavage was often intrasporangial, although during the early stages of an epidemic partially differentiated zoospores usually were released via an exit tube into a fine vesicle. Packets of tripartite tubular hairs (TTH) were not observed in the cytoplasm of either developing or mature sporangia. TEM of sectioned material and whole mounts of zoospores revealed biflagellate zoospores, some without hairs and others with a proximal row of very short hairs on the anterior flagellum. Gametangial contact was via a short, walled fertilization tube and surplus antheridial and oogonial nuclei remained in their respective gametangial cells until disintegration of the periplasm. The mature oospores had a scalloped, electron opaque, epispore wall layer. These observations will be discussed in relation to the likely phylogenetic position of the Myzocytiopsidales within the oomycetes.

Glockling, S. L. and M. W. Dick (1997). "New species of Chlamydomyzium from Japan and pure culture of Myzocytiopsis species." Mycological Research 101(7): 883-896. Four isolates of Myzocytiopsidales infecting Rhabditis nematodes,

Distylae rotifers and nematode eggs, are described. Some of these, and other species of Myzocytiopsidales, were obtained in pure culture for the

first time. Reinfection of host organisms from pure culture, fulfilling Koch's postulates was achieved for all species in axenic culture.

GLOCKLING, S. L. and M. SHIMAZU (1997). "Culturing of three species of endoparasitic fungi infecting nematodes." Mycol. Res. 101: 55-60. Three species of fungi endoparasitic in nematodes were

obtained in pure culture for the first time. The fungi belong to Harposporium and Verticillium. Morphology of the fungi on corn meal agar was studied and infectivity proving Koch's postulates was achieved for each species. The infection method for Harposporium cycloides was shown to be by spore ingestion. Whilst all species were found to produce infection conidia in pure culture, both species of Harposporium produced accessory conidia and, in H. lilliputanum, arthroconidia were also formed.

GLYNN, N. C., M. C. HARE, et al. (2005). "Phylogenetic analysis of EF-1 alpha gene sequences from isolates of Microdochium nivale leads to elevation of varieties majus and nivale to species status." Mycol. Res. 109(8): 872-880. Degenerate PCR primers were designed based on EF-1 alpha

(EF-1a) gene sequences of several filamentous fungi retrieved from sequence databases. These primers were used to isolate a partial sequence, approximately 830 bp in length of the EF-1a from isolates of Microdochium nivale obtained from various geographic locations across the world. Two distinct groups of isolates were evident among those isolates examined. Sequence homology for comparisons within

group was 99.7% for group A and 99.8% for group B. Primers specific to either group A or group B sequences were designed and tested on isolates from around the world. Comparisons were made with primers previously reported for the two varieties of M. nivale and revealed that Group A type isolates correlated with M. nivale var. majus and group B isolates with M. nivale var. nivale.

The primers from this study and those previously reported were in agreement for all isolates with the exception of one isolate (NRRL 3289) which failed to amplify with previously published M. nivale primers. Sequence analysis of NRRL 3289 suggested that it was an isolate of M. nivale var. nivale as indicated by the EF-1a based primers developed in this study. This study provides sequence based phylogenetic evidence of two species and when taken together with biological

differences reported, leads to the recognition of M. majus comb. nov. (syn. Fusarium nivale var. majus). Descriptions of the two species are provided.

GOBBI, E., D. REKAB, et al. (2002). "Mitochondrial plasmids of the pCp family are spread worldwide in Cryphonectria parasitica populations." Mycol. Res. 106: 1408-1416. A worldwide collection of strains of Cryphonectria parasitica

was examined to draw a precise picture of the incidence and diversity of mitochondrial plasmids related to the plasmid pUG1. Amplification by

specific PCR of 199 strains showed the presence of pUG1-like plasmids in 22% of the populations examined. The entire plasmid molecules were amplified by multiplex PCR and the products showed different RFLP patterns. The variability was mostly in a non-coding region of the molecule that has been sequenced in some representative strains, enabling the molecular evolution of the molecule to be elucidated. The data show that mitochondrial plasmids of C. parasitica comprise an almost homogeneous family (designated pCp) that can be divided into two clusters based on the presence/absence respectively of a 60 nucleotide region in North American and European plasmids.

GODFREY, S. A. C., R. D. MONDS, et al. (2003). "Identification of Pythium oligandrum using species-specific ITS rDNA PCR oligonucleotides." Mycol. Res. 107: 790-796. Pythium oligandrum is a parasite of cultivated Agaricus

bisporus. Infection results in significant yield reductions and a disease referred to as ‘black compost’. In this study, P. oligandrum isolates were isolated from New Zealand mushroom composts, and their ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions were amplified using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). ITS nucleotide sequences obtained from New Zealand P. oligandrum isolates were compared with those previously identified P. oligandrum isolates and 23 described Pythium species. Although New Zealand P. oligandrum isolates had high ITS nucleotide identity with internationally identified P. oligandrum, the order of nucleotides in some regions varied when compared with other Pythium species. These varied nucleotides within the ITS region were used to design PCR primers (P.OLIG.F1 and P.OLIG.R04) for the specific amplification of a 384-bp fragment from P. oligandrum DNA. P.OLIG.F1 and P.OLIG.R04 were used to identify a major source of P. oligandrum inoculation on a New Zealand mushroom farm. Application of this diagnostic test will assist farming strategies implemented to prevent future P. oligandrum outbreaks. Furthermore, results presented identify a need for species resolution between P. oligandrum and P. hydnosporum.

Goh, T. K. and R. T. Hanlin (1997). "Nuclear divisions in the ascus and ascospores of Melanospora zamiae." Mycological Research 101(12): 1511-1514. In Melanospora zamiae a total of five nuclear divisions took place during

ascosporogenesis. The first and second divisions were meiotic in which the single diploid nucleus divided into four haploid nuclei. The mitosis that followed gave rise to eight nuclei which characteristically assumed a 1:4:3 (apical : middle: basal) spacing in the clavate ascus. After ascospore delimitation, each nucleus in the young ascospore underwent two successive mitoses producing four haploid nuclei in each spore. Equatorial arrangement of these nuclei was observed in the mature ascospores.

Goh, T. K., W. H. Ho, et al. (1997). "Four new species of Xylomyces from submerged wood." Mycological Research 101(11): 1323-1328. Xylomyces is re-examined, the type specimen X. chlamydosporis

redescribed and illustrated, and new distribution records are provided. Four new species, X. elegans sp. nov., X. giganteus sp. nov., X. punctatus sp. nov. and X. pusillus sp. nov. are described from wood submerged in freshwater collected in various countries. The chlamydospores of these species are drawn at the same scale as a composite diagram for comparison and each is illustrated with light micrographs. Xylomyces foliicola is regarded as atypical in the genus. A key to the accepted species in Xylomyces is provided.

Goh, T. K., W. H. Ho, et al. (1997). "New records and species of Sporoschisma and Sporoschismopsis from submerged wood in the tropics." Mycological Research 101(11): 1295-1307. During investigations of microfungi occurring on submerged plant material

in tropical streams, seven species of Sporoschisma and one species of Sporoschismopsis were recorded. Three are newly described : Sporoschisma parcicuneatum, S. phaeocentri and Sporoschismopsis ustraliensis. Each of these species is described and illustrated in detail and a synopsis of remaining species of Sporoschismopsis is provided. Generic concepts and connections to teleomorphs are discussed and a key is provided to accepted species in both genera.

Goh, T. K. and K. D. Hyde (1997). "A revision of Dactylaria, with description of D. tunicata sp. nov. from submerged wood in Australia." Mycological Research 101(10): 1265-1272. Dactylaria tunicata sp. nov. from submerged wood in a freshwater stream

from Australia is described and illustrated. It differs from all previously described species of Dactylaria in having uniseptate conidia with a hyaline sheath. The 41 species of Dactylaria accepted by de Hoog are listed, together with a further 41 validly published species of Dactylaria post de Hoog. A taxonomic key to 37 of the 41 post de Hoog species is provided, based on the literature, together with a composite illustration of their conidial morphology. The other four species are discussed, but they are not considered to be Dactylaria species (sensu de Hoog).

Goh, T. K. and K. D. Hyde (1997). "Delortia palmicola and two new species from wood submerged in a freshwater stream in Australia." Mycological Research 101(1): 42-46. Delortia, represented by the type, D. palmicola, is redescribed from fresh

decaying palm material collected in north Queensland, Australia. Two new species, D. tumidoapicis and D. aquatica, collected from wood submerged in a freshwater stream, also in north Queensland are described. The three species are illustrated with light micrographs and line diagrams and discussed in relation to each other.

Goh, T. K. and K. D. Hyde (1997). "Lepteutypa hexagonalis sp. nov. from Pinanga sp. in Ecuador." Mycological Research 101(1): 85-88. Lepteutypa hexagonalis sp. nov. is described from a dead trunk of

Pinanga sp. (Palmae) collected in an Ecuadorean rainforest. Ascomata are deeply immersed with a distinct ostiolum, asci are cylindrical with a J+

subapical ring, and ascospores are brown, 4-celled, and hexagonal or heptagonal in transverse section. Goh, T. K. and K. D. Hyde (1997). "Melanographium palmicolum sp. nov. from Hong Kong, and a key to the genus." Mycological Research 101(9): 1097-1100. Melanographium palmicolum sp. nov. is described and illustrated based

on a specimen collected on a decaying rachis of Archontophoenix alexandrae in Hong Kong. It differs from other previously described species of Melanographium by its moderately dense and widely divergent conidiophore fascicles, and the shape and size of its conidia. A key to the eight species currently accepted in the genus is provided, based on the literature.

Goh, T. K. and K. D. Hyde (1997). "The generic distinction between Chaetopsina and Kionochaeta, with descriptions of two new species." Mycological Research 101(12): 1517-1523. Chaetopsina hongkongensis sp. nov. from decaying palm rachids, and

Kionochaeta australiensis sp. nov. from decaying wood submerged in a freshwater stream, are described and illustrated. Both species produced setose conidiophores and phialidic conidiogenous cells. The former is distinct in having polyblastic conidiogenous cells with multiple denticulate loci, and is compared with C. polyblastia. In Kionochaeta australiensis conidiophores have accessory setiform lateral branches, and it is compared with K. keniensis, K. pughii, and K. ramifera. The delimitation of these two genera is discussed with additional information provided from an SEM study of conidiogenous characters in C. hongkongensis.

Goh, T. K. and K. D. Hyde (1998). "A new hyphomycete genus, Conioscyphopsis, from wood submerged in a freshwater stream and a review of Conioscypha." Mycological Research 102(3): 308-312. Conioscypha is reviewed, with a discussion on generic concepts and

conidiogenesis. A new genus, Conioscyphopsis, is described from submerged wood in Australia, and a key to species in both genera is provided. Conioscyphopsis australiensis sp. nov. is similar to species of Conioscypha in lacking conspicuous conidiophores, but its dematiaceous, unicellular conidia are produced from ampulliform conidiogenous cells borne on semi-immersed hyphae. Conioscyphopsis differs from Conioscypha mainly in its conidiogenesis. Conidiogenesis in Conioscypha is intermediate between ` annellidic ' and ` phialidic ', single conidia being produced endogenously within indeterminate, percurrently proliferating

conidiogenous cells. In Conioscyphopsis, conidiogenesis is ` enteroblastic-phialidic ', solitary conidia being produced exogenously from determinate, but percurrently regenerating conidiogenous cells.

GOH, T. K. and K. D. HYDE (1998). "Stratiphoromyces brunneisporus gen. et sp. nov., an undescribed dematiaceous hyphomycete on Licuala palms." Mycol. Res. 102: 1149-1152. Stratiphoromyces brunneisporus gen. et sp. nov. occurring on

decaying petioles of Licuala spp., collected from rain forests in Australia and Brunei, is described and illustrated. It is unique in producing a globose mass of brown, uniseptate, curved, setulate conidia, from percurrently proliferating conidiogenous cells at the apex of solitary, erect, unbranched, brown conidiophores. The genus is briefly compared with Dictyochaeta and other similar hyphomycetes.

Goh, T. K., K. D. Hyde, et al. (1998). "Aquaphila albicans gen. et sp. nov., a hyphomycete from submerged wood in the tropics." Mycological Research 102(5): 587-592. Aquaphila albicans gen. and sp. nov. from submerged wood in the tropics

is described and illustrated. It produces hyaline, multiseptate, fusoid or falcate conidia resembling the macroconidia of Fusarium species, but differs by its conidiogenesis and the aquatic habitat. The conidiophores of A. albicans are septate, hyaline, sympodially proliferating with conidiogenous denticles. Conidial development in A. albicans has been studied in culture and results are presented. The genus is compared with similar genera.

GOH, T. K., K. D. HYDE, et al. (1998). "The hyphomycete genus Acrogenospora, with two new species and two new combinations." Mycol. Res. 102: 1309-1315. A taxonomic review and revision of the dematiaceous

hyphomycete genus Acrogenospora is presented. Species in this genus produce acrogenous, solitary, nonseptate conidia from mononematous, simple conidiophores, with multiple percurrent proliferations. Acrogenospora altissima comb. nov. and A. megalospora comb. nov. are proposed for the anamorphic states of two Farlowiella species. A. ovalia and A. subprolata spp. nov. are described from submerged wood in Hong Kong. They differ from other Acrogenospora species in shape, colour, and size of their conidia. A taxonomic key to species in the genus is provided.

GOH, T. K., K. M. TSUI, et al. (1998). "Elegantimyces sporidesmiopsis gen. et sp. nov. on submerged wood from Hong Kong." Mycol. Res. 102: 239-242. A new dematiaceous hyphomycete, Elegantimyces

sporidesmiopsis gen. et sp. nov., is described from decaying wood submerged in a stream in Hong Kong. It produces predominantly 3-septate, obclavate, versicoloured, solitary conidia at the apex of the sympodially regenerating conidiophores. The apical cell of the conidia is

unique in becoming a sympodially proliferating conidiogenous cell producing an Idriella-like synanamorph. Conidial secession in this fungus is rhexolytic. Elegantimyces is compared with Sporidesmium bifasciatum, S. tropicale and S. urceolatum which also produce Idriella-like synanamorphs.

GOH, T.-K. and K. D. HYDE (1997). "Delortia palmicola and two new species from wood submerged in a freshwater stream in Australia." Mycol. Res. 101: 42-46. Delortia, represented by the type, D. palmicola, is redescribed

from fresh decaying palm material collected in north Queensland, Australia. Two new species, D. tumidoapicis and D. aquatica, collected from wood submerged in a freshwater stream, also in north Queensland are described. The three species are illustrated with light micrographs and line diagrams and discussed in relation to each other.

GOH, T.-K. and K. D. HYDE (1997). "Lepteutypa hexagonalis sp. nov. from Pinanga sp. in Ecuador." Mycol. Res. 101: 85-88. Lepteutypa hexagonalis sp. nov. is described from a dead trunk

of Pinanga sp. (Palmae) collected in an Ecuadorean rainforest. Ascomata are deeply immersed with a distinct ostiolum, asci are cylindrical with a J+ subapical ring, and ascospores are brown, 4-celled, and hexagonal or heptagonal in transverse section.

GOINS, T. Q., W. A. EDENS, et al. (2002). "Heavily-melanized variants of the sexual Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici are non-pathogenic and indistinguishable from the asexual, Phialophora state." Mycol. Res. 106(10): 1179–1186. Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici is the aetiologic agent

of take-all disease of wheat and barley. Heavily-melanized variants of a lightly pigmented, virulent wild-type strain were isolated and characterized. These variants were phenotypically similar to Phialophora sp., the proposed anamorph of Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici. Unlike the wild-type G. graminis strain, Phialophora-like variants produced conidia and lost their ability to reproduce sexually after serial transfer. Some ascospores from initial self-crosses of the Phialophora-like variants regained the G. graminis phenotype, and these derivatives could again produce Phialophora-like variants. As with Phialophora isolates from the field, Phialophora-like variants produced in this study were non-pathogenic and produced less extracellular protein.

GOLDWAY, M., R. AMIR, et al. (2000). "Morchella conica exhibiting a long fruiting season." Mycol. Res. 104: 1000-1004. Morels are known to produce ascocarps during a few weeks in

the spring. Here we present findings about a Morchella conica population which produces ascocarps during a period of 8--10 months, from early

spring until mid-winter. To the best of our knowledge, this phenomenon has not been described previously. Field investigations correlated the ascocarp appearance with gradual drying of the soil. DNA±PCR fingerprinting indicated that these Morchella shared a similar genetic background.

GOMES, E. A., L. M. d. ABREU, et al. (2000). "ITS sequences and mitochondrial DNA polymorphism in Pisolithus isolates." Mycol. Res. 104: 911-918. Genetic variability among isolates of the ectomycorrhizal

fungus genus Pisolithus collected in Brazil, USA and France was examined, based on nucleotide sequence of ITS from rDNA genes and restriction polymorphism of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Alignment of the ITS sequences showed 97.0% homology among isolates from Brazil, 97.8% homology among isolates from USA and France and 75.7-78.5% among the isolates from Brazil and USA/France. These sequences were aligned with ITS sequences of Australian, Brazilian and Kenyan Pisolithus isolates described in the literature. A consensus tree generated by sequence data of all Pisolithus isolates showed the presence of a number of species among the isolates. The mtDNA analysis was carried out by total DNA restriction analysis with different enzymes (Dra I, EcoR I, EcoR V, Hha I--Xba I, Hind III and Rsa I) and probing with purified mtDNA labelled with fluorescein d-UTP. The size of the mitochondrial genome of isolates Pt 90A, Pt 185R and PF cleaved with EcoR I was estimated to be, approx. 40.5, 47.2 and 47.6 kb, respectively. Cluster analysis based on the mtDNA restriction fragments grouped the isolates into two distinct groups, which coincide with their host specificity and geographical origins. PCR-RFLP analysis of mitochondrial rDNA (mt rDNA) from 12 Pisolithus isolates did not show any polymorphism. These data corroborate previous results obtained in our laboratory with RAPD-PCR and rDNA PCR-RFLP markers and support recent taxonomic studies where a number of Pisolithus species were described.

Gonzalez, M. C., R. T. Hanlin, et al. (2004). "Poroleprieuria, a new xylariaceous genus from Mexico." Mycologia, 96(3): 675-681. Poroleprieuria gen. nov. is described and illustrated to

accommodate P. rogersii in the Xylariaceae, Xylariales. This ascomycete, known only from

the type collection, is characterized by reniform, light brown, smooth ascospores with a germ pore; cylindrical, persistent asci lacking an apical apparatus, septate

persistent paraphyses, and erumpent, erect, dark brown, fragile, subcylindrical stromata. The characteristics of this xylariaceous fungus were compared

with those of some other ascomycetes having super- ficially similar cylindrical stromata or ascospores with germ pores.

GONZALEZ, M. S. and N. PONS (2000). "Characteristics of developmental

stages in mitospore production of Pseudocercospora musae." Mycol. Res. 104: 1507-1517. Developmental stages in mitospore production in

Pseudocercospora musae were examined by differential interference contrast light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy. Mitosporogenous cells consistently originated directly from upper stromatic cells. Concentric bodies were found in both stromatic and mitosporogenous cells. The cell wall of stromatic cells, mitosporogenous cells, and mitospores, consisted of two layers. Mitospore ontogeny was found to be holoblastic and mitospore secession schizolytic. After liberation, the mitosporogenous cell apex and the mitospore base exhibited a half septum consisting of one layer. A central pore, occluded by a Woronin body, was observed in the mitosporogenous locus. Mitosporogenous cells proliferated percurrently. The morphological characteristics of the apex of mitosporogenous cells and the base of liberated mitospores in P. musae is of fundamental value in defining unthickened scars as important criteria for generic separation within the Cercospora-like generic assemblage.

GONZALEZ, T., M. d. C. TERRON, et al. (2003). "Identification of a new laccase gene and confirmation of genomic predictions by cDNA sequences of Trametes sp. I-62 laccase family." Mycol. Res. 107: 727-735. The strain Trametes sp. I-62 (CECT 20197) is a white-rot

fungus with great potential for biotechnological applications in the fields of industrial waste water decolorization and clean up. Three laccase genes: lcc1, lcc2 and lcc3 have been cloned and sequenced from this basidiomycete. In this work, the coding regions of the corresponding cDNAs have been synthesized, cloned, and sequenced. They are 1563, 1563 and 1575 bp in length, respectively. Former putative intron/ exon structures from genomic DNA are fully confirmed by match analysis with our cDNA sequences. Using Polymerase Chain Reaction – Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR–RFLP) analysis, an additional laccase cDNA was also identified, corresponding to a new gene, lcc1A, which displayed 99.6% identity with lcc1 at protein level. Such high similarity between lcc1 and lcc1A sequences, and the comparison with reports from other basidiomycete laccases, suggest that in this strain these two genes are allelic variants.

GONZALEZ, V., F. ARENAL, et al. (2002). "Molecular typing of Spanish species of Amanita by restriction analysis of the ITS region of the DNA." Mycol. Res. 106: 903-910. The genetic relatedness among 29 collections belonging to 20

of the most common species of genus Amanita in the Iberian Peninsula have been studied by means of restriction analysis of the amplified ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region of rDNA. Sixty restriction fragments were considered for the analysis. The main conclusion is that this technique could be useful to

identify and characterize isolates from Amanita species. Although ARDRA did not show an appropriate level of discrimination to unambiguously infer phylogenetic relationships at or below the section level, some general trends could be outlined when the different haplotypes generated were compared by means of neighbour joining analysis. Thus, members from the same sections were frequently grouped together.

GONZALEZ-HERNANDEZ, G. A., L. HERRERA-ESTRELLA, et al. (1997). "Biolistic transformation of Mucor circinelloides." Mycol. Res. 101: 953-956. Intact ungerminated spores or germinating swollen spores of

Mucor circinelloides were biolistically transformed to leucine prototrophy with the autonomous replicating plasmids pLeu4 and pMCL1302. The former developmental stage was eæciently transformed with both plasmids. The existence of pLeu4 sequences, as selfreplicating elements, within Leu+ transformants was established by Southern analysis and by the recovery of plasmid pLeu4 in bacteria transformed with total DNA from M. circinelloides transformants. This is the first report of the transformation of intact cells of a member of the Zygomycetes.

Gonzalez-Hernandez, G. A., L. Herrera-Estrella, et al. (1997). "Biolistic transformation of Mucor circinelloides." Mycological Research 101(8): 953-956. Intact ungerminated spores or germinating swollen spores of Mucor

circinelloides were biolistically transformed to leucine prototrophy with the autonomous replicating plasmids pLeu4 and pMCL1302. The former developmental stage was efficiently transformed with both plasmids. The existence of pLeu4 sequences, as selfreplicating elements, within Leu+ transformants was established by Southern analysis and by the recovery of plasmid pLeu4 in bacteria transformed with total DNA from M. circinelloides transformants. This is the first report of the transformation of intact cells of a member of the Zygomycetes.

GOODWIN, S. B. (2002). "The barley scald pathogen Rhynchosporium secalis is closely related to the discomycetes Tapesia and Pyrenopeziza." Mycol. Res. 106: 645-654. Rhynchosporium secalis causes an economically important

foliar disease of barley, rye, and other grasses known as leaf blotch or scald. This species has been difficult to classify due to a paucity of morphological features ; the genus Rhynchosporium produces conidia from vegetative hyphae directly, without conidiophores or other structures. Furthermore, no teleomorph has been associated with R. secalis, so essentially nothing is known about its phylogenetic

relationships. To identify other fungi that might be related to R. secalis, the 18S ribosomal RNA gene and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region (ITS1, 5±8S rRNA gene, and ITS2) were sequenced and compared to those in databases. Among 31 18S sequences downloaded from GenBank, the closest relatives to R. secalis were two species of Graphium

(hyphomycetes) and two other accessions that were not identified to genus or species. Therefore, 18S sequences were not useful for elucidating the phylogenetic relationships of R. secalis. However, analyses of 76 ITS sequences revealed very close relationships among R. secalis and species of the discomycete genera Tapesia and Pyrenopeziza, as well as several anamorphic fungi including soybean and Adzuki-bean isolates of Phialophora gregata. These species all clustered together with 100% bootstrap support. On the basis of these results, the teleomorph of R. secalis, if it exists, most likely will be a small apothecium produced directly on dead, infected host tissue. The ITS analysis also indicated that higher-level classifications within the discomycetes need to be revised, and that Tapesia and Pyrenopeziza probably do not belong in the Dermateaceae.

GORBUSHINA, A. A., A. BECK, et al. (2005). "Microcolonial rock inhabiting fungi and lichen photobionts: evidence for mutualistic interactions." Mycol. Res. 109(11): 1288-1296. On nutrient-poor rock surfaces, yeast-like black fungi (also

called microcolonial fungi, MCF) may derive organic carbon either from the atmosphere or from interactions with other rock-inhabiting microorganisms. Interactions between freeliving rock inhabiting heterotrophic fungi and phototrophic algae were investigated using axenic cultures. Five typical MCF strains were incubated with pure cultures of four lichen photobionts isolated from lichens growing in similar locations. After 2–12 months of combined cultivation, the fungal and algal colonies developed an overlapping structure involving both partners. Microscopic, histological and ultrastructural methods were used to investigate the changes that occur after prolonged contact. Histological analysis demonstrated changes in the spatial organisation of mixed colonies when in contact with each other. The branching of fungal hyphae was more pronounced in the vicinity of algal cells, thus increasing the potential contact surface. Photobiont cells were not changed in size, but a reduction of sporulation could be observed in some Trebouxia strains. Close cell wall contacts between fungal and algal cells were formed and mucilage accumulated at the contact places. The ability of MCF to form associations with potential photobionts present on rock

surfaces was thus demonstrated for pure cultures in vitro. Gordon, S. A. and R. H. Petersen (1997). "Infraspecific variation among geographically separated collections of Marasmius androsaceus." Mycological Research 101(3): 365-371. Comparative morphology, mating compatibility and extracellular laccase

approaches were used to provide information on infraspecific variation within geographically separated collections of Marasmius androsaceus. Collections/cultures from North America and Europe were used for these analyses. While all utilized collections belonged to one morphological

species, mating compatibility crosses revealed three intersterility groups. Extracellular laccase banding patterns confirmed genetic isolation of intersterility groups I and II.

GORTON, C., S. H. KIM, et al. (2004). "Phylogenetic analysis of the bluestain fungus Ophiostoma minus based on partial ITS rDNA and β-tubulin gene sequences." Mycol. Res. 108: 759-765. In an attempt to clarify the relationship between fungi

classified as Ophiostoma minus, but of different geographic origins and mating systems, sequencing of the 5.8S and ITS 2 rDNA, and β-tubulin gene was carried out. The β-tubulin gene was highly informative, supporting the sub-division of O. minus into two groups based on geographic origin. Furthermore, isolates previously classified as O. pseudotsugae were confirmed as being clearly distinct from O. minus. However, sequencing did not reveal any polymorphisms between isolates with homothallic as compared to heterothallic mating systems. This was supported by crosses using methylbenzamidazole-2-yl carbamate nuclear markers which showed that hybridisation between isolates of different mating systems was possible. However, we propose that different

mating systems may still signal a divergence of isolates of O. minus. GOTTLIEB, A. M., E. FERRER, et al. (2000). "rDNA analyses as an aid to the taxonomy of species of Ganoderma." Mycol. Res. 104: 1033-1045. As part of research to implement methods for the identification

of Ganoderma species, this paper describes the use of PCR coupled to restriction digestions, single-strand conformational polymorphism (SSCP) and direct sequencing to assay rDNA polymorphism in South American collections of Ganoderma. The aim of the present study was to determine whether morphologically defined groups could be discriminated by molecular markers and to examine ITS sequence variation. Nineteen isolates of subgenus Ganoderma representing seven morphological taxa, and thirty isolates of subgenus Elfvingia representing three taxa, were studied. ITS I and IT II regions of twenty-one isolates were sequenced and were cladistically analyzed. Seven additional sequences were downloaded from EMBL/Genbank for comparison. In general, agreement between groupings delimited by restriction patterns, SSCP of ITS I and ITS II was evident. Gene trees derived from ITS I, ITS II and from a combined data set, were obtained and compared. Agreement between molecular and morphological data was clear at the subgeneric level ; however, at the specific level, this relationship was difficult to visualize.

GOTTLIEB, A. M., B. O. SAIDMAN, et al. (1998). "Isoenzymes of Ganoderma species from southern South America." Mycol. Res. 102: 415-426. One hundred and thirty four dikaryotic isolates of Ganoderma,

morphologically determined as G. adspersum, G. annulare, G. applanatum, G. brownii, G. lobatoideum, G. lobatum, G. lucidum, G.

oerstedii, G. resinaceum, and G. tornatum, were examined by horizontal PAGE for eight enzymatic activities. A total of 94 bands were analysed. The objective was to evaluate the relatedness among the specific taxa by analysing numerically the isoenzymic patterns. To discern fungal individuals somatic incompatibility tests were used. Within each enzyme system several allozyme phenotypes could be observed. The enzymic systems analysed failed to yield diagnostic bands for each morphologically defined group, except the AKP system for G. resinaceum. Some bands were shared

by all the isolates studied. On the other hand, diagnostic bands at the species complex level were encountered.

GOTTLIEB, A. M. and J. E. WRIGHT (1999). "Taxonomy of Ganoderma from southern South America: subgenus Ganoderma." Mycol. Res. 103: 661-673. The macro- and micromorphology of 45 specimens and 19

holotypes of the subgenus Ganoderma (=G. lucidum complex) were examined, together with isoenzymic data. The objective was to evaluate relationships by analysing numerically morphological and isoenzymic data to discern the number of species occurring in southern South America, and their delimitation. A total of 73 isozymic bands and 26 morphological characters were considered. Spore ornamentation was studied under SEM. Nine taxa appear to be represented in the region (G. lucidum var. lucidum, G. multiplicatum, G. sessiliforme, G. praelongum, G. subincrustatum, G. platense, G. zonatum, G. sessile and G. tuberculosum) and the presence of another eight is doubtful (G. argillaceum, G. bibadiostraum, G. chaffangeonii, G. lucidum var. capense, G. lucidum var. dorsale, G. subamboinense var. laevisporum, G. resinaceum and G. tropicum). Three major cutis types were defined and illustrated. Although congruence between dendrograms derived from both data sets was low, some similar

groupings were formed. Species descriptions and a key for identification are provided.

GOTTLIEB, A. M. and J. E. WRIGHT (1999). "Taxonomy of Ganoderma from southern South America: subgenus Elfvingia." Mycol. Res. 103: 1289-1298. Macro- and micromorphology of 124 specimens and 11

holotypes of South American taxa of subgenus Elfvingia (=G. applanatum complex) were examined, and were compared with isoenzymic data previously obtained. Two major dermis types were de®ned and illustrated. Spore ornamentation was inspected under SEM. Sixty-four per cent of the specimens had an anamixodermis, 80% had spores with longitudinal furrows under SEM and 83% had a context layer without streaks of melanoid deposits. Some of our South American collections could be ascribed to G. lipsiense, G. tornatum, G. testaceum and G. lobatum. Other taxa are critically discussed. The position adopted in this work was to join under synonymy closely related taxa on the grounds of morphology and

geographical distribution. In general, correlation between morphological features and isoenzymic patterns could not be established. In this group, phenotypic plasticity appears to be great.

GOTTWALD, S., C. U. GERMEIER, et al. (2001). "Computerized image analysis in Fusarium taxonomy." Mycol. Res. 105: 206-214. This paper describes digital image recording and measurement

procedures of Fusarium species macroconidia with reference strains of F. avenaceum, F. culmorum, F. graminearum, F. oxysporum, F. sambucinum and Microdochium nivale. Computerized taxonomic recognition of the most important Fusarium species occuring on cereals was achieved by statistical tests based on morphometric parameters from macroconidia (numerical taxonomy). A first grouping resulted from Brandt-Snedecor contingency tests (X2) indicating different frequency distributions of macroconidia with various numbers of septa. For discrimination and ranking within these groups by clustering procedures, analysis of variance and multiple comparison of means, deviation from circular (circular form factor) was most suitable out of 12 morphometric parameters tested on macroconidia of the most frequent septation classes.

GOUD, J.-K. C., A. J. TERMORSHUIZEN, et al. (2003). "Morphology of Verticillium dahliae and V. tricorpus on semi-selective media used for the detection of V. dahliae in soil." Mycol. Res. 107: 822-830. The morphology of two soil-borne Verticillium species, V.

dahliae and V. tricorpus, was studied on two semi-selective agar media, in the absence and presence of soil. Morphology of the fungi differed considerably between the media, with respect to presence and shape of microsclerotia, dark hyphae (i.e. short melanised hyphae attached to the microsclerotia) and dark mycelium (i.e. melanised mycelium throughout the colony). On modified soil extract agar (MSEA), a pectate

based agar, V. dahliae always had globose to elongate microsclerotia, without dark hyphae or dark mycelium, whereas V. tricorpus always had dark hyphae or dark mycelium, and microsclerotia, whenever present, were globose to irregular in shape. On ethanol agar (EA), V. dahliae had large microsclerotia and abundant dark hyphae, whereas V. tricorpus did not form microsclerotia, but always abundant dark mycelium. For the first time we observed the formation of dark hyphae by V. dahliae to a great extent. In the presence of soil, most characteristics were less pronounced, and V. dahliae microsclerotia were smaller, but V. tricorpus produced large microsclerotia, even when they were absent in pure culture. Morphological characteristics suitable for discrimination between the two species on MSEA plates in the presence of soil were selected and tested with fresh isolates from agricultural fields. The two fungi could be distinguished using qualitative characteristics and microsclerotial size. Molecular analysis and morphology on potato dextrose agar confirmed all identifications made on soil dilution plates.

GOURBIEARE, F., S. GOURBIEARE, et al. (1999). "Proportion of needles colonized by one fungal species in coniferous litter : the dispersal hypothesis." Mycol. Res. 103: 353-359. We try to explain the large differences observed in the

proportion of needles colonized by fungal species in coniferous litter by spore dispersal properties. We constructed a population dynamics model, assuming that litter is a resource that is fragmented into ephemeral units, periodically produced. Spore dispersion on needles on a small spatial scale was assumed to follow a Poisson distribution. The model was compared with an experimental system using Thysanophora penicillioides on Abies alba needles and its relevance to field conditions is discussed.

GOURBIEARE, F. o., A. v. MAANEN, et al. (2001). "Associations between three fungi on pine needles and their variation along a climatic gradient." Mycol. Res. 105: 1101-1109. This paper develops field data analysis and theoretical

hypotheses concerning the role of climatic factors and fungal interactions in the control of fungal populations. We studied three ` resource unit restricted fungi ' colonizing Pinus sylvestris needles along a climatic gradient. We investigated both competition and succession. A general linear model was used for statistical analysis. Despite interference competition at the scale of the individual needle, the first two colonizers, Lophodermium pinastri and Cyclaneusma minus, coexisted and the frequencies of both increased with altitude. This increase seemed to be related to the greater humidity at altitude. The initial stages of development of the final colonizer, Verticicladium trifidum, were strongly dependent on the first two colonizers on the individual needles. The observed decrease in frequency of V. trifidum with increasing altitude may be due to interactions with the early colonizers, with no direct effect of altitude on V. trifidum. Fungal colonization at low and high altitudes can be interpreted by accounting for both climatic effects and fungal interactions expressed as interference and succession.

GOURBIERE, F. and D. DEBOUZIE (2003). "Local variations in microfungal populations on Pinus sylvestris needles." Mycol. Res. 107: 1221-1230. We studied the fungal colonization of Pinus sylvestris needles

in two neighbouring sites, comparing stands of isolated and grouped trees. We observed large variations among the proportions of needles bearing fruit bodies of Cyclaneusma minus, Lophodermium pinastri, Verticicladium trifidum and black lines characteristic of L. pinastri colonization. Variations between sites and within trees were greater than that between stands or between trees. The frequency of L. pinastri colonization was negatively correlated with C. minus fruit body frequency, while the frequency of V. trifidum conidiophores was positively correlated with L. pinastri colonization frequency without fruiting, and negatively correlated with C.

minus apothecia frequency. Although L. pinastri black lines and C. minus apothecia were nearly randomly associated on individual needles in each sample, the two fungi occupied different segments when they occupied the same needle. These patterns at needle and sample scales do not explain the negative correlation between the frequencies of these two species observed at larger scales. In each sample, frequency of V. trifidum conidiophores was highest on needles colonized by L. pinastri without fruiting. On individual needles, V. trifidum conidiophores developed on segments colonized by L. pinastri without fruiting, but not on segments bearing fruit bodies of L. pinastri or C. minus. These patterns at needle and sample scales were consistent with the correlations between frequencies observed at larger scales. These results were compared to variations observed with stand age and climate in others studies. The observed variations might result from both microclimate variations and fungal interactions.

Gouveia, M. M. C., A. Ribeiro, et al. (2005). "Genetic diversity in Hemileia vastatrix based on RAPD markers." Mycologia, 97(2): 396-404. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) was used to

assess the genetic structure of Hemileia vastatrix populations. Forty-five rust isolates with different virulence spectra and from different hosts and geographical regions were analyzed. Out of 45 bands, generated with three RAPD primers, 35 (78%) were polymorphic and scored as molecular markers. Cluster analysis exhibits unstructured variability of this pathogen with regard to physiological race, geographical origin or host. The genotypic diversity (H9) inferred from Shannon’s index was higher than gene diversity (Ht), suggesting that diversity is distributed among clonal lineages.

Estimates of gene diversity in Africa and Asia populations were higher in total (Ht) as compared to within population diversity (Hs). Genetic differentiation was considerable among coffee rust isolates from Africa (Gst 5 0.865) and Asia (Gst 5 0.768) but not among isolates from South America (Gst 5 0.266). We concluded that genetic diversity in H. vastatrix was moderately low and that the genetic differentiation among populations shows that asexual reproduction is likely to play an important role in the population biology of this fungus. This should be taken into account for the development of breeding programs.

GOW, N. A. R. (2004). "New angles in mycology: studies in directional growth and directional motility1." Mycol. Res. 108: 5-13. Mycology is changing as an era of extensive genome

sequencing comes of age and provides vital information that enables questions to be addressed about fungi in all the major taxonomic groups. As technology transfer facilitates what was once only possible for a very small number of model species, it becomes possible to explore the biology and biodiversity of fungi as a whole. The availability of genome sequence

information and reverse genetic technologies allows hypotheses that emerge from biological observations to be tested. Genomic and post-genomic technologies will underline the importance of fungi as excellent models for the study of fundamental biological phenomena. Two enduring areas of research in my own laboratory are described that are now being extended using post-genomic approaches. These projects relate to how fungal hyphae extend and guide their tips and secondly how plant pathogenic oomycete zoospores are guided on their journey to the plant surface.

Gow, N. A. R., G. D. Robson, et al. (1997). The Fungal Colony. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Preface; Fungi are amongst the simplest of eukaryotes and have become

useful paradigms for processes that are fundamental to the way in which higher cells grow, divide, establish form and shape and communicate with one another.......Mycelial fungi also offer major and exciting opportunities for cell and developmental biologists, physiologists, biochemists and developmental biologists.

GRAMSS, G., T. GUNTHER, et al. (1998). "Spot tests for oxidative enzymes in ectomycorrhizal, wood-,and litter decaying fungi." Mycol. Res. 102: 67-72. The formation of oxidases and peroxidases by newly isolated

ectomycorrhizal fungi was examined with agar spot tests for tyrosinase, laccase, polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase as well as with the Bavendamm test. Extracellular peroxidase was released by virtually all isolates. Tyrosinase (taken as cresolase) was presumably intracellular and occurred in the majority of isolates. The strong laccase reaction was predominantly extracellular, although in some ectomycorrhizal genera the intracellular laccase seemed to dominate. Polyphenol oxidase, as the catecholase}monophenol monooxygenase complex, was found in all isolates although its

detection was complicated in the presence of laccase. Lactarius and Russula and the possibly more saprotrophic Morchella showed the most intense enzyme reactions. A comparison with wood and litter decaying fungi indicated that at least some species of several ectomycorrhizal genera possess extracellular oxidative enzymes that are normally characteristic of white rot fungi. It is concluded that mycorrhizal fungi grown asymbiotically can release extracellular enzymes capable of oxidizing a wide range of aromatic compounds.

GRAMSS, G., B. KIRSCHE, et al. (1999). "Conversion rates of five polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in liquid cultures of fifty-eight fungi and the concomitant production of oxidative enzymes." Mycol. Res.: 1009-1018. Fifty-eight fungi from different physio-ecological groups were

compared for their capacity to oxidize five polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) with three to five benzene rings (R), and produce the

appertaining extracellular oxidoreductases in liquid culture. In 14 d, wood- and straw-associated basidiomycetes converted 19--90% of the original PAH compounds. The groups of wood- and straw-degrading, wood-degrading, terricolous, ectomycorrhizal, and mitosporic fungi converted PAH at a proportion of 100:75:34:19: 18. All fungi preferred fluoranthene and pyrene (4R). Anthracene (3R) was preferred by wood-associated fungi. Phenanthrene (3R) and perylene (5R) were sufficiently converted by wood-associated and terricolous, but poorly by ectomycorrhizal and mitosporic fungi. Nevertheless, fungi that converted the entire set of PAH satisfactorily were found in all five groups. PAH conversion was correlated with the production of manganese peroxidase (r=0.98), peroxidase (r=0.89), and laccase (r=0.85), but not with monophenol monooxygenase (r=0.07). Mn(iii) ions oxidized all PAH with preference to anthracene. Hydrogen peroxide

converted PAH possibly by the products of Fenton's reaction. Limiting factors were shortages in peroxidases and H2O2. Gymnopilus sapineus and Agrocybe praecox converted top quantities of PAH in the absence of peroxidases, manganese peroxidases, and lignin peroxidases. The relative contributions of intra- and extracellular enzymes to the conversion of PAH and the possible role of the fungi in the long-term detoxification of soil xenobiotics are discussed.

Gravesen, S., J. C. FRISVAD, et al. (1994). Microfungi, Suzanne Gravesen, Jens C. Frisvad, Robert A. Samson and Munksgaard. Gray, S. N. and P. Markham (1997). "A model to explain the growth kinetics of the aphid-pathogenic fungus Erynia neoaphidis in liquid culture." Mycological Research 101(12): 1475-1483. A mathematical model is presented which qualitatively describes the

growth kinetics of the aphid-pathogenic Erynia neoaphidis in liquid culture. An essential feature of the model is that it allows for the presence of a toxic component within the growth medium which may be broken down by an extracellular enzyme released by the biomass. In this investigation, the toxin was oleic acid which had previously been shown to be essential for the growth of E. neoaphidis, but only at low concentration. The model reproduces a number of unusual features of the kinetics of growth of E. neoaphidis in liquid culture. These include : the requirement for a high inoculum concentration to successfully initiate growth in liquid culture ; failure to grow in continuous culture under conditions similar to those supporting successful batch culture ; a reduced growth yield in continuous culture compared to batch culture ; a depressed apparent specific growth rate in continuous culture compared to batch culture and, deviation from the usual exponential decrease of biomass concentration during washout. Through the development of the model, and the application of predictions derived from it to the laboratory situation, continuous culture of E. neoaphidis was achieved for the first time.

Grayburn, W. S., D. S. S. Hudspeth, et al. (2004). "The mitochondrial genome of Saprolegnia ferax: organization, gene content and nucleotide sequence." Mycologia, 96(5): 981-989. The mitochondrial genome of the peronosporomycete water

mold Saprolegnia ferax has been characterized as a 46 930 bp circle containing an 8618 bp large inverted repeat (LIR). Eighteen reading frames encode identified subunits of respiratory complexes I, III, IV and V; 16 encode polypeptides of small and large mitoribosome subunits; and one encodes a subunit of the sec-independent protein translocation pathway. Of four additional putative reading frames three are homologues of those found in the related Phytophthora infestans genome. Protein encoding loci in the tightly compacted genome typically are arranged in operon-like clusters including three abutting and two overlapping pairs of reading frames. Translational RNAs include the mitochondrial small and large subunit rRNAs and 25 tRNA species. No tRNAs are encoded to enable translation of any threonine or the arginine CGR codons. The LIR separates the molecule into 19 274 bp large and 10 420 bp small single copy regions, and it encodes intact duplicate copies of four reading frames encoding known proteins, both rRNAs, and five tRNAs. Partial 39 sequences of three additional reading frames are duplicated at single copy sequence junctions. Active recombination between LIR elements generates two distinctive gene orders and uses the duplicated 39 sequences to maintain intact copies of the partially duplicated loci.

GREEN, S. (2004). "Fungi associated with shoots of silver birch (Betula pendula) in Scotland." Mycol. Res. 108: 1327-1336. The fungi associated with diseased and healthy shoots of

young, planted Betula pendula were studied at five sites in Scotland where crown die-back of birch is occurring. At each site, 30 diseased and 30 healthy shoots were sampled twice, with 1 yr-old shoots collected in May 2002, and 4–5-month-old shoots collected in September/October 2002. Overall, 34 different fungal species were recorded, with 92% and 60% of all diseased and healthy shoot pieces, respectively, colonised by at least one fungal species. The main colonisers of both diseased and healthy shoots were Melanconium bicolor, Discula betulina and Godronia urceolus, and the fungi most frequently found on diseased shoots only included Marssonina betulae and Fusarium avenaceum. The pathogenicity of these fungi was tested on seedlings of B. pendula and B. pubescens. Melanconium bicolor required a wound for lesion development on both birch species and caused larger lesions on B. pubescens than on B. pendula. Discula betulina caused lesions on stems and shoots of both birch species, including non-wounded current shoots. Marssonina betulae caused lesions and die-back of wounded and non-wounded current shoots of B. pendula seedlings. This fungus was not pathogenic on B. pubescens. Fusarium avenaceum caused restricted lesions on the main

stems of both birch species. Godronia urceolus was not pathogenic on either birch species. Further work needs to focus on the role of these fungi in causing crown die-back of young, planted B. pendula in

Scotland. GREEN, S., K. L. BAILEY, et al. (2001). "The infection process of Alternaria cirsinoxia on Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) and host structural defence responses." Mycol. Res. 105: 344-351. The infection process of Alternaria cirsinoxia was studied on

Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) in the controlled environment and in the field. In the controlled environment, germination of conidia began at 2 h and appressoria formation at 4 h after inoculation. Approximately 75% of appressoria formed at the anticlinal wall junctions of the epidermis. Leaf penetration occurred between 6 and 24 h, most commonly in between adjoining anticlinal walls. Penetration through stomata was rare. After penetration, large, intracellular infection hyphae formed and branched within epidermal cells, ramifying throughout the leaf tissues inter- and intracellularly by 24 h. In field conditions, infection coincided with prolonged rainfall and conidia remained viable on the leaf surface for 8--9 days (d) before causing infection on leaves. A host response occurred after penetration, involving deposition of lignin and callose in the infected epidermal and mesophyll cell walls. High levels of silicon were detected in epidermal cells directly below appressoria, often appearing to form entirely silicified infected cells which were resistant to collapse after air-drying. This study shows that A. cirsinoxia has the potential for rapid invasion of the leaf tissues of Canada thistle under good moisture conditions. The implications of the host responses, in terms of defence against infection, are discussed.

Green, S. J., S. Freeman, et al. (2004). "Molecular tools for isolate and community studies of Pyrenomycete fungi." Mycologia, 96(3): 439-451. The Pyrenomycetes, defined physiologically by the formation

of a flask-shaped fruiting body present in the sexual form, are a monophyletic group of fungi that consist of a wide diversity of populations including human and plant pathogens. Based on sequence analysis of 18S ribosomal DNA (rDNA), rDNA regions conserved among the Pyrenomycetes but divergent among other organisms were identified and used to develop selective PCR primers and a highly specific primer set. The primers presented here were used to amplify large portions of the 18S rDNA as well as the entire internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region (ITS 1, 5.8S rDNA, and ITS 2). In addition to database searches, the specificity of the primers was verified by PCR amplification of DNA extracted from pure culture isolates and by sequence analysis of fungal rDNA PCR-amplified from environmental samples. In addition, denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analyses were performed on closely related Colletotrichum isolates serving as a model pathogenic genus of the

Pyrenomycetes. Although both ITS and 18S rDNA DGGE analyses of Colletotrichum were consistent with a phylogeny estab-lished from sequence analysis of the ITS region, DGGE analysis of the ITS region was found to be more sensitive than DGGE analysis of the 18S rDNA. This study introduces molecular tools for the study of Pyrenomycete fungi by the development of two specific primers, demonstration of the enhanced sensitivity of ITS-DGGE for typing of closely related isolates and application of these tools to environmental samples.

GREGORY, K. W., A. B. HARRISON, et al. (1999). "A modified AATCC 30--1993 method to test fungicide treated fabrics against dermatophytes." Mycol. Res. 103: 88-90. An agar plate test is described to determine the growth

inhibition of dermatophytes by fungicides applied to fabrics. Trichophyton rubrum and Epidermophyton floccosum, two major causative agents of tinea pedis (athlete's foot), were used as test organisms. The assay was capable of distinguishing between direct contact effects and diffusion of fungicide into the agar medium, and could be used semi-quantitatively. The method included an essential sterilization stage to prevent interference by micro-organisms contaminating the test materials. Loss of fungicide efficacy due to the sterilization procedure required careful control.

GREIF, M. D. and R. S. CURRAH (2003). "A functional interpretation of the role of the reticuloperidium in whole-ascoma dispersal by arthropods." Mycol. Res. 107: 77-81. Auxarthron conjugatum (Onygenaceae) and Myxotrichum

deflexum (Myxotrichaceae) are distantly related cleistothecial (gymnothecial) ascomycetes that form ascomata with strikingly similar peridia in which rigid, branched and anastomosed, thick-walled hyphae create a cage- or mesh-like enclosure (reticuloperidium). We tested the hypothesis that the reticuloperidium plays a role in dispersal mediated by arthropods by enclosing ascomata of these fungi together with flies from the family Sarcophagidae. Gymnothecia of both fungi were picked up easily when the stiff hairs of the flies impaled the ascomata by passing through the interhyphal spaces of the reticuloperidium. Ascospore release from the gymnothecia then occurred during grooming activities during which the limbs of the flies caught the ascoma appendages causing the peridium to be torn apart. This adaptation to arthropod morphology and behaviour is interpreted as the driving force behind the evolution of reticuloperidia in unrelated groups of cleistothecial ascomycetes.

GRELET, G.-A., A. A. MEHARG, et al. (2005). "Carbon availability affects nitrogen source utilisation by Hymenoscyphus ericae." Mycol. Res. 109: 469-477. We compared the ability of five strains of the ericoid

mycorrhizal fungus Hymenoscyphus ericae to utilise glutamine,

ammonium or nitrate at high or low carbon (C) availability. The pattern of intraspecific variation in growth was affected by C availability. When C supply was high, growth differences between strains were explained by the total amount of nitrogen (N) taken up, suggesting variation in uptake kinetics. Under C-limiting conditions, strain differences were linked with their nitrogen use efficiency, implying intraspecific differences in N metabolism. The relationship between growth on glutamine and pH shifts in the media indicated that there was intraspecific variation in glutamine transporters. In addition, the correlation between pH changes and the amount of glutamine-N recovered as ammonium in the media indicated that there were intraspecific variations within the enzymatic pathways involved in glutamine metabolism. Our findings, compared with those of a previous study involving the same ericoid strains, draw attention to the temporal variation in nitrogen source utilisation by ericoid mycorrhizal fungi when maintained in axenic culture.

GRENDENE, A., P. MINARDI, et al. (2002). "Characterization of the mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans: comparison between morpho-physiological and molecular analyses." Mycol. Res. 106: 796-807. Eight strains of the mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans were

analysed for intraspecific variation by three different approaches: analysis of morpho-physiological characteristics ; random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis of the genomic DNA. A high variability in colony colour, gross morphology and conidial size was found depending on strain and culture conditions. All individual strains could be distinguished using the three type of analyses. However, a close correspondence between RAPD, AFLP patterns and morpho-physiological characteristics of C. minitans strains was not observed. Our results suggest AFLP analysis constituted a more efficient and reliable tool than RAPD analysis or morpho-physiological studies to detect intraspecific variability in C. minitans and to follow its fate after application in the field.

Greslebin, A., K. K. Nakasone, et al. (2004). "Rhizochaete, a new genus of phanerochaetoid fungi." Mycologia, 96(2): 260-271. A new basidiomycete genus, Rhizochaete

(Phanerochaetaceae, Polyporales), is described. Rhizochaete is characterized by a smooth to tuberculate,

pellicular hymenophore and hyphal cords that turn red or violet in potassium hydroxide, monomitic hyphal system of simple or nodose septate hyphae, cystidia,

and small, cylindrical to subglobose basidiospores. It morphologically is most similar to Phanerochaete. Analyses of nuclear ribosomal and internaltranscribed

spacer region sequence data support a close relationship between Rhizochaete and Phanerochaete. The new taxon R. brunnea, from southern Argentina,

is described and illustrated. In addition, the new combinations R. americana, R. borneensis, R. fi- lamentosa, R. fouquieriae and R. radicata are proposed.

A key to the species of Rhizochaete is provided. GRESLEBIN, A. G. (2001). "Sistotremateae (Corticiaceae, Aphyllophorales) of the Patagonian Andes forests of Argentina." Mycol. Res. 105: 1392-1396. The Sistotremateae of the southern forests of Argentina are

reviewed. Fourteen species are reported, collected on Nothofagus spp. and Drymis winteri. Sistotrema botryobasidioides and S. globosa are described as new. S. athelioides, S. efibulatum s. lat., S. porulosum and S. sernanderi are reported for the first time from Argentina. A key to the 14 species now known in the area is provided.

Greslebin, A. G., E. M. Hansen, et al. (2005). "Phytophthora species from declining Austrocedrus chilensis forests in Patagonia, Argentina." Mycologia, 97(1): 218-228. A survey of Phytophthora spp. in declining and healthy

Austrocedrus chilensis forest was conducted to obtain an overview of the species that inhabit these forests. Seventeen declining and three healthy stands plus 11 associated streams were surveyed. Five Phytophthora species were recovered. P. syringae was the most common species isolated from soil and/or streams at nine declining sites and one healthy site. P. gonapodyides was isolated from streams only, at five declining sites. P. cambivora was isolated from soil and the undescribed taxa ‘P. taxon Pgchlamydo’ and 22 ‘P. taxon Raspberry’ were isolated from streams at one declining site each. The species were identified by ITS rDNA sequences and morphological features. Brief descriptions of each species and a discussion of their possible relationship with ‘‘mal del cipre´s’’ are presented.

GRESLEBIN, A. G. and M. RAJCHENBERG (2001). "The genus Tulasnella with a new species in the Patagonian Andes forests of Argentina." Mycol. Res. 105: 1149-1151. The genus Tulasnella is surveyed in the Patagonian Andes

forests of southern Argentina based on specimens collected from Austrocedrus chilensis, Nothofagus antarctica, N. betuloides and N. pumilio. Five species are recorded, namely T. robusta sp. nov., T. allantospora s.lat., T. calospora, T. helicospora and T. violea, all of which represent new records for Argentina.

Grgurinovic, C. A. (2002). "The Genus Mycena in South-Eastern Australia." Fungal Diversity: 329. A taxonomic study including 66 species of Mycena (one species with two

varieties) was undertaken, with most of the species from south-eastern Australia. The history of the Classification of the genus in Australia and previous Australian records are discussed, as are the characters used in

distinguishing species, and the system used to determine conservation status of taxa. In many cases, Australian species could not be incorporated into current classifications without existing sections being emended or new sections being proposed. Twenty species, one variety and three sections are proposed as new. The majority of species of Mycena included in this work proved to be distinct from those known from other landmasses derived from Gondwana, and those from the northern hemisphere.

Griffen, A. M., B. W. Bainbridge, et al. (1997). "Ribosomal, mitochondrial and amplified DNA polymorphisms in Verticillium albo-atrum pathogenic to hops, lucerne and other plants." Mycological Research 101(9): 1085-1091. Forty-seven isolates of Verticillium albo-atrum, 35 from hop (Humulus

lupulus), seven from lucerne (alfalfa, Medicago sativa) and five from four other hosts, were analysed for DNA polymorphisms. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) were detected in ribosomal RNA genes (rDNA) using Southern hybridization. Polymorphisms in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) were detected in ethidium bromide stained gels after digestion of total genomic DNA with restriction enzymes which recognize four bases containing only G and C. Amplified polymorphic DNA (APD) was analysed using primers based on rDNA sequences from the intergenic spacer (IGS) and 25S regions. These data were used to construct phenograms using either squared Euclidean dissimilarity coefficients (SEDC) and cluster analysis, or unweighted pair grouping with arithmetic averaging (UPGMA). rDNA RFLPs revealed one group with 44 isolates, a second group with two atypical hop isolates, and a third group containing a single avirulent lucerne isolate. mtDNA RFLPs separated rDNA group one into two subgroups, one group containing 38 isolates from different hosts and the other containing all six virulent lucerne isolates. APD analysis divided the isolates into 16 phenotypes, 12 of which contained most of the hop isolates, but there was no correlation with origin, hop cultivar, pathogenicity or year of isolation. One APD phenotype contained all six virulent lucerne isolates, indicating the genetic differentiation between hop and lucerne isolates. Two further APD phenotypes coincided with the second atypical group containing two hop isolates and a distinct avirulent lucerne isolate, respectively. The three methods revealed that three isolates differed markedly from those of the main group.

Griffin, D. H. (1994). Fungal Physiology Second Edition. During the twelve years since the publication of the first edition of this

book, the promises of molecular genetics coupled with parallel biochemical experiment have bone more fruit in the advancement of our knowledge of fungal physiology than during any other comparable period.......While it is important for students to know the status of physiological concepts, it is more important to understand how these ideas

were derived, and thus how they may be changed in the future..... Grit WALTHER, S. GARNICA, et al. (2005). "The systematic relevance of conidiogenesis modes in the gilled Agaricales." Mycol. Res. 109(5): 525-544. Dikaryotic and haploid mycelia of more than 150 gilled species

of euagarics were studied morphologically and by molecular phylogenetic methods. The morphological investigations revealed anamorphs in more than 90 species that were often specific at the genus or family level. Thallic conidiogenesis dominated and varied from fragmentation of normally branched hyphae to the formation of differentiated sympodially branched conidiophores. Secession modes, coiling of the conidiogenous hyphae or the swelling of the conidia were additional distinguishing features. Phylogenetic analysis of the D1–D3 domains of the nuclear gene for the ribosomal large subunit using a Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo approach resulted in several well-supported groups that are consistent with anamorph morphology. These results indicate that the anamorphs provide valuable characters for a natural classification of the Agaricales.

GROENEWALD, M., J.-C. KANG, et al. (2001). "ITS and β-tubulin phylogeny of Phaeoacremonium and Phaeomoniella species." Mycol. Res. 105: 651-657. Based on ITS and b-tubulin sequence data of 33 isolates, the

newly introduced genus, Phaeomoniella was confirmed as being distinct from Phaeoacremonium (Pm.). Phylogeny inferred from DNA sequences and cultural characteristics also confirmed the species status of Pm. aleophilum and Pm. angustius, which were recently reduced to synonymy. Pm. aleophilum has an optimum growth rate at 30 °C and the ability to grow at 35°, whereas Pm. angustius has an optimum growth rate at 25 °C and does not grow at 35°. Furthermore, ITS and b-tubulin sequence data showed Pm. viticola to be indistinguishable from Pm. angustius, while a new species, Pm. mortoniae, could be distinguished from this complex.

GROGAN, H. M., B. A. T. ADIE, et al. (2003). "Double-stranded RNA elements associated with the MVX disease of Agaricus bisporus." Mycol. Res. 107: 147-154. Double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) has been isolated from

Agaricus bisporus fruit bodies exhibiting a wide range of disease symptoms. The symptoms which occurred singularly or in combination included; bare cropping areas on commercial beds (primordia disruption), crop delay, premature veil opening, off- or brown-coloured mushrooms, sporophore malformations and loss of crop yield. All symptoms were associated with loss of yield and/or product quality. Collectively, these symptoms are described as mushroom virus X (MVX) disease. The dsRNA titre was much lower than that previously encountered with the La France viral disease of mushrooms and a modified cellulose CF11 protocol was used for their detection. A broad survey of cultivated

mushrooms from the British industry identified dsRNA elements ranging between 640 bp and 20.2 kbp; the majority have not previously been described in A. bisporus. 26 dsRNA elements were identified with a maximum of 17, apparently non-encapsidated dsRNA elements, in any one sample. Three dsRNAs (16.2, 9.4 and 2.4 kbp) were routinely found in mushrooms asymptomatic for MVX. Previously, La France disease was effectively contained and controlled by minimising the on-farm production and spread of basidiospores. Our

on-farm observations suggest that MVX could be spread by infected spores and/or mycelial fragments.

GROGAN, H. M. and R. H. GAZE (2000). "Fungicide resistance among Cladobotryum spp. -- causal agents of cobweb disease of the edible mushroom Agaricus bisporus." Mycol. Res. 104: 357-364. A survey of fungicide resistance among isolates of the

mushroom pathogens Cladobotryum mycophilum and C. dendroides Types I and II was undertaken, with respect to the active ingredients thiabendazole, carbendazim (benzimidazoles) and prochloraz manganese following an epidemic in Britain and Ireland in 1994/95. The majority of isolates (41/57) were strongly resistant to thiabendazole (ED50>200 ppm) and were exclusively C. dendroides Type II. All C. mycophilum and C. dendroides Type I isolates, and four C. dendroides Type II isolates, were weakly resistant to thiabendazole (ED50 1--10 ppm). Thiabendazole-resistant C. dendroides Type II isolates were only weakly resistant to carbendazim (ED50 2--10 ppm) and isolates which were weakly resistant to thiabendazole were carbendazim-sensitive (ED50<1 ppm), demonstrating a lack of complete cross resistance between these two benzimidazole fungicides. The ED50 values for all isolates with respect to prochloraz manganese ranged from 0.14 to 7.8 ppm. Benzimidazole resistance was considered to have been an important factor infiuencing the severity of the 1994/95 cobweb epidemic but 25% of isolates collected were benzimidazole sensitive.

GRONBERG, H., L. PAULIN, et al. (2003). "ITS probe development for specific detection of Rhizoctonia spp. and Suillus bovinus based on Southern blot and liquid hybridization-fragment length polymorphism." Mycol. Res. 107: 428-438. Development of specific DNA probes targeting rDNA internal

transcribed spacer (ITS-1 or -2) sequences is described for the detection of strains representing uninucleate and binucleate Rhizoctonia spp. and Suillus bovinus. Discriminatory taxon/species-specific target sequences were identified following full length ITS sequence alignment of the test fungal sequences and those of other root associated pathogenic or mycorrhizal fungi. Both long (124–151 bp) and shorter (20–25 bp) probes were generated for assessment in Southern dot blot and liquid hybridization ITS capture-fragment length polymorphism assays. Fungal genomic DNA was presented as the target in dot blot protocols using the

longer DIG (digoxigenin) labelled probes whilst the shorter 3' biotin-labelled oligonucleotide probes were hybridized to PCR amplified full length ITS (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2) in both dot blot and liquid hybridization assays. The optimal hybridization temperatures for dot blot detection also produced maximal target specific signals in the liquid hybridization protocol. The latter protocol was found to be more discriminatory as target fungi were detected on the basis of combined probe hybridization-ITS capture and 5' Cy-5 labelled ITS length polymorphism analysis (+5 bp) following denaturing sequencing gel electrophoresis in a ALFexpress DNA sequencer.

Grondona, I., E. Monte, et al. (1997). "Pyrenochaeta dolichi : an example of a confusing species." Mycological Research 101(11): 1405-1408. The coexistence in the same pycnidial conidioma of discrete ampulliform

and hyaline conidiogenous cells and integrated conidiogenous cells on filiform, septate conidiophores, is described in Pyrenochaeta dolichi. A new Monodictys-like synanamorph is also reported in this species. Monodictys-like conidia are produced on lateral branches from the vegetative hyphae and germinate through the conidiogenous scar. The taxonomic position of P. dolichi is discussed since there is no suitable place for this fungus in the current systematic schemes for this group of fungi.Monodictys

Grondona, I., E. Monte, et al. (1997). "Lichenized association between Septonema tormes sp. nov., a coccoid cyanobacterium, and a green alga with an unforeseen biopreservation effect of Villamayor sandstone at `Casa Lis ' of Salamanca, Spain." Mycological Research 101(12): 1489-1495. `Casa Lis ' is the most characteristic building in Salamanca, Spain,

belonging to the modernist trend. It was built with Villamayor sandstone from nearby Salamanca, which has high porosity providing an easy medium for water absortion and capillarity. During a restoration process on the southern wall, near an underground water flow, two well defined, naturally developed layers were observed on the sandstone surface : an outer, hard crust with greyish shades and whitish salt patches resulting from rising damp, and an inner, green layer with organic material linking the sandstone to the inorganic crust. The microbiological study of this biofilm showed an ecologically obligate, stable mutualism between a dematiaceous mitosporic fungus (Septonema tormes sp. nov.), a coccoid cyanobacterium (Cyanothece-group) and a green alga (Gloeocystis rupestris), with the accumulation of different metabolites excreted by these microorganisms. The case reported here is one of the few studies where a microbial mat, in association with the external crust, avoids a further weathering of the stone because of an unforeseen biopreservation effect due to the maintenance of humidity at constant levels under the crust avoids changes in clay swelling and subsequent surface arenization of the sandstone. The lichenized complex of a mitosporic mycobiont and two

photobionts, in this case, has not been reported before as a stable association on this kind of substrate.

GROOT, P. W. J. D., J. VISSER, et al. (1998). "Biochemical and molecular aspects of growth and fruiting of the edible mushroom Agaricus bisporus." Mycol. Res. 102: 1297-1308. The introduction of recombinant DNA technology in the field of

mushroom research has resulted in the cloning and characterization of a large number of genes. In order to study the genetics of compost colonization of A. bisporus, genes encoding enzymes involved in utilization of this substrate have been isolated. In addition, a number of genes which are induced in fruit bodies during fruit body development have been cloned and they will provide more insight in the genetics of this economically important aspect of the life cycle. Other genes that were cloned encode proteins of basic biochemical routes. They provide knowledge on the importance and regulation of these routes in the life cycle of A. bisporus and add to knowledge on the general architecture of A. bisporus genes. Here we present an overview of the currently available biochemical and molecular data of A. bisporus and we discuss the importance of the available genes as genetic markers for breeding purposes.

GRUBE, M., E. BALOCH, et al. (2004). "A phylogenetic study of the Lecanora rupicola group (Lecanoraceae, Ascomycota)." Mycol. Res. 108: 506-514. A molecular phylogeny of the Lecanora rupicola group is

presented, based on ITS sequence analyses. The study includes saxicolous and corticolous members of the Lecanora rupicola group as well as other Lecanora species with pruinose apothecia. A phylogenetic hypothesis for species in Lecanora s. lat. and various other genera in Lecanoraceae, based on an alignment-free distance estimation technique, shows that the Lecanora rupicola group forms a monophyletic clade within Lecanoraceae. Affinities to the core group of Lecanora are not well supported, likewise the monophyly of Lecanora s. str. with other species groups in Lecanora, such as the lobate taxa (and Rhizoplaca) is not supported. A more detailed analysis involving Lecanora species with pruinose apothecial discs was carried out with model-based Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo (B/MCMC) tree sampling. The results suggest the monophyly of the Lecanora species that are characterized by the presence of chromones. Corticolous as well as saxicolous species are included. Lepraria flavescens is closely related to the Lecanora swartzii subgroup, and the new name Lecanora rouxii nom. nov. is introduced for that species. Other Lecanora species with pruinose discs are not closely related to the Lecanora rupicola group.

GRUBE, M., E. BALOCH, et al. (2004). "The phylogeny of Porinaceae (Ostropomycetidae) suggests a neotenic origin of perithecia in

Lecanoromycetes." Mycol. Res. 108: 1111-1118. The family Porinaceae (Trichotheliales) is characterized by

perithecial ascomata of ascohymenial origin. The phylogenetic position of this family in the system of ascomycetes has been uncertain and is investigated using mtSSU rDNA sequences. The dataset consists of lichenized representatives of major ascomycete lineages, including those that were previously suspected as relatives of Porinaceae, such as Pyrenulaceae. The dataset was subjected to a Bayesian phylogenetic analysis implementing a Metropolis Coupled Markov Chain Monte Carlo method. The analysis confirms

previous classification of the apothecial Gomphillaceae near to Graphidaceae, and suggests that the pyrenocarpous Porinaceae are also close to Graphidaceae, Gyalectaceae, and Stictidaceae. The subclass Ostropomycetidae is here suggested to include the families Gomphillaceae, Gyalectaceae, Graphidaceae (incl. Thelotremataceae), Porinaceae, and Stictidaceae. A special type of hemiangiocarpous ontogeny of the ascomata is shared throughout the Ostropomycetidae, and the closed fruit bodies of Porinaceae are apparently a result of a neotenic ontogeny. This is associated with special

hymenial characters: rather thin-walled narrow asci, and a different consistency of the hymenial gels.

GRUBE, M. and J. BLAHA (2003). "On the phylogeny of some polyketide synthase genes in the lichenized genus Lecanora." Mycol. Res. 107: 1419-1426. The ketosynthase domains of putative polyketide synthase

(PKS) genes from 15 species in the lichenized genus Lecanora as well as three representatives of other genera were amplified and sequenced using conserved primers. A phylogenetic analysis was carried out with the corresponding amino acid sequences, including those of non-lichenized fungi. The phylogenetic hypothesis places all PKS sequences from Lecanora and the other genera in a clade of PKSs that produce

complex aromatic compounds. The PKSs from Lecanora are found in two distinct clades. One of these forms a monophyletic group with PKSs producing precursors of dihydroxy naphthalenes from non-lichenized species. This includes PKSs from the L. rupicola group and several other species which are not closely related. The other clade represents at least one functionally different protein and has no close relationships with known PKSs from other fungi. A comparison between an ITS phylogeny of the species with their DNA sequences of ketosynthase domains reveals similar PKS genes in certain closely related species. Coevolution was unapparent in other clades, suggesting the presence of paralogous genes.

GRUBE, M. and S. KROKEN (2000). "Molecular approaches and the concept of species and species complexes in lichenized fungi." Mycol. Res. 104: 1284-1294. The concept of species and species complexes of lichenized

fungi is reviewed in the light of recent molecular approaches. Species

concepts based on chemistry, morphology, reproductive mode, photobiont choice and habitat preference provide working hypotheses from which the delimitation of species or relationships within species complexes can be tested with molecular data. In studies in which a single locus such as ITS is used, a phylogenetic species concept can be applied only when the sequence data delimits genetically discrete clades that correlate with phenotypic characters or biogeographical distribution. This will be the case when sufficient time has passed for genetic isolation to result in the coalescence of different character states among the sibling species of a complex. In the case of recently diverged species, a single locus may not accurately separate species, and is not sufficient evidence to reject putative species based on a phenotypic species concept. In such cases, several genetic loci must be used to delimit species by a phylogenetic species concept. These phylogenetic species may corroborate phenotypic characters or biogeography, or they may be cryptic for all observed characters. Molecular analyses at the species level will lead to the re-evaluation of phenotypic characters for species delimitation, and will improve the understanding of speciation in lichenized fungi. The results from new molecular approaches have implications for taxonomic revisions. Formal changes in nomenclature based solely on molecular evidence should be made conservatively, and only after studies based on a thorough sampling with sufficient data of all kinds is performed, and after the taxonomic history of the group has been reviewed. In the meantime, informal names to describe new phylogenetic hypotheses are sufficient. Formally named cryptic species cause problems in distributional studies, where old material and literature references are included, but are useful in high resolution studies such as ecophysiology, especially where phenotypic differences may exist among cryptic species.

GRUBE, M. and R. LUCKING (2001). "Ascogenous hyphae in foliicolous species of Arthonia and allied genera." Mycol. Res. 105: 1007-1013. Ascogenous hyphae of foliicolous members of the

Arthoniaceae, including the genera Arthonia, Eremothecella, Amazonomyces, and Cryptothecia, were studied by epifluorescence microscopy. Two additional representatives of Opegrapha were included. The ascogenous hyphae in Arthonia, Eremothecella, Amazonomyces, and Opegrapha arise from a central region of the ascoma and form a dense and branched tree-like structure. The asci of Cryptothecia are not connected by such structures and arise singly. Differences of measurements, structures and branching patterns of ascogenous hyphae indicate that these are species-specific characters. Typical ascogones were not observed. The fusion of tips or croziers of ascogenous hyphae and haploid mycelium were seen in several

species. The systematic significance of the observations is discussed. Grube, M., R. Lucking, et al. (2004). "A new isidiate species of Arthonia

(Ascomycota: Arthoniaceae) from Costa Rica." Mycologia, 96(5): 1159-1162. The new corticolous species Arthonia isidiata is described from

the Pacific lowlands of Costa Rica. A. isidiata is characterized by minute, cylindrical to coralloid isidia produced on the thallus surface. The species currently is known only from the type locality in Corcovado National Park, where it occurs abundantly in the coastal rainforest around Sirena Biological Station.

GRUBE, M. and A. d. l. RIOS (2001). "Observations on Biatoropsis usnearum, a lichenicolous heterobasidiomycete, and other gall-forming lichenicolous fungi, using different microscopical techniques." Mycol. Res. 105: 1116-1122. The structure and development of galls caused by the

heterobasidiomycete Biatoropsis usnearum on Usnea thalli are studied in detail using different microscopical techniques. The galls induced by this fungus are devoid of algae and composed of hyphae of both fungal symbionts. The parasite forms tremelloid haustoria primarily in the central part of the gall. Infections of the parasite start in the cortical layer of the host and induce growth of the host hyphae resembling those of the central cord. The galls include a large amount of intact Usnea hyphae, to some extent also in the uppermost parts of the gall. Mature galls are compared with those caused by other lichenicolous fungi. The investigations show that the anatomies of galls and interactions between host and parasite differ significantly in gall-forming lichenicolous fungi.

Grubisha, L. C., J. M. Trappe, et al. (2002). "Biology of the ectomycorrhizal genus Rhizopogon. VI. Re-examination of infrageneric relationships inferred from phylogenetic analyses of ITS sequences." Mycologia, 94(4): 607-619. Rhizopogon (Basidiomycota, Boletales) is a genus of

hypogeous fungi that form ectomycorrhizal associations mostly with members of the Pinaceae. This genus comprises an estimated 1001 species, with the greatest diversity found in coniferous forests of the Pacific northwestern United States. Maximum parsimony analyses of 54 nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences including 27 Rhizopogon and 10 Suillus species were conducted to test sectional relationships in Rhizopogon and examine phylogenetic relationships with the closely related epigeous genus, Suillus. Sequences from 10 Rhizopogon type collections were included in these analyses. Rhizopogon and Suillus were both monophyletic. Rhizopogon section Rhizopogon is not monophyletic and comprised two clades, one of which consisted of two well supported lineages characterized by several long insertions. Rhizopogon sections Amylopogon and Villosuli formed well supported groups, but certain species concepts within these sections were unresolved. Four species from section Fulviglebae formed a strongly supported clade within section Villosuli. Subgeneric taxonomic revisions are presented.

GRUNIG, C. R., C. C. LINDE, et al. (2003). "Development of single-copy RFLP markers for population genetic studies of Phialocephala fortinii and closely related taxa." Mycol. Res. 107: 1332-1341. Single-copy RFLP markers were developed for the root

endophytic fungus Phialocephala fortinii. After an initial screening of 40 probes with four restriction enzymes, EcoRV and HindIII were chosen to analyse 31 strains of P. fortinii and nine strains of a closely related morphotype (Type 1) which have known ISSR-PCR or allozyme phenotypes. Type 1 isolates and a single genetically different isolate with Type 1 like morphology, a representative of a possible third taxon, showed unique alleles with several probes and both restriction enzymes. Consequently, both taxa were easily distinguishable from P. fortinii isolates. Whereas EcoRV in combination with seven probes revealed only eight multi-locus haplotypes among 17 ISSR phenotypes, HindIII in combination with 12 probes was able to distinguish all ISSR and/or allozyme phenotypes except two pairs of strains. Strains of P. fortinii showed a high gene diversity, and up to 15 alleles per locus were observed among the 31 strains of P. fortinii. The 12 probes used in combination with HindIII were (partially) sequenced and BLAST searches showed no similarities with known sequences indicating that they probably are non-coding regions of the genome. Enzyme-probe combinations suitable to indicate the genetic structure of P. fortinii and Type 1 populations were easily identified in the present study. This opens up avenues to study communities of the P. fortinii complex exposed to various environments and management intensities, and will help to promote the understanding of these extremely successful organisms.

Grunig, C. R. and T. N. Sieber (2005). "Molecular and phenotypic description of the widespread root symbiont Acephala applanata gen. et sp. nov., formerly known as dark-septate endophyte Type 1." Mycologia, 97(3): 628–640. Acephala applanata gen. et sp. nov. is described. A. applanata

is a dark-septate endophyte (DSE) of conifer roots and belongs to the Phialocephala

fortinii species complex. Several genetic markers, including isozymes, inter-simple-sequence-repeat (ISSR) fingerprints, single-copy restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) and sequences of the internal transcribed spacers (ITS), let us unambiguously separate isolates of A. applanata from isolates of P. fortinii s.l. and other dark-septate endophytes. Alleles at four RFLP loci and two fixed nucleotides in the ITS region were diagnostic for A. applanata. One of the fixed nucleotides resulted in the addition of an Afa I restriction site. PCR amplification with primers prITS4 and the newly developed primer PFpITSpF (ACT CTG AAT GTT AGT GAT GTC TGA GT) and restriction digestion with Afa I yielded three fragments (203 bp, 117 bp, 56 bp) in A. applanata but only two (260 bp and 117 bp) in P. fortinii s.l. Population differentiation (GST) between A. applanata and other cryptic species of P. fortinii was

pronounced, and the index of association (IA) did not deviate significantly from zero, showing that recombination occurs or had

occurred in A. applanata. Although isolates of A. applanata never were observed

to sporulate, it can be distinguished morphologically from P. fortinii s.l. by the scarcity of aerial mycelium, significantly slower growth and denser mycelium on cellophane overlaid on water agar. These phenotypic characteristics, combined with diagnostic RFLP alleles and/or PCR-RFLP of the ITS fragment with the

fixed Afa I restriction site, unequivocally allow identification of A. applanata. GRUNIG, C. R., T. N. SIEBER, et al. (2001). "Characterisation of dark septate endophytic fungi (DSE) using inter-simple-sequence-repeat-anchored polymerase chain reaction (ISSR--PCR) amplification." Mycol. Res. 105: 24-32. Suitability and reproducibility of ISSR--PCR to find strain-

specific and taxon specific markers for strains of the tree-root endophytes Phialocephala fortinii and `Type 1', a non-sporulating dematiaceous mycelium, were examined. The results were compared with data previously generated by isozyme analyses. P. fortinii and `Type 1' are two DSE taxa and are abundant colonisers of coniferous forest-tree roots in the North Temperate zone. `Type 1' was never observed to sporulate in pure culture but is well defined by its cultural characteristics. DNA of 14 strains per taxon was amplified with three short, 17--18-nucleotide-long, tandemly-repeated

primers (CCA, CGA, ACA) with two (CCA) or three degenerated bases at their 5'-ends. The resulting DNA products were separated by agarose gel electrophoresis. The bands were scored for absence}presence, respectively, and the binary matrix subjected to multiple correspondence analysis (MCA). ISSR--PCR was found to be highly reproducible since amplification of DNA from several single-hyphal-tip cultures of the same strain resulted in identical banding patterns. Eighty-five (92.4%) of the 92 DNA fragments were polymorphic. The fragments ranged from 320 to 4100 bp. ISSR--PCR was found to be a powerful tool to find strain-specific and taxon-specific markers. Each strain showed a unique banding pattern and diagnostic bands for the two taxa could be identified. ISSR--PCR data correlated neither with the geographical nor the host origin of the strains. The strains grouped into similar clusters independently of whether MCA was performed with ISSR--PCR or isozyme data. However, ISSR--PCR allowed the differentiation of strains with the same allozyme phenotype.

GRUNIG, C. R., T. N. SIEBER, et al. (2002). "Spatial distribution of dark septate endophytes in a confined forest plot." Mycol. Res. 106: 832-840. In the present study we investigated the abundance and

spatial distribution of dark septate root endophytes (DSE) in a 3x3 m plot in a spruce stand (Picea abies). A total of 144 DSE isolates were obtained

by means of a hierarchical sampling design. Most roots were colonised, as DSE were isolated from 81.7% of root segments. ISSR--PCR fingerprinting was used to identify 21 unique ISSR types. Dominant types were isolated from adjacent points that covered an area of up to 6.8 m2 of the study plot, and ISSR types were intermingled extensively. Frequency of isolation of the different ISSR types was uneven with two dominant types that accounted for 38% and 28% of all DSE isolates, respectively. Seven DSE strains representing six different ISSR types were identified as Phialocephala fortinii based on the morphology of fertile conidiophores and}or ITS 1 and 2 sequence comparisons.

GRYNDLER, M., H. HRSCELOVA, et al. (1998). "In vitro proliferation of Glomus fistulosum intraradical hyphae from mycorrhizal root segments of maize." Mycol. Res. 102: 1067-1073. Proliferation of intraradical hyphae of the arbuscular

mycorrhizal fungus Glomus fistulosum was observed and measured in surface disinfected mycorrhizal maize root segments in an aseptic cultivation system. The maximum growth of hyphae proliferating from the root segments was observed at pH 6.3, and low concentrations of buffering substances stabilized the pH of the incubation medium (0.9 mm MES, 1 mm BIS-TRIS). The proliferation of intraradical hyphae was not influenced but the germination of chlamydospores of the mycorrhizal fungus was inhibited by an artificial inorganic soil solution at lowest dilutions. The percentage of root segments bearing proliferating hyphae and the growth of hyphae decreased with increasing concentration of phosphate in the incubation medium. All reduced sulphur-containing compounds tested (sulphite, dithionite and metabisulphite) suppressed the proliferation of hyphae completely.

Gryzenhout, M., H. Myburg, et al. (2006). "Aurapex penicillata gen. sp. nov. from native Miconia theaezans and Tibouchina spp. in Colombia." Mycologia, 98(1): 105–115. Conidiomata of a fungus resembling Chrysoporthe cubensis, a

serious canker pathogen of Eucalyptus spp. (Myrtaceae, Myrtales) in tropical and subtropical parts of the world, was found on Eucalyptus grandis in Colombia. Fruiting structures of the fungus could be distinguished from those of C. cubensis by their distinctly orange conidiomatal necks. This fungus also was found on several plant species native to Colombia including Tibouchina urvilleana, T. lepidota and Miconia theaezans (Melastomataceae, Myrtales). Morphological comparisons, as well as those based on sequences of the ITS1/ITS2 region of the ribosomal DNA repeat and the b-tubulin gene, were used to characterize this fungus. Its pathogenicity was assessed on various plants from which it has been collected, either in field or greenhouse trials. Phylogenetic analyses showed that isolates reside in a clade distinct from the four clades accommodating Chrysoporthe, Cryphonectria, Endothia

and Rostraureum. Members of this clade are distinguished by the presence of orange conidiomatal necks with black bases and a unique internal stromatal structure. No teleomorph has been found for this fungus, for which we have provided the name Aurapex penicillata gen. sp. nov. A. penicillata produced only small lesions

after inoculation on young T. urvilleana, M. theaezans and E. grandis trees and appears not to be a serious pathogen.

GRYZENHOUT, M., H. MYBURG, et al. (2005). "Rostraureum tropicale gen. sp. nov. (Diaporthales) associated with dying Terminalia ivorensis in Ecuador." Mycol. Res. 109(9): 1029-1044. Terminalia ivorensis, a tree of central African origin, is planted

in several tropical countries for timber and veneer production. During the course of a recent disease survey, an unknown fungus was found associated with basal cankers on dying T. ivorensis in Ecuador. The fungus has orange fruiting structures and septate, fusoid ascospores, similar to those of Cryphonectria, a well-known genus of canker pathogens. The aim of this study was to identify the fungus and to assess its pathogenicity. Identification was based on morphological characteristics as well as DNA sequence data. DNA sequence data from the ITS regions of the rDNA operon and two regions of the b-tubulin gene, were compared with published sequences of Cryphonectria species and the closely related genera Endothia and Chrysoporthe. Pathogenicity tests were conducted on T. superba saplings. Morphological characterisations revealed that the conidiomata of the fungus from T. ivorensis, differed from those typical of Cryphonectria in being superficial and rostrate. Only Cryphonectria longirostris was similar to the fungus from T. ivorensis, but could be distinguished from it based on conidial size. Phylogenetic analyses showed that the fungus from T. ivorensis grouped closely with species of Cryphonectria, Chrysoporthe and Endothia, yet formed a distinct clade. Pathogenicity tests on T. superba provided evidence that the fungus is able to cause distinct stem cankers. We conclude that the pathogenic fungus from T. ivorensis represents a new genus and new species in the Diaporthales and we provide the name Rostraureum tropicale for it. The genus is typified by R. tropicale. Furthermore, C. longirostris is transferred to Rostraureum.

Gu, Y. H. and W. H. Ko (1997). "Water agarose medium for studying factors affecting germination of conidia of Ampelomyces quisqualis." Mycological Research 101(4): 422-424. On water agarose conidial germination of Ampelomyces quisqualis was

greatly enhanced in the presence of powdery mildew conidia. All seven species of powdery mildews tested, representing five genera, were effective in increasing germination of the mycoparasite. Aqueous extract of conidia of Oidium euonymi-japonicae was also stimulatory to the mycoparasite. Germination of conidia of A. quisqualis on water agarose

decreased as conidial concentration increased. Germination of the mycoparasite's conidia at a low concentration on water agarose was greatly decreased when they were separated by a polycarbonate membrane from conidia of the same species at a high concentration and incubated. After being incubated with conidia of the mycoparasite at a high concentration, water agarose became inhibitory to germination of conidia of the same species at a low concentration, suggesting the presence of a diffusible self-inhibitor. Water agarose is essentially free from nutrients which may support growth of contaminants that interfere with the effect of stimulators or inhibitors.

Guarro, J., S. K. Abdullah, et al. (1997). "A new species of Preussia from submerged plant debris." Mycological Research 101(3): 305-308. Preussia aquilirostrata is newly described from submerged plant debris in

Iraq. A key to the identification of Preussia species with hairy ascomata is provided. Since Sporormiella is regarded as a synonym of Preussia, the new combinations Preussia lasiocarpa, P. pilosa, P. pilosella and P. chaetomioides are proposed.

Guenther, J. C. and F. Trail (2005). "The development and differentiation of Gibberella zeae (anamorph: Fusarium graminearum) during colonization of wheat." Mycologia, 97(1): 229-237. Worldwide, one of the most devastating pathogens of small

grains is the head blight fungus, Gibberella zeae. Ascospore-laden perithecia of this fungus develop on mature cereal crops and crop debris and provide the primary inoculum of the disease. We characterize the process of colonization of wheat tissue that leads to perithecium production. Stems were colonized systemically and extensively following inoculation of the wheat head. Haploid mycelia moved down the vascular system and pith and then colonized the stem tissue radially. Dikaryotic hyphae developed at two distinct stages: in the xylem, in support of radial hyphal growth and in the chloremchyma, in support of perithecium development. Perithecium formation was initiated in association with stomates and silica cells. Vascular occlusions prevented mycelia from colonizing the stem in 25% of inoculated plants. Implications of these findings are discussed for developing resistant cultivars and improving chemical control of the disease.

Guerber, J. C., B. Liu, et al. (2003). "Characterization of diversity in Colletotrichum acutatum sensu lato by sequence analysis of two gene introns, mtDNA and intron RFLPs, and mating compatibility." Mycologia, 95(5): 872-895. A diverse collection of isolates identified as Colletotrichum

acutatum, including a range of fruitrot and foliar pathogens, was examined for mtDNA RFLPs and RFLPs and sequence variation of a 900- bp intron of the glutamine synthetase (GS) gene and a 200-bp intron of the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) gene. RFLPs of

mtDNA, RFLPs of the 900-bp GS intron and sequence analysis of each intron identified the same seven distinct molecular groups, or clades, within C. acutatum sensu lato. Sequence analysis produced highly concordant tree topologies with definitive phylogenetic relationships within and between the clades. The clades might represent phylogenetically distinct species within C. acutatum sensu lato. Mating tests also were conducted to assess sexual compatibility with tester isolates known to outcross to form the teleomorph Glomerella acutata. Mating compatibility was identi- fied within one clade, C, and between two phylogenetically distinct clades, C and J4. The C clade represented isolates from a wide range of hosts and geographic origins. J4 clade contained isolates from Australia or New Zealand recovered from fruit rot and pine seedlings with terminal crook disease. That isolates in two phylogenetically distinct clades were capable

of mating suggests that genetic isolation occurred before reproductive isolation. No other isolates were sexually compatible with the mating testers, which also were in groups C and J4. Certain clades identified by mtDNA and intron analysis (D1, J3 and J6) appeared to represent relatively host-limited populations. Other clades (C1, F1 and J4) contained isolates from a wide range of hosts. Isolates described as C. acutatum f. sp. pineum were clearly polyphyletic.

GUERIN-LAGUETTE, A., N. MATSUSHITA, et al. (2002). "Identification of a prevalent Tricholoma matsutake ribotype in Japan by rDNA IGS1 spacer characterization." Mycol. Res. 106: 435-443. The diversity of Tricholoma matsutake basidiomata and their

distribution across Japan was investigated, for the first time, by using PCR-RFLP and sequencing. Eight distinct IGS1 rDNA types were identified by using the restriction endonuclease Cfr13I. Four (A, B, G, H) were characterized by one IGS1 dominant sequence, which could then be recorded by direct sequencing of the PCR products. In contrast, the four other types (C, D, E, F) were characterized by up to more than four codominant IGS1 copies that needed to be cloned before sequencing. Among the copies, one was always exhibiting the RFLP pattern of type A basidiomata. Pairwise nucleotide variation among IGS1 spacer copies, recorded in RFLP types A, B, C, D, F, and H, was very low and never exceeded 1.9%. In contrast, type G

emerged and its IGS1 spacer sequence exhibited at least 10.6% nucleotide variation compared with all other types. While the data recorded suggests a higher genetic diversity in the southern than in the northern part of Japan, no host/matsutake ribotype specificity could be evidenced. In Japan, the T. matsutake basidiomata belonging to RFLP type A were by far the most frequent. They were found at most sites and were usually the most abundant at each site. Furthermore, this predominance persisted over time during ca 50 years. The dominant RFLP type A may represent the original Japanese population while the other genotypes may have

been more recently introduced. GULATI, A., A. GULATI, et al. (1999). "Variation in chemical composition and quality of tea (Camellia sinensis) with increasing blister blight (Exobasidium vexans) severity." Mycol. Res. 103: 1380-1384. Analysis of quality-related parameters at the green leaf-stage

and in orthodox-made tea revealed marked quality deterioration with increasing blister blight severity. Total phenols, catechin(s), total nitrogen, amino acids, and chlorophylls, as well as polyphenol oxidase activity, declined in tea shoots with increasing disease severity. Depending on disease intensity, orthodox tea made from infected shoots showed loss in leaf-style. Likewise, theaflavins, thearubigins, caffeine, and high polymerized substances as well as total liquor colour, brightness and briskness also exhibited marked progressive decline in tea made from shoots with increasing disease severity. Aroma components, particularly hexene-1-ol, phenyl acetaldehyde, linalool, methyl salicylate, geraniol, indole, β-ionone, nerolidol, and several unassigned components were also lower in disease affected teas. The magnitude of decline in various aroma constituents corresponded to disease intensity.

GULDEN, G., S. DUNHAM, et al. (2001). "DNA studies in the Galerina marginata complex." Mycol. Res. 105: 432-440. The distinctiveness of the European Galerina marginata and

the American G. autumnalis is tested with analyses of DNA sequences from the internal transcribed spacer (ITS-2) of the nuclear ribosomal repeat and RFLP analysis of the entire ITS region. European and North American material from six taxa described in Galerina subgenus Naucoriopsis are included along with out-group material of six taxa representing two other subgenera of Galerina. The results do not indicate any genetic difference between species by Smith & Singer (1964) referred to the two ` stirpes ' Marginata and Autumnalis of Naucoriopsis, i.e. G. autumnalis, G. marginata, G. oregonensis, G. pseudomycenopsis, G. unicolor, and G. venenata and all except G. pseudomycenopsis are considered later synonyms of G. marginata. Galerina badipes (syn. G. cedretorum var. bispora of ` stirps ' Cedretorum is well supported as a distinct species. Subgenus Naucoriopsis appears as a distinct infrageneric unit well separated from the infrageneric units represented by the out-group species.

Gulden, G., Ø. Stensrud, et al. (2005). "Galerina Earle: A polyphyletic genus in the consortium of dark-spored agarics." Mycologia, 97(4): 823–837. The basidiomycete genus Galerina Earle accommodates more

than 300 small brown-spored agarics worldwide, predominantly described from the Northern hemisphere. The delimitation of species and infrageneric units hitherto has been based on morphological and, to some extent, ecological characters.

In this study we have analyzed nuclear ribosomal LSU and ITS sequences to reveal infrageneric phylogeny and the phylogenetic placement of Galerina among the dark-spored agarics. Sequences from 36 northern hemisphere Galerina species and 19 other dark-spored taxa were analyzed, some of them obtained from EMBL/GenBank. Our results, received from Bayesian and distance methods, strongly suggest that Galerina is a polyphyletic genus. The LSU analysis shows that Galerina is composed of three or four separate monophyletic main groups. In addition, a few species cluster together with other darkspored agarics. The same groups are recognized in the ITS tree and they correspond roughly to previously recognized subgenera or sections in Galerina. With high support our LSU analysis suggests that Gymnopilus is a monophyletic genus and that Gymnopilus and one of the Galerina lineages (‘‘mycenopsis’’) are sister groups. The analyses further indicate that the Galerina lineages, as well as the genus Gymnopilus, could be referred to a strongly emendated family Strophariaceae, which corresponds

largely to the family as circumscribed by Kuhner (1980). Our results affirm that morphological characters often are highly homoplastic in the agarics. At the present stage formal taxonomic consequences or nomenclatural changes are not proposed.

GULIS, V. (2001). "Are there any substrate preferences in aquatic hyphomycetes?." Mycol. Res. 105: 1088-1093. Aquatic hyphomycete assemblages on different types of plant

litter in Belarus rivers and streams were investigated to determine whether any substrate specificity or preferences were apparent. Pooled samples (146) from 92 watercourses were analysed. Colonization coefficients were computed for each fungal taxa and substrate type and the resulting matrix analysed with principal component analysis and cluster analysis. The results demonstrate that some substrates support relatively specific aquatic hyphomycete assemblages and it is possible to ordinate plant litter types by means of their fungal complexes. This suggests selective colonization by fungi, i.e. substrate preferences at least in some species. Wood and grass blades bear fungal assemblages clearly distinct from those supported by tree leaf litter (with higher percentage of scolecosporous and antagonistic species). Ordination of plant litter types could be explained by size of substrate units, their chemical composition (in particular lignin content) and, consequently, breakdown rate that affects fungal colonization.

Gulis, V. and K. Suberkropp (2004). "Effects of whole-stream nutrient enrichment on the concentration and abundance of aquatic hyphomycete conidia in transport." Mycologia, 96(1): 57-65. The concentrations and relative abundances of aquatic

hyphomycete conidia in water were followed during a three-year study in two headwater streams at Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory, North

Carolina, using the membrane-filtration technique. After a one-year pretreatment period, one of the streams was enriched continuously with inorganic nutrients (N1P) for two years while the other stream served as the reference. This ecosystem-level nutrient manipulation resulted in concentrations of aquatic hyphomycete conidia in the water of the treated stream that were 4.5–6.9 times higher than the concentrations observed during the pretreatment period and in the reference stream. Nutrient enrichment led to an increase in the number of fungal species detected on each sampling date. Changes in dominance patterns and relative abundances of individual species also were detected after treatment. Nutrient addition stimulates the reproductive activity of aquatic

hyphomycetes, their colonization success and fungal- mediated leaf-litter decomposition. Such changes in the activity of the fungal community might affect higher trophic levels in lotic ecosystems.

GULIS, V. I. and A. I. STEPHANOVICH (1999). "Antibiotic effects of some aquatic hyphomycetes." Mycol. Res. 103: 111-115. In vitro, antibiotic effects of the culture filtrates of 29 species

of aquatic hyphomycetes against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, yeasts and hyphomycetes were studied. The culture filtrates of 38% of isolates were active in at least one of our tests for biological activity. Fifteen species inhibited growth of bacteria and four demonstrated antifungal activity. Filtrates of 35% of the isolates were antibacterial. About 50% of the isolates, those with the largest in vitro inhibitory activities (Dimorphosphora foliicola, Flagellospora sp. and Mycocentrospora sp.) were obtained from wood. Filtrates of Articulospora tetracladia were not only active against Gram - ve bacteria, but were also antiviral against bacteriophage T4 and influenza virus.

Gunasekera, T. S., N. D. Paul, et al. (1997). "Responses of phylloplane yeasts to UV-B (290-320 nm) radiation : interspecific differences in sensitivity." Mycological Research 101(7): 779-785. The sensitivity to UV-B (290-320 nm) radiation of common phylloplane

yeasts from two contrasting UV-B environments was compared in the laboratory using mixtures of white light (PAR: 400-700 nm) and UV-B radiation from artificial lamp sources. Sporidiobolus salmonicolor, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa and Cryptococcus sp., the dominant yeasts on leaves of tea (Camellia sinensis), were isolated in Sri Lanka (SL), while Sporidiobolus sp. and Bullera alba, dominant on faba bean (Vicia faba), were isolated in the U.K. Dose responses were determined separately for each yeast. UV-B reduced colony forming units (due to cell mortality or inactivation) and colony size (due to reduced multiplication) of all yeasts. The LD&! values and doses causing 50% reduction of cells per colony were higher for SL isolates than U.K. isolates. Results indicated that each yeast is somewhat vulnerable to UV-B doses representative of its natural habitat. The relative insensitivity of SL isolates was shown when SL and

U.K. isolates were irradiated simultaneously with the same dose of UV-B. Of the two U.K. yeasts, B. alba was significantly more sensitive than Sporidiobolus sp. to UV-B. Except for R. mucilaginosa from SL, all yeasts demonstrated some photorepair in the presence of white light. White light provided relatively little protection for the U.K. isolate of Sporidiobolus sp. although it allowed increased colony size. The spectral responses of Sporidiobolus sp. (U.K.) and of B. alba (U.K.) were broadly similar. Wavelengths longer than 320 nm had no measurable effect on colony forming units. However, colony survival was significantly reduced at 310 nm and all shorter wavebands. No colonies were counted at 290 nm or below.

GUNASEKERA, T. S., N. D. PAUL, et al. (1997). "Responses of phylloplane yeasts to UV-B (290-320 nm) radiation : interspeciÆc diåerences in sensitivity." Mycol. Res. 101: 779-785. The sensitivity to UV-B (290-320 nm) radiation of common

phylloplane yeasts from two contrasting UV-B environments was compared in the laboratory using mixtures of white light (PAR: 400-700 nm) and UV-B radiation from artiÆcial lamp sources. Sporidiobolus salmonicolor, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa and Cryptococcus sp., the dominant yeasts on leaves of tea (Camellia sinensis), were isolated in Sri Lanka (SL), while Sporidiobolus sp. and Bullera alba, dominant on faba bean (Vicia faba), were isolated in the U.K. Dose responses were determined separately for each yeast. UV-B reduced colony forming units (due to cell mortality or inactivation) and colony size (due to reduced multiplication) of all yeasts. The LD50 values and doses causing 50% reduction of cells per colony were higher for SL isolates than U.K. isolates. Results indicated that each yeast is somewhat vulnerable to UV-B doses representative of its natural habitat. The relative insensitivity of SL isolates was shown when SL and U.K. isolates were irradiated simultaneously with the same dose of UV-B. Of the two U.K. yeasts, B. alba was significantly more sensitive than Sporidiobolus sp. to UV-B. Except for R. mucilaginosa from SL, all yeasts demonstrated some photorepair in the presence of white light. White light provided relatively little protection for the U.K. isolate of Sporidiobolus sp. although it allowed increased colony size. The spectral responses of Sporidiobolus sp. (U.K.) and of B. alba (U.K.) were broadly similar. Wavelengths longer than 320 nm had no measurable eåect on colony forming units. However, colony survival was signiÆcantly reduced at 310 nm and all shorter wavebands. No colonies were counted at 290 nm or below.

GUO, L. D., G. R. HUANG, et al. (2003). "Molecular identification of white morphotype strains of endophytic fungi from Pinus tabulaeformis." Mycol. Res. 107: 680-688. Sterile mycelia isolated from Pinus tabulaeformis were grouped

into white morphotype strains based on cultural characteristics. Eighteen

of the isolates were randomly selected and identified to various taxonomic levels based on nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) sequence analysis. The 5.8S gene and flanking internal transcribed spacer (ITS1 and ITS2) regions of nrDNA were amplified and sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis of the 5.8S gene sequences indicated that the white morphotype strains were Ascomycota. Further identification was achieved by means of sequence similarity comparison and phylogenetic analysis of the ITS regions. Results showed that strains WMS9 and WMS10 were Lophodermium species (Rhytismataceae), while strains WMS11, WMS13 and WMS18 were species of Rhytismataceae. Strains WMS2, WMS3, WMS4, WMS5 and WMS6 were identified to Rosellinia, strain WMS1 to Entoleuca, and strain WMS14 to Nemania (Xylariaceae). Strains WMS7, WMS8, WMS12, WMS15, WMS16 and WMS17 were xylariaceous species. The potential of using DNA sequence analysis in the identification of endophytic fungi is discussed.

GUO, L.-Y. and T. J. MICHAILIDES (1998). "Factors affecting the rate and mode of germination of Mucor piriformis zygospores." Mycol. Res. 102: 815-819. Over 70% of zygospores of M. piriformis collected from 10 day-

old cultures germinated in water and on acidi®ed water agar. Germination originated either through a crack on the zygosporangial wall or through one of the suspensors. The germination percentage was highest when newly matured zygospores were used. Zygospores from cultures older than one month either did not germinate or germinated poorly. The mode of zygospore germination was affected by nutrients and germination condition. Germsporangial, germ-sporangial-mycelial and mycelial germination were observed on solid media while germination with an elongated

germ-tube was observed in water. Zygospores of M. piriformis germinated under light as well as in darkness. Although low pH is not required for zygospore germination in water, zygospore germination on solid media is favoured by low pH.

GURE, A., B. SLIPPERS, et al. (2005). "Seed-borne Botryosphaeria spp. from native Prunus and Podocarpus trees in Ethiopia, with a description of the anamorph Diplodia rosulata sp. nov.." Mycol. Res. 109(9): 1005-1014. Botryosphaeria spp. from seeds of the native afromontane

forest tree species, Podocarpus falcatus and Prunus africana, in Ethiopia have been identified. This is achieved by combining anamorph morphological characters and ITS sequence data. From a relatively small sample, four Botryosphaeria spp. were encountered. Two of the species from P. falcatus and the one from P. africana have not been previously described. The two species from P. falcatus were represented by only one isolate each and are not named here. The morphology of their Diplodia and Dothiorella anamorphs is, however, characterised. The anamorph of the other Botryosphaeria sp. from P. africana is described here as

Diplodia rosulata sp. nov. Furthermore, B. parva is identified from P. falcatus based on ITS phylogeny. This species is also an important pathogen of various commercially important tree species in Ethiopia and elsewhere. This study highlights the ability of Botryosphaeria spp. to infect seeds and the possibility that they might be distributed in this way. The study also contributes to recent attempts to stabilize the taxonomy of Botryosphaeria anamorphs, especially regarding Diplodia, which is currently in taxonomic disarray.

GUSMAO, L. F. P., R. A. P. GRANDI, et al. (2000). "A new species of Beltraniopsis from Brazil, with a key to the known species." Mycol. Res. 104: 251-253. Beltraniopsis miconiae sp. nov. was isolated on decaying

leaves of Miconia cabussu and characterized by the constriction at the subequatorial zone of the conidium and inflated apical cell of the setiform conidiophore. It is described and illustrated and a key to the known Beltraniopsis species is provided.

Guzman, G., F. Ramirez-Guillen, et al. (2004). "Scleroderma stellatum versus Scleroderma bermudense: the status of Scleroderma echinatum and the first record of Veligaster nitidum from the Virgin Islands." Mycologia, 96(6): 1370–1379. The type of Scleroderma stellatum from Brazil exhibits a sharp

echinulate, dark brown peridium, and the type of S. bermudense from Bermuda has a

peridium that is loosely woven and fibrillose, whitish to pale brownish. These characters indicate two independent species. This information is contrary to that of Guzman in 1970, who interpreted S. bermudense to be a synonym of S. stellatum based on the similar spores. Scleroderma echinatum from Borneo and Panama, as recently discussed by Guzma´n and Ovrebo, also has an echinulate, dark brown peridium and is a synonym of S. stellatum. All these fungi have

a stellate dehiscence. New records of S. bermudense from the Greater Antilles and Mexico’s Pacific Coast, and Veligaster nitidum from Virgin Islands also are

discussed. Guzman, G., F. Tapia, et al. (2003). "New species of Psilocybe in the Caribbean, with an emendation of P. guilartensis." Mycologia, 95(6): 1171-1180. Five new species of Psilocybe from the Caribbean are

described: P. caribaea, P. egonii, P. subpsilocybioides, P. zapotecoantillarum and P. zapotecocaribaea. All except P. zapotecocaribaea, which is known only from Martinique, are native to Puerto Rico. Psilocybe guilartensis, previously described from Puerto Rico, is the most commonly collected species of Psilocybe in Puerto Rico. New information on morphology is provided for P. guilartensis, and an

emendation of the species circumscription is presented. Guzman-Davalos, L., G. M. Mueller, et al. (2003). "Traditional infrageneric classification of Gymnopilus is not supported by ribosomal DNA sequence data." Mycologia, 95(6): 1204-1214. The traditional classification of Gymnopilus (Agaricales)

recognizes two primary groups, Annulati and Gymnopilus, based on the presence or absence of a membranous partial

veil. While our analyses of DNA sequence data from the nuclear ribosomal ITS1–5.8S-ITS2 (ITS) gene supports the monophyly of the genus, these traditional subgroups were not recovered. Five well-supported clades within the genus were identified through these analyses: 1) the spectabilis-imperialis group; 2) nevadensis-penetrans group; 3) a clade formed by G. underwoodii, G. validipes and G. cf. flavidellus; 4) aeruginosus-luteofolius group; and 5) lepidotus-subearlei group. Relationships among these subgroups were not resolved.

HACKNEY, C. T., D. E. PADGETT, et al. (2000). "Fungal and bacterial contributions to the decomposition of Cladium and Typha leaves in nutrient enriched and nutrient poor areas of the Everglades, with a note on ergosterol concentrations in Everglades soils." Mycol. Res. 104: 666-670. Fungal biomass was detected in peat soils from throughout the

Everglades based on the presence of ergosterol. Ergosterol concentrations in soils were not detectably affected by the dominant plant, Cladium jamaicense or Typha domingensis, or phosphorus content of soils. In situ decomposition of decaying leaves, measured by respiration, was high (maximum 484 µl O2 h-1 g-1 dry biomass). Approximately 30% of respiration was by bacteria, and the rest was by fungi and other eukaryotes. Respiration rates were essentially the same for decomposing leaves of both plant species, with higher rates early in the decomposition process. Respiration rates were relatively unaffected by the nutrient status of the site, except for eukaryotic respiration on Cladium, which was usually higher at a high nutrient site. Ergosterol concentration increased in decaying leaves through time and was unrelated to the nutrient level except for Cladium, where it was higher at the high nutrient site. Eukaryotic respiration was not correlated with ergosterol concentration in decomposing leaves of Typha, but was positively correlated with ergosterol for Cladium.

Hajek, A. E. (1997). "Entomophaga maimaiga reproductive output is determined bythe spore type initiating an infection." Mycological Research 101(8): 971-974. The fungal pathogen Entomophaga maimaiga, infecting gypsy moth larvae

(Lymantria dispar), produces two types of spores ; relatively short-lived conidia are produced externally on cadavers and are actively ejected to cause infection during the same season, while azygospores, produced within cadavers, are dormant after formation and survive unfavourable

conditions. This is the first record providing experimental proof of differential reproduction resulting from infections initiated by these two types of spores. Cadavers of larvae that had died from infections initiated by azygospores produced only conidia, regardless of host instar or relative humidity after host death. This is in stark contrast to infections initiated by conidia, which could yield either conidia only, azygospores only, or both spore types, with reproductive outcome primarily influenced by host age. Production of only conidia from infections initiated by azygospores increases opportunities for secondary transmission during the eight week field season ; if infections initiated by azygospores produced azygospores, chances for amplification of infections with subsequent epizootic development would be decreased.

Hajek, A. E., A. B. Jensen, et al. (2003). "PCR-RFLP is used to investigate relations among species in the entomopathogenic genera Eryniopsis and Entomophaga." Mycologia, 95(2): 262-268. The shape and nucleation of primary conidia are important

characters in the classification of the Entomophthoraceae (Zygomycetes). The five species in the genus Eryniopsis vary in the shapes of primary conidia, although within most genera in the order Entomophthorales species have the same shapes of primary conidia. Using PCR-RFLP, we investigated two species in Eryniopsis, Ery. caroliniana with oblong-ovoid primary conidia and Ery. ptychopterae with pear-shaped primary conidia, with five species of Entomophaga, all having pear-shaped conidia. Molecular results merged with morphological data indicate that Ery. ptychopterae belongs in the genus Entomophaga while Ery. caroliniana clearly differs from Entomophaga. Ery. ptychopterae and Ery. transitans are transferred to the genus Entomophaga. Our results support the idea that morphology of primary conidia is of major importance in defining entomophthoralean genera. These results also show that such studies can be conducted with species that have not been isolated, if fungal-filled cadavers can be obtained.

HALAMA, P., M. SKAJENNIKOFF, et al. (1999). "Tetrad analysis of mating type, mutations, esterase and aggressiveness in Phaeosphaeria nodorum." Mycol. Res. 103: 43-49. Ascospore progenies from two crosses between a wild single-

ascospore strain and two mutants of Phaeosphaeria nodorum were obtained in vitro. Cultural characters, sensitivity to carbendazim (MBC), nitrate utilization, mating type, esterase zymograms and aggressiveness of these progenies and parents were compared and differences were detected between the ascospores. The singleascospore strains from each single ascus could always be grouped into four pairs using a combination of markers. Recombinations were observed between nitrate non-utilizing phenotype and mating type or esterase patterns for one cross. For the other cross, recombinations between MBC resistance and esterase

patterns were detected. The values of aggressiveness in each progeny were distributed along a wide range confirming the polygenic character of aggressiveness in P. nodorum. No close relationship was observed between in vitro conidiogenesis, the intensity of leaf necrosis and the fertile pycnidia production on leaf lesions.

Hale, M. E. and JR. (1974). "Notes on species of Parmotera (Lichens: Parmeliaceae) containing yellow pigments." MYCOTAXON 1(2): 105-116. Halit Umar, M. and L. J. L. D. Van Griensven (1997). "Hyphal regeneration and histogenesis in Agaricus bisporus." Mycological Research 101(9): 1025-1032. Growing fruit bodies of Agaricus bisporus and Amanita muscaria

responded with regenerating white hyphae to cell and tissue injuries caused by intrapileal needle insertion and leucofuchsin injection. We point out reserve cells as a possible source of regenerating hyphae in the wound repair. Such reserve cells were not found in the partial veil and in the surface covering. Damage of the partial veil remained unrepaired and caused lamellar dysplasia. Hydrophilic, somatic tissues reacted immediately and strongly with leucofuchsin, whereas hyphae of the surface covering and partial veil showed a delayed and weak reaction. We explain this by the presence of an extracellular matrix, which consists of hydrophilic mucilaginous substances around tissue-forming hyphae. Transmission and scanning electron microscopical studies revealed that white hyphae were deprived of such matrix material. We conclude that for fungal tissue formation the hyphae have to be capable of producing a substantial amount of extracellular matrix material beyond the cell wall.

HALLEN, H. E., R. WATLING, et al. (2003). "Taxonomy and toxicity of Conocybe lactea and related species." Mycol. Res. 107: 969-979. Conocybe lactea was examined as part of a larger study on the

distribution of amatoxins and phallotoxins in fungi, and the taxonomic relationships between these fungi. As amatoxins are present in the congener C. filaris, the locally abundant C. lactea was examined using HPLC and mass spectroscopy. Amatoxins were not found in C. lactea, but the related phallotoxins were present in small quantities making it the first fungus outside of the genus Amanita in which phallotoxins have been detected. Despite the presence of a related toxin, C. lactea was found not to be taxonomically close to C. filaris. Phylogenetic analyses using nuclear ribosomal RNA genes indicated that North American specimens of C. lactea were conspecific with North American specimens of C. crispa in Conocybe sect. Candidae. European C. crispa was a distinct taxon. The implications of the use of the name C. albipes for these taxa are discussed. Nucleotide data confirmed placement of the sequestrate taxon Gastrocybe lateritia in sect. Candidae, but as a distinct taxon. It is hypothesized that the unique sequestrate morphology of G. lateritia may be caused by a bacterial infection.

Halling, R. E. and G. M. Mueller (2003). "Leccinum (Boletaceae) in Costa Rica." Mycologia, 95(3): 488-499. Complete descriptions, illustrations, distributions and a key to

species are provided for the eight known Costa Rican species of Leccinum. Leccinum

tablense is newly described from oak forests, and Leccinum monticola is newly described from the pa- ramo and adjacent timberline oak forests where it appears to be associated with Comarostaphylis arbutoides— a member of the Ericaceae. All are compared to similar taxa.

HAMBLETON, S., S. HUHTINEN, et al. (1999). "Hymenoscyphus ericae : a new record from western Canada." Mycol. Res. 103: 1391-1397. The teleomorphic state of the ericoid mycorrhizal

Hymenoscyphus ericae is known only from the type deposition. The production of both the teleomorph and anamorph by an isolate recovered from Ledum groenlandicum collected in an acidic peatland in Alberta, Canada, provided an opportunity to describe and illustrate the holomorph for a North American collection as a new record and as a supplement to the original diagnosis. It also provided further evidence that Hymenoscyphus ericae and Scytalidium vaccinii represent states of a single species, a hypothesis that previously had been tested using nuclear ribosomal DNA analysis. Appropriate cultural conditions and the use of molecular markers are advocated in order to facilitate the identification of mycorrhizal isolates which often remain sterile in pure culture.

Hambleton, S., A. Tsuneda, et al. (2003). "Comparative morphology and phylogenetic placement of two microsclerotial black fungi from Sphagnum." Mycologia, 95(5): 959-975. Capnobotryella renispora and Scleroconidioma sphagnicola

form black, irregularly shaped microsclerotia that are indistinguishable in gross morphology

on leaves of Sphagnum fuscum. In culture, microsclerotia of these fungi were similar, in that mature component cells possessed thick, highly melanized cell walls, poorly defined organelles, large lipid bodies and simple septa. They were different in morphogenesis, in the way their component cells were organized and in disseminative propagules. Microsclerotia of S. sphagnicola formed phialidic conidiogenous cells on their surface, whereas in C. renispora, adjacent cells in mature microsclerotia often separated from each other by septum schizolysis and formed chlamydospores. The identification of C. renispora from Sphagnum is provisional despite a 100% ITS sequence match with data for a culture derived from the type strain. No holoblastic, reniform conidia typical of the species were formed in nature or in culture, and the SSU sequence for a separately preserved culture of the ex-type strain was markedly divergent. Parsimony analyses of nuclear ribosomal

DNA sequences showed that these two fungi were related to separate orders of Dothideomycetes. Both SSU and ITS data supported a close relationship for

S. sphagnicola to the Dothideales sensu stricto, while the closest ITS match was to Rhizosphaera spp. In the SSU analyses, C. renispora was nested within the Capnodiales. HAMELIN, R. C., M. BOURASSA, et al. (2000). "PCR detection of Gremmeniella abietina, the causal agent of Scleroderris canker of pine." Mycol. Res. 104: 527-532. Scleroderris canker of conifer is caused by Gremmeniella

abietina var. abietina, which comprises several taxa, including races, varieties, and biotypes. The European race of G. abietina var. abietina was introduced into North America early in the century, most likely on asymptomatic infected pine seedlings, and is currently widespread in eastern North America. In order to detect latent infections and differentiate the North American and European races of the fungus, we developed oligonucleotide primers to amplify by PCR portions of the ITS of the ribosomal DNA of G. abietina var. abietina. The 417 bp amplified DNA fragment comprises two Msp I restriction sites in the NA race but only one in the EU race. DNA extractions directly from infected asymptomatic needles, or from single fruiting bodies, followed by PCR amplification and Msp I digestion allowed the detection and race identification of both races of G. abietina var. abietina from seedlings and branches of Pinus resinosa and P. banksiana. A nested PCR assay was sensitive enough to detect the equivalent of a single infected seedling in a bulk sample of 1000 healthy seedlings. Validation tests were conducted by comparing PCR and isolation assays with 104 fascicles. All samples for which the fungus was isolated yielded a positive PCR assay and there was no false negative, i.e. samples for which the fungus was isolated but not detected by PCR. Among the samples from which the fungus was not isolated, most yielded a negative PCR assay (71 %), but a proportion (29%) yielded positive PCR assays. In several of those cases, aggressive contaminants had apparently overgrown the pathogen. The method described here can lead to the detection and race identification of the NA and EU races of G. abietina var. abietina directly from infected tissues without the need to culture the fungus and should find applications in nursery inspection and quarantine.

Hammer, E. and F. Schauer (1997). "Fungal hydroxylation of dibenzofuran*." Mycological Research 101(4): 433-436. Strains (47) of 14 genera isolated from soil and woody chips were tested

for their ability to oxidize dibenzofuran, a model compound for highly chlorinated dibenzofuran pollutants. Thirty strains formed one or more isomers of monohydroxylated dibenzofurans identified by chemical structure analysis with hplc and GC-MS, indicating an active

monooxygenase system widely distributed in filamentous fungi. Dihydroxylated derivatives were detected in only very low amounts and some degradation products were observed. A few fungi metabolized dibenzofuran only to intermediates with hydrophilic characteristics (eight strains) and nine strains showed no transformation capability. The transformation reactions were not inducible and seemed to be strain-specific.

HAMMER, E. and F. SCHAUER (1997). "Fungal hydroxylation of dibenzofuran." Mycol. Res. 101: 433-436. Strains (47) of 14 genera isolated from soil and woody chips

were tested for their ability to oxidize dibenzofuran, a model compound for highly chlorinated dibenzofuran pollutants. Thirty strains formed one or more isomers of monohydroxylated dibenzofurans identified by chemical structure analysis with hplc and GC-MS, indicating an active monooxygenase system widely distributed in filamentous fungi. Dihydroxylated derivatives were detected in only very low amounts and some degradation products were observed. A few fungi metabolized dibenzofuran only to intermediates with hydrophilic characteristics (eight strains) and nine strains showed no transformation capability. The transformation reactions were not inducible and seemed to be strain-specific.

Hanlin, R. T. (1990). Illustrated Genera of Ascomycetes. America, APS PRESS: 263. Hanlin, R. T. (1997). Illustrated Genera of Ascomycetes. America, APS PRESS. 2: 258. Hanlin, R. T. (1998). Combined Keys to Illustrated Genera of Ascomycetes. America, APS PRESS. 1 and 2: 113. Hanlin, R. T. (2003). "Conidioma development in Ophiodothella vaccinii." Mycologia, 95(3): 506-512. The perithecial ascomycete Ophiodothella vaccinii causes a

leafspot disease of sparkleberry (Vaccinium arboreum), in which an anamorph is produced

early in the life cycle of the fungus. The anamorph forms shiny, black, pulvinate conidiomata that contain a single central pore. After initial infection, fungal hyphae permeate the interior tissues of the leaf, creating lesions. Conidiomata are initiated by the formation of a small layer of intertwined, thicker-walled hyphae beneath the epidermis of the lesion. Near the center of this hyphal layer a subglobose collection of thick-walled hyphae is formed. This hyphal collection grows upward, becoming conical and pressing against the epidermis. Elongation of a columnar apex of the hyphal collection ruptures the epidermis, creating a pore. Subsequent

expansion and development of conidiophores and conidia push the epidermis upward, lifting it away from the column, opening the pore and allowing conidia to emerge. The onidioma is regarded as a modified acervulus.

HANSEN, K., T. LAESS∅E, et al. (2002). "Phylogenetic diversity in the core group of Peziza inferred from ITS sequences and morphology." Mycol. Res. 106: 879-902. Species delimitation within the core group of Peziza is highly

controversial. The group, typified by P. vesiculosa, is morphologically coherent and in previous analyses of LSU rDNA sequences it formed a highly supported clade. Phylogenetic diversity and species limits were investigated within the group using sequences from the complete ITS region (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2). Eighty-three specimens were selected for molecular study from a larger sample of material studied morphologically to explore the intra- and interspecific variation of each putative species. The sister group taxon, P. ampelina was used as the outgroup and two specimens of P. subcitrina were additionally included. Seven independent lineages of rDNA were identified (I--VII), each representing one to several species. These lineages form two larger clades, A (II, and I or III) and B (IV--VII), supported by macromorphology: small (generally <2 cm), shallowly cup- to disc-shaped apothecia (A) and large (up to 15 cm), deeply cup-shaped to expanded apothecia (B). The overall exciple structure (a stratified or non-stratified medullary layer) and to some degree spore surface relief, likewise support the groupings. Clade A contains taxa with smooth or nearly smooth spores (except for P. lohjaeX nsis),

while clade B contains taxa with a range of spore ornamentations, from smooth, finely warty to distinctly warty, and spiny. The position of groups I (P. vesiculosa and P. ammophila) and III (P. lohjaeX nsis) are uncertain, and these taxa also deviate morphologically from the other clade A members. The following species are recognized based on morphology and ITS rDNA analyses: P. ammophila and P. vesiculosa (I) ; P. alcis, P. ampliata, P. domiciliana, P. fimeti, P. nivalis, and a number of putative species or intraspecific entities (II) ; P. lohjaeX nsis (III) ; P. sp. c (IV); P. arvernensis (V); P. echinispora and P. sp. d (VI); and P. varia (VII). The nomenclature of these species is analyzed and taxa are typified as necessary. Based on ITS and morphology, we found no justification for recognizing more than one species in the `P. varia complex', including 27 specimens that have been referred to under the names P. cerea, P. micropus and P. repanda, from an array of substrates and different geographical areas. Morphological characters previously used to delimit species within this complex, such as colour variation of the apothecia, presence or absence of a stipe, stratified or non-stratified medullary exciple (or thickness of the excipular layers), cell types in the outermost exciple and moniliform vs filiform paraphyses were not correlated with the subgroups supported by ITS analyses and appeared to be plastic. Therefore, P. cerea and P.

micropus are placed in synonymy with P. varia. The name P. repanda is rejected. Levels of sequence divergence were low within group II, comprising 33 small apothecial specimens. Twelve fine-scale lineages were identified, but the analyses did not resolve relationships among these. P. granulosa sensu Boudier is considered a synonym of P. fimeti. These have previously been distinguished mainly by occurrence on various soil types, including burnt soil and soil mixed with sawdust or woodchips vs on dung. The substrate and habitat have been much emphasized in the taxonomy of Peziza, but the results obtained here indicate that populations on a diverse array of substrates may be closely related, or indeed, conspecific.

Hansen, K., B. A. Perry, et al. (2005). "Phylogenetic origins of two cleistothecial fungi, Orbicula parietina and Lasiobolidium orbiculoides, within the operculate discomycetes." Mycologia, 97(5): 1023–1033. Parsimony,maximum-likelihood and Bayesian analyses of

SSU rDNA sequences of representative taxa of Pezizomycetes, Eurotiomycetes, Dothideomycetes, Leotiomycetes and Sordariomycetes, all strongly support the cleistothecial fungi Orbicula parietina and Lasiobolidium orbiculoides to be of pezizalean origin. Previous hypotheses of close affinities with cleistothecial or highly reduced fungi now placed in the Thelebolales, Eurotiales or Onygenales are

rejected. Orbicula parietina and L. orbiculoides are deeply nested within Pyronemataceae (which subsumes the families Ascodesmidaceae, Glaziellaceae and Otideaceae). LSU rDNA sequences suggest that Orbicula is nested within the apothecia-forming genus Pseudombrophila (including Nannfeldtiella and Fimaria) and that L. orbiculoides is closely related. Ascodesmis and Lasiobolus, which have been suggested as closely related to Orbicula and Lasiobolidium, are identified as a sister lineage to the Pseudombrophila lineage. Cleistothecial forms that have lost the ascus operculum and ability to discharge spores actively have evolved at least once in the Pseudombrophila lineage. Some species of Pseudombrophila produce subglobular ascomata initials that are closed early in development and open only in the mid-mesohymenial phase. We hypothesize that, in the Pseudombrophila lineage, ascomata forms that never open are derived from ascomata that open late in development. The placement of O. parietina and L. orbiculoides within Pseudombrophila is supported by morphological characters, ecology and temperature optima for fruiting.

Hansen, L. and H. Knudsen (1992). Polyporales, Boletales, Agaricales, Russulales. Nordic Macromycetes Vol. 2. Helsinki, Finland, Helsinki University Printing House. 2: 474. Hansen, L. and H. Knudsen (1997). Heterobasidioid, Aphyllophoroid, Gastromyceoid, Basidiomycetes. Nordic Macromycetes Vol. 3. Helsinki, Finland,

Helsinki University Printing House. 3: 444. Hansford, C. G. (1961). The Meliolineae A Monograph. Beihefte zur Sydowia Annles Mycologici, Ser.II, Verlag Von Ferdinand Berger, Horn,N.-O., Austria. Ser.II: 806. HANSON, L. E. and C. R. HOWELL (2002). "Biocontrol efficacy and other characteristics of protoplast fusants between Trichoderma koningii and T. virens." Mycol. Res. 106: 321-328. Several Trichoderma virens (syn. Gliocladium virens) strains

have good biocontrol activity against Rhizoctonia solani on cotton but lack some of the commercially desirable characteristics found in other Trichoderma species. In an attempt to combine these desirable characteristics, we used a highly effective biocontrol strain of T. virens in protoplast fusions with a strain of T. koningii, which had good storage qualities, but little biocontrol efficacy. All fusants were

morphologically similar to one of the parental species. However, when compared to the morphologically similar T. koningii parent, two fusants showed significantly better biocontrol activity against R. solani on cotton. In addition, one T. virens-like fusant gave significantly less control than the T. virens parent. Fusants also differed from the morphologically similar parent in the production of secondary metabolites. One fusant was obtained which maintained biocontrol activity during storage for up to a year.

HANTULA, J., A.-M. HALLAKSELA, et al. (1998). "Relationship between Prosthemium betulinum and Pleomassaria siparia." Mycol. Res. 102: 1509-1512. Prosthemium betulinum and Pleomassaria siparia are found in

the same sites on birch branches. Single spore cultures of P. siparia produced conidia similar to those of P. betulinum. Restriction analysis of 18S rDNA did not differentiate between P. betulinum and P. siparia. Random amplified microsatellite fingerprints showed a high amount of variation, which was not explained by the origin of cultures. We conclude that P. betulinum is the anamorphic state of P. siparia.

HANTULA, J., R. KASANEN, et al. (2002). "Analyses of genetic variation suggest that pine rusts Cronartium flaccidum and Peridermium pini belong to the same species." Mycol. Res. 106: 203-209. Cronartium flaccidum and Peridermium pini are rust fungi

occurring on two-needle hard pines. According to previous molecular and morphological analyses, they are very closely related despite differences in their life-cycles. In this study we showed that although a low level of genetic differentiation occurs among populations of both P. pini and C.flaccidum, there is no overall differentiation between the two rusts, and in this respect they resemble a single taxon. We

also observed evidence for linkage disequilibrium occurring between different

alleles of separate loci of Peridermium pini suggesting that its population structure would be clonal. This suggests that strains of P. pini would have originated as asexual or self-fertilizing host range mutants of C. flaccidum.

Hantula, J., A. Lilia, et al. (1997). "Genetic variation and host specificity of Phytophthora cactorum isolated in Europe." Mycological Research 101(5): 565-572. Analysis of Phytophthora cactorum using Random Amplified

Microsatellites (RAMS) revealed considerable variation among isolates, most of which correlated with the original host plants. The lack of variation among isolates originating from strawberry suggests that crown rot of strawberry is caused by a single clone within the geographical area studied. It was also shown that P. cactorum isolates form a unique group different from other Phytophthora spp. from Group P. cactorum isolates from necrotic stem lesions on Betula pendula seedlings or Fragaria X ananassa plants suffering from crown rot were highly pathogenic to their original host plants. P. cactorum isolates from strawberry inoculated via wounds also caused necrotic lesions on B. pendula. On the other hand isolates from B. pendula did not cause disease symptoms on strawberry plants. On Alnus glutinosa the percentage of successful inoculations with a birch isolate was 40.

HANTULA, J., A. LILJA, et al. (2000). "Pathogenicity, morphology and genetic variation of Phytophthora cactorum from strawberry, apple, rhododendron, and silver birch." Mycol. Res. 104: 1062-1068. The analysis of random amplified microsatellite (RAMS)

markers of Phytophthora cactorum from strawberry showed that leather rot of strawberry fruits and crown rot are not caused by genetically different strains of this species. UPGMA-analysis showed that the populations of P. cactorum on strawberry differ between North America and Europe and that no clear genetic separation between isolates from different plants can be made among these populations. Slight morphological variation exists in the diameters of oogonia and oospores among the isolates but is insufficient for the identification of genetic groups or host specificity of P. cactorum

isolates. Pathogenicity experiments proved that strains show a tendency towards host specialization.

HANTULA, J., A. LILJA, et al. (1997). "Genetic variation and host specificity of Phytophthora cactorum isolated in Europe." Mycol. Res. 101: 565-572. Analysis of Phytophthora cactorum using Random AmpliÆed

Microsatellites (RAMS) revealed considerable variation among isolates, most of which correlated with the original host plants. The lack of variation among isolates originating from strawberry suggests that crown rot of strawberry is caused by a single clone within the geographical area studied. It was also shown that P. cactorum isolates form a unique group

diåerent from other Phytophthora spp. from Group I. P. cactorum isolates from necrotic stem lesions on Betula pendula

seedlings or Fragariaxananassa plants suåering from crown rot were highly pathogenic to their original host plants. P. cactorum isolates from strawberry inoculated via wounds also caused necrotic lesions on B. pendula. On the other hand isolates from B. pendula did not cause disease symptoms on strawberry plants. On Alnus glutinosa the percentage of successful inoculations with a birch isolate was 40.

Hantula, J. and M. M. Muller (1997). "Variation within Gremmeniella abietina in Finland and other countries as determined by Random Amplified Microsatellites (RAMS)." Mycological Research 101(2): 169-175. Genetic variation within Gremmeniella abietina var. abietina was studied

using the Random Amplified Microsatellite-technique (RAMS). Ninety-three isolates were investigated, originating mostly from Finland, but also from Canada, U.S.A., Japan, Norway, Italy, Iceland and Sweden. Four banding pattern types were observed corresponding to the present division of this species in Asian, North American and two types of European races. Furthermore, an additional banding pattern was also observed. Intraracial variation was observed within all races, the North American one being the most polymorphic. Isolates of the large tree type (LTT) Gremmeniella from North America, Italy and Iceland contained RAMS alleles not observed in Finland, Sweden or Norway. Therefore, the isolates of LTT Gremmeniella should not be transported even within the area of its natural occurrence.

Harney, S. K., S. O. Rogers, et al. (1997). "Molecular characterization of dematiaceous root endophytes." Mycological Research 101(11): 1197-1404. Sterile dematiaceous fungi are commonly isolated from plant roots. They

are often assigned to Mycelium radicis atrovirens, a name originally proposed for black, sterile, fast-growing, pseudomycorrhizal fungi. Dematiaceous fungi isolated from roots may be mutualists, commensalists, or pathogens and, in the absence of sporulation, identification is not possible. Forty-six isolates of dematiaceous fungi from the roots of different hosts and locations were characterized using restriction site mapping of polymerase chain reaction amplified nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacers. The restriction site maps were compared to identified dematiaceous mycorrhizal and pseudomycorrhizal fungi. Computer generated trees (UPGMA and parsimony analysis) characterized two unknown isolates as Phialophora finlandia, an ectendomycorrhizal fungus. The majority of the isolates were characterized as Phialocephala fortinii-like. Phialocephala fortinii has been reported as both pathogenic and non-pathogenic in a number of hosts. There was variation within the P. fortinii-like group suggesting intraspecific variation or a species complex.

HAROLD, S., G. M. TORDOFF, et al. (2005). "Mycelial responses of Hypholoma fasciculare to collembola grazing: effect of inoculum age, nutrient status and resource quality." Mycol. Res. 109(8): 927-935. The effects of grazing by the collembolan Folsomia candida

on mycelial foraging patterns of Hypholoma fasciculare growing from beech (Fagus sylvatica) wood block inocula in trays of non-sterile soil was investigated. The wood inocula differed in size, state of decay (time for which wood has been colonized: 2 yr, 1 yr, 6 and 3 months) and nutrient status (inocula colonized on malt agar or nutrient agar). Mycelia were most luxuriant, had greater hyphal coverage and extended more rapidly from 2 yr old than younger inocula, from 4 cm3 than 1 cm3 inocula, and from inocula colonized on malt extract agar rather than on distilled water agar. Grazing dramatically reduced coverage and extension, especially in the less luxuriant systems characterized by many fine hyphae and fewer mycelial cords. Grazing by collembola often resulted in points of more rapid outgrowth as cords with a fanned margin. Results are discussed in terms of fungal foraging strategies.

HARRINGTON, T. J. and D. T. MITCHELL (2002). "Colonization of root systems of Carex flacca and C. pilulifera by Cortinarius (Dermocybe) cinnamomeus." Mycol. Res. 106: 452-459. The root systems of Carex ¯acca and C. pilulifera, growing in

the Burren (western Ireland), were shown to be colonized by Cortinarius (Dermocybe) cinnamomeus. This basidiomycete formed ectomycorrhiza-like structures, which possessed a distinct fungal mantle (85--100 µm thick), hyphal infection in epidermal cells, rhizomorphs and extramatrical hyphae, but lacked a Hartig net. These ectomycorrhiza-like structures were formed on first-order lateral roots but were distinct, morphologically and anatomically, from dauciform roots. Structures typical of arbuscular mycorrhizas were never observed. The colonization of root systems of C. flacca by C. cinnamomeus was confirmed by PCR/RFLPs and DNA sequencing of the ITS region of rDNA.

HARRIS, K., D. CRABB, et al. (2002). "In situ visualisation of fungi in soil thin sections : problems with crystallisation of the fluorochrome FB 28 (Calcofluor M2R) and improved staining by SCRI Renaissance 2200." Mycol. Res. 106: 293-297. Fluorescent stains offer an effective means of visualising

bacteria and fungi in soil or litter samples. Fluorescent brightener (FB) 28 (also known as Calcofluor White M2R) is commonly used to stain such microorganisms. However, during production of soil thin-sections we observed erratic crystallisation of this stain, particularly in soils colonised by Rhizoctonia solani. We report on the evaluation of alternative stains to FB 28 for their propensity to crystallize in interaction with fungi, staining efficiency, and suitability for application in soil thin-section production. All of the additional candidate stains namely Fluorescent Brightener Agent

(FBA) 15/25, FBA 71 and SCRI Renaissance 2200 (SR 2200) were highly effective in staining agar-cultured hyphae, but differed in the degree to which they stained hyphae cultured in soil. All stains tested, except SR 2200, stained hyphae of R. solani insufficiently when growing on or through soil. These stains also showed extensive crystallisation in solutions that had been in contact with R. solani colonised soil. However, SR 2200 stained hyphae of R solani growing over soil as effectively as hyphae growing on agar and showed no evidence of crystallisation ; the intensity of staining exceeded that of the `benchmark' FB 28 for hyphae grown in two soil types. These excellent fluorescent properties of FBA 220 persisted in soil thin-sections, resulting in bright hyphae that could be readily visualised in situ in undisturbed soils.

Harris, S. D. (2005). "Morphogenesis in germinating Fusarium graminearum macroconidia." Mycologia, 97(4): 880–887. Fusarium graminearum (teleomorph Gibberella zeae) is a

significant pathogen of wheat and corn. F. graminearum forms multicellular macroconidia

that play an important role in dissemination of the disease. The spatial pattern of morphogenesis in germinating macroconidia is described. Germ tubes preferentially emerge from the apical cells in a bipolar pattern that appears to be common to filamentous fungi. Chitin deposition occurs at two locations: the spore apices and cortical regions of macroconidial cells that subsequently produce a germ tube. The spatial pattern of morphogenesis requires the presence of functional microtubules, which may be responsible for the transport of key polarity factors to specific sites. These observations suggest that F. graminearum possesses a regulatory system that marks germ tube emergence sites. Perturbation of this system may represent an effective approach for inhibiting colonization of host plant surfaces.

HARVEY, P. R., P. J. BUTTERWORTH, et al. (2001). "Genetic and pathogenic variation among cereal, medic and sub-clover isolates of Pythium irregulare." Mycol. Res. 105: 85-93. Genetic variation within 34 Pythium irregulare isolates was

analyzed using restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) as genetic markers. Most isolates had two alleles at several codominant RFLP loci and were scored as heterozygous. Heterozygotes were detected in F1 progeny from an in vitro cross and segregation ratios of the F2 progeny were not significantly different from those expected for allelic variation in a diploid. This confirmed that outcrossing occurs and contributes to genetic variation within the species. Phenetic analysis showed that isolates formed genetically related groups due to their host species and not due to

similarities in their geographical origins. All isolates originating from medic formed a discrete group and were highly differentiated from the cereal and

sub-clover isolates. The allelic distributions between isolates from these host-groups were significantly different. Most isolates also showed significant differences in their pathogenicity between hosts, indicating that they varied in pathogenic fitness and were better adapted to parasitising some hosts relative to others. These isolates were however, not necessarily more pathogenic on their host of origin. This research provided estimates of the extent of genetic and pathogenic diversity within P.

irregulare and qualitative evidence for the occurrence of host-mediated selection and sexual outcrossing in the field. HARVEY, P. R., P. LANGRIDGE, et al. (2001). "Genetic drift and host-mediated selection cause genetic differentiation among Gaeumannomyces graminis populations infecting cereals in southern Australia." Mycol. Res. 105: 927-935. Isolates of Gaeumannomyces graminis were sampled from 16

cereal crops throughout the cereal belt of southern Australia to determine the extent of genetic diversity and the scale of genetic differentiation among pathogen populations. Data from 13 isozyme and 4 RFLP loci differentiated 79 multilocus genotypes among the 320 isolates analysed. All 17 loci differed significantly in allele frequencies across all populations and significant levels of genetic differentiation were detected between most populations. Genetic differentiation among host groups was high (GST=0.307) and groups of populations from barley, oats and wheat were significantly different. The average genetic identities among populations were low and populations formed genetically related groups based on similarities in recent cereal cropping histories and not geographical origins. Collectively, these analyses indicate restrictions to interpopulation gene flow within G. graminis and imply that population differentiation results from genetic drift and host-mediated selection by different cereal species.

HATZIPAPAS, P., K. KALOSAKA, et al. (2002). "Spore germination and appressorium formation in the entomopathogenic Alternaria alternata." Mycol. Res. 106: 1349-1359. The entomopathogenic fungus Alternaria alternata grew

equally well on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and also on potato extract agar (PEA). The latter was excellent for sporulation. The fungus grew at a wide temperature range of 15–35 °C with an optimum at 25 °. On PDA sporulation was much reduced as compared to that on PEA. The spores of the fungus germinated only at 100% relative humidity (rh). Darkness significantly increased the germination percentages in the early stages of germination at all temperatures tested. Differences in germination percentages between light and dark conditions were mostly levelled 24 h post incubation. The germ tubes formed distinct appressoria, both on glass slides and on the aphid host Anuraphis nerii, on which appressoria were formed on all parts of the insect bodies, even on the hardest ones,

such as the head and thorax. Most appressoria were single globose and formed terminally on hyphal branches. Few were subapical and still fewer compound and multilobed. Detachment of appressoria from their original position revealed an exceedingly smoothened appression area, around which a mucilagenous material was secreted, apparently cementing them onto the host epicuticle. Optimum temperature for appressorium formation was 20–25 °.

At these temperatures more than 80% of the emerging germ tubes formed appressoria. The factors affecting spore germination and appressorium formation are discussed in relation to the prevailing environmental conditions in the mediterranean area as well as their role in influencing the spread and activities of the pathogen and the infection of aphids under field conditions.

Hawksworth, D. L. (1995). List of the Fungi in Taiwan (Dictionary of the Fungi). HAWKSWORTH, D. L. (2000). "Geoffrey Clough Ainsworth (1905--1998): mycological scholar, campaigner, and visionary." Mycol. Res. 104: 110-116. HAWKSWORTH, D. L. (2000). "Mycological Research: Instructions and guidelines for authors." Mycol. Res. 104: 119-127. Mycological Research is an international journal which

publishes papers in all fields of mycology. It covers biotechnology and industrial applications of fungi ; plant, animal and human pathology; and structure, systematics and evolution. `Fungi', for the purposes of Mycological Research, include all organisms traditionally studied by mycologists, encompassing slime-moulds and chromistan fungi, as well as yeasts and lichen-forming fungi. Mycological Research will publish papers reporting original research which makes a significant contribution to mycology, with a focus on those of international appeal. Review articles are also welcome

on any aspect of the subject. In addition, short contributions to Mycological Research News drawing attention to recent research published elsewhere or commenting on papers published in the journal are welcome. Detailed book reviews with commentaries are also included.

There are no page charges, and both members and non-members of the British Mycological S ociety can submit manuscripts. Colour illustrations will be considered for inclusion on a case by case basis ; a contribution to their cost may be requested. Fifty reprints of each published paper are supplied free of charge. In case of multiple authorship, all authors must consent to submission of

the manuscript and must sign a joint letter to this effect when it is submitted. Authors should follow the instructions and guidelines presented here

precisely to save editors and printers unnecessary work and avoid delays in publication. Manuscripts can be submitted as hard copy and/or electronically. When a manuscript is received at the above address it is

first checked to verify if the subject matter is appropriate for Mycological Research, and for compliance with these Instructions. An acknowledgement of receipt is then dispatched to the sender and the manuscript is sent on to an Editor with interests appropriate to the subject of the manuscript. This `Corresponding Editor ' will have the manuscript reviewed, and will normally decide whether it is acceptable, either in the form submitted or after revision. In cases of uncertainty, the Executive Editor's decision will be final.

HAWKSWORTH, D. L. (2001). "The magnitude of fungal diversity : the 1.5 million species estimate revisited." Mycol. Res. 105: 1422-1432. The number of known species of fungi is estimated as at least

74 K, but could be as much as 120 K with allowances for `orphaned' species. Yet in 1990 the magnitude of fungal diversity was estimated ` conservatively ' at 1.5 M species. This figure has been widely accepted as a working hypothesis, but subsequent estimates have ranged from 500 K to 9.9 M and the bases of these suggestions are analyzed. Additional data pertinent to the estimation of the number of fungal species on Earth that has become available since 1990 is discussed. Site inventories demonstrate the need for long-term (20 yr plus) intensive studies to determine the number of species in a site. Fresh data sets on fungus: plant ratios and degrees of host specificity, especially from well-studied hosts in the tropics, are consistent with earlier estimates. The extent of novelty discovered in recent monographic generic revisions and studies of species in particular habitats varies from 0--96%. Allowances for cryptic species, now known to be widespread by incompatibility and molecular studies, could on their own justify an upward revision by a factor of at least five. To enable confidence in any overall estimate to be increased, more detailed studies, especially on particular sites in the tropics, are needed. The consensus of tropical and molecular mycologists in particular is that an increased estimate could be justified. However, it is prudent to retain 1.5 M as the current working hypothesis for the number of fungi on Earth while additional data to test it further accumulates.

HAWKSWORTH, D. L. and J. M. DLIKOWSKA (1997). "New species of lichenicolous fungi occurring on Peltigera in Ecuador and Europe." Mycol. Res. 101: 1127-1134. A study of the lichenicolous fungi occurring on species of the

lichenized genus Peltigera has resulted in six new species : Libertiella curvispora, L. didymospora, L. fennica Alstrup, Polycoccum superÆciale, Roselliniella peltigericola, and Zwackhiomyces kiszkianus. A key to the five known species of Libertiella is included. This paper brings the number of fungi known on this host to 87, of which 61 are not known from any other host genus, providing additional evidence for the richness of Peltigera thalli as a host for novel fungi. The possible hypotheses to explain the richness of this host genus for lichenicolous fungi are

enumerated; these are not mutually exclusive. Hawksworth, D. L. and J. Miadlikowska (1997). "New species of lichenicolous fungi occurring on Peltigera in Ecuador and Europe." Mycological Research 101(9): 1127-1134. A study of the lichenicolous fungi occurring on species of the lichenized

genus Peltigera has resulted in six new species : Libertiella curvispora, L. didymospora, L. fennica Alstrup, Polycoccum superficiale, Roselliniella peltigericola, and Zwackhiomyces kiszkianus. A key to the five known species of Libertiella is included. This paper brings the number of fungi known on this host to 87, of which 61 are not known from any other host genus, providing additional evidence for the richness of Peltigera thalli as a host for novel fungi. The possible hypotheses to explain the richness of this host genus for lichenicolous fungi are enumerated; these are not mutually exclusive.

Hayashi, N., C. Y. Li, et al. (1997). "In vitro production on rice plants of perithecia of Magnaporthe grisea from Yunnan, China." Mycological Research 101(11): 1308-1310. Co-inoculation of healthy standing rice plants with compatible isolates of

Magnaporthe grisea pathogenic to rice resulted in the production of perithecia on the detached portions of leaf sheaths. The isolates had been obtained from the same lesion on a diseased plant collected in Yunnan Province, China. Perithecia were also produced on dead tissue of leaf sheaths and nodes of standing rice plants in a moist chamber. These results strongly suggest that the teleomorph of M. grisea can occur in the upland rice fields in Yunnan.

Healy, R. A. (2003). "Mattirolomyces tiffanyae, a new truffle from Iowa, with ultrastructural evidence for its classification in the Pezizaceae." Mycologia, 95(4): 765-772. A new species of hypogeous Pezizales, Mattirolomyces

tiffanyae, is described and illustrated. Its asci are typically three-spored, an unusually small

number in the non-Tuber Pezizales. Ascus septal pore ultrastructure consists of a uni- or bi-convex band, which suggests an affinity with the Pezizaceae. Secondary

spore-wall development is similar to that of Peziza, and several species of hypogeous Pezizaceae.

HEERDEN, S. W. V. and M. J. WINGFIELD (2001). "Genetic diversity of Cryphonectria cubensis isolates in South Africa." Mycol. Res. 105: 94-99. Cryphonectria canker caused by Cryphonectria cubensis is

one of the most destructive diseases of Eucalyptus plantations in South Africa. To implement a meaningful management of plantation diseases, it is important to have an understanding of the population diversity of the

pathogen. In this study, trees were surveyed to determine whether C. cubensis reproduces sexually in South Africa. The diversity of the South African C. cubensis population was assessed based on vegetative compatibility tests. Field inoculations were used to determine whether VC groups correlated with virulence. Only pycnidia were found on cankered trees, indicating that sexual reproduction does not occur. Only 23 VC groups were found amongst 100 isolates each collected from single diseased trees. A low degree of genetic diversity also indicated that sexual reproduction is absent or rare in the South African C. cubensis population. Inoculation studies revealed that isolates belonging to different VC groups differ significantly in their ability to cause lesions. The low level of genetic diversity enhances opportunities to capitalise on hypovirulence to reduce the impact of the pathogen in the future. It also supports the view that the fungus was recently introduced into South Africa.

Heiko GEBHARDT, M. WEISS, et al. (2005). "Dryadomyces amasae: a nutritional fungus associated with ambrosia beetles of the genus Amasa (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae)." Mycol. Res. 109(6): 687-696. During surveys of woodlands in Taiwan a previously

undescribed fungus Dryadomyces amasae gen. sp. nov., was found in the sapwood of dead angiosperm timbers in the gallery systems of the scolytine ambrosia beetle Amasa concitatus. The fungus grows predominantly in the immediate vicinity of the feeding beetle larvae and serves as a nutritional ambrosia fungus. The transmission of D. amasae to new breeding substrates is ensured by an oral mycetangium, a paired organ which was found in A. concitatus and A. aff. glaber near the mandibles and contained multiple cells of the fungus. Morphologically D. amasae resembles species of Ambrosiella. However, phylogenetic analysis based on partial nucSSU rDNA placed the fungus with certain species of the genus Ambrosiella within the Ophiostomatales, whereas the type species of Ambrosiella, A. xylebori, was assigned to the Microascales. A. xylebori, as well as A. ferruginea and A. hartigii, demonstrated phialidic conidial development, leading to an emendation of the description of the genus Ambrosiella. In contrast, Dryadomyces exhibited conidial development by apical, sympodial wall formation with prominent denticles bearing conidia. Other, previously described Ambrosiella species exhibited non-phialidic conidiogenesis, but lacked denticles on the conidiophores. Consequently, their classification needs further revision.

HEILMANN-CLAUSEN, J. (2001). "A gradient analysis of communities of macrofungi and slime moulds on decaying beech logs." Mycol. Res. 105: 575-596. The occurrence of fungi and slime moulds on 70 decaying

beech logs was surveyed based on the presence/absence of sporocarps. In total 277 species of fungi and 25 of slime moulds were recorded and

summarised in a log/species datamatrix. The structure of the datamatrix was analysed using detrended correspondance analysis (DCA). The ecological nature of the gradients expressed by the first three DCA-axes was then investigated by environmental and log related variables. The first and strongest gradient corresponded to changes in the community development during the decay process. The second gradient was complex and

corresponded to both decay rate and microclimatic stress. The third, rather weak, gradient was influenced by soil conditions. The gradients are discussed in a context of fungal ecological strategy theories. A model generalised from the community development on the studied logs is proposed.

Heim, R. (1977). Les champignons termitophiles d'Afrique Noire et d' Asie meridionale, Societe Nouvelle Des editions Boubee. HEIMARSSON, S. (2003). "Molecular study of Dermatocarpon miniatum (Verrucariales) and allied taxa." Mycol. Res. 107: 459-468. The phylogeny of the Dermatocarpon miniatum-complex

(Verrucariales, lichenized Ascomycota) was studied using nuclear ITS sequence data by both parsimony and Bayesian inference of phylogeny. The ITS region contains a substantial amount of variation which resolves the relationships of terminal groups, while the more basal clades have low support in the analyses. D. miniatum var. miniatum and var. complicatum are polyphyletic, while var. cirsodes is monophyletic but

located within the complex, as are both D. leptophyllum and D. linkolae. The variation within the D. miniatum-complex is significantly greater than that between some transatlantic species such as D. luridum and D. meiophyllizum. The new names D. taminium sp. nov. from the Greater Sonoran area, and D. tenue comb. nov. (syn. D. muehlenbergii var. tenue) are introduced.

HELANDER, M. L., P. VUORINEN, et al. (1998). "Evidence for resistance of mountain birch (Betula pubescens ssp. czerepanovii) to birch rust (Melampsoridium betulinum)." Mycol. Res. 102: 63-66. We determined the occurrence of birth rust fungus

(Melampsoridium betulinum) within mature mountain birch (Betula pubescens var. czerepanovii) trees and compared the airborne urediniospore concentrations with overall rust infection levels over five successive years. Fifteen groups of three trees 3-5 m high were chosen from a homogenous mountain birch stand. Each group contained a tree with `low', `moderate' and ` high' infection covering the natural range of infection levels. The difference in rust classes remained constant throughout the study ; trees in class ` high' consistently had always highest infection levels and trees in class `low' always the lowest infection levels. Infection levels remained constant between years in `low' class, while the infection levels varied significantly between years in `moderate'

and ` high' classes. The incidence of disease caused by M. betulinum varied from year to year and was correlated with the total airborne urediniospore counts. The data indicate that trees differ in resistance to birch rust and that infection levels of susceptible compared to resistant trees are more dependent on environmental conditions.

Helms, G., T. Friedl, et al. (2003). "Phylogenetic relationships of the Physciaceae inferred from rDNA sequence data and selected phenotypic characters." Mycologia, 95(6): 1078-1099. The monophyletic origin of the ascomycete family

Physciaceae, its position within the Lecanorales and the phylogenetic structure within the family were investigated using nuclear

rDNA sequence analyses. The common origin of the Caliciaceae and Physciaceae as previously shown (Wedin et al 2000) was confirmed. Further it could be shown that the Caliciaceae are nested within the Physciaceae. A unique region in loop 37 of the SSU rRNA secondary structure model was identified, which characterizes the Physciaceae/Caliciaceae. The SSU rDNA sequence data did not support a particular relationship with any other Lecanoralean family. Analyses of ITS rDNA sequences revealed a bifurcation of the Physciaceae/Caliciaceae clade, which was found to be congruent with the distribution of certain morphological characters. The congruence with the ITS phylogeny demonstrated the phylogenetic signifi-

cance of ascus type, hypothecium pigmentation, ascospore characters and excipulum type. Fine-structure

details of ascospores and the structure of excipula were found to be important in the recognition of convergences in these traits. Other previously used characters, i.e., growth habit, certain ascospore types

or structure of the upper cortex, were found to be of multiple origins within the Physciaceae. All monophyletic

lineages of noncrustose growth habit exhibit uniform ascospore types, indicating a higher evolutionary age of ascospore types than foliose growth habit. The taxonomic segregation of the Physciaceae into the Physciaceae and Caliciaceae is proposed here.

HEMMATI, F., J. K. PELL, et al. (2001). "Conidial discharge in the aphid pathogen Erynia neoaphidis." Mycol. Res. 105: 715-722. The patterns of conidial discharge of Erynia neoaphidis were

measured from three species of aphids : nettle aphid (Microlophium carnosum), grain aphid (Sitobion avenae) and pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum). The effects of release height, morph of aphid and temperature on the horizontal and vertical discharge of conidia were studied. Numbers of conidia deposited in the dorsal and lateral directions were distributed with distance in truncated bell shaped patterns. Discharge distances ranged from 2 to 11 mm and half the conidia caught travelled further than 5 mm. There was little difference in the horizontal dispersal patterns of conidia

when ejected from cadavers of different morphs of the same species, or from different species. The weight of infected aphids showed little correlation with discharge patterns. Values of maximum discharge distance, Dm, were generally between 6 and 9 mm. Temperature had a significant effect on conidia discharged from the dorsal surface of apterous A. pisum cadavers. Dm was greater at 18 °C than at 10 or 25 °. Vertical discharge distances for conidia released from A. pisum cadavers ranged between about 2 and 8 mm. The maximum height to which conidia were projected vertically was not affected by temperature. However, the average height tended

to be greater at 18 °. Half of the conidia reached heights of about 3.5 mm while the maximum heights reached were about 8 mm. The initial speeds of conidia were estimated from measured discharge distances. The results suggest that conidia of E. neoaphidis may be ejected at speeds of about 8 ms-1.

HEMMATI, F., J. K. PELL, et al. (2001). "Airborne concentrations of conidia of Erynia neoaphidis above cereal fields." Mycol. Res. 105: 485-489. The temporal pattern of release and dispersal of inoculum of

plant and insect pathogenic fungi play an important role in the spread of disease. Airborne concentrations of primary and secondary conidia of Erynia neoaphidis released from the rose-grain aphid Metopolophium dirhodum were monitored at the edge of two winter wheat crops on IACR-Rothamsted Experimental Farm between May and September in 1996 and 1997. Hourly average temperature and humidity were recorded at each spore trap site and daily totals of rain and sunshine hours and daily average wind speed recorded about 1.6 km from the monitoring sites. No airborne conidia were found in 1996, but large numbers were trapped at the two sites in 1997. They were present from mid-June until early August, reaching peak concentrations on 17--18 July. Concentrations were usually highest during the night and in the early morning (01 :00-07:00 h GMT) and were generally low during the day. On the 3 days when significant numbers of conidia were caught in the afternoon, daytime relative humidity was high (about 89%) and day-time temperature low (about 16 °C). Night-time conditions nearly always favoured the production of conidia. This suggests day to day variation in airborne conidium concentrations may be

affected more by underlying biological factors than environmental conditions. HEMMATI, F., J. K. PELL, et al. (2002). "Aerodynamic diameter of conidia of Erynia neoaphidis and other entomophthoralean fungi." Mycol. Res. 106: 233-238. The aerodynamic diameter, da, of conidia produced in vivo and

in vitro by the entomopathogenic fungus Erynia neoaphidis were estimated using an impaction method. The estimated values of da for conidia produced in vivo were smaller than those produced in vitro : in vivo the values of da for primary and secondary conidia were between 16 and

18 lm (equivalent fall speed, Vs, 0.8-1.0 cm s-1) ; for in vitro produced conidia da values were between 28 and 31 lm (Vs, 2.4-3 cm s-1). For conidia produced by field collected cadavers the value of da, was estimated to be similar to that for conidia produced in vivo in the laboratory. The aerodynamic diameter of primary conidia of Conidiobolus obscurus (strain X39) and Zoophthora radicans (strain NW250) produced in vivo were also measured using the same method. The values of da for these two species were 45 and 17 lm (Vs, 6.2 and 0.9 cm s-1) respectively. Implications for dispersal of E. neoaphidis are discussed. The physical diameters of the test spores were measured microscopically and compared with the aerodynamic diameters.

HENDRICHS, M., D. BEGEROW, et al. (2005). "The genus Anthracoidea (Basidiomycota, Ustilaginales): a molecular phylogenetic approach using LSU rDNA sequences." Mycol. Res. 109: 31-40. The phylogenetic relationship of 52 specimens representing

30 species of Anthracoidea (Ustilaginales) was investigated by molecular analyses using sequence data from the large subunit (LSU) of nuclear rDNA. Phylogenetic trees were inferred with neighbour-joining (NJ), maximum parsimony (MP), and Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods. The results are discussed with respect to the species concept and the subdivision of the genus into subgenera and sections. Collections from different hosts and localities were compared. Our analyses can neither support nor significantly reject the hypothesis of the bipartition of the genus Anthracoidea. Thus, the representatives of the subgenus Proceres appeared

in the NJ analysis as a moderately supported monophylum, whereas MCMC analysis revealed a polyphyletic topology for this group. Paraphyly of the subgenus Anthracoidea was supported by all methods used. Sections Echinosporae and Leiosporae were each represented by two species in our analyses which grouped together with high support. Section Anthracoidea should be restricted to a highly supported group with extremely irregular to angular teliospore shape. However, these three sections do not cover the whole diversity of the subgenus Anthracoidea. Molecular data largely supported the traditional circumscription of species, and species delimitations are discussed.

Henk, D. A. (2005). "New species of Septobasidium from southern Costa Rica and the southeastern United States." Mycologia, 97(4): 908–913. New species are described in Septobasidium, a genus of

urediniomycete parasites on scale insects. One new species, S. gomezii, is described from

Costa Rica, and another, S. meredithiae, is described from Louisiana. S. gomezii is most similar to S. septobasidioides, but macroscopic and microscopic differences support it being a distinct species. S. meredithiae is similar to S. alni and S. castaneum but differs from these species in several

macroscopic and microscopic characters, especially when the species are observed on the same host tree and insect species. Another species collected only once in Costa Rica is listed with observations but it is not formally described here. This Septobasidium species shares some key characteristics with S. ramorum but combines a

dense, compact, nearly black thallus and pigmented probasidia-like structures with spindle-shaped haustoria. Implications for taxonomy, morphological evolution

and host specificity in Septobasidium are discussed. Henk, D. A., A. Weir, et al. (Laboulbeniopsis termitarius, an ectoparasite of termites newly recognized as a member of the Laboulbeniomycetes.). "Laboulbeniopsis termitarius, an ectoparasite of termites newly recognized as a member of the Laboulbeniomycetes." Mycologia, 95(4): 561-564. Minute fungi associated with termites have caused taxonomic

problems in the past due to their autapomorphic and highly reduced morphologies. DNA sequence data from one such enigmatic fungus, Laboulbeniopsis termitarius, supports its phylogenetic position as member of a laboulbeniomycete clade within the Ascomycota. This clade is composed entirely of fungi associated with arthropods, often as parasites, and the inclusion of L. termitarius supports the single origin of thallus development by means of enlargement and division of the spore.

Henkel, T. W. (2005). "Parakari, an indigenous fermented beverage using amylolytic Rhizopus in Guyana." Mycologia, 97(1): 1-11. The alcoholic beverage parakari is a product of cassava

(Manihot esculenta Crantz) fermentation by Amerindians of Guyana. While fermented beverage production is nearly universal among indigenous Amazonians, parakari is unique among New World beverages because it involves the use of an amylolytic mold (Rhizopus sp., Mucoraceae, Zygomycota) followed by a solid substratum ethanol fermentation. The mycological significance of this dual fermentation process previously was unrecognized. A detailed study of parakari fermentation was made in the Wapisiana Amerindian village of Aishalton, South Rupununi, Guyana. Thirty steps were involved in parakari manufacture, and these exhibited a high degree of sophistication, including the use of specific cassava varieties, control of culture temperature and boosting of Rhizopus inoculum potential with puri- fied starch additives. During the fermentation process, changes in glucose content, pH, flavor, odor and culture characteristics were concomitant with a desirable finished product. Parakari is the only known example of an indigenous New World fermentation

that uses an amylolytic mold, likely resulting from domestication of a wild Rhizopus species in the distant past. Parakari production is remarkably similar to dual fermentations of Asia, yet it was independently derived

HENKEL, T. W., J. TERBORGH, et al. (2002). "Ectomycorrhizal fungi and their leguminous hosts in the Pakaraima Mountains of Guyana." Mycol. Res. 106: 515-531. Ecologically important ectomycorrhizal (EM) associations are

poorly known from equatorial rain forests of South America. Recent field studies in the Pakaraima Mountains of western Guyana revealed previously undocumented forests dominated by EM leguminous trees, with a rich assemblage of EM mycobionts. Along transects, basidiomes from 75 species or morphospecies of putatively EM fungi were spatially associated with leguminous host trees. These fungi belonged to the basidiomycete families Boletaceae, Amanitaceae, Russulaceae, Cortinariaceae, Cantharellaceae, Clavulinaceae, and Entolomataceae, all of which are poorly documented from the lowland neotropics. Ectomycorrhizas were confirmed on D. corymbosa, D. altsonii, and D. jenmanii (Caesalpiniaceae, tribe Amherstieae), and a fourth species, Aldina insignis (Papilionaceae). The tribe Amherstieae contains most of the EM leguminous species forming monodominant forests in Guineo-Congolian Africa. Dicymbe species constituted the first record of EM Amherstieae in the New World. A variety of other co-occurring caesalpiniaceous trees failed to exhibit ectomycorrhizas. Transect surveys indicated that D. corymbosa and D. altsonii were: (1) highly clumped and dominant at specific sites ; (2) occurred on soils with widely varying chemical and textural characteristics ; and (3) the most important hosts for EM fungi in the local landscape. Dicymbe species have life history attributes, including the ectomycorrhizal habit, which enhance their competitive abilities irrespective of soil conditions. The spatial restriction of EM fungal basidiomes indicated that discrete groves of EM trees harbour an important component of regional macromycete diversity.

Henley, T. (1996). Waterfalls and Gibbon Calls. Hennebert, G. L. (1974). "Book Reviews." MYCOTAXON 1(1): 63-64. Hennebert, G. L. (1974). "Book Reviews." MYCOTAXON 1(2): 238. HENNEBERT, G. L. (2005). "Diagnosis and variability of coprophilous Basifimbria aurea." Mycol. Res. 109(5): 595-602. The variability in conidiogenesis of the coprophilous

Basifimbria aurea, type species of the genus, is redescribed and illustrated, and is similar to that of B. spinosa. The distinction of the species from Stenocephalopsis subalutacea (syn. Rhinotrichum subalutaceum) is emphasized.

Hennebert, G. L. and B. G. Desai (1974). "Lomentospora prolificans, a new hyphomycete from greenhouse soil." MYCOTAXON 1(1): 45-50.

Hennebert, G. L. and R. P. Korf (1974). "Mycotaxon, a new international journal on taxonomy and nomenclature of fungi and lichens." MYCOTAXON 1(1): 1-2. Henricot, B. and A. Culham (2002). "Cylindrocladium buxicola, a new species affecting Buxus spp., and its phylogenetic status." Mycologia, 94(6): 980-997. A leaf and twig blight disease of Buxus spp. was found to be

associated with a new species of Cylindrocladium. The novel species status was con-firmed using morphological characters, sequencing of the ribosomal 5.8S RNA gene and the flanking internal transcribed spacers (ITS), the b-tubulin gene, and the high mobility group (HMG) of the MAT2 mating type gene. Cylindrocladium buxicola is proposed as a new name. Fifteen isolates from the UK and one isolate from New Zealand were paired in all combinations but no fertile perithecia were obtained suggesting that C. buxicola is heterothallic and all isolates belonged to one mating type. AFLP analysis showed that the isolates collected in the UK and New Zealand are genetically homogenous. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that this species falls within a new lineage.

HERBARTH, O., U. SCHLINK, et al. (2003). "Spatiotemporal distribution of airborne mould spores in apartments." Mycol. Res. 107: 1361-1371. Indoor air contamination with mould spores currently

experiences an increasing interest with respect to their relevance to health. To assess adverse health effects, epidemiological studies combine the health outcome of individuals with their concomitant exposure to airborne spores, which is observed, for example, during the current month. While the latter is representative for the studied period, health effects might also be the result of long term-exposure or emerge in consequence of a peak of pollution throughout the year. To consider such questions, additional information about the spatiotemporal distribution of airborne spores is necessary.

This paper aims at elucidating the spatial and temporal variation of spore concentrations in Leipzig, Germany. The analysis is based on 1165 matched pairs of indoor and outdoor measurements taken in the period 1998–2002. All data were collected in the frame of previous epidemiological studies and refer to apartments. The analysis comprised spore concentrations (as CFU m-3 in air) of the most important genera, such as Penicillium, Aspergillus, Alternaria, Mucorales, Cladosporium, and also for yeasts.

We found two groups of fungi differing in their spatiotemporal distribution. As this behaviour can be explained by the predominant origin and growing conditions, we call them indoor-relevant and outdoor-relevant genera. Penicillium species are a representative of the former group, while the latter is well represented by Cladosporium. In the studied period we did not observe a clear trend in the spore concentration. Outdoors there is a year-to-year variation of Cladosporium spore concentrations, which follow the prevalent climatic conditions.

For the spore concentration of the outdoor-relevant group a significant annual cycle was observed. Highest concentrations occurred during the summer months and were about 100r the winter burden. That means, for a direct comparison of measurements of spore concentrations taken during different months the season has to be considered. We summarise the findings in a seasonal model, which is fitted to our measurements. Based on the model we developed a procedure for seasonal adjustment, which enabled us to estimate the annual peak spore concentration utilising one monthly observation.

Herdina, H. A. Yang, et al. (1997). "Correlation of take-all disease severity and inoculum level of Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici using a slot-blot hybridization assay." Mycological Research 101(11): 1311-1317. The amount of Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici inoculum was

quantified by slot-blot hybridization assay, using a specific DNA probe, pG158. Estimates of the amount of G. graminis var. tritici DNA in naturally infested and inoculated soils were made and correlated with take-all disease severity as determined by a conventional soil bioassay (expressed as a percentage of seminal roots with G. graminis var. tritici lesions). Disease severity in the glasshouse assay and DNA levels were highly correlated. The level of take-all disease severity in naturally infested soil can be predicted using the equation yi=53.078 log (xi)88+866, where yi=the predicted value of the disease severity (%) and xi=amount of G. graminis var. tritici DNA (ng) in 100 g soil. The DNA-based assay for quantifying the amount of G. graminis var. tritici has been further developed and improved in terms of the sampling techniques and efficiency. Soils of different types were collected to a depth of 10 cm and organic matter between 0.5-1.4 mm in size was separated from this soil. Using a slot-blot hybridization assay, it was found that G. graminis var. tritici was mostly present in the organic matter fraction greater than a size of 0.5 mm and in soil at a depth of 5 cm. This rapid and reliable DNA-based assay is being used in conjunction with a model of take-all disease development to predict disease levels in the field due to G. graminis var. tritici.

HERMOSA, M. R., E. KECK, et al. (2004). "Genetic diversity shown in Trichoderma biocontrol isolates." Mycol. Res. 108: 897-906. Genetic variability within 69 biocontrol isolates of Trichoderma,

obtained from different geographical locations and culture collections and selected as biocontrol agents, was studied. Sequence data, obtained from the ITS1 region of rDNA and a fragment of the translation elongation factor 1 (tef1) gene, were used in a phylogenetic analysis. Phylograms showing similar topologies were generated using alignments containing the ITS1 region or a portion of the tef1 gene. 21 distinct ITS1 sequence types and 17 distinct tef1 sequence types were identified among the 69 isolates. More than 50% of the potential biocontrol strains were grouped

within Trichoderma sect. Pachybasium; of these, 81% were grouped within the cluster that included the ex-type strains of T. harzianum and T. inhamatum, and 16% were grouped with T. virens. Within T. sect. Trichoderma, which included 36% of the 69 strains, 56% were grouped with T. asperellum, and 24% with T. viride, T. atroviride or T. koningii. Only 10% of the strains studied were located in T. sect. Longibrachiatum.

Herna´ndez, J. R. and J. F. Hennen (2003). "Rust fungi causing galls, witches’ brooms, and other abnormal plant growths in northwestern Argentina." Mycologia, 95(4): 728-755. Conspicuous galls and witches’ brooms frequently are

symptoms of rust infections on plant hosts in the ecologically diverse northwestern region of Argentina.

These symptoms are caused by systemic or locally systemic spermogonial-aecial infections, although uredinial and telial infections also might be involved. Sixteen species of rust fungi are treated in this paper, most of which cause a plant response that results in enlarged growth. Ypsilospora tucumanensis J.R. Hern. & J.F. Hennen on Inga edulis is described as a species new to science. Puccinia cordiae Arthur is cited as a new record for Argentina. These rusts also are included: Chaconia ingae, Gerwasia imperialis, Kuehneola loeseneriana, Prospodium appendiculatum, Prospodium elegans, Prospodium perornatum, Puccinia bougainvilleae, Puccinia pampeana, Ravenelia argentinica, Ravenelia hieronymi, Ravenelia papillosa, Ravenelia spegazziniana, Uromyces cestri and Uropyxis rickiana. For some of the scientific names, lectotype specimens have been designated.

HERNADEZ, J. R., M. C. AIME, et al. (2004). "Aecidium kalanchoe sp. nov., a new rust on Kalanchoe blossfeldiana (Crassulaceae)." Mycol. Res. 108: 846-848. A rust fungus found on cultivars of Kalanchoe blossfeldiana

(Crassulaceae) is described as a new species, Aecidium kalanchoe sp. nov., and compared to the other described rusts on members of the Crassulaceae. Only one other rust is known to parasitize Kalanchoe spp. A DNA sequence of A. kalanchoe suggests that the teleomorph is related to Puccinia.

HERNANDEZ, J. R. and J. F. HENNEN (2002). "The genus Ravenelia in Argentina." Mycol. Res. 106: 954-974. A comprehensive account of the 18 species of Ravenelia from

Argentina is presented. Each species is described and illustrated. A key to the species of Ravenelia from Argentina is provided based on micromorphology. Ravenelia echinata var. ectypa and R. macrocarpa are recorded for the first time from Argentina. The name Ravenelia argentinensis was determined to belong to an anamorph, therefore the teleomorph is described as a new species, R. argentinica sp. nov. Several new anamorph/teleomorph connections were made. Names and

synonyms for teleomorphs and anamorphs are listed for all species. Hernandez-Gutierrez, A. and B. Sutton (1997). "Imimyces and Linkosia, two new genera segregated from Sporidesmium sensu lato, and redescription of Polydesmus." Mycological Research 101(2): 201-209. A new description and illustration of Polydesmus elegans, the type

species of Polydesmus, is given. It was formerly considered as congeneric with Sporidesmium. Two new genera, Imimyces to accommodate I. aquaticus, I. bambusae, I. carrii, I. densus, I. heterocateniformis and I. hollowayensis, and Linkosia to accommodate the single species L. coccothrinacis, are proposed. A key to species of Imimyces is provided, and a new species and six new combinations are proposed.

HERNANDEZ-GUTIERREZ, A. and B. C. SUTTON (1997). "Imimyces and Linkosia, two new genera segregated from Sporidesmium sensu lato, and redescription of Polydesmus." Mycol. Res. 101: 201-209. A new description and illustration of Polydesmus elegans, the

type species of Polydesmus, is given. It was formerly considered as congeneric with Sporidesmium. Two new genera, Imimyces to accommodate I. aquaticus, I. bambusae, I. carrii, I. densus, I. heterocateniformis and I. hollowayensis, and Linkosia to accommodate the single species L. coccothrinacis, are proposed. A key to species of Imimyces is provided, and a new species and six new combinations are proposed.

Herrera-Campos, M. d. l. A., S. Huhndorf, et al. (2005). "The foliicolous lichen flora of Mexico IV: a new, foliicolous species of Pyrenothrix (Chaetothyriales: Pyrenothrichaceae)." Mycologia, 97(2): 356-361. Pyrenothrix mexicana Herrera-Campos, Huhndorf & Lu¨cking

spec. nova is described from leaves in the upper montane rainforest of Oaxaca State, Mexico. It is the second species in the genus Pyrenothrix Riddle, established at the beginning of the twentieth century for the single species, P. nigra Riddle, a corticolous lichen restricted to southeastern United States. Both taxa have the same thallus and perithecial morphology and anatomy, but P. mexicana differs by its longer, transversally septate ascospores. The perithecial anatomy of Pyrenothrix is documented and its systematic affinities are discussed, and we conclude that the family Pyrenothrichaceae Zahlbr. should be placed in the order Chaetothyriales.

HERRERO, M. L. and S. S. KLEMSDAL (1998). "Identification of Pythium aphanidermatum using the RAPD technique." Mycol. Res. 102: 136-140. The suitability of random ampli®ed polymorphic DNA for

identi®cation of Pythium aphanidermatum was investigated. Three oligoprimers were selected after testing three isolates of P. aphanidermatum and one isolate of P. ultimum with a total of 40 primers.

The selected 10-mer primers were used with 20 isolates of P. aphanidermatum, four isolates of P. deliense, two isolates of P. ultimum, two isolates of P. irregulare and one isolate of P. paroecandrum. Most of the P. aphanidermatum isolates (13 of 20), were obtained from samples of Cucumis sativus, or water from cucumber greenhouses. The three selected primers gave identical fingerprints for 18 of the 20 P. aphanidermatum isolates, including all the isolates from cucumbers. Two of the primers gave fingerprints that could be used to differentiate between isolates of the Pythium species studied. The banding pattern of P. aphanidermatum given by the third primer could not easily be distinguished from the fingerprint of P. deliense. However, when used in conjunction with the other two primers, the third primer can be used to verify the identity of P. aphanidermatum.

HESTBJERG, H., S. ELMHOLT, et al. (1999). "A resource-saving method for isolation of Fusarium and other fungi from individual soil particles." Mycol. Res. 103: 1545-1548. Plating of individual soil particles onto an agar medium,

poured into Petri dishes, is a method of studying fungal distribution between microhabitats in soil. The substitution of Petri dishes with well plates reduced both the required amount of agar medium and labour. A microshovel prepared from an injection needle facilitated the handling of individual, small size, soil particles (0.25- 0.50 mm). The described method was evaluated in a study of the distribution of Fusarium within two wheat field soils from A / s, Norway, and from éstermarie, Denmark. Four types of organic particles were distinguished : light coloured root pieces, dark coloured root pieces, straw pieces, and miscellaneous organic pieces. The dominating species were F. culmorum, F. oxysporum and F. avenaceum. Aspects on the value of the method with regard to fungal substrate preference are discussed.

Hestmark, G. (1997). "Gap-dynamics, recruitment and individual growth in populations of Lasallia pustulata." Mycological Research 101(10): 1273-1280. In the coastal cliff landscape of southern Scandinavia dense populations

of the saxicolous, lichen-forming fungus Lasallia pustulata are subject to disturbances creating small or larger gaps; one or several thalli are removed by strong winds, icing, rock slides, log-falls, branch sweeping or trampling. New patches for colonization are also created when mats of bryophytes, fruticose lichens or pine needles are removed by the same forces. The disturbance gaps are major sites of recruitment in the populations and the age structure of a population is spatially structured by the pattern of gap formation. The revegetation of experimentally created gaps were monitored over a four year period, at the end of which the gaps were filled with new, 1-9 mm sized thalli, unevenly scattered, on average 6500 individuals m-2, covering less than 1% of the substrate. In addition there were clusters of small thalli sprouting from the former attachment

site of some of the large thalli that had been removed. The growth of individual thalli in natural gaps and mature populations was also monitored for four years. The largest annual increment in thallus diameter was 15 mm, the average 5.5 mm. Some thalli did not increase in size at all, some became slightly smaller, and some were completely eliminated, apparently by self-thinning. There was no correlation between initial thallus size and annual growth; and age and size are not correlated. The individual variations in growth rate seem to reflect the degree of initial crowding, subsequent competitive success, and local supply of nutrients. The average growth and initial size of individuals plus their density and dispersion are used to model the speed of gapclosure, estimated to be 10-15 years.

Hibbett, D. S., M. Binder, et al. (2003). "Another fossil agaric from Dominican amber." Mycologia, 95(4): 685-687. We report the discovery of a fossil agaricoid

homobasidiomycete from Dominican amber (ca 15–20 Ma). Aureofungus yaniguaensis appears to be a

member of the euagarics clade, but its precise taxonomic placement is obscure. This is the fourth known fossil agaric and the third from Dominican amber.

HIBBETT, D. S., K. HANSEN, et al. (1998). "Phylogeny and biogeography of Lentinula inferred from an expanded rDNA dataset." Mycol. Res. 102: 1041-1049. Phylogeny and biogeography of Lentinula, which includes

cultivated shiitake mushrooms, were investigated using parsimony analyses of an expanded nuclear ribosomal DNA dataset. Lentinula occurs in the New World as well as Asia and Australasia. The Asian-Australasian Lentinula populations appear to form a clade, but species limits within this group are controversial. We refer to the entire Asian-Australasian Lentinula clade as shiitake. Thirty-seven wild-collected isolates of shiitake were examined, representing Australia, Borneo, China, Japan, Korea, Nepal, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea (PNG), Tasmania and Thailand. Five isolates of the New World species, L. boryana, were included for rooting purposes. Levels of sequence divergence between North and Central American L. boryana isolates are higher than those between the most divergent shiitake isolates. In shiitake, five independent lineages of rDNA were identified, which we call groups I-V, but relationships among these lineages are not well resolved. Group I includes populations from northeast Asia to the South Pacific. Group II includes populations from PNG, Australia and Tasmania. Group III is limited to New Zealand. Group IV is from PNG. Finally, group V is from eastern China and Nepal. The distribution of rDNA lineages suggests a complex biogeographic history. Although many areas remain unsampled, our results suggest that certain areas

have particularly high levels of diversity and should be targeted for further study

and conservation. Hidayat, I., R. Jeewon, et al. (2006). "The genus Oxydothis: new palmicolous taxa and phylogenetic relationships within the Xylariales." Fungal Diversity 23: 159-179. Oxydothis (Xylariales) is an ascomycete genus, commonly encountered

on decaying monocotyledons, such as palms. During our study on diversity of palmicolous fungi in northern Thailand, we encountered three new species of Oxydothis: O. cyrtostachicola, O. inaequalis and O. wallichianensis, and these are described and illustrated in this paper. The three novel species differ from other morphologically similar Oxydothis species in ascomata shape and ostiole position, ascal ring, and ascospore morphology. Phylogenetic affiliations of the new taxa with members of related ascomycete families within the Xylariales are discussed based on morphology and nrDNA sequence data. The phylogenetic relationships of Oxydothis and its familial placement remain obscure based on the 28S nrDNA sequence analyses. Large sub unit nrDNA (28S) gene sequences do not provide significant phylogenetic information concerning the evolutionary relationships of these xylariaceous fungi. ITS nrDNA sequence analyses, however, indicate that Oxydothis is more closely related to members of the Amphisphaeriaceae than Diatrypaceae or Xylariaceae.

Hietala, A. M., K. Korhonen, et al. (2003). "An unknown mechanism promotes somatic incompatibility in Ceratobasidium bicorne." Mycologia, 95(2): 239-250. Strains of Ceratobasidium bicorne (anamorph uninucleate

Rhizoctonia), causing root dieback in nursery-grown conifer seedlings, were fruited in the laboratory and the pairing interactions among sibling, single-basidiospore progeny were investigated. No mating reactions were observed. Instead, a high frequency of somatic incompatibility was observed in progeny pairings, indicated by a killing reaction in hyphal anastomosis and by formation of a demarcation line. The F1 progeny also could be fruited, and the level of somatic incompatibility within the F2 progeny remained high, even if lower than in the F1 progeny. The interaction types in pairings

within a family of progeny were similar in all respects to those between field isolates, indicating that the species is homothallic. The uninucleate condition of vegetative cells and the basidial characteristics would indicate homokaryotic fruiting, but the possibility of pseudohomothallism remains. We currently are not able to provide an explanation for the mechanism promoting somatic incompatibility in this species, but it seems likely that the classic heterogenic model of somatic incompatibility recognized in basidiomycetes is not applicable here. Alternative mechanisms are discussed.

HIETALA, A. M., J. VAHALA, et al. (2001). "Molecular evidence suggests that

Ceratobasidium bicorne has an anamorph known as a conifer pathogen." Mycol. Res. 105: 555-562. In Finland and Norway, a uninucleate Rhizoctonia sp. is

causing a root dieback disease on nursery-grown Norway spruce and Scots pine seedlings. This Rhizoctonia can be fruited under laboratory conditions and the basidial characters fit well in the species concept of Ceratobasidium bicorne, a species originally described as a moss parasite under forest conditions. Further comparison using traditional methods (cultural morphology, nuclear condition, anastomosis) has not been possible as the forest population of C. bicorne has apparently never been cultured. In the present study, we isolated DNA from a herbarium sample of C. bicorne grown on the moss Polytrichastrum formosum. Sequence analysis of the PCR-amplified rDNA region containing the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions and the 5.8S rDNA gene was used to examine the conspecificity of the herbarium sample and the uninucleate Rhizoctonia sp. The nucleotide sequence of the 5.8S rDNA gene was identical between the herbarium sample and five sequenced uninucleate Rhizoctonia strains. Within the uninucleate Rhizoctonia sp., the sequence identity ranged from 96.1 to 100% in ITS1 and from 99.6 to 100% in ITS2. The sequence from the herbarium sample fits well within these limits, strongly suggesting that the uninucleate Rhizoctonia sp. and C. bicorne are conspecific. Interestingly, two of the uninucleate Rhizoctonia strains produced two ITS alleles : the

genetic implications are also discussed. Hiratsuka, Y. and J. M. Powell (1976). Pine Stem Rusts of Canada. Forestry Technical Report 4, Department of Supply and Services: 82. Hirooka, Y., T. Kobayashi, et al. (2005). "Neonectria castaneicola and Neo. rugulosa in Japan." Mycologia, 97(5): 1058–1066. Differences between Neonectria castaneicola, which causes

stem and perennial canker of trees, and Neo. rugulosa have not been clearly shown in previous studies. In this study these two species were compared in detail using 17 Japanese isolates consisting of 10 strains of Neo. castaneicola and seven of Neo. rugulosa. Four-spored asci were constantly found in Neo. castaneicola and this species produced larger ascospores and macroconidia than Neo. rugulosa which produced eight-spored asci. The mating system of Neo. castaneicola was homothallic while Neo. rugulosa was heterothallic. Characters in each species, such as the number of ascospores in an ascus and mating system, were constantly transferred to the 3rd generation. Molecular analysis revealed that the 10 isolates of Neo. castaneicola and seven of Neo. rugulosa were differentiated using rDNA sequence data from the nuclear rDNA ITS region. Moreover, Neo. castaneicola and Neo. rugulosa were separated into different clades. From these results, it was concluded that Neo. castaneicola should be maintained as an independent species, separate

from Neo. rugulosa. The isolates of Neo. rugulosa used in this study were the first reported in Japan and found on Castanea crenata, Castanopsis sp., Myrica rubra and Quercus acutissima.

HIROSE, S., S. TANDA, et al. (2005). "Molecular phylogeny and evolution of the maple powdery mildew (Sawadaea, Erysiphaceae) inferred from nuclear rDNA sequences." Mycol. Res. 109(8): 912-922. To understand the phylogenetic relationships and evolution of

the powdery mildew genus Sawadaea (Ascomycota: Erysiphaceae), obligate parasitic fungi of maples, we performed molecular phylogenetic analyses based on 47 ITS and ten 28S rDNA sequences. Seven major clades of Sawadaea, each represented by powdery mildew specimens collected from a single or a small number of closely related sections of Acer (maples), were identified in this study, suggesting that a close

evolutionary relationship exists between Acer (host) and Sawadaea (parasite). A 6–11-base insertion/deletion was found in the ITS1 region of Sawadaea, and the presence or absence of the indel was consistent within the respective clades. Because the outgroup genera Podosphaera and Cystotheca have no deletions in these sites, deletion of the sequences may have occurred during the divergence of the respective clades of Sawadaea. The seven clades of Sawadaea were divided into two geographical groups, viz. an East Asian and a global group, based on the countries of collection. Calculation of the evolutionary timing of Sawadaea using molecular clocks showed that the divergence of different species of Acer occurred many millions of years before the radiation of Sawadaea. Thus, the close evolutionary relationship between Sawadaea and Acer found in this study might not be due to a true coevolutionary process. Powdery mildew fungi belonging to Sawadaea may have jumped onto Acer spp. long after the radiation of the major sections of these trees, and then expanded their host ranges according to the phylogeny and geographical distribution of Acer.

HIRSCH, P. R., T. H. MAUCHLINE, et al. (2000). "Detection of the nematophagous fungus Verticillium chlamydosporium in nematode-infested plant roots using PCR." Mycol. Res. 104: 435-439. PCR-based methods to detect Verticillium chlamydosporium

on infected plant roots were developed. Arbitrary ERIC primers and those based on rRNA genes, to identify fungi grown in pure culture, were unsuitable for DNA extracted from nematode-infested roots, because of interference by plant and nematode DNA. A novel method utilizing specific primers designed from an amplified and cloned fragment of the V. chlamydosporium b-tubulin gene was developed. Although it could not discriminate between different isolates of V. chlamydosporium, one primer set could identify the fungus on tomato roots infested with root-knot nematodes. The V.

chlamydosporium β-tubulin sequence data showed close homology to sequences

from plant endophytic Acremonium and EpichloeX species and the saprotrophic Trichoderma viride. HITCHCOCK, C. J., S. M. CHAMBERS, et al. (2003). "Development of markers for simple sequence repeat-rich regions that discriminate between Pisolithus albus and P. microcarpus." Mycol. Res. 107: 699-706. Inter-simple sequence repeat PCR (ISSR-PCR) was used to

develop markers for simple sequence repeat-rich (SSR) regions for investigation of genetic relatedness of Pisolithus isolates collected from eastern mainland Australia. Primers were designed to amplify ten SSR-rich regions and these were used to screen 14 Pisolithus isolates. Two amplified loci showed size polymorphisms among the isolates (regarded as polymorphic), two were monomorphic for all isolates, while

the remainder amplified alleles for only some isolates. UPGMA analysis of the alleles for each isolate at each locus together with ITS-RFLP analysis, separated the isolates into two groups. These two groups appear to correspond to isolates that ITS sequence data have previously separated as P. albus and P. microcarpus.

Hitchcock, P., T. R. G. Gray, et al. (1997). "Production of a monoclonal antibody specific to Mycena galopus mycelium." Mycological Research 101(9): 1051-1059. Monoclonal antibodies were raised against the mycelium of a litter-

decomposing basidiomycete, Mycena galopus, for use in an autecological study of the fungus in forest litter. Two clones (3E12 and 6D8), produced using particulate and whole-cell extracts of the fungus respectively, cross-reacted with several species including other Mycena species, non-Mycena basidiomycetes, zygomycetes and anamorphs or mitosporic fungi. Of these clones, 3E12 appeared to be directed against an unidentified b-glucan and 6D8 against chitin. A third clone (6E1), using as immunogen latex collected in the field from stipes of the basidiomes, was specific to M. galopus mycelium in ELISA and immunofluorescence tests and was probably directed against an unidentified polysaccharide.

Hjortstam, K., K. H. Larsson, et al. (1973). The Corticiaceae of North Europe : Introduction and Keys. The Corticiaceae of North Europe Vol. 1. Oslow, Norway, Gronlands Eskefabrikk. 1: 5-59. Hjortstam, K., K. H. Larsson, et al. (1988). The Corticiaceae of North Europe :Thanatephorus-Ypsilonidium. The Corticiaceae of North Europe Vol. 8. Oslow, Norway, Gronlands Eskefabrikk. 8: 1450-1631. Ho, W. H., K. D. Hyde, et al. (1997). "Ascomycetes from tropical freshwater habitats : the genus Savoryella, with two new species." Mycological Research 101(7): 803-809. Savoryella is reported from wood submerged in rivers and streams in

Australia, Brunei, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Mauritius, the Philippines and

South Africa. Six species are reported Savoryella aquatica, S. curvispora sp. nov., S. fusiformis sp. nov., S. grandispora, S. lignicola and S. verrucosa. A key to Savoryella species is provided and descriptions and illustrations of selected freshwater Savoryella species are given.

Ho, W. H., K. D. Hyde, et al. (2004). "Cataractispora receptaculorum, a new freshwater ascomycete from Hong Kong." Mycologia, 96(2): 411-417. A new species of Cataractispora, C. receptaculorum, is

described from freshwater habitats. This species is characterized by triseptate verruculose ascospores and polar appendages that unfurl in water. The ascospores lack polar chambers that enclose the appendages as in C. bipolaris and C. viscosa. An ultrastructural study of this species revealed that the ascus wall and apical ring of this species is typical of the Annulatascaceae, while the ascospore wall with

verruculose ornamentations and the ontogeny of the ascospore polar appendages are similar to the other species of Cataractispora. Cataractispora receptaculorum

is illustrated with interference light, scanning and transmission electron micrographs.

HO, W. H., K. D. HYDE, et al. (2001). "Fungal communities on submerged wood from streams in Brunei, Hong Kong, and Malaysia." Mycol. Res. 105: 1492-1501. Fungi on submerged wood in streams are a diverse group,

comprising taxa from various families. Fungal communities on submerged wood collected from Sungai Sitam in Brunei, Tai Po Kau Forest Stream in Hong Kong, and from a stream in Lipur Lentang Nature Reserve in Malaysia are reported. One hundred and forty-seven taxa were recorded. A higher species diversity including temperate and tropical species was recorded in Tai Po Kau Forest Stream in the subtropics. Ascomycetes and their asexual stages were dominant in tropical and subtropical freshwater habitats, while discomycetes were rare in these habitats. Distinct fungal communities are found on submerged wood in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions and these are discussed. Including the fungi identified in this study, over 1000 fungi has been recorded from freshwater habitats.

Ho, W. H., Yanna, et al. (2002). "Two new species of Spadicoides from Brunei and Hong Kong." Mycologia, 94(2): 302-306. Spadicoides hodgkissa sp. nov. and Spadicoides arengae sp.

nov., recorded from submerged decaying wood in Hong Kong and from decaying palm

fronds in Brunei, are described and illustrated. Spadicoides hodgkissa is characterized by versicolored, obovoid conidia with up to 2 septa, including a distal

distoseptum and a proximal euseptum, while Spadicoides arengae is characterized by unicellular, ellipsoidal conidia with verruculose walls that are relatively large. Eight genera, including Dendrographium,

Helminthosporium, Luzfridiella, Paliphora, Polyschema, Polytretophora, Porosubramaniania, and Weufia, have the

same conidiogenesis as Spadicoides. A key to these genera is provided. HOBBIE, E. A., F. S. SANCHEZ, et al. (2004). "Carbon use, nitrogen use, and isotopic fractionation of ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic fungi in natural abundance and 13C-labelled cultures." Mycol. Res. 108: 725-736. Stable isotopes in fruit bodies from field studies have been

used to infer ectomycorrhizal or saprotrophic status and to understand carbon and nitrogen use, but few controlled culture studies have correlated source and fungal isotopic patterns. Here, we measured natural abundances of 15N and 13C in ten strains of ectomycorrhizal fungi and seven strains of saprotrophic fungi grown on agar with three different primary carbon sources: glucose, glucose plus malt extract, and potato dextrose agar. Eight fungal strains were also grown using position-specific, 13C-labelled glucose (C-1 through C-6 labelled). Most fungi resembled nitrogen sources in δ15N, suggesting that growth on agar media minimizes isotopic fractionation on uptake compared to growth on liquid media, and that in general saprotrophic and mycorrhizal fungi

process nitrogen similarly. Saprotrophic fungi were more depleted in 13C than ectomycorrhizal fungi on all media, presumably because of assimilation of 13C-depleted, agar-derived carbon. Results on 13C-enriched glucose indicated that saprotrophic fungi obtained up to 45% of their carbon from the agar substrate. Fungi generally incorporated the individual carbon atoms of glucose in the order, C-4<C-1<C-2, C-3, C-5<C-6, ranging from a mean of 9% for the C-4 atom to 21% for the C-6 atom. Based on these incorporation patterns and intramolecular 13C patterns within glucose, differential incorporation of carbon atoms within glucose among fungal taxa contributed less than 1% to isotopic differences among taxa, whereas isotopic fractionation among taxa during metabolism varied up to 4%. Parallel studies of 13C-enriched and natural abundance substrates were crucial to interpreting our results.

Hobbs, C. (1995). Medicinal Mushrooms, Interweave Press, Inc. Hoch, H. C., C. D. Galvani, et al. (2005). "Two new fluorescent dyes applicable for visualization of fungal cell walls." Mycologia, 97(3): 580-588. Two fluorophores, Solophenyl Flavine 7GFE 500 and

Pontamine Fast Scarlet 4B, not heretofore reported upon are described as useful dyes of fungal cell walls, septa and bud scars examined microscopically. The dyes, depending on the filter sets used, yield fluorescently stained material generally in the blue to green and yellow to red wavelengths for Solophenyl Flavine 7GFE 500 and Pontamine Fast Scarlet 4B, respectively. They provide an excellent alternative to the more commonly used fluorophore, Calcofluor White M2R. The two fluorophores, in addition to being used at various spectral wavelengths from mercury arc

sources, can be used with laser sources providing 488 nm and 543 nm line wavelengths, common to most scanning confocal microscopes. Unlike Calcofluor, Solophenyl Flavine 7GFE

500 and Pontamine Fast Scarlet 4B do not fade quickly when exposed to selected light wavelengths; however, like Calcofluors they are compatible with living fungal cells.

HOCKING, A. D., M. WHITELAW, et al. (1998). "Penicillium radicum sp. nov. from the rhizosphere of Australian wheat." Mycol. Res. 102: 801-806. A new species of Penicillium, Subgenus Biverticillium, was

isolated from the root of a wheat seedling during a survey of the ability of rhizosphere fungi to solubilize phosphate. The species, described here as Penicillium radicum, has affinities with P. variabile, P. allahabadense and Talaromyces wortmannii, but can be distinguished by differences in morphology, secondary metabolite profiles and unique DNA banding patterns obtained using RAPD PCR.

Hodge, K. T., N. M. Viaene, et al. (1997). "Two Harposporium species with Hirsutella synanamorphs." Mycological Research 101(11): 1377-1382. Two nematode-parasitic isolates of Harposporium are reported to form

synanamorphs attributable to the Hirsutella. One is attributed to Harposporium anguillulae, the second is described as a new species, H. cerberi. H. cerberi also produced an arthroconidial synanamorph. In infection studies of nematodes, conidia typical of Harposporium proved to be capable of killing bacterial feeding nematodes (Rhabditis sp.) when ingested. Infective conidia of H. cerberi were located posterior to the oesophageal bulb, while those of H. anguillulae lodged above it. Hirsutella conidia were not observed to be infective or adhesive, and none of the spore forms was capable of infecting either of two species of stylet-bearing nematodes (Aphelenchus sp. and Meloidogyne hapla).

HOEGGER, P. J., D. RIGLING, et al. (2000). "Genetic structure of newly established populations of Cryphonectria parasitica." Mycol. Res. 104: 1108-1116. The genetic structure of three newly established

Cryphonectria parasitica populations (Choex, Weggis, Murg) was analysed and compared to an older, post-epidemic population (Claro). Vegetative compatibility (vc) type and DNA fingerprint analysis revealed an almost clonal C. parasitica population in Choex, Weggis and Murg. These stands are all situated in northern Switzerland, outside the main range of European chestnut. Only one vc type and one dominant DNA fingerprint was found in Choex and Murg. In Weggis, two vc types and two dominating DNA fingerprints were found. The European Cryphonectria hypovirus (CHV1) was not detected in these three populations. In contrast, the population in Claro, situated within the main range of European chestnut in southern Switzerland, had much higher vc type and DNA

fingerprint diversity. DNA fingerprints were correlated to vc types in Claro and in Weggis. Mating type determination revealed one strongly dominating mating type in each of the three northern populations, but not in Claro. From these results we conclude that C. parasitica disseminated almost exclusively by means of asexual reproduction in Choex, Weggis and Murg, whereas in Claro sexual reproduction also played an important role. Additionally, founder effects and

restricted gene flow were dominating factors in shaping the genetic structure of the three northern populations.

Hoegger, P. J., D. Rigling, et al. (2002). "Cryphonectria radicalis: rediscovery of a lost fungus." Mycologia, 94(1): 105-115. In an attempt to isolate the ascomycete Cryphonectria

parasitica (Diaporthales, Valsaceae) from dead chestnut stems, we obtained three C. radicalis

strains. All three strains were isolated in areas of Switzerland with high chestnut blight incidence. To confirm our species designation, we compared the three C. radicalis strains to hypovirus (hv)-free and hv-infected C. parasitica strains. The comparison revealed several distinctive characteristics. On potato dextrose agar in the dark, the C. radicalis strains produced a fluffy mycelium and small droplets of a purple exudate giving the mycelium a light pinkish appearance. On corn meal medium in the dark, the C. radicalis strains caused a color change of the medium to purple, whereas the C. parasitica strains did not cause any color change. Ascospores from C. radicalis were significantly smaller than C. parasitica ascospores and their dimensions fit within other published size ranges. Southern hybridization analysis of the two species using nuclear and mitochondrial probes support their taxonomic separation. This separation is further supported by the lack of successful interspecific crosses. In virulence tests on chestnut trees, the C. radicalis strains exhibited very low virulence, comparable to highly hypovirulent hv-infected

C. parasitica strains. Our results suggest that C. radicalis still coexists with C. parasitica although at a low frequency. HOFSTETTER, V., H. C. ON, et al. (2002). "Phylogenetic analyses of the Lyophylleae (Agaricales, Basidiomycota) based on nuclear and mitochondrial rDNA sequences." Mycol. Res. 106: 1043-1059. Current classifications of the Lyophylleae and the importance of

siderophilous granulation in the basidia for the classification of agaricoid fungi were evaluated using parsimony analyses of sequence data from the nuclear ribosomal large subunit gene (nLSU), the internal transcribed spacer region of the nuclear ribosomal array (ITS), and the mitochondrial ribosomal small subunit gene (mtSSU). These three different data partitions were phylogenetically congruent on the basis of the Mickevich--Farris statistical test, but not from the ILD and the Templeton tests. Bootstrap supports for nodes in phylogenetic trees generated from

combined nLSU, ITS, and mtSSU sequence data were generally higher than those in trees generated from individual data sets. This suggests a lack of major confiict in the phylogenetic signal among the different data sets. We conclude that the Mickevich±Farris test is more appropriate for estimating congruence and combinability between different sources of molecular data than the more widely used ILD and Templeton tests, at least when the different data sets have their respective resolution power at different depths in the phylogeny. Results of the combined analyses show that the Entolomataceae are a sister group to a clade composed of the Lyophylleae, Termitomyceteae, and Tricholomateae p.p. This implies that presence of siderophilous granulation in the basidia of agaric fungi has probably a single origin, and would have been lost in the Tricholomateae. Inclusion of the Termitomyceteae within the Lyophylleae suggests homology of the macro type granulation. Because the exact placement of Tricholomateae pro parte remains uncertain, it remains unclear whether the Lyophylleae (including Termitomyceteae) are monophyletic or paraphyletic. Within the Lyophylleae, genera Lyophyllum and Calocybe are shown to be artificial, as are Lyophyllum sections Lyophyllum, Difformia, and Tephrophana. Four main natural groups of Lyophylleae have been identified that should serve as a basis for developing a more natural classification system for

these fungi. Hoiland, K. and T. Schumacher (1982). "Agarics, clavarioid and some heterobasidiomycetous fungi from Northern Thailand." Nord. J. Bot. 2: 265-271. 51 species of agaricoid, davariuid, and heterobasidiomycetous fungi are

reCtJrded . frum Thailand. 40 species are new to the area. Hohenbuehelia panelloides Hoiland sp. nov. is described and Leccinum intusrubens (Corner) H0iland comb. nov. is proposed. Comments are given on vernacular names.

Hol, W. H., Yanna, et al. (2005). "Endosporoideus gen. nov., a mitosporic fungus on Phoenix hanceana." Mycologia, 97(1): 238-245. Endosporoideus pedicellata gen. et sp. nov. is described and

illustrated from decaying petioles of Phoenix hanceana collected from grassland in Tai Mo Shan, Hong Kong. The genus is unique in producing solitary, phragmosporous conidia. The conidia comprise a brown to dark brown inner-wall layer and thick, hyaline outer-wall layer and are produced holoblastically from determinate conidiogenous cells on micronematous, mononematous conidiophores. Cells of conidia may disarticulate at the septa. Representative steps in conidiogenesis of E. pedicellata are illustrated with light micrographs, and details of the conidiogenous events are interpreted schematically.

HOLLER, U., A. D. WRIGHT, et al. (2000). "Fungi from marine sponges: diversity, biological activity and secondary metabolites." Mycol. Res. 104: 1354-

1365. The diversity, biological activity and secondary metabolite

production of fungi associated with marine sponges were investigated in order to assess the potential of these fungi for the production of novel biologically active secondary metabolites. 681 fungal strains were isolated from 16 sponge species from six different locations, representing 13 genera of Ascomycota, 2 of Zygomycota, 37 of mitosporic fungi, and 37 strains of sterile mycelium. The spectrum of fungi from each location was dominated by a few genera of mainly mitosporic fungi that are also commonly encountered in terrestrial habitats.

A high proportion of culture extracts of sponge-associated fungi was biologically active in tests to detect antifungal, antialgal, and antibacterial activity, cytotoxicity and inhibition of reverse-transcriptase and tyrosine kinase. The corresponding chemistry was structurally diverse and related to that of terrestrial fungi. From the biologically active culture extracts of five fungal strains, nine pure compounds were isolated in addition to 18 previously reported.

Holmer, L., P. Renvall, et al. (1997). "Selective replacement between species of wood-rotting basidiomycetes, a laboratory study." Mycological Research 101(6): 714-720. Competition and replacement interactions between species of wood-

decomposing basidiomycetes were studied with a culture basitechnique using various sized pieces taken from 6 cm diam. wood discs as a substrate. Based on field studies, 17 species of diomycetes, either primary decayers or late successional saprotrophs which show strict dependencies on certain preceding pioneer decayers in the field, were isolated and inoculated on the wood sectors. After precolonization, the sectors were attached to each other pairwise in various species combinations and incubated on water agar. The discs were regularly inspected and photographed for detection of mycelial overgrowth. After 6 months, samples were taken from the wood of the sectors and cultured for identification of prevailing mycelia. Measured by the replacement of opposing fungi, the selective late successional species are more combative than the primary decayers. Species of Antrodiella had the greatest competitive success. The results of our experiment corresponds well with field observations and explain, at least partly, the physiological background of the interactions.

Holst-Jensen, A., T. Vralstad, et al. (2004). "Kohninia linnaeicola, a new genus and species of the Sclerotiniaceae pathogenic to Linnaea borealis." Mycologia, 96(1): 135-142. A new genus and species is described to accommodate a

newly discovered fungus pathogenic to Linnaea borealis. The fungus forms true sclerotia on stems and leaves of its host and apothecia arise singly or gregariously on the surface of ripe sclerotia. The new fungus was

collected together with a stromatic conidiomal fungus that occurred on the same host. A putative teleomorph-

anamorph connection of the observed taxa was ruled out by sequence comparison of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer DNA sequences (ITS rDNA). Based on morphology and pathogenicity, the new fungus belongs in the family Sclerotiniaceae, Helotiales, Ascomycota. A phylogenetic analysis of ITS rDNA sequences from 26 taxa of the family Sclerotiniaceae was performed to conclude on the systematic position of the new fungus. The small tuberoid sclerotia, brownish subsessile to substipitate apothecia, four-spored asci, ellipsoid to isthmoid ascospores, inability to grow on PDA culture media and a number of ITS rDNA sequence autapomorphies characterize and distinguish the fungus from other taxa of the Sclerotiniaceae.

HONDA, D., T. YOKOCHI, et al. (1998). "Schizochytrium limacinum sp. nov., a new thraustochytrid from a mangrove area in the west Pacific Ocean." Mycol. Res. 102: 439-448. Schizochytrium limacinum sp. nov, a thraustochytrid, is

described from sea water from a mangrove area of the Yap Islands in the west Pacific Ocean. It is closest to S. aggregatum, and differs from other Schizochytrium spp. in its limaciform amoeboid cells, the size of zoospores, released without an amoeboid stage, and the assimilation profile of carbon sources.

HONEGGER, R., U. ZIPPLER, et al. (2004). "Mating systems in the genus Xanthoria (lichen-forming ascomycetes)." Mycol. Res. 108: 480-488. Genetic variability among sterile cultured single ascospore

isolates of Xanthoria parietina, X. calcicola, X. ectaneoides, X. capensis, X. polycarpa and X. resendei was investigated with RAPD-PCR. If available five out of eight ascospores per ascus were analysed. In some samples multispore and mycelial isolates from ascomata were included in the analysis. Ascospore germination rates and phenotypic features such as growth rate, pigmentation and secondary metabolites were

uniform in X. parietina sporelings of the same ascus, but varied among the progeny of meiosis in all other species. Phenotypic features correlated with genetic variability. X. parietina revealed polymorphisms among specimens from different worldwide locations. In contrast nine out of ten sets of sibling spores were genetically uniform, with only 2% polymorphism in the remaining set, indicating that X. parietina might be homothallic. X. calcicola, X. ectaneoides, X. capensis, X. polycarpa and X. resendei revealed 9–66% polymorphic loci and therefore are considered heterothallic.

Hong, S. G., W. Jeong, et al. (2002). "Amplification of mitochondrial small subunit ribosomal DNA of polypores and its potential for phylogenetic analysis." Mycologia, 94(5): 823-833.

There has been a systematic need to seek adequate phylogenetic markers that can be applied in phylogenetic analyses of fungal taxa at various levels.

The mitochondrial small subunit ribosomal DNA (mt SSU rDNA) is generally considered to be one of the molecules that are appropriate for phylogenetic analyses at a family level. In order to obtain universal primers for polypores of Hymenomycetes, mt SSU rRNA genes were cloned from Bjerkandera adusta, Ganoderma lucidum, Phlebiopsis gigantea, and Phellinus laevigatus and their sequences were determined. Based on the conserved sequences of cloned genes from polypores and Agrocybe aegerita, PCR primers were designed for amplification and sequencing of mt SSU rDNAs. New primers allowed effective amplification and sequencing of almost full-sized genes from representative species of polypores and related species. Phylogenetic relationships were resolved quite efficiently by mt SSU rDNA sequences, and they proved to be more useful in phylogenetic reconstruction of Ganoderma than nuclear internal transcribed spacer (ITS) rDNA sequences.

Hong, S. G. and H. S. Jung (2004). "Phylogenetic analysis of Ganoderma based on nearly complete mitochondrial small-subunit ribosomal DNA sequences." Mycologia, 96(4): 742-755. Characteristics and structures of mt SSU rDNA were

investigated for the phylogenetic study of Ganoderma. Phylogenetic information was concentrated mostly in the V1, V4, V5, V6 and V9 variable domains, but informative sites in conserved domains also significantly contributed in resolving hylogenetic

relationships between Ganoderma groups. Secondary structure information of variable domains was found to be a useful marker in delineation of phylogenetic groups. Strains of Ganoderma species used in this study were divided into six monophyletic groups. Ganoderma colossus made a distinct basal ineage from other Ganoderma species and Tomophagus, created for G. colosuss, appeared to be a valid genus. Ganoderma applanatum and G. lobatum classified in subgenus Elfvingia made a monophyletic group. Ganoderma tsugae from North America and G. valesiacum from Europe, both living on conifers, were closely related. Ganoderma oregonense and strains labeled G. lucidum from Europe and Canada were grouped with G. tsugae and G. valesiacum. Strains labeled G. lucidum living on hardwoods from the United States and Taiwan were grouped with G. resinaceum, G. pfeifferi and G. subamboinense var. laevisporum, and they all produced chlamydospores. Two strains labeled G. lucidum and three strains labeled G. resinaceum from America were concluded to be conspecific. Strains labeled G. lucidum from Korea and Japan were monophyletic and were distinguished from strains labeled G. lucidum from Europe and North America. Host relationships and the presence of chlamydospores in culture proved to be importantcharacteristics in the systematics as well as the phylogenetic

relationships of Ganoderma. HONG, S. G., D. LIU, et al. (2005). "Restriction mapping of the IGS region in Alternaria spp. reveals variable and conserved domains." Mycol. Res. 109: 87-95. Accurate identification of Alternaria spp. is dependent upon the

production of diagnostic morphological characters under defined cultural conditions and the proper assessment of character variation. This process is often compromised by variation in laboratory facilities and technical expertise. To assist taxon identification and phylogenetic studies, restriction site information from the intergenic spacer (IGS) region of nuclear rDNA was evaluated. Restriction maps were constructed from 15 species of Alternaria and Stemphylium botryosum (telemorph Pleospora herbarum) for 11 restriction enzymes using a new method for restriction mapping based on differential priming of IGS amplicons. IGS fragment size varied among species from 2.2–3.9 kb. Based upon restriction site homology among closely-related and

more distantly related species, the IGS region could be divided into conserved and variable domains. The conserved domain was approximately 0.75 kb in size and was located at the 3k end of the IGS region. Restriction site homology within this region was very high, especially among closely related taxa. The remainder of the region comprised the variable domain, which encompassed considerable differences in size and restriction sites among taxa. The presence or absence of restriction sites among taxa was analyzed using methods of neighbor-joining. Phylogenetic relationships based on this method were concordant with those previously resolved based upon other methods and other genomic regions.

HONG, T. D., J. GUNN, et al. (2001). "The effect of storage environment on the longevity of conidia of Beauveria bassiana." Mycol. Res. 105: 597-602. The effect of air-dry storage environment on the longevity of

conidia from seven isolates of Beauveria bassiana produced at different times and locations was determined by estimating the parameters of a viability equation. Conidia were stored hermetically at six to 11 moisture contents between 2.3 and 32.0% with one (50±0.5 °C) to five constant temperatures (10, 20, 30, 40 and 50±0.5 °) for various periods up to 372 d and then tested for viability. All isolates behaved similarly (P>0.25) in terms of the relative effect of moisture content (Cw) and temperature (CΗ and CQ) on conidial longevity ; common values were Cw=3.05 (se=0.07), CΗ =

0.0293 (se=0.0078), and CQ =0.00081 (se=0.00011). Estimates of the low-moisture-content limit to the negative logarithmic relation between conidial moisture content and longevity were 4.6 and 5.0% at 50° and 40°, respectively, for isolate I98-1140ss, and 5.2 and 5.1% moisture content, respectively, for isolate I97-1111. Absolute longevity (KΕ) varied considerably (P<0.005) among isolates, even within an isolate when

conidia were produced at different locations. Among the eight samples of seven isolates, two cohorts were identified with respect to KΕ (P<0.005) : conidia of three isolates which were produced at Ascot had a common estimate of KΕ of 6.696 (se=0.170), whereas those produced at Nairobi or Carolina provided a lower estimate (6.203, se=0.029). This difference in KΕ means that for any given viability period in any given environment, the conidia produced in Ascot provided about three times the longevity of the other samples.

HONG, T. D., N. E. JENKINS, et al. (2000). "The effects of duration of development and drying regime on the longevity of conidia of Metarhizium flavoviride." Mycol. Res. 104: 662-665. Conidia of the entomopathogenic Metarhizium ¯avoviride were

harvested 8, 10, 12 or 15 d after inoculation at 25 °C and then (as conidiated rice) dried rapidly (10--12% r.h. and 17--20° for 17 h to about 15--22% moisture content) or slowly (50--60% r.h. and 27° for 5 d to about 27--32% moisture content initially). The subsequent survival of these conidia in air-dry storage at 50° with 8.1% moisture content was then assessed. Conidia longevity (assessed by the duration of storage until conidia viability was reduced to 50%, p50) was maximal when conidia were harvested 10 d after inoculation, and was much greater following slow rather than rapid drying. The substantial beneficial effect of slow desiccation to subsequent conidia survival is consistent with that detected in other propagules in anhydrous biology, and is also of considerable practical utility for the biological control of insects by entomopathogenic fungi.

HOOD, M. E., O. J. ROCHA, et al. (2001). "Differences in teliospore germination patterns of Microbotryum violaceum from European and North American Silene species." Mycol. Res. 105: 532-536. Microbotryum violaceum (anther-smut) from Silene caroliniana

and S. virginica produced promycelia that frequently appeared to contain more than three cells according to the number of septations. This is in contrast to samples from S. latifolia and to previous descriptions of this species. Apparent four-celled promycelia contained three nucleate cells and one anucleate zone. Anucleate zones were usually positioned between the first and third cells of the promycelium. Their presence was negatively correlated with the occurrence of intra-promycelial conjugation. Also, unlike isolates from Silene latifolia, isolates from S. caroliniana and S. virginica produced hyphae in the absence of an inducing agent.

HOOPEN, G. M. t., J. L. ORTIZ, et al. (2004). "Preservation methodology for Rosellinia species." Mycol. Res. 108: 274-282. Many small (temporary) collections of fungi maintained by

plant pathologists during their research receive inadequate attention to ensure stability. Maintaining collections of fungi in pure and viable

conditions, minimising physiological and morphological changes is, however, a necessity. The objective of this study was to find preservation techniques for three Rosellinia isolates used in our plant pathogenic research. Various inert and nutritious carriers, solid as well as liquid, were used to test their suitability for conserving these Rosellinia isolates. Different cryoprotectants, cooling rates and thawing rates were tested to optimise liquid nitrogen storage procedures. Survival and/or growth rate were assessed over time. Rosellinia bunodes was the most difficult to store with survival not exceeding six to nine months using traditional storage methods in mineral oil and silica gel. Storage of Rosellinia necatrix and Rosellinia pepo was successful for periods up to at least 16 months in several carriers and for up to two years for R. necatrix in silica gel. Storage in liquid nitrogen proved no problem for R. necatrix or R. pepo with a 100% survival in all cases, although radial growth rates after recuperation were affected by cryoprotectant and thawing rates. Storage of R. bunodes was more difficult and survival as

well as growth rates were affected by cryoprotectant and thawing rates. Cooling rates did not affect radial growth in any of the isolates. The results showed that development of a generalised procedure for storage of our Rosellinia species was not possible and successful storage protocols had to be developed for individual isolates.

HOOPEN, G. M. t., R. REES, et al. (2003). "Population dynamics of epiphytic mycoparasites of the genera Clonostachys and Fusarium for the biocontrol of black pod (Phytophthora palmivora) and moniliasis (Moniliophthora roreri) on cocoa (Theobroma cacao)." Mycol. Res. 107: 587-596. Mycoparasites collected from aerial parts of the cocoa plant

(Theobroma cacao) have shown great promise in the control of black pod, caused by Phytophthora palmivora, and moniliasis, caused by Moniliophthora roreri. However, the ecology of epiphytic mycoparasites is still poorly understood although it has a direct bearing on applied biocontrol practices, ranging from the identification and isolation of promising biocontrol candidates to formulation needs and required application frequency. One objective of this study was to determine the natural abundance of mycoparasites on cocoa flowers and pods in relation to crop development stage and cultivar. For this purpose, native mycoparasites were detected on cocoa flowers and pods using the precolonised plate baiting technique. Furthermore, the survival of an applied Clonostachys rosea isolate on cocoa pods on shaded and non-shaded trees was compared as well as the recolonisation patterns of surface-sterilised pods by native mycoparasites under these conditions. Clonostachys spp. were the most commonly isolated native mycoparasites, followed by Fusarium spp. No differences in the occurrence of native, epiphytic mycoparasites were observed between the three main cocoa cultivars, ‘Criollo’, ‘Forastero’ and ‘Trinitario’, nor between clones within these groups. Thus, a single biocontrol inoculum

can be suitable for application to cultivar mixtures of cocoa commonly grown together in a field. Different susceptibility classes of segregating F1 populations of hybrids with resistance against M. roreri and P. palmivora supported similar population levels and taxonomic assemblages of mycoparasites. Therefore, we reject the hypothesis that these antagonists mediate resistance.

Mycoparasite abundance and genetic disease resistance to black pod and moniliasis are independent phenomena and should lead to additive effects if employed simultaneously in an integrated disease management programme. The survival of applied C. rosea was not affected by the shading regime or any other meteorological parameter measured. On the other hand, recolonisation of surface-sterilised cocoa pods by most native mycoparasites was faster in the shade.

Only Trichoderma spp. colonised pods exposed to direct sunlight faster than shaded ones. The implications for the design of biocontrol inocula and formulation technology are discussed.

Horak, E. (1981). On Himalayan Species of Astrosporina and Inocybe (Agaricales). Persoonia. 11: 303-310. Two species of Astrosporina and two species of Inocybe from the

southern slopes of the Himalayas are described and illustrated. Astrosporina shoreae and I. claviger are described as new. The new combination A. calospora is proposed....

HORAK, E., U. PEINTNER, et al. (2003). "Meinhard Michael Moser (1924–2002): doyen of European agaricologists." Mycol. Res. 107: 506-508. The leading agaricologist Meinhard M. Moser died on 30

September 2002. He was a Centenary Fellow of the British Mycological Society, and the mentor of numerous students and colleagues throughout the world.

Horn, B. W. (2005). "Colonization of wounded peanut seeds by soil fungi: selectivity for species from Aspergillus section Flavi." Mycologia, 97(1): 202-217. Soil is a source of primary inoculum for Aspergillus flavus and

A. parasiticus, fungi that produce highly carcinogenic aflatoxins in peanuts. Aflatoxigenic fungi commonly invade peanut seeds during maturation, and the highest concentrations of aflatoxins are found in damaged seeds. A laboratory procedure was developed in which viable peanut seeds were wounded and inoculated with field soil containing natural populations of fungi, then incubated under different conditions of seed water activity and temperature. Densities of Aspergillus section Flavi in soil used for inoculating seeds were low relative to the total numbers of filamentous fungi (<1%). Aspergillus species from section Flavi present in soil included A. flavus morphotypes L and S strains, A. parasiticus, A. caelatus, A. tamarii and A. alliaceus. Wounding was required for high incidences of fungal colonization; viability of wounded seeds had little

effect on colonization by Aspergillus species. Peanut seeds were colonized by section Flavi species as well as A. niger over broad ranges of water activity (0.82–0.98) and temperature (15–37 C), and the highest incidences of seed colonization occurred at water activities of 0.92–0.96 at 22–37 C. A. parasiticus colonized peanut seeds at lower temperatures than A. flavus, and cool soil temperatures relative to temperatures of aerial crop fruits might explain why A. parasiticus is found mostly in peanuts. Other fungi, dominated by the genera Penicillium, Fusarium and Clonostachys, colonized seeds primarily at water activities and temperatures suboptimal for section Flavi species and A. niger. Eupenicillium ochrosalmoneum frequently sporulated on the conidial heads of section Flavi species and showed specificity for these fungi. The inoculation of wounded viable peanut seeds with soil containing natural populations of fungi provides a model system for studying the infection process, the interactions among fungi and those factors important in aflatoxin formation.

Horn, B. W. and J. W. Dorner (2002). "Effect of competition and adverse culture conditions on aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus through successive generations." Mycologia, 94(5): 741-751. Strains of Aspergillus flavus often degenerate with serial

transfers on culture media, resulting in morphological changes and loss of aflatoxin production. However, degeneration does not readily occur in nature as indicated by the wild-type morphological characters of newly isolated strains and the high percentage of aflatoxigenic A. flavus from soil and crops in some geographic regions. In this study, three aflatoxin-producing strains of A. flavus were serially transferred using conidia for 20 generations (three independent generation lines per strain) on potato dextrose agar at 30 C. The rate of degeneration was compared to that of cultures

grown in the presence of competing fungi (A. terreus, Penicillium funiculosum, and the yeast, Pichia guilliermondii) and under adverse conditions of elevated temperature, reduced water activity, low pH, and nutrient deprivation. Formation of morphological variants and the associated loss of aflatoxin production over generations varied considerably according to strain and the generation line within each strain. In the strain most sensitive to degeneration on potato dextrose agar, aflatoxin-producing ability was maintained to varying degrees under adverse culture conditions, but not when A. flavus was competing with other fungi.

HOSAGOUDAR, V. B. and T. K. ABRAHAM (1998). "Four new foliicolous ascomycetes from Kerala, India." Mycol. Res. 102: 184-186. Asterina hopiicola, Asterinella pterigotae, Echidnodella

memecyli and Lembosia humboltiae are described and illustrated as new species.

Hou, C.-L., M. Piepenbring, et al. (2004). "Nematococcomyces rhododendri, a new species in a new genus of the Rhytismatales from China." Mycologia, 96(6): 1380-1385. A fungus belonging to the Rhytismatales found on twigs of

Rhododendron lutescens in Yunnan, southwestern China, is described as a new species in a new genus. It is characterized by Coccomyces-like ascomata but differs in having elliptical ascospores with filiform, hyaline appendages. The ascospores of this

new taxon are somewhat similar to those of species of Parvacoccum, but the latter has symmetrical, fusiform ascospores with funnel-shaped appendages. The new genus also is distinct from Hypoderma, Hypodermella, Myriophacidium, Ploioderma, Neococcomyces and Therrya.

HSIANG, T. and C. WU (2000). "Genetic relationships of pathogenic Typhula species assessed by RAPD, ITS-RFLP and ITS sequencing." Mycol. Res. 104: 16-22. Several species of Typhula cause diseases of cereals and

grasses at low temperatures. Taxonomic separation of T. phacorrhiza, T. incarnata and T. ishikariensis was investigated using RAPD, ITS-RFLP and nucleotide sequencing of the ITS region. Using 10 RAPD primers on genomic DNA or eight restriction enzymes on PCR-amplified ITS regions, banding patterns were generated for each of 19 isolates from five species or varieties. Polymorphisms were found between species and varieties, with fewer among isolates within species or varieties. RAPD analysis suggested that T. ishikariensis var. idahoensis may be distinct from the other varieties (var. ishikariensis and var. canadensis), although this was not supported by ITS-RFLP. To confirm relationships, ITS nucleotides were obtained from single isolates of each of the five Typhula taxa, and sequence alignments were subjected to distance and parsimony analysis. Although there were differences in branching between dendrograms derived from sequencing vs. RAPD or ITS-RFLP, sequence data supported the distinction of the three main Typhula species, with the T. ishikariensis varieties grouping together and showing differences at an infraspecific level. ITS sequence data also indicated the closer taxonomic affinity of Typhula species to the agaricoid Tricholoma sejunctum compared to the clavarioid Thelephora terrestris.

Hsieh, H.-M. and Y.-M. Ju (2002). "Penicilliopsis pseudocordyceps, the holomorph of Pseudocordyceps seminicola, and notes on Penicilliopsis clavariaeformis." Mycologia, 94(3): 539-544. Penicilliopsis pseudocordyceps was collected from seeds of

Diospyros discolor and is described as new. The anamorph produced in culture is Pseudocordyceps seminicola. The teleomorph was produced on oatmeal agar in 6 wk. Penicilliopsis clavariaeformis was also collected from the same seeds, yielding its Sarophorum palmicola anamorph in

culture. Hsieh, H.-M., Y.-M. Ju, et al. (2005). "Molecular phylogeny of Hypoxylon and closely related genera." Mycologia, 97(4): 844–865. Phylogenetic relationships were inferred among several

xylariaceous genera with Nodulisporium or nodulisporium-like anamorphs based on the analyses of b-tubulin and a-actin sequences. One hundred nine cultures and three specimens of 83 representatives of these four genera were included in the study. Biscogniauxia taxa formed a well supported clade that was basal to the other taxa, while taxa of Hypoxylon and Daldinia comprised a large monophyletic group that contained two subclades. The first subclade encompassed Hypoxylon sect. Annulata and is accepted here as the new genus Annulohypoxylon. The second subclade contained taxa of Hypoxylon sect. Hypoxylon and Daldinia. Hypoxylon is restricted to include only those taxa in sect. Hypoxylon. Thirtythree

epithets are made in Annulohypoxylon. Hypoxylon cohaerens var. microsporum is raised to the species level and accepted as A. minutellum. Hypoxylon polyporoideum is recognized as distinct from H. crocopeplum. Hypoxylon placentiforme is accepted as Daldinia placentiformis.

Hsieh, W. H., C. Y. Chen, et al. (1997). "Iodosphaeria polygoni sp. nov., a new pyrenomycete from Taiwan." Mycological Research 101(7): 841-842. A new ascomycete, Iodosphaeria polygoni sp. nov., is described and

illustrated from Taiwan. It is compared with the other known species of Iodosphaeria. A key to species is also given.

Hsieh, W. H., C. Y. Chen, et al. (1997). "Some new ascomycetes from Taiwan." Mycological Research 101(8): 897-907. Eight new species of ascomycete, Anthostomella longispora sp. nov.,

Capronia glabra sp. nov., Dictyonella circinata sp. nov., Guignardia castanopsis sp. nov., G. clematidis sp. nov., Hysterographium longisporum sp. nov., Ophiodothella arengae sp. nov. Saccardoella miscanthi sp. nov. from Taiwan are described, illustrated and compared with closely related taxa. Keys to Anthostomella species on Smilax and to the recognized species of Dictyonella are also provided. The two Guignardia species are also associated with Phyllosticta anamorphs.

Hsieh, W. H., C. Y. Chen, et al. (1997). "Three new ascomycetes from Taiwan." Mycological Research 101(9): 1092-1096. Dictyoporthe cinnamomi sp. nov., Pseudomassaria cyclobalanopsidis sp.

nov. and Splanchnonema verruculospora sp. nov. are described and illustrated from Taiwan and compared with closely related species. A key to species of Dictyoporthe is also provided.

HSIEH, W. H., C. Y. CHEN, et al. (1998). "Six new ascomycetes from Taiwan."

Mycol. Res. 102: 228-234. Linocarpon smilacis sp. nov., Nitschkia phaeospora sp. nov.,

Ophiodothella cyclobalanopsidis sp. nov., Physalospora palmicola sp. nov.,

Physalospora smilacis sp. nov. and Tubeufia miscanthi sp. nov. from Taiwan are described and illustrated by microphotographs. Each is compared with related taxa. HU, G. and F. H. J. RIJKENBERG (1998). "Scanning electron microscopy of early infection structure formation by Puccinia recondita f. sp. tritici on and in susceptible and resistant wheat lines." Mycol. Res. 102: 391-399. The morphology of infection structure development of Puccinia

recondita f. sp. tritici on and in susceptible and resistant wheat lines inoculated with urediospores was examined by SEM. The germ-tube extends over the leaf surface and elongates perpendicularly to the long axis of the leaf. When the germ-tube encounters the stomatal lip, an appressorium forms over the stoma and the pore is entered by an infection peg produced on the surface of the appressorium in contact with the host leaf. At 6 h post-inoculation (hpi), infection pegs develop terminally substomatal vesicles (SSVs) in the substomatal chambers of all wheat lines. A septum separates each SSV from its interconnective tube. A primary infection hypha forms terminally from the elongated SSV either parallel to the long axis of the stomatal slit or perpendicular to the leaf surface. When a primary infection hypha attaches to a host cell, a septum forms cutting off the tip of the hypha, delimiting a terminal haustorium mother cell (HMC) by 12 hpi. Secondary infection hyphae arise from a position proximal to, and in the proximity of, the HMC septum. Additional HMCs are formed when a secondary hypha or a tertiary hypha adheres to a plant cell. Infection sites with HMCs were observed at 24 hpi and at subsequent sampling stages. There were no significant differences between the infection processes on the three wheat lines examined in this study.

HUA, L. and M.-G. FENG (2005). "Broomcorn millet grain cultures of the entomophthoralean fungus Zoophthora radicans: sporulation capacity and infectivity to Plutella xylostella." Mycol. Res. 109: 319-325. The shelled grains of glutinous broomcorn millet, Panicum

miliaceum, were used as solid substrate to prepare granular cultures of Zoophthora radicans, an entomophthoralean biocontrol agent against numerous insect pests. Steamed millet grains were inoculated by mixing 15 g millet grains (D.W.) with mashed pieces of half a 60-mm-dish colony in 3 ml modified Sabouraud dextrose broth and incubated at 15 °C and L:D 12:12 for up to 24 d. 20 grains were sampled at 3 d intervals from day six onwards and individually assessed for their sporulation capacity using a self-designed device for spore collection. The millet cultures after ≥12 d incubation produced 12.0–14.9 x 104 spores grain-1 during a 7 d period.

The maximal sporulation capacity associated with the 21 d-old culture was about half of that of Z. radicans-killed Plutella xylostella larvae (28.7 x 104 spores cadaver-1), which individually were at least three times larger than the millet

grains. Based on the time–concentration–mortality responses of second-instar P. xylostella larvae to Z. radicans in three independent bioassays, the spores ejected from the cultured millet grains, from the mycelial mats from liquid culture, and from larval cadavers displayed insignificant variations in infectivity to the host species, and yielded similar LC50 and LT50 estimates. Conclusively, the millet-based technology for production of granular cultures of Z. radicans was easy, inexpensive and highly efficient, and it could be superior to previous methods used in mass production of myceliumbased preparations of Entomophthorales since this new approach requires no special additives, drying, freezing and milling. This technology may suit to mass production of culturable but nutritionally fastidious entomopathogens from

the Entomophthorales. HUANG, J., T.-F. HSIEH, et al. (2001). "Clonal and sexual propagation in Botrytis elliptica." Mycol. Res. 105: 833-842. Genetic variation was found between isolates of Botrytis

elliptica from the USA and Taiwan based on 22 polymorphic markers from five RAPD primers. Among these 69 isolates, there were 43 different genotypes. One clonal genotype was found spanning Oregon and Washington, USA, and in a population from Hsinshe, Taiwan, clonal genotypes were frequent, demonstrating the importance of asexual spread of this pathogen. However, when only unique genotypes were considered, gametic disequilibrium among putative RAPD loci of the genotypes from Taiwan (33) or Hsinshe (23) was not detected, suggesting an underlying sexual recombination

system for this population of B. elliptica. A weak level of cultivar specialization was detected among B. elliptica isolates from the Hsinshe population based on analysis of genetic distances between isolates.

HUBERLI, D., I. C. TOMMERUP, et al. (2001). "Phenotypic variation in a clonal lineage of two Phytophthora cinnamomi populations from Western Australia." Mycol. Res. 105: 1053-1064. Seventy-three isolates of Phytophthora cinnamomi were

collected from diseased Eucalyptus marginata (jarrah) and Corymbia calophylla (marri) trees in two forest communities in the southwest of Western Australia. Both populations of P. cinnamomi were examined for phenotypic and genotypic variation. Microsatellite DNA analysis showed that all isolates were of the same clonal lineage. We show, for the first time for P. cinnamomi, that morphological and pathogenic variation between populations of the clonal lineage are very broad and continuous. The phenotypes examined included growth rates and colony morphology

on potato dextrose agar at different temperatures, sporangial and gametangial morphology, ability to form lesions in detached jarrah and marri stems, and ability to cause deaths of clonal jarrah plants in a glasshouse trial. Phenotype variation was derived asexually. All phenotypes investigated varied independently from one another. Cluster analysis of 24 morphological and pathogenicity phenotypes identified two main clusters of isolates corresponding to each population. The ability to cause deaths in both populations ranged from killing all plants within 59 d to plants being symptomless 182 d after inoculation.

Huberli, D., I. C. Tommerup, et al. (1997). "The role of paragynous and amphigynous antheridia in sexual reproduction of Phytophthora cinnamomi." Mycological Research 101(11): 1383-1388. The morphology of gametangia was examined in 43 pairs of isolates

(mating types A1xA2; 11 A1 and 24 A2 isolates; five isozyme}electrophoretic types) of Phytophthora cinnamomi. An amphigynous antheridium always formed with each oogonium. However, in 41 of the crosses a proportion (39 had 0.2-10% and two had >30%) of oogonia also consistently had single or multiple paragynous antheridia. Single or multiple paragynous antheridia formed concurrently with amphigynous ones during the period of gametangial production in paired colonies. Where there were multiple paragynous antheridia associated with an oogonium, sometimes additional antheridia formed after fertilization or even after oospores were visible. Developmental studies showed that when meiosis in amphigynous and paragynous antheridia was simultaneous, fertilization tubes developed synchronously from both. However, cytological examination indicated that either a nucleus from an amphigynous or a paragynous antheridium fertilized the oosphere. Observations of paragynous and amphigynous, and amphigynous-only associations suggested that fertilization from either type of antheridium only occurred when meiosis in the oogonium was nearly synchronous with that of the antheridium. Asynchronous meiosis between oogonia and antheridia may contribute to failed fertilization and aborted oospore development. This appears to be the first description of paragynous antheridia in P. cinnamomi and the second observation of oogonia with both paragynous and amphigynous antheridia in a heterothallic Phytophthora species. Moreover, the development of both paragynous and amphigynous antheridia with an oogonium is rare in Phytophthora, as is the development of multiple antheridia. Antheridial variation is a characteristic to be taken into account in isolate identification. Nuclei from paragynous antheridia appear able to fertilize oospheres and therefore, have a role in sexual reproduction.

Hughes, C. F. and M. H. Perlin (2005). "Differential expression of mepA, mepC and smtE during growth and development of Microbotryum violaceum." Mycologia, 97(3): 605–611.

Many fungi require a dimorphic switch from budding to filamentous growth to cause infection. Although the control of dimorphism has been elucidated for organisms such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Ustilago maydis, almost nothing is known about the control of mating and dimorphism in Microbotryum

violaceum. M. violaceum mepA, mepC and smtE are homologs of genes whose encoded products act as, or interact with, components of the MAPK and cAMP-PKA pathways, conserved pathways that regulate mating and dimorphism in other fungi. A comparison of gene expression under various in vitro conditions was superimposed on a comparison of in vitro vs. in planta expression to yield a more complete picture of the expression of these genes in M. violaceum during fungal development. For the most part the expression of these genes was highest on low ammonium, intermediate for mated and in planta, and lowest on rich medium. As expected, under conditions of low ammonium, expression of the M. violaceum ammonium permease genes mepA and mepC mirrors that of S. cerevisiae MEP2 and U. maydis ump2. An intriguing possibility is that MepA is a sensor to signal when conditions are conducive for mating. The upregulation of smtE, which encodes a PAK kinase, suggests that the MAPK pathway regulates, at least partially, mating and might be linked to ammonium sensing/transport in M. violaceum.

HUGHES, K. W., R. H. PETERSEN, et al. (2001). "Infragenic phylogeny of Collybia s. str. based on sequences of ribosomal ITS and LSU regions." Mycol. Res. 105: 164-172. Collybia, as understood by Antonin & Noordeloos, comprises

four species : C. racemosa, C. tuberosa, C. cirrhata and C. cookei. Collybia tuberosa, C. cirrhata and C. cookei are morphologically similar and are primarily distinguished from each other by the presence or absence and the colour of sclerotia. All four share a common and unique habitat. Phylogenetic reconstructions using DNA sequences of the ribosomal ITS1--5.8S--ITS2 support four distinct clades, each corresponding to a morphological species, with the C. tuberosa, C. cirrhata and C. cookei clades forming a larger group. Analyses of ribosomal Large Subunit DNA sequences confirmed that Collybia tuberosa, C. cirrhata and C. cookei formed a monophyletic group. In both analyses, the C. racemosa sequence

Hughes, M., A. Weir, et al. (2004). "Stigmatomyces from New Zealand and New Caledonia: new records, new species and two new host families." Mycologia,

was highly divergent from those of the other three species of the complex and we propose a separate genus name, Dendrocollybia, for this species. Simple diagnostic RFLP patterns were identified for the four species and were used to validate morphological designations and distributions.

96(4): 834-844. Seven new records and three new species of Stigmatomyces

(S. australis, S. baeopteri and S. clasiopellae), a genus of Laboulbeniales associated only with Diptera, are described from New Zealand and New Caledonia. Two new host families for Laboulbeniales are recorded, and a dichotomous key to Stigmatomyces species in New Zealand and New Caledonia is presented.

Hughes, M., A. Weir, et al. (2004). "New species and records of Laboulbeniales from the subantarctic islands of New Zealand." Mycologia, 96(6): 1355-1369.

known from many host individuals and collections, while those on terrestrial species are known from few, and in some cases, a single collection or host. The sporadic occurrence of some species encountered increases the likelihood that a few species of Laboulbeniales on Coleoptera probably remain undiscovered in the region.

HUGHES, M. A., D. A. BARNETT, et al. (2000). "The Aspergillus nidulans hfa mutations affect genomic stability and cause diverse defects in cell cycle progression and cellular morphogenesis." Mycol. Res.

Until now Rhachomyces kenodactyli Balazuc & W. Rossi has been the only species of Laboulbeniales known to occur on Coleoptera in the Bounty, Antipodes, Auckland, Campbell and Snares Islands, which lie 488 to 358 S. Four new species (Diphymyces depressus, Diphymyces leschenii, Laboulbenia subantarctica and Laboulbenia loxomeri) and five new records for the subantarctic (Cucujomyces phycophilus, Diphymyces penicillifer, Laboulbenia sp. 1, Rhachomyces sp. 1 and Teratomyces sp. 1) are reported, increasing the known number of taxa tenfold. An expanded geographic range for Rhachomyces kenodactyli is reported. A relatively high percentage (12%) of known beetle species in the subantarctic serve as hosts for Laboulbeniales. This host utilization rate is higher than that in tropical and north temperate regions. The high proportion of intertidal coleopteran taxa in the subantarctic fauna probably accounts for the greater number of host species utilized. Fungi on intertidal beetles (Omaliinae [Staphylinidae], Oopterus [Carabidae] and Kenodactylus audouini [Carabidae]) are

104: 1439-1448. The hfa (high frequency of aneuploidy) mutants of Aspergillus

nidulans carry conditional lethal (temperature-sensitive) defects which cause an increased frequency of aneuploids to be produced amongst their asexual progeny. When examined microscopically, most of the mutants grew and divided their nuclei at restrictive temperature, albeit more slowly than the wild-type, and aneuploidy was not attributable to an obvious cell cycle lesion. Exceptions were hfaB3 and hfaL1 which exhibited defects in nuclear division, although neither mutant arrested at a speci®c point in the cell cycle. Cells carrying hfaB3 contained only a single enlarged nucleus which was often transected (` cut ') by the first septum and temperature-shift experiments showed that the mutation triggers aneuploidy by causing failure to properly exit mitosis. Although the hfaD1 mutant underwent nuclear division, it differed morphologically from wild-type by exhibiting a

hyper-branching phenotype. The original hfaD1 isolate was shown also to carry a second unlinked mutation (designated hurA1) which confers resistance to hydroxyurea and partly alleviates the growth defects imposed by hfaD1.

Hughes, S. J. (1974). "Capnobotrys dingleyae n. sp." MYCOTAXON 1(2): 121-122. Hughes, S. J. and J. L. Crane (2006). "A new name for Torula glutinosa in Heteroconium." Mycologia, 98(1): 141–143.

leaves and stems of Eriodictyon spp. from California is

conidiogenesis of chains of conidia of variable length

HUHNDORF, S. M., A. N. MILLER, et al. (2004). "Molecular systematics of the Coronophorales and new species of Bertia, Lasiobertia and Nitschkia." Mycol.

Torula glutinosa, a sooty mold on living

illustrated and described. It shares, with the type species of Heteroconium, H. citharexyli, acropetal

and acropetal transseptation. An unnamed synanamorph is recognized and described.

Res. 108: 1384-1398.

nrDNA (LSU). Based on molecular data, the Coronophorales is found to be monophyletic and its placement in the Hypocreomycetidae is maintained. The order is a coherent group with morphologies that include superficial, often turbinate, often collabent ascomata that may or may not contain a quellkorper and asci that are often

Huhndorf, S. M., A. N. Miller, et al. (2004). "Molecular systematics of the Sordariales: the order and the family Lasiosphaeriaceae redefined." Mycologia,

The Nitschkiaceae has been placed in the Coronophorales or the Sordariales in recent years. Most recently it was accepted in the Coronophorales and placed in the Hypocreomycetidae based on sequence data from large subunit nrDNA. To confirm and corroborate the taxonomic placement and monophyly of the Coronophorales, additional taxa representing the diversity of the group were targeted for phylogenetic analysis using partial sequences of the large subunit

stipitate and at times polysporous. Three species with accepted Nitschkia names, together with Fracchiaea broomeiana and Acanthonitschkea argentinensis, comprise the paraphyletic nitschkiaceous complex. Two new families, Chaetosphaerellaceae and Scortechiniaceae fams nov., are described for the clades containing Chaetosphaerella and Crassochaeta and the taxa having a quellkorper (Euacanthe, Neofracchiaea and Scortechinia) respectively. The Bertiaceae

is accepted for the clade containing Bertia species. Three new species are described: Bertia tropicalis, Lasiobertia portoricensis, and Nitschkia meniscoidea spp. nov.

96(2): 368-387.

Hung, L. T. (2006). Spore Formation Study of Insect Fungi in the Genus

The Sordariales is a taxonomically diverse group that has contained from seven to 14 families in recent years. The largest family is the Lasiosphaeriaceae,

which has contained between 33 and 53 genera, depending on the chosen classification. To determine the affinities and taxonomic placement of the Lasiosphaeriaceae and other families in the Sordariales, taxa representing every family in the Sordariales and most of the genera in the Lasiosphaeriaceae were targeted for phylogenetic analysis using partial sequences of the large-subunit (LSU) nrDNA. Based on molecular data, only genera within the families

Chaetomiaceae, Lasiosphaeriaceae and Sordariaceae are retained within the redefined Sordariales. The order is a coherent group with morphologies that vary along well-defined lines, including large ascomata with large-celled membraneous or coriaceous walls and ascospores that show variation on a distinctive developmental theme, often with appendages or sheaths. The paraphyletic chaetomiaceous complex and the strongly supported Sordariaceae are nested among taxa traditionally placed in the Lasiosphaeriaceae. Analyses also indicate that 11 genera belong in the paraphyletic lasiosphaeriaceous complex. These taxa share a similar developmental pattern in their ascospore morphology that extends to the Sordariales as a whole. Based on these similarities in morphology, 13 additional genera are retained within the lasiosphaeriaceous complex and more than 35 genera have relationships in the order overall. Based on LSU data, 17 genera that have been assigned to the Lasiosphaeriaceae sensu lato are transferred to other families outside the Sordariales and 22 additional genera with differing morphologies subsequently are transferred out of the order. Two new orders, Coniochaetales and Chaetosphaeriales, are recognized for the families Coniochaetaceae and

Chaetosphaeriaceae respectively. The Boliniaceae is accepted in the Boliniales, and the Nitschkiaceae is accepted in the Coronophorales. Annulatascaceae and Cephalothecaceae are placed in Sordariomycetidae inc. sed., and Batistiaceae is placed in the Euascomycetes inc. sed.

Cordyceps. Hunter, G. C., P. W. Crous, et al. (2006). "Pseudocercospora flavomarginata sp. nov., from Eucalyptus leaves in Thailand." Fungal Diversity 22: 71-90. Mycosphaerella represents one of the largest ascomycete genera

accommodating more than 3000 names. Approximately 60 Mycosphaerella species have been linked to leaf diseases on Eucalyptus species, collectively known as Mycosphaerella Leaf Disease (MLD). Many hyphomycete and coelomycete anamorph genera are linked to Mycosphaerella and several species of the hyphomycete genus Pseudocercospora are associated with MLD symptoms on various

Eucalyptus species. Eucalyptus trees in Vietnam and Thailand, particularly those of E. camaldulensis and hybrids of this species, commonly have a leaf spot disease caused by a species of Pseudocercospora. Lesions associated with this disease are very characteristic, with chlorotic margins and masses of brown conidiophores occurring predominantly on the abaxial lesion surface. The aim of this study was to characterise the Pseudocercospora species associated with this disease. This was achieved through studying the morphology of the fungus and via DNA sequence analysis from four nuclear gene regions. Results showed that the fungus represents an undescribed species of Pseudocercospora, that is formally described here as Pseudocercospora flavomarginata.

HUNTER, G. C., J. ROUX, et al. (2004). "Mycosphaerella species causing leaf disease in South African Eucalyptus plantations." Mycol. Res. 108: 672-681. Commercial Eucalyptus plantations provide an important

source of hardwood for forestry industries, worldwide. Several species of Mycosphaerella are associated with a destructive Eucalyptus leaf disease known as Mycosphaerella Leaf Blotch (MLB). During 2000, a survey was undertaken in several commercial Eucalyptus growing areas of South Africa to determine the identity of the Mycosphaerella spp. contributing to outbreaks of MLB. Symptomatic leaf samples were collected from three major Eucalyptus growing areas and the Mycosphaerella spp. were isolated. Isolates were identified using morphology, ascospore germination patterns and sequence data from the ribosomal DNA operon. Six species,

HURTADO, S. and M. RAMSTEDT (2002). "AFLP comparison of distant Melampsora epitea (willow rust) populations." Mycol. Res.

namely M. ellipsoidea, M. irregulariramosa, M. juvenis, M. lateralis, M. marksii, M. nubilosa, as well as a new species, described here as M. fori sp. nov., were recognized. Mycosphaerella nubilosa was the most common species isolated from commercial plantations, particularly on E. nitens, and appears to be the dominant species contributing to MLB. Data obtained in this study show that MLB is caused by a complex of species contributing to disease outbreaks in South Africa.

106: 1400-1407. To compare genetic variation among four geographically distant

populations of the fungus species Melampsora epitea causing willow rust, a two-primer combination was used for ALFP fingerprinting of 24 isolates from Sweden, along with 10 from France, 24 from Northern Ireland, and 35 from Chile. The banding patterns of all 93 isolates were easily distinguished and revealed polymorphism among individuals within and between the four M. epitea populations. No clustering on the dendrogram could be attributed to country of origin, or almost equivalently, country of origin correlated poorly with genetic distance, suggesting that the geographically distant populations developed collectively as a metapopulation, instead of separately.

Hussein, M. Y. and A. G. Ibrahim (1986). Biological Control in The tropics. Malaysia, Penerbit University Pertanian Malasia. HUTCHISON, K. A., J. R. GREEN, et al. (2002). "Identification and localisation of glycoproteins in the extracellular matrices around germ-tubes and appressoria of Colletotrichum species." Mycol. Res. 106: 729-736.

antibody recognises a high Mr glycoprotein (>200000) that may be linked to melanin. The glycoprotein recognised by UB31 was not removed from substrata by ultrasonication, suggesting it may contribute to germling adhesion.

Hutchison, L. J. and G. L. Barron (1997). "Parasitism of pollen as a nutritional source for lignicolous Basidiomycota and other fungi." Mycological Research

A monoclonal antibody (MAb), UB31, is described that binds to the extracellular matrix (ECM) surrounding germtubes and appressoria, but not conidia, of the bean anthracnose fungus, Colletotrichum lindemuthianum. Comparative localisation studies with MAb UB26, which has the same cell type specificity, suggest that the ECM is heterogeneous in composition. Immunofluorescence showed that UB31 labelled appressoria more intensely than germ-tubes, whereas UB26 labelled these structures to a similar extent. Immunofluorescence and TEM-immunogold labelling showed that UB31 antigens were located close to the appressorial wall, while UB26 antigens extended further away from the wall. MAb UB31 bound to the ECMs of all six Colletotrichum species tested. Western blotting and ELISA indicated that the

101(2): 191-194. On water agar, hyphae of many fungi are attracted to viable pollen grains

of Pinus nigra. Hyphae of 41 of 157 species tested could penetrate the pollen grains, ramify within the interior and consume the contents. It is proposed that pollen serves as a supplementary seasonal source of nutrients, particularly nitrogen, for litter- and wood-decaying members of the Basidiomycota.

Hyde, K. D. (1997). "The genus Roussoella, including two new species from palms in Cuyabeno, Ecuador." Mycological Research 101(5): 609-616.

HYDE, K. D. (2001). "Where are the missing fungi? Does Hong Kong have any answers?." Mycol. Res.

Four ascomycete species with brown 1-septate ascospores with wall ornamentation were identified from palms in Ecuador and Brunei. Asci were long cylindrical, relatively thick-walled, bitunicate with non-fissitunicate dehiscence, and the hamathecium was composed of trabeculae. These fungi are referred to Roussoella, and are described and illustrated in this paper, including two new species. A key to accepted species of Roussoella is provided.

105: 1514-1518.

There are approximately 70000 species of described fungi, representing about 5% of the estimated 1.5 M species world-wide. Proportionally there are numerous undescribed species and most habitats and hosts should provide a bounty of novel fungi that can be exploited in a wide variety of ways. Where, however, are these missing fungi ? Data indicates that they may occur in poorly studied countries, hosts, habitats, niches or tissues, and are mostly microfungi. Host specificity and/or tissue recurrence are important considerations in biodiversity estimates. We are a long way from establishing where we can find the missing 1.43 M fungi, but

evidence presented here resulting from data from Hong Kong indicates many places where we could look.

Hyde, K. D. (2006). Agricultural Technology an international journal of agriculture. Agricultural Technology an international journal of agriculture, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang. 2: 344. HYDE, K. D. and T.-K. GOH (1999). "Fungi on submerged wood from the River Coln, England." Mycol. Res. 103: 1561-1574.

HYDE, K. D. and T. K. GOH (1998). "Fungi on submerged wood in Lake Barrine, north Queensland, Australia." Mycol. Res.

Nine ascomycetes, 1 basidiomycete and 15 mitosporic fungi are reported from submerged wood, collected from a single English river site. Ascotaiwania pallida, Neta angliae and Trichocladium englandense spp. nov. and Frigidispora colnensis gen. & sp. nov. are described and illustrated. Most of the species present on the submerged wood appear to have been identified, for the single date and location sampled, because the asymptote of the accumulative curve was reached between 80--100 substrata. The results of this study are compared with those from collections, using similar collection techniques in tropical regions. Results suggest that temperate streams appear to have a lower fungal diversity than in the tropics. Only Acrogenospora sphaerocephala was common to tropical

(Seychelles) and temperate (U.K., River Coln) sites.

102: 739-749.

HYDE, K. D., T. K. GOH, et al. (1999). "Byssosphaeria, Chaetosphaeria, Niesslia

Results of an investigation into the fungi associated with submerged wood in Lake Barrine, north Queensland, Australia are reported. Thirty-nine fungi were identified, 15 ascomycetes, 23 deuteromycetes and one basidiomycete. The frequency of occurrence and the effect of the incubation period on the recovery of fungi has also been investigated and is presented. The new species Massarina lunispora and Dactylaria lakebarrinensis, and some other notable species, are described and illustrated.

and Ornatispora gen. nov., from palms." Mycol. Res. 103: 1423-1439.

HYDE, K. D., W. H. HO, et al. (2000). "Torrentispora fibrosa gen. sp. nov. (Annulatascaceae) from freshwater habitats." Mycol. Res.

Byssosphaeria, Chaetosphaeria and Niesslia are discussed and illustrated in relation to their occurrence on palms. New collections of B. schiedermayeriana are reported including Chaetosphaeria exima, which is a new synonym. Chaetosphaeria arecacensis, C. hongkongensis and C. palmicola spp. nov. are described and new collections of C. callimorpha are reported. Cryptophiale is reported as a new anamorph connection for Chaetosphaeria. Niesslia palmicola sp. nov. is described and new collections of N. exosporioides are recorded. Ornatispora gen. nov. is introduced to accommodate several Chaetosphaeria-like species from palms. In Ornatispora, ascomata are superficial, black, papillate, smooth-walled or covered in setae and paraphyses are filiform, non-septate and deliquesce in dried material. Asci are 8-spored, clavate, and lack an apical apparatus and deliquesce at maturity, while ascospores are ellipsoidal, 1-septate, hyaline, verrucose and surrounded by a mucilaginous sheath. One species is closely associated with Didymostilbe

aurantiospora, which is considered to be the anamorph. Three new species of Ornatispora, and one new combination are described and illustrated. Ornatispora is compared with Bertia, Chaetosphaeria, Peethambara and Niesslia.

104: 1399-1403.

HYDE, K. D., T. K.GOH, et al. (1999). "Eleven new intertidal fungi from Nypa fruticans." Mycol. Res.

Torrentispora fibrosa gen. sp. nov. (Ascomycota, Annulatascaceae) is described based on specimens from submerged wood collected from streams in Tai Po Kau Forest Reserve, Hong Kong. T. fibrosa is characterized by immersed to superficial ascomata with a peridium of black cells arranged in irregular rows, wide septate paraphyses, long cylindrical asci with a relatively massive refractive apical ring, and unicellular ascospores with a fibrillar sheath. Illustrations from light and scanning electron microscopy are provided. It is compared with species in the genus Annulatascus, from which it differs in ascoma peridium and ascospore sheath morphology, and with other aquatic ascomycetes possessing ascospores with a similar fibrillar sheath structure.

103: 1409-1422.

Eleven new intertidal fungi Aniptodera intermedia, Anthostomella nypae, Anthostomella nypensis, Anthostomella nypicola, Helicorhoidion nypicola, Herpotrichia nypicola, Leptosphaeria nypicola, Lignincola nypae, Phomatospora nypicola, Trichocladium nypae, and Vibrissea nypicola spp. nov., are described from Nypa fruticans. These new species are compared with existing species in the genera and illustrated with interference light micrographs.

HYDE, K. D. and S.-W. WONG (1999). "Ultrastructural studies on the Myelospermaceae fam. nov., with a new species of Myelosperma." Mycol. Res. 103: 347-352.

HYDE, K. D., S.-W. WONG, et al. (1999). "Cataractispora gen. nov. with three new freshwater lignicolous species." Mycol. Res.

Ultrastructural and morphological studies have been carried out on M. tumidum, the type species of Myelosperma. Asci are provided with a distinctive refractive subapical ring, which differs from that found in other unitunicate families. The ascospores are reniform in all species and surrounded by mucilaginous sheaths of various shapes. Numerous ascomata also develop in a circle around a common central pore. At the ultrastructural level the ascus apex comprises an electron-transparent thickening incorporating a subapical electron-dense hemispherical ring-like structure and the ascus wall is continuous over the apex. This type of ring is compared with those found in representative species in other related families. Based on these observations, a new family, the Myelospermaceae, is

introduced, to accommodate Myelosperma. The rationale behind this is discussed, and M. alata is described to accommodate a remarkable new species from the Seychelles. Arguments for the possible inclusion of Manokwaria, Palmicola and Pemphidium in the Myelospermaceae are given.

103: 1019-1031.

-- Cataractispora based on their unique appendage ontogeny. Annulatascus bipolaris is also assigned to Cataractispora on the basis of its ascospore appendage ontogeny.

HYDE, K. D., S.-W. WONG, et al. (1999). "Ultrastructure of the dimorphic ascospores in Mamillisphaeria dimorphospora." Mycol. Res.

A new genus of freshwater ascomycetes, Cataractisopora, with three new species : C. aquatica, C. appendiculata and C. viscosa, are described. These fungi occur on decaying wood and possess similar characteristics including coriaceous globose ascomata, wide septate paraphyses, cylindrical asci with a relatively massive refractive apical ring and ascospores with polar chambers and filamentous appendages. Appendage material accumulates within the polar chambers and, on release from the ascus, the ascospore appendage unfurls to form long threads. The appendage material is fibrillar at the ultrastructural level, and is derived from episporial projections at the ascospore tip. Although these three fungi are similar to species of Annulatascus, they are assigned to a new genus

103: 1284-1288. The ultrastructure of the dimorphic ascospores of

Mamillisphaeria dimorphospora are illustrated. The small brown ascospores differ from the larger hyaline ascospores in having a thick melanin layer in the ascospore wall. They are also 2--3 times smaller and do not germinate on PDA. The signi®cance of these observations with

respect to dispersal of aquatic fungi is discussed. The large hyaline ascospores may be morphologically adapted to dispersal in streams, while the smaller brown ascospores are thought to be adapted to aerial dispersal. The reasons for this are discussed. The method by which two spore types can be produced in separate asci in one ascoma is hypothesised.

Hyde, K. D., Yanna, et al. (2002). "Goidanichiella fusifoerma sp. nov. palm fronds in Brunei and Thailand." Fungal Diversity 11: 119-122.

Hyun, J. W. and C. A. Clark (1998). "Analysis of Fusarium lateritium using RAPD and rDNA RFLP techniques." Mycological Research

Goidanichiella fusifoerma sp. nov. was identified from collections of decaying palm fronds in tropical rainforests in Brunei and Thailand. The new taxon is described and illustrated, and compared with similar taxa.

102(10): 1259-1264.

Hywel-Jones, N. L. (1994). "Cordyceps khaoyaiensis and C. pseudomilitaris, two new pathogens of lepidopteran larvae from Thailand." Mycological Research

Chlorotic leaf distortion (CLD) is an unusual disorder of sweet potato caused by a morphologically unique strain of Fusarium lateritium. This study compared 15 isolates of F. lateritium from sweet potato with nine isolates from other hosts for genetic diversity by RAPD analysis and RFLP analysis of the intergenic spacer region and the ITS region of the rDNA. In RAPD analysis, 12 of the sweet potato isolates clustered very closely, nine with similarity of >0.99, and three additional isolates at a similarity of >0.86. This group comprised two pathotypes and included isolates from U.S.A., South America, Asia and Africa. The remaining isolates, comprising three from sweet potato and all isolates from other hosts, showed little similarity with the cluster of sweet potato isolates. RFLP analysis produced similar results, with the 12 isolates that were clustered in RAPD analysis and one additional sweet potato isolate clustered at >0.80 similarity. These data suggest that the sweet potato CLD pathogen is relatively homogeneous and genetically distinct from other strains of F. lateritium. There was relatively little similarity among isolates of F. lateritium from other hosts.

98(8): 939-942.

Hywel-Jones, N. L. (1995). "Cordyceps brunneapunctata sp. nov. infecting beetle larvae in Thailand." Mycological Research

Cordyceps khaoyaiensis and C. pseudomilitaris resember C. vinosa and C. militaris respectively in general from, differ significantly in producing ascospores which did not fragment while in the ascus or on release. While C. khaoyaiensis appears to be rare, C. pseudomilitaris is able to affect large numbers of a larval population. Both grew easily in culture, producing anamorph best assigned to Hirsutella.

99(10): 1195-1198. Cordyceps brunneapunctata is described from elaterid beetle larvae

buried in forest soils in Thailand where it is found associated with a Hirsutella state. Isolations were made from ascus part-spores, conidia and from hyphal material within the host and all grew in an identical manner.

Hywel-Jones, N. L. (1995). "Notes on Cordyceps nutans and its anamorph, a pathogen of hemipteran bugs in Thailand." Mycological research 99(6): 724-726. Cordyceps nutans is described from collections made in Thailand and the

first report of Hymenostilbe nutans is given for Thailand. The Hymenostilbe state is redescribed from fresh material and its association with the teleomorph is discussed. The fungus was successfullycultured from the anamorph but did not survive in vitro for long

Hywel-Jones, N. L. (1995). "Hymenostilbe ventricosa sp. nov. a pathogen of cockroaches in Thailand." Mycological research 99(10): 1201-1204. Hymenostilbe ventricosa was a rarely encountered pathogen of cockroach

nymphs attached to the underside of leaves of forest plants in Thailand. Conidia germinated on potato dextrose agar to produce microconidia but there was no further development.

Hywel-Jones, N. L. (1995). "Torrubiella iriomoteana from scale insects in Thailand and a new relate species Torrubiella siamensis with notes on their respective anamorphs." Mycological Research 99(3): 330-332.

Hywel-Jones, N. L. (1995). "Cordyceps sphecocephala and a Hymenostilbe sp. infecting wasps and bees in Thailand." Mycological research

Torrubiella iriomoteana is recorded for the first time since the type collection and is connected with and anamorph best assigned to Hirsutella. A second species,Torrubiella siamensis, and its Hirsutella anamorph, is described as new. These species are compared with other Torrubiella from scale insects.

99(2): 154-158.

Hywel-Jones, N. L. (1996). "Cordyceps myrmecophila-like fungi infecting ants in the leaf litter of tropical forest in Thailand." Mycological Research

Cordyceps sphecocephala and a Hymenostilbe sp. were recorded from Hymenoptera (wasps and bees) in natural forest in Thailand. These were isolated from hyphal bodies, ascus part-spores and from conidia. The possible relationship between the two fungi is discussed. These records are compared with other collections from around the world.

100(5): 613-619. Two Cordyceps spp. were found infecting ants in leaf litter of tropical

forest in Thailand. One species compared with the poorly understood taxon Cordyceps myrmecophila. The second species is assigned to Cordyceps irangiensis which was previously known only from the type locality in Central Africa. A specimen of Hymenostilbe, not assignable to any recognized species, is described and named. The isolation of these three species in culture is noted.

Hywel-Jones, N. L. (1996). "Akanthomyces on spiders in Thailand." Mycological research 100(9): 1065-1070.

Hywel-Jones, N. L. (1997). "Torrubiella petchii, a new species of scale insect pathogen from Thailand." Mycological Research

Three poorly recorded species of Akanthomyces, A. arachnophilus, A. aranearum and A. novoguineensis, currently recognized from spiders were all found in various forest types in Thailand. Three other species, A. koratensis, A. cinereus and A. websteri, are described as new. No evidence was found to link any of these six anamorphic species with teleomorphs. A key to the known species of Akanthomyces on spiders is provided.

101: 143-145.

Hywel-Jones, N. L. (1997). "Hirsutella species associated with hoppers (Homoptera) in Thailand." Mycological research

Torrubiella petchii is described from scale insects that infest bamboo leaves in tropical forest. It is compared with four other species of Torrubiella described from Thailand and with other species known to infect scale insects. T. petchii was successfully isolated from whole ascospores. No anamorph was found in the material collected from the field. One isolate produced a Hirsutella anamorph. This is compared with Hirsutella-like anamorphs, collected from the field, of two other scale-insect Torrubiella spp.

101(10): 1202-1206.

Hywel-Jones, N. L. (2002). "The Importance of Invertebrate-pathogenic Fungi from the Tropics." Tropical Mycology

Hirsutella versicolor, H. citriformis and H. nivea sp. nov. are described from Homoptera in Thailand. H. versicolor was usually associated with the ascomycete Torrubiella pruinosa and was isolated from ascospores. H. citriformis could not be linked with a teleomorph but was successfully isolated from conidia. H. nivea was not associated with a teleomorph and could not be isolated in pure culture.

2: 133-143. Introduction :Fungal pathogens of invertebrates (mostly Insecta and

Araneae are considered here)1 have assumed increasing importance as potential biological control agents and as a source of novel secondary metabolites for industry in the last 20 years (Nisbet and Porter, 1989; Nisbet and Fox, 1991; Rossman, 1996). Despite this. little is known about the basic biology of these fungi. Samson et al. (1988) provided an overall picture of 'entomopathogenic fungi', with chapters on topics such as taxonomy, pathogenesis, ecology and biology, biotechnology and biological control. Consequently, these authors provided the most modern synthesis of the broad subject, and yet this work pre-dated the revolution provided by the development of molecular phylogenetic analysis as a tool for clarifying evolutionary relationships. Importantly, in the last 10 years the significance of fungi in assessments of global biodiversity has also

increased, largely due to Hawksworth (1991), who produced estimates of fungal diversity based on an analysis of a wide range of literature. At that date c. 68,000 species of fungi were considered to have been described for the world. Compared with plants and animals, where it is acknowledged that more than 85% of species diversity have been named, the fungi come poorly down the list with < 5% having been reliably named. The Hawksworth estimate of 1.5 million has often been considered conservative although it has been challenged and reduced to one-third of that figure

Hywel-Jones, N. L. (2004). "The relationship between the entomopathogenic fungal genera Cordyceps and Beauveria." Laimburg Journal 1(2): 299-304.

Hywel-Jones, N. L. and T. Boonpratuang (2001). An Updated Preliminary

The genus Beauveria has long been considered a potential biocontrol agent. Links with the genus Cordyceps have long been suspected but it was only recently that this was confirmed by cultural studies. In Japan and China Beauveria brongniartii has been shown linked with Cordyceps brongniartii. Now, Cordyceps brongniartii has been reported from natural forests in Thailand and is known to produce Beauveria brongniartii in culture. However, Beauveria brongniartii has not been recorded either from natural or agricultural ecosystems in Thailand to date.

Checklist of Fungi Record from Thailand, BIOTEC Yothi-Mycology Laboratory, NSTDA Building, 73/1 Rama 6 Road, Rajdheevi, Bangkok 10400, Thailand. Hywel-Jones, N. L., H. C. Evans, et al. (1997). "A re-evaluation of the leafhopper pathogen Torrubiella hemipterigena, its anamorph Verticillium hemipterigenum and V. pseudohemipterigenum sp. nov." Mycological Research 101(10): 1242-1246.

Hywel-Jones, N. L., R. D. Goos, et al. (1998). "Hirsutella petchabunensis sp. nov. from Thailand, with a Helicoma synanamorph." Mycological research

Torrubiella hemipterigena and its anamorph, Verticillium hemipterigenum, are re-described from collections made on leafhoppers in Thailand. A new species, Verticillium pseudohemipterigenum, collected on scalHirsutella e insects on bamboo in Trinidad and Surinam, is proposed. Based on these collections, the taxonomic status of the genera Verticillium and Hirsutella is discussed.

102(5): 577-581.

Hywel-Jones, N. L. and G. J. Samuels (1998). "Three species of Hypocrella with large stromata pathogenic on scale insects." Mycologia

Hirsutella petchabunensis is described from a single specimen collected on a Lepidoptera larva in tropical forest in Thailand. This is linked, both in the field and through cultural studies, with a distinctive helicosporous synanamorph that is assigned to Helicoma.

90(1): 36-46.

Three species of Hypocrella characterized by large stromata and living on scale insects are described or redescribed. Two rarely reported species, H. gaertneriana and H. schizostachyi, are associated with bamboo scale insects and are re described from South America and Thailand, respectively. The new species H. africana is described from scale insects on wood in Mrica. A hyphomycetous anamorph with enteroblastic conidiogenous cells and two different conidial morphologies developed in cultures derived from Thai material of H. schizostachyi. These records and observations are put in the context of currently accepted Hypocrella taxonomy.

Hywel-Jones, N. L. and S. Sivichai (1995). "Cordyceps cylindrica and its association with Nomuraea atypicola in Thailand." Mycological Research 99(7): 809-812.

IBRAHIM, L., T. M. BUTT, et al. (1999). "The germination of oil-formulated conidia of the insect pathogen, Metarhizium anisopliae." Mycol. Res.

Nomuraea atypicola and Cordyceps cylindrica infecting spiders are reported from Thailand for the first time. Cultural studies with strains from both species confirm a previously suspected telemorph-anamorph link between the two species.

103: 901-907. Conidia of Metarhizium anisopliae need water activity (Aw)>0.98

for germination irrespective of whether they are formulated in an aqueous or oil carrier. The presence of nutrients in the carriers or culture medium accelerated germination but did not increase the range of Aw (or humidities) over which conidia could germinate. Insect extract stimulated more conidia to germinate than yeast extract. Oils appeared to extract fungistatic and stimulatory compounds from the insect cuticle. The ratio of these compounds depends on both the insect species and the carrier. Conidia of M. anisopliae formulated in oils were observed with SEM to flow over the surface of insect and plant cuticles. The conidia were probably deposited at sites which are conducive for germination and infection and consequently increased the overall mortality of insects. In contrast, aqueous formulations of conidia remain as drops on the leaf surface immediately after application with a pipetteman or sprayer.

IBRAHIM, L., T. M. BUTT, et al. (2002). "Effect of artificial culture media on germination, growth, virulence and surface properties of the entomopathogenic hyphomycete Metarhizium anisopliae." Mycol. Res. 106: 705-715.

conidia of three isolates in vitro and lowered germination and appressorial development on the cuticles of Myzus

Culture media in¯uenced the germination of conidia, appressorial development and mycelial growth of Metarhizium

anisopliae. Although the addition of KCl to Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDAM) signi®cantly reduced germination of the

persicae and Meligethes aeneus, conidia grown on SDAM and minimal medium (MM) were more aggressive than

conidia derived from SDA or yeast extract agar. No relationship was found between either germination or appressorial

development and LT&! values, suggesting that virulence depends on the speed of infection. Calco¯uor staining and

lectin binding showed that culture conditions also in¯uenced the adhesion of Metarhizium anisopliae to insect cuticles

¯uoresced 20-fold brighter and adhered more readily to insect cuticle compared with conidia derived from MM.

IHLEN, P. G. (2004). "Taxonomy of the non-yellow species of Rhizocarpon (Rhizocarpaceae, lichenized Ascomycota) in the Nordic countries, with hyaline and muriform ascospores." Mycol. Res.

through alteration of surface carbohydrates such as 1-4-b-glucans. Dark, pigmented conidia from MM bound less

lectins and calco¯uor whereas the paler conidia from the other media ¯uoresced more intensely. Conidia from SDAM

Although inocula from both media showed elevated pathogenic activity against aphid and pollen beetle, MM-grown

conidia were more aggressive since high mortality was induced by comparatively fewer conidia. When ¯uorescent

intensity of calco¯uor-stained conidia was compared to the number of conidia adhering to the insect cuticles, the

relationship was signi®cant, indicating that this dye has practical implications for the assessment of fungal strains in

screening programmes for commercial development.

108: 533-570.

IHRMARK, K., E. STENSTROM, et al. (2004). "Double-stranded RNA transmission through basidiospores of Heterobasidion annosum." Mycol. Res.

The taxonomy of the non-yellow species of the genus Rhizocarpon (Rhizocarpaceae, lichenized Ascomycota) occurring in the Nordic countries, with hyaline and muriform ascospores, has been revised. Rhizocarpon amphibium, R. anaperum, R. distinctum, R. furfurosum, R. lavatum, R. petraeum, R. postumum, R. reductum, R. roridulum, R. rubescens, R. subgeminatum, R. sublavatum (reported from the study area for the first time), R. subpostumum, R. suomiense, R. timdalii, and R. umbilicatum are recognized. Their morphology, anatomy, secondary chemistry, ecology, and distribution in the Nordic countries are investigated and discussed. Distribution maps and a key to the species are provided. The most important characters for separating the treated species are pruinose/epruinose thallus, number of ascospores in asci, ascospore size and number of cells per ascospore in optical view, insoluble lichen pigments of the epihymenium and the proper excipulum, and lichen substances. Seven names are lectotypified and two are neotypified.

108: 149-153.

different transmission routes for dsRNA in H. annosum is discussed. III, H. C. W., S. H. HULBERT, et al. (1999). "Molecular evidence for the presence of Ophiosphaerella narmari n. comb., a cause of spring dead spot of Bermuda grass, in North America." Mycol. Res.

A search for double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) was conducted among 106 isolates of the pathogenic basidiomycete Heterobasidion annosum. Of these isolates, 47 were tissue isolates from fruit bodies and 59 were isolated from decayed wood. Nucleic acids were extracted from freeze-dried mycelia and dsRNA was separated by cellulose CF-11 chromatography and confirmed by digestions with specific nucleases. dsRNA was present in 19 and 14% of the tissue and wood isolates, respectively. From five of the fruit bodies containing dsRNA basidiospores were investigated and 10–84% of the germinated basidiospores contained dsRNA. On high nutrient media, the germination frequency of basidiospores was reduced by presence of dsRNA in the fruit body (P<0.05); germination frequencies were 34 and 78% for spores from fruit bodies with and without dsRNA, respectively. The same trend was present also on low nutrient media, although not statistically significant; germination was 3 and 10% for spores from infected and dsRNA free fruit bodies, respectively. Transmission of dsRNA in H. annosum from mycelia into basidiospores together with the lowered germination frequency are likely to play a significant role in the life cycle of the fungus. The relative importance of

103: 981-989. The phylogenetic relationships among fungi that cause spring

dead spot disease of Bermuda grass in Australia and the United States were studied from nucleotide sequence data of the ITS region of the rDNA. High levels of sequence similarity were observed among Ophiosphaerella herpotricha, O. korrae and Leptosphaeria narmari. These species clustered into a distinct clade that was distant from other Leptosphaeria and Phaeosphaeria species. Based on sequence data and previous descriptions of the ascoma and ascospore characteristics of these species, we propose a taxonomic transfer of L. narmari to O. narmari. Oligonucleotide primers specific for O. narmari were developed from ITS1 and ITS2 regions to help identify non-sporulating isolates. These primers amplified all isolates of O. narmari, including those from the United States, but not those of O. herpotricha, O. korrae or other ectotrophic root-inhabiting fungi. This is the first report of O. narmari in North America. Two Group I introns were found in the small subunit rDNA of some isolates of O. korrae and O. narmari, but not O. herpotricha. A 425-nucleotide intron in O. narmari and O. korrae was inserted two nucleotides downstream from the ITS5 conserved primer sequence. These introns exhibited an 80% sequence identity. In addition, a second 431-nucleotide intron in O. narmari was similar in size and location to one in O. korrae.

III, W. C. and A. W. CLARIDGE (2002). "Mycorrhizal effectiveness of Rhizopogon spores recovered from faecal pellets of small forest-dwelling mammals." Mycol. Res. 106: 314-320.

IKEDA, K.-i., H. NAKAMURA, et al. (2004). "Diversity and vertical transmission of double-stranded RNA elements in root rot pathogens of trees, Helicobasidium mompa and Rosellinia necatrix." Mycol. Res.

Mature basidiomes of the hypogeous ectomycorrhizal fungi Rhizopogon vinicolor and R. truncatus were fed to three species of mycophagous mammals in captivity. Spores which passed through the digestive tract of the mammals were isolated from faecal pellets. The metabolic activity and mycorrhizal effectiveness of these spores was assessed. Flouricene-diacetate (a vital stain) was used to assess spore metabolic activity. Mycorrhizal effectiveness was determined by inoculating Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) seedlings with spore slurries. The same assays were performed on spores isolated from uneaten basidiomes. Spores from R. vinicolor were viable after passage through the gut of each mammal species but the digestive process did not substantially enhance or detract from the ability of spores to form ectomycorrhizas relative to spores from uneaten basidiomes. Spores recovered from faeces of Californian red-backed vole (Clethrionomys californicus) and Townsend's chipmunk (Tamias townsendii) had significantly higher metabolic activity than spores from uneaten basidiomes and those recovered from northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus) faeces. Spores from eaten and uneaten basidiomes of R. truncatus failed to show any signs of metabolic activity and largely failed to form ectomycorrhizas on seedlings. The reasons for this are unclear but we suggest that germination of spores from this fungus may depend upon other factors. Our findings add to the growing body of literature demonstrating that spores of at least some species of

hypogeous fungi remain viable after passage through the digestive tract of mycophagous animals.

108: 626-634. The diversity and vertical transmission of double-stranded (ds)

RNA in Helicobasidium mompa and Rosellinia necatrix was examined by electrophoresis and Northern hybridization. These two fungi share the similar niche as root rot pathogens of trees in forests and orchards, and had diverse dsRNAs. The detection frequency of dsRNA in both fungi was different; in H. mompa, 68.4% (132 out of 193 MCGs; mycelial compatibility groups) had dsRNA, whereas 20.9% (53 out of 254 MCGs) in R. necatrix. dsRNA banding patterns and Northern blot analyses revealed the presence of various dsRNA elements in both fungi. Hyphal tip isolation was mostly unsuccessful to remove dsRNA with some exceptions. Sexual reproduction functioned to remove dsRNA in both fungi since dsRNA was not detected from single sexual spore cultures. Possible explanations for the difference in the detection frequency of dsRNA are discussed in terms

of the differences in their sexual reproduction and other factors. IKEDA, K.-i., H. NAKAMURA, et al. (2003). "Mycelial incompatibility operative in pairings between single basidiospore isolates of Helicobasidium mompa." Mycol. Res. 107: 847-853.

INACIO, C. A. and P. F. CANNON (2003). "Viegasella and Mintera, two new genera of Parmulariaceae (Ascomycota), with notes on the species referred to Schneepia." Mycol. Res.

Helicobasidium mompa is a clampless basidiomycete and binucleate both in secondary and primary hyphae. Single basidiospore isolates were paired in sibling and non-sibling combinations. We did not observe any alterations in colony morphology, such as tuft formation, but mycelial incompatibility, as indicated by the presence of a dark demarcation line between colonies, occurred in a unifactorial manner. Techniques using DNA molecular markers, such as internal transcribed spacer-restriction fragment-length polymorphism (ITS-RFLP), inter–simple-sequence-repeat polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and universally primed PCR, failed to identify nuclear migration to opposite single basidiospore isolates in all but one of the 92 pairings. These results imply that single basidiospore isolates of H. mompa may be incompetent to mate under laboratory conditions and that a single mycelial incompatibility factor operates in single basidiospore isolates.

107: 82-92.

INACIO, C. A. and J. C. DIANESE (1998). "Some foliicolous fungi on Tabebuia species." Mycol. Res.

Two species previously accommodated in the genus Schneepia, S. pulchella and S. reticulata, are shown to belong to distinct new genera, described here as Viegasella and Mintera respectively. The new taxa are compared with Parmularia (of which Schneepia is confirmed as a synonym) and Symphaeophyma. Features of internal and external stromata, haustoria and stromata are emphasized as important characters for generic delimitation in the Parmulariaceae. The disposition of the remaining species assigned to Schneepia is discussed.

102: 695-708. The following foliicolous fungi on Tabebuia species are

described and illustrated : Anhelia tabebuiae sp. nov. and Dictyonella tabebuiae sp. nov. (ascomycetes), Fumagospora tabebuiae sp. nov., Polychaeton tabebuiae sp. nov. and Septoria tabebuiae-impetiginosae sp. nov. (coelomycetes), Cercospora tabebuiae-impetiginosae sp. nov. and Pseudocercospora tabebuiae-roseo-albae sp. nov. (hyphomycetes). Uncinula peruviana was found and described on T. impetiginosa as a first record for Distrito Federal, Brazil.

INDERBITZIN, P., M. A. ABDEL-WAHAB, et al. (1999). "A new species of Cryptovalsa from Mai Po mangrove in Hong Kong." Mycol. Res. 103: 1628-1630. Cryptovalsa mangrovei is described and illustrated as a new

species from a wood test block submerged in the intertidal zone of Mai Po Mangrove in Hong Kong and compared with C. halosarceiicola, another mangrove species, and C. suaedicola from an intertidal salt marsh plant.

Inderbitzin, P. and M. L. Berbee (2001). "Lollipopaia minuta from Thailand, a new genus and species of the Diaporthales (Ascomycetes, Fungi) based on morphological and molecular data." Canadian of botany 79: 1099-1106.

Inderbitzin, P., J. Kohlmeyer, et al. (2002). "Decorospora, a new genus for the marine ascomycete Pleospora gaudefroyi." Mycologia,

In this paper, we describe the new genus and species Lollipopaia minuta from a tropical rain forest in Thailand. The ascomata were long beaked and seated on a pseudoparenchymatous stroma that was erumpent through the bark of a decaying branch. Mature ascomata were readily formed under laboratory conditions. Lollipopaia minuta had ascomatal walls forming a textura intricata in surface view and deliquescent paraphyses. The asci floated freely at maturity and had a nonstaining apical ring. These characters are found in the Diaporthales. However, the habit of the stroma combined with the filiform ascospores distinguished L. minuta from all known genera of the Diaporthales. Thus, a close relationship to taxa outside the Diaporthales was considered. Lollipopaia minuta was similar to Ophioceras or Pseudohalonectria in shape of the ascomata, asci, and ascospores. However, phylogenetic analyses based on small subunit ribosomal DNA sequences confirmed the placement of L. minuta within the Diaporthales with 100% bootstrap support. A closest relative within the Diaporthales was not determined.

94(4): 651-659. In this paper, we investigate the phylogenetic placement of

Pleospora gaudefroyi using partial SSU as well as ITS ribosomal DNA sequences. Both

SSU and ITS data sets agreed in the placement of P. gaudefroyi. Parsimony and neighbor-joining analyses of each data set placed P. gaudefroyi within the Pleosporaceae with 100% bootstrap support. Pleospora gaudefroyi was sister taxon in the Pleosporaceae represented by Alternaria alternata, Cochliobolus sativus, Pleospora herbarum, Pyrenophora tritici-repentis and Setosphaeria rostrata. Pleospora gaudefroyi was separated from other genera in the Pleosporaceae in 94% of the bootstrap replicates in parsimony and neighborjoining analyses. When P. gaudefroyi was constrained to monophyly with P. herbarum, all resulting trees were significantly worse than the optimal tree in both Kishino-Hasegawa and Shimodaira-Hasegawa tests. Pleospora gaudefroyi was therefore excluded from Pleospora, and transferred to the new genus Decorospora placed in the Pleosporaceae. Decorospora (Dothideomycetes) has characteristic ascospores enclosed in a sheath with 4–5 apical extensions. The distribution and substrate types for D. gaudefroyi are summarized and updated based on additional collections.

INDERBITZIN, P., S. R. LIM, et al. (2004). "The phylogenetic position of Spathulospora based on DNA sequences from dried herbarium material." Mycol. Res. 108: 737-748.

INFANTINO, A., M. ARAGONA, et al. (2003). "Molecular and physiological characterization of Italian isolates of Pyrenochaeta lycopersici." Mycol. Res.

The phylogenetic position of the marine ascomycete genus Spathulospora was investigated using partial SSU and LSU DNA sequences obtained from dried herbarium specimens. Spathulospora was represented by the two species S. adelpha and S. antarctica. Phylogenetic analyses using Bayesian, parsimony, and neighbour-joining algorithms on SSU and LSU data sets agreed with the placement of Spathulospora. Both Spathulospora species are each others closest relatives, and group within the Lulworthiales (Sordariomycetes, Ascomycota) with support in all analyses. Members of the morphologically similar insect parasites in the Laboulbeniomycetes are not closely related to Spathulospora. Despite several striking morphological differences between Spathulospora and Lulworthiales, an important shared morphological character was found that until now had not been recognized. Ascospores of Spathulospora and some members of the Lulworthiales have apical chambers containing mucus believed to be involved in ascospore attachment. A closest relative to Spathulospora could not be determined.

107: 707-716.

Ingold, C. T. (1997). "Teliospore germination in Tilletia opaca and T. sumatii and the nature of the tilletiaceous basidium." Mycological Research

Corky root of tomato caused by Pyrenochaeta lycopersici is a disease of concern in Italy and for many tomato growing areas in the world. Isolates of the fungus were characterized at both the physiological and molecular level. The optimal in vitro growth temperature for all isolates was 23°C. All Italian isolates of P. lycopersici showed similar RAPD and esterase banding patterns. No relevant polymorphisms were detected after enzymatic digestion of PCR-amplified ITS and

IGS regions. The overall results indicate a low degree of genetic variability within a collection of 43 Italian isolates. These data are of interest in breeding programs for resistance against corky root of tomato and they provide useful information for the development of molecular diagnostic tools for the rapid identification and detection of P. lycopersici.

101(3): 281-284.

The process is described of teliospore germination in Tilletia opaca and T. sumatii leading to the production of basidiospores on basidia, and later the development of ballistospores and blastospores on agar. In both species the basidium shows some evidence of being a condensed dichotomously branched structure. The situation in these two smuts is discussed in relation to that in several other species of Tilletia, and some consideration is given to the origin of the basidium and evolutionary trends within the genus.

Ingold, C. T. (1997). "The basidia of Sporisorium formosanum and Ustilago affinis." Mycological Research 101(5): 632-634.

INGOLD, C. T. (1999). "Two types of basidia in Urocystis hypoxis and the implications for smut taxonomy." Mycol. Res.

The production of basidia from individual teliospores of Sporisorium formosanum and Ustilago affinis is described. In S. formosanum the upper portion of the basidium separates as a conidium-like body the two cells of which either conjugate or produce sporidia, whilst the lower portion remains unicellular and gives rise to sporidia. In U. affinis the basidium is four-celled and remains intact, its cells either conjugating or producing sporidia, sometimes on the same basidium. These patterns of teliospore germination are compared with one another and other members of the Ustilaginaceae, notably Ustilago trichophora.

103: 18-20.

INGOLD, C. T. (1999). "Unusual teliospore germination in Ustilago triodiae and Sporisorium loudetiae-pedicellatae." Mycol. Res.

Germinating spore-balls of Urocystis hypoxis produce both unicellular basidia, crowned with 4-6 basidiospores, and what appear to be transversely septate, 3-celled, prostrate basidia with conjugation, through a conjugation tube, between top and bottom cells. This most unusual situation is discussed in relation to the taxonomy of smut fungi.

103: 137-140. The products of teliospore germination in Ustilago triodiae and

Sporisorium loudetiae-pedicellatae are illustrated. In U. triodiae the transversely-septate basidium is usually three-spored. The sporidia (basidiospores) either bud or form surface hyphae from which branched systems of aerial sporidia arise. A similar haplophase occurs in some other species.

INGOLD, C. T. (1999). "The Cintractia pattern of teliospore germination." Mycol.

In S. loudetiae-pedicellatae the basidium is unicellular and produces up to four sporidia in succession. These give rise to colonies composed largely of similar cells. No conjugation was seen in either species.

Res. 103: 1071-1072.

INNOCENTI, G., R. ROBERTI, et al. (2003). "Efficacy of microorganisms antagonistic to Rhizoctonia cerealis and their cell wall degrading enzymatic

Teliospore germination in Cintractia limitata and C. mitchellii is illustrated and shown to agree closely with that earlier reported in two other species of the genus. Basidial cells conjugate pairwise, and from each united pair a relatively large, and probably dikaryotic, blastoconidium is produced. In C. mitchellii, as a rare event, conjugation does not occur and cells of the basidium form small basidiospores. It is pointed out the course of teliospore germination in Cintractia spp. departs markedly from the standard Ustilago type.

activities." Mycol. Res. 107: 421-427.

INOUE, I., M. SEISHIMA, et al. (1998). "Effects of azole antifungal agents on ionomycin-induced changes in intracellular calcium concentration in Trichophyton rubrum." Mycol. Res.

The effect of Trichoderma atroviride, T. harzianum, T. longibrachiatum, Clonostachys rosea and Bacillus subtilis isolates applied to wheat seeds against Rhizoctonia cerealis disease of seedlings was investigated under controlled greenhouse conditions. Most Trichoderma isolates significantly reduced the incidence of disease compared with the infected control. Bacillus subtilis was also effective against sharp eyespot, although less active than Trichoderma spp. Interactions between the antagonistic microorganisms and the cereal pathogenic fungus in dual culture experiments on agar growth medium were also studied. Almost all tested antagonists showed competitive activity against R. cerealis : inhibition of its mycelial growth and hyphal interaction. The production of extracellular β-N-acetylhexosaminidase, chitin 1,4-β-chitobiosidase, glucan 1,3-β-glucosidase and protease activity by the tested microorganisms in the presence of cell walls of R. cerealis was then determined. All isolates showed glucosaminidase and chitobiosidase activity. They also produced glucosidase activity, except B. subtilis, whereas only C. rosea, B. subtilis and one isolate of T. harzianum showed detectable levels of protease activity.

102: 193-198. Recent studies suggest that the antifungal agents

itraconazole, bifonazole, and ketoconazole affect calcium-mediated signal transduction in Trichophyton rubrum. We have now examined the effects of azole-antifungal agents on cell membrane function in T. rubrum, by analysing the effects of itraconazole, bifonazole, ketoconazole, and lanoconazole on ionomycin-induced changes in intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i). Addition of 1 µm ionomycin to the culture medium produced a persistent increase in [Ca2+]i. While treatment with 1.5-15 nm of lanoconazole or bifonazole for 24 h did not affect this ionomycin-induced increase in

[Ca2+]i, 30 nm of these agents resulted in a transient increase in [Ca2+]i rather than the usual sustained increase in [Ca2+]i. This transient ionomycin-induced increase in [Ca2+]i was also observed after treatment with only 1.5 and 3 nm of ketoconazole or itraconazole. Incubation in the presence of lanoconazole or bifonazole at ≥150 nm, and ketoconazole or itraconazole at ≥15 nm inhibited both the persistent and transient ionomycin-induced increase in [Ca2+]i. On the basis of these findings, it is suggested that azole antifungal agents disturb membrane function in T. rubrum, and that one manifestation of this effect is the disruption of the ionomycin-induced increase in [Ca2+]i. We report that the ionomycin-induced increase in [Ca2+]i is more sensitive to low concentrations of ketoconazole and itraconazole compared to bifonazole and lanoconazole.

INYANG, E. N., T. M. BUTT, et al. (1999). "The effect of crucifer epicuticular waxes and leaf extracts on the germination and virulence of Metarhizium anisopliae conidia." Mycol. Res. 103: 419-426.

leaves increased percentage germination of conidia and the virulence of M. anisopliae to the mustard beetle, Phaedon cochleariae. Plant extracts stimulated germination more than yeast or starch extract. Formulation of conidia in leachates or leaf extracts increased the virulence of M. anisopliae. Germination increased on insect cuticle that were pretreated with leaf extracts/leachates, suggesting that the insect cuticle will adsorb or sequester nutrients.

INYANG, E. N., T. M. BUTT, et al. (1999). "The effects of isothiocyanates on the growth of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae and its infection of the mustard beetle." Mycol. Res.

Leaves of members of the Cruciferae influence the germination of the entomogenous fungus Metarhizium anisopliae. The percentage germination of conidia on reconstituted epicuticular waxes of oilseed rape, Chinese cabbage, and turnip was influenced by the solvent used, the plant species, and the age of the leaf. The epicuticular waxes contain a mixture of stimulatory and inhibitory compounds. Germination was more rapid and greater on the surfaces of dewaxed than intact leaves suggesting that epicuticular waxes contain fungistatic compounds and/or act as a barrier to the leaching of nutrients. Surface leachates and soluble extracts of

103: 974-980.

INYANG, E. N., T. M. BUTT, et al. (1998). "The effect of plant growth and topography on the acquisition of conidia of the insect pathogen Metarhizium anisopliae by larvae of Phaedon cochleariae." Mycol. Res.

Metarhizium anisopliae has potential as a biological control agent. Included among its hosts are certain insect pests of brassica crops. Brassica species produce isothiocyanates, some of which are known to be fungitoxic. In our study, isothiocyanates inhibited both germination and subsequent growth by M. anisopliae in vitro and its ability to infect insects. Conidia were more sensitive than the mycelium to these compounds, the most fungistatic of which were phenylethyl-, 2-chlorophenyl- and allyl-isothiocyanates. Appressorium production in vitro was suppressed by all isothiocyanates except allyl- and propyl-isothiocyanates, which appeared to stimulate appressorium formation. Phenylethyl- and 3-butenyl isothiocyanates, which are present in several of the plant hosts of Phaedon cochleariae, reduced the pathogenicity of M. anisopliae when inoculated insects were exposed to their vapours. These findings have implications for the efficacy of biocontrol of brassica pests by this fungus.

102: 1365-1374. The susceptibility of mustard beetle, Phaedon cochleariae,

larvae to the insect pathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae, was influenced by the topography of the host plant, the dosage and the larval instar. At high doses (>109 conidia ml-1) more insects were likely to acquire conidia. Most of the inoculum adhered to the mid-ventral region of the

abdomen. Inoculum applied to the leaf became diluted during leaf expansion and this decreased beetle mortality. Leaf expansion was slower at 10 °C than at alternating temperatures of 23/10° or when constant at 23°. Slightly more larvae acquired conidia when fed on oilseed rape than Chinese cabbage or turnip. Most conidia adhered to the legs and the mid-ventral region of the abdomen. Mortality was usually less on oilseed rape than Chinese cabbage and turnip. These observations suggest that fungistatic compounds of oilseed rape were interfering with the infection process.

INYANG, E. N., H. A. MCCARTNEY, et al. (2000). "Effect of formulation, application and rain on the persistence of the entomogenous fungus Metarhizium anisopliae on oilseed rape." Mycol. Res. 104: 653-661. The effect of simulated rain on the persistence of oil and water

formulations of conidia of the entomogenous fungus Metarhizium anisopliae when applied to oilseed rape foliage was investigated, using third instar larvae of the mustard beetle (Phaedon cochleariae) as the target host. Rain significantly (P<0.01) reduced the susceptibility of the beetle larvae to M. anisopliae but the amount of inoculum removed was influenced by the formulation. Larvae exposed to plants treated with conidia formulated in aqueous Tween, Shellsol T, or sunflower oil/Shellsol T resulted in 55, 82.5 and 72.5%, mortality, respectively. The mortality for these respective

Isaac, S., J. C. Frankland, et al. (1993). Aspects of Tropical Mycology. Symposium of the Brithish Mycological Society held at the University of

formulations was reduced by 42, 57 and 51% if the plants were exposed for 1 h to simulated rain. Laboratory and field studies showed that more inoculum collected beneath plants sprayed with conidia formulated in Shellsol T or aqueous Tween than in the more viscous sunflower/Shellsol T mixture. Mortality studies on leaves taken from field plots suggested that conidia on leaf surfaces could be replenished by repeated application. The number of conidia isolated from field plots was greater where inoculum was applied bi-weekly than once weekly.

Liverpool, April 1995, Cambridge University Press: 325.

ISHII, H. and H. YANASE (2000). "Venturia nashicola, the scab fungus of

Isaka, M., P. Kittakoop, et al. (2005). "Bioactive Substances from Insect Pathogenic Fungi." 38(10): 813-823. Insect pathogenic fungi have opened up a relatively untapped area of

natural product research which, unfortunately, has not received much attention to date. Found in wild abundance in wet tropical Thailand, the insect fungi are shown to contribute not only as controllers of insect populations but also as rich sources of structurally novel biologically active substances.

Japanese and Chinese pears: a species distinct from V. pirina." Mycol. Res. 104: 755-759.

ISIKHUEMHEN, O. S., J.-M. MONCALVO, et al. (2000). "Mating compatibility and phylogeography in Pleurotus tuberregium." Mycol. Res.

The relationship of Venturia nashicola, the scab fungus of Japanese and Chinese pears, to the European pear scab fungus, V. pirina, was reexamined. Ascospores of V. pirina were longer and wider than those of V. nashicola and the conidia of V. nashicola significantly shorter than those of V. pirina. Results from mating experiments in culture clearly showed sexual isolation between the species. V. nashicola was only pathogenic on Japanese and Chinese pears and V. pirina was only pathogenic on European pear. It is concluded that V. nashicola is distinct from V. pirina.

104: 732-737.

ISSAKAINEN, J., J. JALAVA, et al. (1999). "Relationship of Scedosporium prolificans with Petriella con®rmed by partial LSU rDNA sequences." Mycol. Res.

Genetic relationships were investigated among several populations of Pleurotus tuberregium from Nigeria, Papua New Guinea and New Caledonia. Intrastock mating compatibility studies using progeny from two collections demonstrated a tetrapolar mating system for P. tuberregium. Interstock matings among the geographically distinct populations were compatible. All isolates were found to be intersterile with tester strains of other Pleurotus species, showing that P. tuberregium represents a unique intersterility group in Pleurotus. Nucleotide sequences of the ITS region of the rDNA gene were determined for 30 isolates and used to infer phylogenetic structure of populations. Phylogenetic analysis shows that African and Australasian-Pacific isolates form at least two distinct evolutionary lineages. Higher genetic divergence was observed among ITS sequences from the Australasian-Pacific region than among African isolates, which suggests a possible origin of P. tuberregium in the Australasian-Pacific region.

103: 1179-1184.

The main part of Pseudallescheria is clearly distinguished from Petriella. Pseudallescheria is heterogeneous, however: Ps. africana is referred to Petriella and Ps. fimeti is more closely related to Microascus.

Genetic relationships of twenty strains of Scedosporium, Petriella and Pseudallescheria were studied by sequencing a 370 bp part of the gene which encodes the large subunit ribosomal RNA (LSU rDNA). This study confirms and specifies earlier results from the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene (SSU rDNA).

It was confirmed that the pathogenic Scedosporium prolificans is closely related to Petriella, as is Graphium tectonae. Petriella setifera, which includes clinically isolated Scedosporium strains, can be divided into several groups inside the same genus.

Italo Delalibera, J., A. E. Hajek, et al. (2004). "Neozygites tanajoae sp. nov., a pathogen of the cassava green mite." Mycologia, 96(5): 1002-1009. The fungal pathogen Neozygites tanajoae Delalibera Jr.,

Humber & Hajek sp. nov. (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) is being used in Africa as a biological control agent against the introduced cassava green mite (CGM), Mononychellus tanajoa (Bondar) (Acari: Tetranychidae). This fungus is specific to

ITO, T., I. OKANE, et al. (2000). "Two species of Acremonium section Acremonium: A. borodinense sp. nov. and A. cavaraeanum rediscovered." Mycol.

CGM and has been referred to as N. floridana (Weiser & Muma) Remaud. & Keller, a common pathogen of many tetranychid mites. In the present study N. tanajoae is investigated at the morphological and molecular levels and physiological attributes of N. tanajoae and N. floridana are compared. Morphological observations of N. tanajoae isolates generally correspond to N. floridana and to other mite pathogenic species of Neozygites. However, this fungus readily can be distinguished from N. floridana based on 18S rDNA sequences, host ranges, nutritional requirements for growth in vitro, tolerances to cold (4 C) and abilities to withstand specific cryopreservation techniques. N. tanajoae isolates from Brazil and Africa have identical 18S rDNA sequences but they presented 5.7 and 9.94% pairwise distance from N. floridana isolates. N. tanajoae proved to differ sufficiently from other mite-pathogenic fungi referred to as N. floridana to justify the description of a new species.

Res. 104: 77-80.

ITO, Y., S. W. PETERSON, et al. (2001). "Aspergillus pseudotamarii, a new aflatoxin producing species in Aspergillus section Flavi." Mycol. Res.

Two unusual species of Acremonium sect. Acremonium, A. borodinense sp. nov. and A. cavaraeanum, are described and illustrated. They were isolated in Japan from rhizosphere soil of sugarcane and an outer wall of a wooden house respectively. A. borodinense is characterized by forming two kinds of conidia, ellipsoidal rough-walled and cylindrical smooth-walled. Of A. cavaraeanum a second isolate has become available ; it forms long chains of fusiform conidia, has a luteous reverse and exudes a livid-red pigment into the medium.

105: 233-239. A recent report of an aflatoxin producing isolate of Aspergillus

tamarii prompted a taxonomic re-examination of aflatoxigenic and non-aflatoxigenic isolates identified as A. tamarii as well as the closely related A. caelatus. Representatives of each species, including atypical isolates, were compared morphologically, for mycotoxin production, and for divergence in ITS, 28S, β-tubulin and calmodulin gene sequences. Because of genetic, morphological, and mycotoxin differences, the aflatoxin producing isolates of A. tamarii are given species rank as Aspergillus pseudotamarii sp. nov.

Iturriaga, T. and D. L. Hawksworth (2004). "Korfiomyces gelatinosum gen. et sp. nov., a new and enigmatic gelatinous discomycete from the Venezuelan Amazon with lecanoralean affinities." Mycologia, 96(5): 1155-1158.

Iturriaga, T. and D. L. Hawksworth (2004). "Skyttea richardsonii sp. nov. from Maine, with a key to the species known from North America." Mycologia,

Korfiomyces gelatinosum gen. et sp. nov. is described from resinous wood of an unidentified tree in the Venezuelan Amazon, part of the Guayana region;

it is saprobic and not lichenized. The ascomata are apothecioid, arise on a brownish subiculum, are gelatinous and initially have a raised exciple. The asci are lecanoralean with a thin outer amyloid layer and occasionally a minute internal apical amyloid ring. The paraphyses are simple and capitate, and the ascospores

brownish and 1-septate. The possible affinities of the new genus are discussed; no family to accommodate it satisfactorily was found, and for the time being it is recommended that it be treated as Lecanoromycetes incertae sedis.

96(4): 925-928.

size. Minute Phoma-like conidiomata found in some apothecia may represent an independent fungicolous fungus growing on the new species. This is the 10th species of the genus to have been discovered in North America; a key to these species is provided.

ITURRIAGA, T., R. P. KORF, et al. (1999). "Fungi on Epifagus Crocicreas epifagicola sp. nov., with comments on the generic names Crocicreas and Cyathicula." Mycol. Res.

Skyttea richardsonii sp. nov. is described from a sterile corticolous lichen in Maine. It is closest to S. tavaresae, the only other member of the genus

to be reported as having annelations on the excipular hairs, but that species occurs on Loxospora spp. and differs in the K1 reaction of the exciple and ascospore

103: 28-30. A new species of Crocicreas is reported on overwintered stems

of Epifagus virginianus in New York State in apparently non-organic association with sclerotia of Sclerotium orobanches, itself a rarely reported fungus. The changing concepts of the generic names Crocicreas and Cyathicula are discussed in regard to placement of the new taxon.

IVORS, K. L., K. J. HAYDEN, et al. (2004). "AFLP and phylogenetic analyses of North American and European populations of Phytophthora ramorum." Mycol. Res. 108: 378-392. The genetic structure within and between USA and European

populations of the emerging phytopathogen Phytophthora ramorum was examined. Four primer combinations were used for amplified fragment

length polymorphism (AFLP) fingerprinting of 67 USA isolates from California and Oregon, and 18 European isolates from Belgium, Germany, The Netherlands, Spain and the UK. In addition, three DNA regions (ITS, cox II, and nad 5) of additional Phytophthora species were amplified by polymerase chain reaction, sequenced, and analysed to provide better phylogenetic understanding of P. ramorum within the genus Phytophthora. AFLP banding patterns indicate that the 85 isolates form two distinct lineages within a monophyletic group, distinct from the closely related outgroup species P. lateralis. With the

Iwabuchi, S., S. Sakai, et al. (1994). "Analysis of mushroom diversity in successional young forests and equilibrium evergreen broad-leaved forests." Mycoscience

exception of two isolates from an Oregon nursery, European and USA isolates clustered separately within individual clades. The AFLP profiles also indicate that a single clonal lineage dominates the North American population, while the European population consists of an array of mainly unique, closely related AFLP types. Sequences from the three DNA regions were identical among all P. ramorum isolates, and phylogenetic analysis indicates that P. ramorum is closely related to P. lateralis and P. hibernalis.

35(1): 1-14.

Iwamoto, S., S. Tokumasu, et al. (2005). "Thysanophora penicillioides includes multiple genetically diverged groups that coexist respectively in Abies mariesii forests in Japan." Mycologia,

Eight examination stations were constructed in young red pine forests and ........

97(6): 1238–1250.

ITS variations were revealed: 12 ITS sequence types detected in 254 isolates collected from 15 local populations were classified into five ITS sequence groups. Maximally, four ITS groups consisted of seven ITS types coexisting in one population. However, group 1 was dominant with approximately 65%; in particular, one haplotype, 1a, was most dominant with approximately 60% in respective populations. Therefore, few differences were recognized in genetic structure among local populations, implying that the gene flow of each lineage of the fungus occurs among local populations without geographic limitations. However, minor haplotypes in

We investigated intraspecific diversity and genetic structures of a saprotrophic fungus—Thysanophora penicillioides—based on sequences of nuclear

ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) in 15 discontinuous Abies mariesii forests of Japan. In such a well-defined morphological species, numerous unexpected

some ITS groups were found only in restricted areas, suggesting that they might expand steadily from their places of origin to neighboring A. mariesii forests.

Aggregating sequence data of seven European strains and four North American strains from various substrates to those of Japanese strains, 18 ITS sequence types and 28 variable sites were recognized. They were clustered into nine lineages by phylogenetic analyses of the β-tubulin and combined ITS and β-tubulin datasets. According to phylogenetic species recognition by the concordance of genealogies, respective lineages correspond to phylogenetic species. Plural phylogenetic species coexist in a local population in an A. mariesii forest in Japan.

J.WEBER, F., J. TRAMPER, et al. (2000). "Effect of the availability of magnesium ions in κ-carrageenan gels on the formation of conidia by Coniothyrium minitans." Mycol. Res. 104: 73-76.

JABAJI-HARE, S., H. CHAMBERLAND, et al. (1999). "Cell wall alterations in hypocotyls of bean seedlings protected from Rhizoctonia stem canker by a binucleate Rhizoctonia isolate." Mycol. Res.

An isolate of Coniothyrium minitans did not sporulate on media to which 0.05 mΜ magnesium was added when κ-carrageenan was used to solidify the medium. Normal conidiation was observed when a technical grade agar or agar-agar was used as the gelling agent. The κ-carrageenan and agars used in this study contained significant amounts of Mg. In the agar media all the Mg present was available to the fungus. By contrast, in the j-carrageenan gel a large portion of the Mg was bound by the gel and not available. Sporulation of C. minitans was only observed on media containing ≥0.17 mΜ of unbound Mg. The possible role of Mg in the

initiation of conidium formation by C. minitans is discussed.

103: 1035-1043. The influence exerted by the non-pathogenic binucleate

Rhizoctonia (np-BNR) isolate 232-CG in stimulating plant defence reactions in young bean plants inoculated with the root rot fungus Rhizoctonia solani (AG-4) was examined using light and electron microscopy and further investigated by gold cytochemistry. Severe necrotic lesions on hypocotyles of diseased beans were observed, and the pathogen invaded the cortical tissue causing extensive damage including cell disorganization and cell wall degradation. In contrast, these host reactions were not seen in bean plants inoculated with the non-pathogenic BNR or in plants that were inoculated with BNR and subsequently challenge-inoculated with R. solani. Microscopic examination of hypocotyls inoculated with the nonpathogenic BNR, showed a different host reaction typical of plant defence reactions. In these samples, epidermal and outer cortical cells were impregnated with an electron-dense material. Histochemical assays of this material confirmed the substantial presence of phenols, pectic substances and suberin. Electron microscope observations clearly showed that in non-pathogenic BNR-inoculated plants, fungal cells were confined to the epidermal layer which was darkly stained. Gold cytochemistry conrmed the presence of pectic substances in the electron dense material. The possibility that pectic

oligogalacturonides released after hydrolysis by the nonpathogenic BNR enzymes may act as elicitors of defence responses is discussed. The present ultrastructural observations corroborate that non-pathogenic BNR isolates may function as potential inducers of plant disease resistance.

Jackson, M. A., M. R. Mcguire, et al. (1997). "Liquid culture production of desiccation tolerant blastospores of the bioinsecticidal fungus Paecilomyces fumosoroseus." Mycological Research 101(1): 35-41. Liquid media with differing carbon concentrations and carbon-to-nitrogen

ratios were tested for production of desiccation tolerant blastospores of Paecilomyces fumosoroseus. While all media tested supported sporulation in submerged culture, high blastospore concentrations (5.8x108) spores ml-1) were produced in media containing 80 g glucose l-" and 13.2 g Casamino acids l-" (MS medium) and a significantly higher percentage (79%) of these blastospores survived air drying. Media containing glucose concentrations greater than 20 g l-1and Casamino acid concentrations between 13±2 and 40 g l-1 supported maximal production of desiccation tolerant blastospores. All 23 isolates of P. fumosoroseus grown in MS media produced high concentrations of desiccation tolerant blastospores. When stored at 4 °C, more than 60% of the lyophilized blastospores produced in MS medium were still viable after 7 months storage while less than 25% of the air-dried blastospores survived after 90 d storage. Standard whitefly bioassays were performed to compare air-dried blastospores of P. fumosoroseus ARSEF 4491 with solid substrate-produced conidia of Beauveria bassiana ARSEF 252. Air-dried blastospores of P. fumosoroseus gave LD50 s of 60 and 113 blastospores mm-3 for the silverleaf whitefly (Bemisia argentifolii) in two separate bioassays with potency ratios (LD50 B. bassiana/LD50 P. fumosoroseus) of 3.9 and 3.8, respectively. These results have demonstrated that high concentrations of blastospores of P. fumosoroseus can be rapidly produced in liquid culture, remain viable following drying, and infect and kill silverleaf whitefly.

Jacobs, A., M. P. A. Coetzee, et al. (2003). "Phylogenetic relationships among Phialocephala species and other ascomycetes." Mycologia, 95(4): 637-645.

conidiophores. Some species previously included in Phialocephala were re-allocated to Sporendocladia because they resembled Thielaviopsis in having ringwall- building conidial development and conidia with two attachment points that emerge in false chains. Despite this significant realignment of the genus, a

Phialocephala was established for species in the Leptographium complex that produce conidia from phialides at the apices of dark mononematous

great deal of morphological heterogeneity remains in Phialocephala. The objective of this study was to consider the heterogeneity among Phialocephala spp.

based on comparisons of sequence data derived from the large and small subunits (LSU and SSU) of the rRNA operon of species in Phialocephala. Phialocephala

dimorphospora, the type species of the genus, and P. fortinii grouped with genera of the Helotiales in phylogenetic trees generated based on the LSU and SSU datasets. Phialocephala xalapensis and P. fusca clearly are unrelated to Phialocephala sensu stricto and should represent a new genus in the phiostomatales.

JACOBS, H., G. P. BOSWELL, et al. (2002). "Solubilization of metal phosphates by Rhizoctonia solani." Mycol. Res.

Phialocephala compacta resides with representatives of the Hypocreales, and we believe that it represents a distinct genus. Phialocephala scopiformis and P. repens are not closely related to the other Phialocephala species and group within the Dothideales. The morphological heterogeneity among species of Phialocephala clearly is reflected by phylogenetic analysis of sequence data from two conserved rRNA gene regions. Appropriate genera now need to be found to accommodate these fungi.

106: 1468-1479.

medium at pH 7. Solubilization activity by R. solani decreased with increasing pH on medium containing calcium phosphate but increased on strontium hydrogen phosphate-amended medium. The uptake of metals by the mycelia was unaffected by the pH of the medium or the growth temperature. Small quantities of crystals were produced in the agar when R. solani was grown on calcium phosphate- and strontium hydrogen phosphate-amended media and these were identified as calcium or strontium sulphates respectively: there appeared to be little or no production of insoluble oxalates although a role for oxalate in the overall solubilization process cannot be discounted. These results are discussed in relation to their physiological and environmental significance, and the important roles of fungi in effecting transformations of insoluble metal-containing compounds in the environment.

JACOBS, H., G. P. BOSWELL, et al. (2004). "Translocation of carbon by Rhizoctonia solani in nutritionally-heterogeneous microcosms." Mycol. Res.

The effects of different temperatures and pH on the growth and solubilization of insoluble calcium phosphate, cobalt phosphate, manganese phosphate, strontium hydrogen phosphate and zinc phosphate by Rhizoctonia solani on solidified media were assessed. Solubilization of the metal phosphates was monitored by the production of a clear zone around or underneath the fungus. R. solani efficiently solubilized all five metal phosphates except cobalt phosphate when grown on

108: 453-462. Responses of Rhizoctonia solani to spatial heterogeneity in

sources of carbon, and associated translocation of carbon (C), were studied in a simple microcosm system comprising two discrete domains of

agar gels separated on a glass slide and overlain with a porous membrane. Two arrangements of the gel pairs were used, one containing two equally large resources (representing ‘homogeneous’ conditions) and one containing a large and a negligible resource (representing

‘heterogeneous’ conditions). The nutrient sources were a standard mineral salt medium with or without glucose as sole C source. The fungus was inoculated onto one domain and growth responses determined by direct measurement of biomass. Translocation of C was quantified by use of 13C-enriched glucose. This substrate was either added to the agar at the outset, when studying newly developing colonies, or as a pulse into already established colonies. When growing in heterogeneous conditions, the fungus actively translocated C from a glucose-containing domain to sustain growth in the adjacent region lacking such a resource. In homogeneous conditions there was evidence of passive translocation (diffusion), but the fungus preferentially used local resource to maintain growth. Active translocation was only observed in newly growing colonies, whereas passive translocation occurred in both growing and established colonies. When the fungus was pulsed with a 13C-enriched glucose solution after 10 d growth, 2.5 times more 13C was taken up by the fungus grown in heterogeneous than homogeneous conditions, suggesting uptake exceeded local demands. In heterogeneous conditions, the total amount of 13C enriched glucose taken up by the fungus was independent of the location of the

enriched glucose in the underlying medium. When the nylon membrane was replaced by Cellophane (an additional C source), degradation of the membrane and an increase in biomass occurred only in the heterogeneous system. The possible implications for these results in soil systems are discussed.

JACOBS, H., S. N. GRAY, et al. (2003). "Interactions between nematophagous fungi and consequences for their potential as biological agents for the control of potato cyst nematodes." Mycol. Res. 107: 47-56. The efficacies of three nematophagous fungi, Paecilomyces

lilacinus, Plectosphaerella cucumerina and Pochonia chlamydosporia, for controlling potato cyst nematodes (PCN) as part of an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) regime were studied. The compatibility of the nematophagous fungi with commonly used chemical pesticides and their ability to compete with the soil fungi Rhizoctonia solani, Chaetomium globosum, Fusarium oxysporum, Penicillium bilaii and Trichoderma harzianum were tested in vitro. Paecilomyces lilacinus was the most successful competitor when the ability to grow and inhibit growth of an opposing colony at both 10 and 20 °C was considered. P. lilacinus also showed potential for control of the soil-borne fungal pathogen R. solani, releasing a diffusable substance in vitro which inhibited its growth and caused morphological abnormalities in its hyphae. Pochonia chlamydosporia was least susceptible to growth inhibition by other fungi at

20 ° in vitro, but the isolate tested did not grow at 10 °. Plectosphaerella cucumerina was a poor saprophytic competitor. Radial growth of Paecilomyces lilacinus and Plectosphaerella cucumerina was slowed, but not prevented, when grown on potato dextrose agar incorporating the fungicides fenpiclonil and tolclofos-methyl, and was not inhibited by the addition of pencycuron or the nematicide oxamyl. Radial growth of Pochonia chlamydosporia was partially inhibited by all the chemical pesticides tested. The efficacy of Paecilomyces lilacinus as a control agent for R. solani was further investigated in situ. Treatment with P. lilacinus significantly reduced the symptoms of Rhizoctonia disease on potato stems in a pot trial. The effectiveness of P. lilacinus and P. cucumerina against PCN was also tested in situ. Three application methods were compared; incorporating the fungi into alginate pellets, Terra-Green® inoculated with the fungi and applying conidia directly to the tubers. Both formulations containing P. lilacinus and formulation mixtures alone, particularly alginate pellets, significantly reduced multiplication of PCN in soil. We conclude that P. lilacinus showed the greatest potential for use in combination with selected fungicides and nematicides as part of an IPM programme for the control of PCN, but further work is required to confirm whether it is effective against PCN in soil.

JACOBS, K., D. R. BERGDAHL, et al. (2004). "Leptographium wingfieldii introduced into North America and found associated with exotic Tomicus piniperda and native bark beetles." Mycol. Res. 108: 411-418. Leptographium wingfieldii is a well-known fungal associate of

the pine shoot beetle, Tomicus piniperda, in Europe. This fungus is pathogenic to pines and is an important cause of blue-stain in the sapwood of infested trees. Tomicus piniperda was first found in a Christmas tree plantation in Ohio, USA, 1992, but isolation of the fungi associated with these intercepted insects was not attempted. Fungal strains resembling L. wingfieldii were recently isolated from pines attacked by T. piniperda, Dendroctonus valens and Ips pini in the northeastern United States. These strains were morphologically similar to the ex-type and other reference strains of L. wingfieldii. Strains were also compared based on sequences of the partial ITS ribosomal DNA operon, β-tubulin and elongation factor 1-alpha (EF-1α) genes. Based on these DNA sequence comparisons, reference strains of European L. wingfieldii were conspecific with North American strains from pines attacked by T. piniperda, D. valens and I. pini. A single strain from Canada, collected in 1993 near the Ontario border with the USA, shortly after the discovery of T. piniperda in that area and tentatively identified as L. wingfieldii, was also included in this study. Its identification was confirmed, suggesting that L. wingfieldii has been present in this region and probably over the whole range of the insect’s distribution for at least a decade. This represents the first record of L. wingfieldii associated with the introduced and damaging pine shoot beetle T. piniperda in North America. It shows that the fungus

is well established and can become associated with other native bark beetles that attack stressed and/or dying trees. The occurrence and spread of this highly pathogenic fungus associated with North American bark beetles should be monitored.

Jacobs, K., K. Holtzman, et al. (2005). "Morphology, phylogeny and biology of Gliocephalis hyalina, a biotrophic contact mycoparasite of Fusarium species." Mycologia, 97(1): 111-120.

JACOBS, K. and T. KIRISITS (2003). "Ophiostoma kryptum sp. nov. from Larix decidua and Picea abies in Europe, similar to O. minus." Mycol. Res.

Gliocephalis hyalina, a rarely seen microfungus with a morphology similar to the hyphomycete genus Aspergillus but with slimy conidia was found in a mixed microbial culture from soybean roots. This species has been reported sporadically since 1899, each time in association with other fungi or bacteria. Gliocephalis hyalina has not been maintained in monoxenic culture and requires other fungi to grow. Light and scanning electron microcope studies indicate that it is a biotrophic contact parasite of Fusarium species. The fungus may penetrate the cells but has no apparent deleterious effect on the growth or plant pathogenicity of its host. Phylogenetic analyses of partial nuclear small subunit rDNA sequences place G. hyalina near the Laboulbeniales, an order of obligate insect parasitic microfungi, and the related mycelial genus Pyxidiophora. Gliocephalis hyalina is mycoparasitic along with many Pyxidiophora species. These discoveries suggest that some ‘‘unculturable’’ microorganisms or ‘‘cryptic DNA’’ recovered from environmental DNA samples might represent obligate biotrophs that could be cultured and studied with simple techniques.

107: 1231-1242.

(syn. Ceratocystiopsis crenulata), is also made. Jacobs, K., T. Kirisits, et al. (2003). "Taxonomic re-evaluation of three related

An unknown species of Ophiostoma was isolated from European larch (Larix decidua) infested by Tetropium gabrieli(Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) and Norway spruce (Picea abies) infested by Tetropium sp. in Austria. The fungus is similar to O. minus, but distinguished from it by the ecology, colony morphologies on OA and MEA, and phylogenetic analysis of aligned DNA sequences of the ITS region of the rDNA operon and the partial b-tubulin gene. It is described here

as O. kryptum sp. nov. The new species readily produces perithecia with short necks and reniform ascospores, and has Hyalorhinocladiella and Leptographium-like anamorphs. Circumstantial evidence suggests that Tetropium spp. act as vectors of O. kryptum. O. minus and O. kryptum represent additional examples of morphologically similar, yet genetically and ecologically distinct species in the genus Ophiostoma. The new combination, O. crenulatum comb. nov.

species of Graphium, based on morphology, ecology and phylogeny." Mycologia, 95(4): 714-727.

JACOBS, K., H. SOLHEIM, et al. (2005). "Taxonomic re-evaluation of Leptographium lundbergii based on DNA sequence comparisons and morphology." Mycol. Res.

Two fungi associated with bark beetles, Graphium pseudormiticum (described in 1994) and Rhexographium fimbriisporum (described in 1995), have two micromorphological characters in common. Both species produce conidia with conspicuous basal frills, and the conidia align in chains, despite being produced in slime. The association of G. pseudormiticum with the pine bark beetle, Orthotomicus erosus, and the association of R. fimbriisporum with the spruce bark beetle, Ips typographus, suggest ecological differences between the two fungal species. Analyses of micromorphology and phylogenetic analyses of aligned 18S and ITS sequences suggest that these two species are congeneric and should be classified in Graphium but that they represent distinct species. A collection of strains tentatively identified as Graphium spp., isolated from Ips typographus on Picea abies, Ips cembrae on Larix decidua and Tomicus minor on Pinus ylvestris in Austria share the same unusual basal conidial frills and conidial chains. Isolates from spruce were identified as G. fimbriisporum and those from pine as G. pseudormiticum. The strains from Ips cembrae on Larix decidua, distinguished by the reddish color of their colonies, microscopic structures and molecular characteristics, are described as the new species Graphium laricis sp. nov., and the close relationship of this species with the other two species is confirmed.

109(10): 1149-1161. The genus Leptographium was described in 1927 and currently

includes 48 species, with L. lundbergii as the type species. In recent years, the taxonomic status of L. lundbergii has not been uniformly agreed upon and it has been the topic of considerable debate. The problem was compounded by the absence of a type specimen, and the species was epitypified at a later stage. Unfortunately, the whereabouts of the epitype is now unknown. In 1983, Wingfield & Marasas described

L. truncatum, which is morphologically similar to L. lundbergii. Based on DNA comparisons and similarities in their morphology, this fungus was reduced to synonymy with L. lundbergii. The loss of the type specimen as well as variation in the morphology of strains identified as L. lundbergii prompted us to re-examine the taxonomic status of this species. A number of strains from various geographic areas were studied. These include a strain of L. lundbergii deposited at CBS by Melin in 1929 (CBS 352.29) as well as the ex-type strain of L. truncatum. The strains were compared based on morphology and comparison of multiple gene sequences. Three genes or genic regions, ITS2 and part of the 28S gene, partial β-tubulin and partial elongation factor 1-α were compared. Strains currently identified as L. lundbergii, represented a complex of species. Strains initially described as L. truncatum clustered separately from other L.

lundbergii strains, could be distinguished morphologically and should be treated as a distinct taxon. L. lundbergii is provided with a new and expanded description based on a neotype designated for it. A third group was also identified as separate from the main L. lundbergii clade and had a distinct Hyalorhinocladiella-type anamorph, described here as H. pinicola sp. nov. JACOBS, K., M. J. WINGFIELD, et al. (2000). "Ophiostoma europhioides and Ceratocystis pseudoeurophioides, synonyms of O. piceaperdum." Mycol. Res. 104: 238-243.

JACOBS, K., M. J. WINGFIELD, et al. (2000). "A new Leptographium species from Russia." Mycol. Res.

Ophiostoma piceaperdum and O. europhioides are well-known, first described from conifers in Canada. They have been considered to be synonymous. After studying the type material, as well as a collection of isolates of O. piceaperdum and O. europhioides, we have concluded that they cannot be distinguished from each other, so we support the synonymy of O. europhioides and O. piceaperdum and provide a description for the Leptographium anamorph of O. piceaperdum. Ceratocystis pseudoeurophioides has previously been distinguished from O. europhioides based on differences in anamorph morphology. This species has also been reduced to synonymy with O. penicillatum, which was reported to have cucullate ascospores. Later descriptions of O. penicillatum reported it to have allantoid ascospores. We conclude that C. pseudoeurophioides cannot be distinguished from O. piceaperdum and is, therefore, reduced to

synonymy with that species.

104: 1524-1529.

JACOBS, K., M. J. WINGFIELD, et al. (2001). "Three new species of Leptographium from pine." Mycol. Res.

Species of Leptographium are well-known inhabitants of conifers in the Northern Hemisphere, in which they cause a blue-stain. They are also known to be associated with insects, especially bark beetles (Coleoptera : Scolytidae). Surveys of dying stands of Siberian fir (Abies sibirica) have resulted in the consistent isolation of an unknown Leptographium from the galleries of the fir sawyer beetle, Monochamus urussovi (Coleoptera : Cerambycidae). This fungus is responsible for the blue-stain in living trees. Comparison with known species of Leptographium led to the conclusion that it had not been previously described, and the name Leptographium sibiricum sp. nov. is introduced here.

105: 490-499. Leptographium species are common inhabitants of fresh conifer

logs and lumber that are known for their ability to cause blue-stain and, in some cases, their association with disease. L. procerum has been associated with a root disease although controversy surrounds its role in tree death. During the course of the past two decades, a relatively large

number of isolates tentatively identified as L. procerum have been collected in various parts of the world. Some of these display morphological characters unlike those of L. procerum s. str. and this has prompted us to re-examine them. Four groups of morphologically distinct isolates were identified, of which L. procerum s. str. represented one. The remaining isolates of Leptographium are newly described as L. alethinum, L. pityophilum

and L. euphyes spp. nov. Jacobs, K., M. J. Wingfield, et al. (1998). "Comparison of Ophiostoma huntii and O. europhioides and description of O. aenigmaticum sp. nov." Mycological Research 102(3): 289-294.

Jacobson, D. J., A. J. Powell, et al. (2004). "Neurospora in temperate forests of western North America." Mycologia,

Ophiostoma europhioides and O. huntii are two very similar fungi known to cause blue-stain of timber. Both species have been isolated from pine and spruce in Canada and are characterized by Leptographium anamorphs and hat-shaped ascospores. The aim of this study was to compare isolates of O. huntii and O. europhioides from various parts of the world. These isolates were compared morphologically using light and scanning electron microscopy. Sexual compatibility was determined using mating studies. O. huntii isolates from the different geographical areas were similar to each other but distinct from O. europhioides. A new Ophiostoma species, O. aenigmaticum, is described for the Japanese isolates ; Leptographium aenigmaticum, its anamorph, is described as a new species.

96(1): 66-74. The fungal genus Neurospora has a distinguished history as a

laboratory model in genetics and biochemistry. The most recent milestone in this history

has been the sequencing of the genome of the best known species, N. crassa. The hope and promise of a complete genome sequence is a full understanding of the biology of the organism. Full understanding cannot be achieved, however, in the absence of fundamental knowledge of natural history. We report that species of Neurospora, heretofore thought to occur mainly in moist tropical and subtropical regions, are common primary colonizers of trees and shrubs killed by forest fires in western North America, in regions that are often cold and dry. Surveys in 36 forest-fire sites from New Mexico to Alaska yielded more than 500 cultures, 95% of which were the rarely collected N. discreta. Initial characterization of genotypes both within a site and on a single tree showed diversity consistent with sexual reproduction

of N. discreta. These discoveries fill important gaps in knowledge of the distribution of members of the genus on both large and small spatial scales and provide

the framework for future studies in new regions and microhabitats. The overall

result is that population biology and genetics now can be combined, placing the genus Neurospora in a unique position to expand its role in experimental biology as a useful model organism for ecology, population genetics and evolution.

JACOBSON, K. M., P. J. JACOBSON, et al. (1999). "The autecology of Battarrea stevenii in ephemeral rivers of southwestern Africa." Mycol. Res. 103: 9-17.

Jaeger, E. C. (1955). A Source-Book of Biological Names and Terms

In September 1990, 74 sporocarps of Battarrea stevenii were observed on the floodplain of the ephemeral Kuiseb River in western Namibia. Herein we report subsequent studies of the distribution, abundance, nutritional role, phenology, and sporocarp development of this fungus in the hyper-arid Namib Desert. Included are full descriptions of developing and mature sporocarps. B. stevenii is a common associate of riparian forests on silty floodplain terraces, but does not form mycorrhizal associations with the dominant woody species, Faidherbia albida or Tamarix usneoides. Rather, clamped mycelium extends throughout floodplain soils decomposing coarse and fine particulate organic material (4-7% of soil dry weight). Sporocarp production occurs 4.5-12 mo post-flooding in response to soil desiccation at depths of 20-35 cm. The extensive mycelium, duration of vegetative growth post-flooding, and large size and abundance of B. stevenii sporocarps suggest that it is an important component of the subsurface decomposer community in the Namib's ephemeral rivers. Given that the fungus has also been recorded from floodplain soils of Angola, Hungary, and New Mexico (U.S.A.), and is known to have a world-wide distribution, we predict that further biogeographical studies will reveal that B. stevenii is a characteristic element of the riparian biota in dryland rivers, which drain approximately one-third of the earth's land surface.

. U.S.A., Charles c Thomas. JANA, T., T. R. SHARMA, et al. (2005). "SSR-based detection of genetic variability in the charcoal root rot pathogen Macrophomina phaseolina." Mycol. Res. 109: 81-86.

M. phaseolina genome was assessed by agarose gel electrophoresis of the PCR

Macrophomina phaseolina, the causal agent of charcoal root or collar rot, is an important plant pathogen especially in soybean and cotton. Single primers of simple sequence repeats (SSR) or microsatellite markers have been used for the characterization of genetic variability of different populations of M. phaseolina obtained from soybean and cotton grown in India and the USA. Genetic similarity between isolates was calculated, and cluster analysis was used to generate a dendrogram showing relationships between isolates collected from the two hosts. Forty isolates could be clustered into three major groups corresponding to their hosts and geographical region. The wide distribution of microsatellites in

products generated by direct amplification of inter SSR regions DNA. This is the first report of the use of microsatellite markers to characterize the charcoal root rot pathogen. The SSR fingerprints (0.25–3.5 kb) generated using DNA from different populations of M. phaseolina of two hosts indicated that these repeats are interspersed within the genome of this pathogen. The variability found within closely related isolates of M. phaseolina indicated that such microsatellites are useful in population studies and represents a step towards identification of potential isolate diagnostic markers specific to soybean and cotton. JANSA, J., A. MOZAFAR, et al. (2002). "Intra- and intersporal diversity of ITS rDNA sequences in Glomus intraradices assessed by cloning and sequencing, and by SSCP analysis." Mycol. Res. 106: 670-681. The level of molecular variability in the arbuscular mycorrhizal

fungus (AMF) Glomus intraradices was assessed. We established several monoxenically growing single-spore cultures of the G. intraradices collected from a long-term soil tillage experiment in Tanikon (Switzerland). They were grown in symbiosis with Ri T-DNA transformed carrot roots. The ITS region was amplified from genomic DNA of fungal spores using ITS1 and ITS4 primers. The amplified ITS region of three of the fungal isolates was cloned and sequenced. All sequences obtained from our samples closely resembled those previously reported for G. intraradices, and no evidence for genetic exchange was found on the interspecific or intergeneric level. Phylogenetic analysis showed the presence of at least two different sequence families within a single-spore isolate. The single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) method detected different sequence types in a single PCR sample. This technique enabled us to detect several distinct ITS sequences within each of the single-spore isolates of the AMF. Estimates of intra- and intersporal sequence diversity were obtained by comparing diversity within and among the single-spore isolates. A higher level of diversity was found among spores than within a single spore.

Janso, J. E., V. S. Bernan, et al. (2005). "Penicillium dravuni, a new marine-derived species from an alga in Fiji." Mycologia, 97(2): 444-453. Penicillium dravuni is a new monoverticillate, sclerotium-

forming species that was isolated from the alga Dictyosphaeria versluyii collected in Dravuni,

that P. dravuni is related most closely to Eupenicillium brefeldianum, E. levitum, E. reticulosporum, E. javanicum, E. ehrlichii and P. simplicissimum. However

Fiji. This species morphologically is similar to P. turbatum in the P. turbatum subseries of the P. thomii series of the Monoverticillata. The nuclear ribosomal

internal transcribed spacer region exhibited 97% sequence similarity to known Penicillium spp. in the GenBank database. Phylogenetic analyses revealed

this new species shares only a distant ancestor with this clade because it branches by itself early in the lineage. P. dravuni also is known to produce the secondary metabolites dictyosphaeric acids A and B and carviolin.

JANSSON, H.-B. and E. FRIMAN (1999). "Infection-related surface proteins on conidia of the nematophagous fungus Drechmeria coniospora." Mycol. Res. 103: 249-256. The adhesion of conidia of Drechmeria coniospora to the

nematode Panagrellus redivivus was reduced after treatment of the conidia with Pronase E, or the detergents sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) and dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide (DTAB) suggesting involvement of proteinaceous compounds in the adhesion process. In the TEM the thick extracellular pad covering the adhesive bud of the conidia was completely removed after treatment with Pronase E. After treatment with SDS or DTAB the proteinaceous compounds appeared to be dissolved leaving mainly carbohydrates in the pad as observed on OsO4 without and

OsO4 with Ruthenium red-stained material, respectively. The detergent extracts after SDS and DTAB treatments contained nine and seven peptides, respectively, with molecular masses in the range from 6 to 80 kDa on SDS-PAGE gels, and five biotinylated peptides were found in each extract, after blotting to nitrocellulose membranes, indicating that these were surface proteins. None of the detergent extracts was able to reduce adhesion of the conidia after treatment of the nematodes. The detergent extracts contained protease- and phosphatase activity. The protease inhibitor, chymostatin, inhibited infection of nematodes and growth of the conidia,

Jee, H. J. and W. H. Ko (1997). "Stimulation of sexual reproduction in Phytophthora cactorum and P. parasitica by fatty acids and related compounds." Mycological Research

suggesting the involvement of chymotrypsin-like proteases in the infection process. On gelatin-containing substrate gel electrophoresis two proteases were clearly chymostatin sensitive.

101(9): 1140-1144. After purification by thin-layer chromatography (tlc) several fatty acids

stimulated oospore formation in Phytophthora cactorum but not in Phytophthora parasitica. Palmitoleic acid was the most effective and was the only fatty acid tested that promoted oospore formation in P. parasitica. Purification of palmitoleic acid by Florisil column chromatography resulted in a two-fold increase in activity over that purified by tlc. When 0.01 to 100 ng of cholesterol was added to basal medium containing palmitoleic acid, the added cholesterol did not significantly change oospore production by P. cactorum. Oospore formation in P. cactorum was slightly stimulated by tlc-treated aliphatic hydrocarbons, or derivatives of hydrocarbons, but was strongly stimulated by geraniol and squalene. Vitamin A and vitamin A esters stimulated oospore formation in both P. cactorum and P. parasitica. tlc treatment also significantly increased the activity of cholesterol and b-

sitosterol on oospore formation by P. cactorum. Both compounds did not stimulate oospore formation by P. parasitica even after tlc treatment.

JEE, H.-J. and W.-H. KO (1997). "Stimulation of sexual reproduction in Phytophthora cactorum and P. parasitica by fatty acids and related compounds." Mycol. Res. 101: 1140-1144.

Jeewon, R., L. Cai, et al. (2003). "Dyrithiopsis lakefuxianensis gen. et sp. nov. from Fuxian Lake, Yunnan, China, and notes on the taxonomic confusion surrounding Dyrithium." Mycologia,

After puriÆcation by thin-layer chromatography (tlc) several fatty acids stimulated oospore formation in Phytophthora cactorum but not in Phytophthora parasitica. Palmitoleic acid was the most eåective and was the only fatty acid tested that promoted oospore formation in P. parasitica. Purification of palmitoleic acid by Florisil column chromatography resulted in a two-fold increase in activity over that purified by tlc. When 0.01 to 100 ng of cholesterol was added to basal medium containing palmitoleic acid, the added cholesterol did not significantly change oospore production by P. cactorum. Oospore formation in P. cactorum was slightly stimulated by tlc-treated aliphatic hydrocarbons, or derivatives of hydrocarbons, but was strongly stimulated by geraniol and squalene. Vitamin A and vitamin A esters stimulated oospore formation in both P. cactorum and P. parasitica. tlc treatment also significantly increased the activity of cholesterol and b-sitosterol on oospore formation by P. cactorum. Both compounds did not stimulate oospore formation by P. parasitica even after tlc treatment.

95(5): 911-920.

ascospores, but considerable confusion surrounds this genus. In Dyrithium asci are bitunicate and lack a J1 subapical ring, while this was not true of our species. A new genus, Dyrithiopsis, therefore is established to accommodate this new taxon. Details of its anamorph also are provided, based on cultural studies. Parsimony analyses of part of the large-subunit rDNA provide further evidence to support the familial placement of this new genus in the Amphisphaeriaceae. The taxonomic position of Dyrithium also is discussed.

JEEWON, R., E. C. Y. LIEW, et al. (2003). "Molecular systematics of the Amphisphaeriaceae based on cladistic analyses of partial LSU rDNA gene sequences." Mycol. Res.

A new taxon with Dyrithium-like characteristics was collected from Lake Fuxian in China. The taxon is typical of the Amphisphaeriaceae in that it has

relatively large, ostiolate, immersed ascomata, unitunicate asci with a J1 subapical ring, and brown ascospores. It is similar to Dyrithium in that it has muriform

107: 1392-1402. The Amphisphaeriaceae is an important family of ascomycetes

within the Xylariales. There has been, however, disagreement regarding

the taxonomic placement of many genera within this family and whether it should be confined to ascomycetes producing Pestalotiopsis-like anamorphs. In this study, phylogenetic relationships among members of the Amphisphaeriaceae are investigated using partial sequences of the 28S rDNA. Molecular data provided further evidence

to support the association of several coelomycetous genera with the ascomycetous Amphisphaeriaceae. Phylogenetic analyses also show that all ascomycetous genera possessing Pestalotiopsis-like anamorphs are monophyletic and confirm the anamorphic-teleomorphic connections of some. There is, however, insufficient evidence to support the restriction of Amphisphaeriaceae to genera, which produce Pestalotiopsis-like anamorphs, because the phylogenetic placement of Amphisphaeria umbrina is not fully resolved and its affinities with other members received low bootstrap support. The results also indicate that Iodosphaeria and Arecophila should be excluded from the Amphisphaeriaceae. The placement of Lanceispora in the Amphisphaeriaceae is doubtful. A broad concept of the family Amphisphaeriaceae is advocated until further data are available.

JENG, R. S., M. DUMAS, et al. (1997). "DNA analysis of Cylindrocladium Øfloridanum isolates from selected forest nurseries." Mycol. Res. 101: 285-291.

Jeng, R. S., M. Dumas, et al. (1997). "DNA analysis of Cylindrocladium floridanum isolates from selected forest nurseries." Mycological Research

Isolates of Cylindrocladium Øoridanum obtained from diseased roots of white and black spruce seedlings and surrounding soil in bareroot nurseries in Ontario, Minnesota and Wisconsin area were compared by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and ribosomal DNA (rDNA) restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), human minisatellite DNA Ængerprints and polymerase chain reaction. Nucleotide sequences of rDNA ITS regions of selected isolates were also performed. Based on the nuclear DNA fingerprinting patterns, these isolates could be divided into three groups, namely S1, S2 and S3. Isolates of S1 and S2 showed the same mtDNA RFLPs which were slightly diåerent from that of S3. Isolates representing each of the three groups showed an identical nucleotide sequence of rDNA ITS regions. These data suggest that all the isolates tested belong to the same species which may be divided into three biotypes or populations.

101(3): 285-291. Isolates of Cylindrocladium floridanum obtained from diseased roots of

white and black spruce seedlings and surrounding soil in bareroot nurseries in Ontario, Minnesota and Wisconsin area were compared by mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and ribosomal DNA (rDNA) restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs), human minisatellite DNA fingerprints and polymerase chain reaction. Nucleotide sequences of rDNA ITS regions of selected isolates were also performed. Based on the

nuclear DNA fingerprinting patterns, these isolates could be divided into three groups, namely S1, S2 and S3. Isolates of S1 and S2 showed the same mtDNA RFLPs which were slightly different from that of S3. Isolates representing each of the three groups showed an identical nucleotide sequence of rDNA ITS regions. These data suggest that all the isolates tested belong to the same species which may be divided into three biotypes or populations.

Jennifer Luangsa-Ard, J. (2004). A Phylogenetic Study of Paecilomyces and Related Genera, Kasetsart University 2004: 1-80. The genus Paecilomyces according to Samon (1974) is composed of two

sections: Section Paecilomyces, including the type P. variotii, containing mesophilic, thermotolerant and thermophilic species mostly isolated from soil and food products and Section Isarioidea, containing mesophilic, mostly insect pathogenic species. The objective of this study was to evaluate the taxonomic value of DNA sequence data in relation to morphological characters, host range, ecology and anamorphs in order to determine the relationship between species described by Samson (1974). Dr. R.A. Samson supplied strains including the types of both sections and related Genera from the Centraalbureau voor Schimmel cultures. Entomogenous strains from Dr. Nigel Hywel-Jones were also used Thermoresistant and thermotolerant strains of section Paecilomyces were isolate from Thai soils at various locations using standard dilution plate method. The 18S and ITS rDNA regions as well as the Beta-tubulin gene were used to examine the phylogenetic relationships of Paecilomyces sensu lato. Phylogenetic analysis of the 18S rDNA demonstrates that Paecilomyces is across two subclass-Sordariomycetidae and Eurotiomycetidae. The type species - Paecilomyces variotii and thermophilic relatives belong in the order Eurotiales (family Trichocomaceae) while mesophilic species related to Paecilomyces farinosus are in the order Hypocreales (families Claviciptaceae and Hypocreaceae). One species, Paecilomyces inflatus, had affinities to the order Sordariales. Analyses of the two Sections using ITS and Beta-tubulin gene show that within the Eurotiales Paecilomyces is polyphyletic and teleomorph connections are in need of clarification. There is a monophyletic group comprising of P. variotii , its telemorph Talaromyces spectabilis and the Byssochlamys species B. nivea, B. fulva and B. zollerniae. Five genotypes can be distinguished in the Beta-tubulin gene analysis of P. variotii isolates showing it is an aggregate of closely related taxa. Within the Hypocreales Paecilomyces is polyphyletic although the taxa sampled failed to fully resolve relationships. There is a consistent clade in all analyses that is designated as the Isaric clade comprising of P. amoeneroseus, P. cateniannulatus, P. cateniobliquus, P. coleopterorum, P. farinosus, P. fumosoroseus, P. ghanensis, P. javanicus and P. tenuipes. Molecular analysis has also verified the link between P. cinnamomeus and its teleomorph Torrubiella luteorostrata. Growth and

temperature experiments show that isolates of the type strain P. variotii belonging to Section Paecilomyces show differences in colony colour and morphology when grown at 15 and 40 ?C . In vitro synnematal development development was investigated for P. farinosus, P. javanicus and P. tenuipes on three kinds of media. Only P. tenuipes produced synnemata in culture. Formation of synnemata was found on Sabouraud Dextrose Yeast Agar after two weeks of incubation at 25 ?C. Sporulation started early on 2% Malt Extract Agar and mostly mycelial growth was found on Potato Dextrose Agar. In vivo and in vitro morphology proved to be highly plastic. Correlating morphology with molecular phylogenies was problematic and needs further research.

Jennifer Luangsa-Ard, J., N. L. Hywel-Jones, et al. (2005). "On the relationships of Paecilomyces sect. Isarioidea species." Mycological Research 109(5): 581-589. Phylogenetic relationships of Paecilomyces sect. Isarioidea species were

analysed using the Beta-tubulin gene and ITS rDNA. Maximum parsimony analyses showed that the section does not form a natural taxonomic group and is polyphyletic within the Hypocreales. However, a group was recognized, designated as the Isaria clade, to be monophyletic comprising of the following Paecilomyces species: P. amoeneroseus, P. cateniannulatus, P. cateniobliquus, P. cicadae, P. coleopterorus, P. farinosus, P. fumosoroseus, P. ghanensis, P. javanicus and P. tenuipes. Some of these species have teleomorphs in Cordyceps.

Jennifer Luangsa-ard, J., N. L. Hywel-Jones, et al. (2004). "The polyphyletic nature of Paecilomyces sensu lato based on 18S-generated rDNA phylogeny." Mycologia 96(4): 773-780. Nuclear-encoded small-subunit ribosomal DNA was used to examine

phylogenetic relationships in Paecilomyces sensu lato. Phylogenetic analysis of the 18S nr DNA demonstrates that Paecilomyces is polyphyletic across two subclasses, Sordariomycetidae and Eurotiomycetidae. The type species, Paecilomyces variotii, and thermophilic relatives belong in the order Eurotiales (Trichocomaceae), while mesophilic species related to Paecilomyces farinosus are in the order Hypocreales (Clavicipitaceae and Hypocreaceae). One species, Paecilomyces inflatus, had affinities for the order Sordariales. Within the Eurotiales, Paecilomyces is monophyletic. Within the Hypocreales, species of Paecilomyces are polyphyletic, although the data failed to fully resolve these relationships

JENSEN, A. B. and J. EILENBERG (2001). "Genetic variation within the insect-pathogenic genus Entomophthora, focusing on the E. muscae complex, using PCR--RFLP of the ITS II and the LSU rDNA." Mycol. Res. 105: 307-312. The ITS II and the first part of the LSU rDNA were amplified

from 26 isolates within the genus Entomophthora. The specificity of the

primers allowed the use of both in vivo and in vitro material. Size polymorphism and long amplification of the ITS II regions, ranging from 1200 to 2000 bp, were observed. The PCR-products were cut with eight different restriction endonucleases and analysed by UPGMA, one analysis from each of the two regions. Conidial morphology was of predictive value for the overall taxonomy of the genus Entomophthora, as the genus clustered together in the analysis of the LSU rDNA. In both analyses the E. muscae complex clustered into three different clades, which support the validity of E. schizophorae and E. syrphi as separate species. Considerable vriation was detected in the E. muscae clade, but it could not be grouped by host, geographic origin or conidial morphology, though the E. muscae s. str. isolates in both analyses grouped together. One isolate with E. muscae-like conidia found on Hymenoptera clustered out within the E. muscae clade, widening the host range for E. muscae significantly.

Jeong, H.-Y., K.-S. Chae, et al. (2004). "Presence of a mannoprotein, MnpAp, in the hyphal cell wall of Aspergillus nidulans." Mycologia, 96(1): 52-56.

mnpA-null mutant as a negative control. The hyphal cell wall of wild type consisted of two layers—an electron- dense smooth outer layer and an electron-translucent

JIA, J. H., J. A. BUSWELL, et al. (1998). "Transformation of the edible fungi, Pleurotus ostreatus and Volvariella volvacea." Mycol. Res.

The presence of a mannoprotein, MnpAp, in the hyphal cell wall of Aspergillus nidulans was examined by immunogold electron microscopy using a

inner layer—while the hyphal cell wall of the mnpA-null mutant had an electron-dense irregular outer layer together with the electron-translucent inner layer. In wild type, MnpAp was present throughout the electron-translucent layer of the hyphal cell wall but was absent from the conidial cell wall. In the mnpA-null mutant, MnpAp was absent from the cell walls of both cell types. These results indicate that MnpAp is present in the hyphal cell wall and that it influences cell wall surface structure.

102: 876-880. A transformation system is described for the edible mushrooms

Pleurotus ostreatus and Volvariella volvacea. The system developed is based on a positive selection strategy using the trp3iar gene from Coprinus cinereus, which confers resistance to the antimetabolite 5- fluoroindole. Transformation frequencies were low in both species. Southern blot analysis confirmed the integration of transforming DNA into the genome of transformants and indicated the presence of tandemly duplicated copies of the plasmid in some of these transformants. The system has potential for introducing bene®cial traits such as enhanced substrate bioconversion and faster sporophore development.

Jianzong, L., H. xinwen, et al. (1993). Macrofungus Flora of Hunan, Hunan

Normal University Press. JIMENEZ, R. M. P., R. M. J. DIAZ, et al. (2002). "Somatic incompatibility of Rosellinia necatrix on avocado plants in southern Spain." Mycol. Res. 106: 239-244.

JOHANNESSON, H., T. LΑΕSSE, et al. (2000). "Molecular and morphological investigation of Daldinia in northern Europe." Mycol. Res.

A somatic incompatibility system was demonstrated in Rosellinia necatrix (anamorph Dematophora necatrix) through barrage formation in pairings among mass fungal isolates from infected avocado trees in commercial orchards in southern Spain, as well as among single ascospore isolates derived from perithecia formed in infected roots. Results revealed the occurrence of high diversity in somatic incompatibility in the R. necatrix population in the study. The occurrence of R. necatrix perithecia in naturally infected avocado roots in the field suggests that such a diversity might originate from sexual reproduction. However, the possibility that other parasexual mechanisms demonstrated in this fungus may contribute to the genetic diversity can not be discounted.

104: 275-280.

JOHANNESSON, H., P. RENVALL, et al. (2000). "Taxonomy of Antrodiella inferred from morphological and molecular data." Mycol. Res.

A molecular and morphological investigation of 35 collections of Daldinia from 11 plant species revealed ®ve taxonomic entities of Daldinia in northern Europe. These include Daldinia concentrica, D. cf. fissa, D. grandis, D. loculata and D. cf. petriniae. D. cf. fissa, D. grandis and D. loculata were found exclusively on burnt wood, but they do not form a monophyletic unit in a phylogenetic tree derived from analysis of the ITS sequence of the ribosomal DNA.

104: 92-99.

JOHANNESSON, H., S. RYMAN, et al. (1999). "Sarcodon imbricatus and S. squamosus ---two confused species." Mycol. Res.

The ITS region of ribosomal DNA was sequenced for 30 isolates or sporocarps (including five type specimens) representing ten European taxa of Antrodiella. Phylogeny was inferred from the sequences by parsimony with Steccherinum ochraceum as an outgroup. The phylogram is discussed in relation to morphological and ecological characteristics of the species. On the basis of both morphological and molecular data Antrodiella pallasii sp. nov. is described. The study did not support the separation of A. beschidica and A. farinacea from A. semisupina. A. faginea is reported from Fennoscandia.

103: 1447-1452. Sarcodon imbricatus has long been used to extract blue and

greenish pigments for wool dyeing. We found that fruit bodies growing with Pinus sylvestris seemed to be superior for dyeing compared to fruit bodies growing with Picea abies, and macroscopical differences between the forms indicated that they are different taxa. By studying sequences of

rDNA ITS and macroscopical characters, two species were recognized. Sarcodon imbricatus grows in association with Picea, and S. squamosus with Pinus. The latter species, described by Schaeffer in 1774, has been lumped with S. imbricatus during the past 50 years, creating great confusion among wool dyers.

JOHANSSON, M., M. DENEKAMP, et al. (1999). "Production and isozyme pattern of extracellular laccase in the S and P intersterility groups of the root pathogen Heterobasidion annosum." Mycol. Res. 103: 365-371.

Johnson, D. A., L. M. Carris, et al. (1997). "Morphological and molecular characterization of Colletotrichum nymphaeae and C. nupharicola sp. nov. on water-lilies (Nymphaea and Nuphar)." Mycological Research

Strains of Heterobasidion annosum belonging to the S and P intersterility groups (IGs) were compared in respect of laccase activity on various substrates. Biomass production was significantly lower in P cultures than in S cultures. By contrast, laccase activity, measured in relation to growth rate, was significantly higher for the P strains tested, compared with a similar number of S strains, particularly in substrates, rich in carbohydrates as well as in inorganic and organic nitrogen. Using the Bradford assay method, P cultures were shown to contain significantly higher amounts of protein than S. The pH optimum of laccase for both IGs was 4.5 with guaiacol as substrate and 5.3 with syringaldazine. Isozyme patterns varied greatly, depending on strain, substrate and incubation time. In P cultures 4-5 bands were obtained, whereas S strain laccase was mostly separated into 2-3 isozyme bands. Only one was significantly different in position between the IGs. The results may help to explain why P strains are more aggressive than S strains as pathogens and wood decayers.

101(6): 641-649. Nine isolates of a Colletotrichum sp. collected in North America on yellow

water-lily (Nuphar luteum subsp. polysepalum) at five locations in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) and one isolate from Nymphaea odorata in Rhode Island were compared to three isolates of C. nymphaeae occurring on Nymphaea alba and Nuphar luteum in Europe. The appressoria of all North American isolates were significantly wider than those of C. nymphaeae. Conidia of the nine PNW isolates were significantly wider than those of both the Rhode Island isolate and C. nymphaeae isolates. All isolates were compared using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and restriction fragment length polymorphism of the ITS region (RFLP-ITS). Two distinct clusters were differentiated in the dendrogram based on the RAPD analysis. The ten North American isolates formed one cluster and the European isolates of C. nymphaeae formed a second cluster. The separation of the North American isolates from the European isolates was supported by distinct restriction digest phenotypes of the ITS region. Based on morphological and molecular characterization the North American fungus is proposed as a new species, C. nupharicola.

Johnson, T. W. (1956). The Genus Achlya: Morphology and Taxonomy. University of Michigan Studies Scientific, by the University of Michigan 1956. XX: 180. JOHNSON-GREEN, P., N. C. KENKEL, et al. (2001). "Soil salinity and arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization of Puccinellia nuttalliana." Mycol. Res. 105: 1094-1100. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are common in moderately saline

soil (colonized by Distichlis stricta) in an inland boreal salt pan in north-central Manitoba, but are absent from adjacent soil that is extremely saline (colonized by Puccinellia nuttalliana). In order to determine if this absence was due to the lack of suitable plant hosts or to edaphic factors, mycorrhizal colonization, vegetation composition, soil salinity and water content were examined along transects between the two vegetation zones. Correlation and principal component analyses revealed that mycorrhizal colonization of P. nuttalliana was positively linked to cover of Distichlis stricta and soil water content, and negatively linked to bare ground. The area closest to the point of salt seepage was uncolonized by mycorrhizal fungi. A transplant experiment confirmed that mycorrhizal fungi are unable to sustain colonization in this area of the salt pan. In this inland salt pan, colonization by mycorrhizal fungi is limited by edaphic factors, and not by the absence of suitable host plants, suggesting that mycorrhizal fungi have a lower limit of salinity tolerance than halophytes such as P. nuttalliana.

JOHNSTON, J. M., E. R. RAMOS, et al. (2000). "Characterization of ScPrI, a small serine protease, from mycelia of Schizophyllum commune." Mycol. Res. 104: 726-731. Schizophyllum commune produces a variety of mycelial

proteolytic enzymes. The speci®c functions of many of these enzymes are unknown, but several have elevated activity when the mycelium is grown in nitrogen-limiting conditions, suggesting a role in mycelial autolysis. We have purified one of these nitrogen-limitation induced enzymes, a small serine protease, ScPrI, from S. commune mycelial extracts. ScPrI has an apparent molecular mass of 22 kDa and is active against classical substrates for chymotrypsin and subtilisin proteases. The pH optimum for activity is neutral to slightly alkaline and the protein denatures above 50 °C. The enzyme is inhibited by PMSF, TPCK and chymostatin, and it shows little dependence on metal ions. Hydrolysis of oxidized insulin B-chain peptide by ScPrI demonstrated cleavage following aromatic amino acids and leucine. Kinetic analysis of hydrolysis of Nsuccinyl- AAPF-pNA and N-succinyl-AAPL-pNA revealed similar Kms for both substrates but the Vmax was nearly 3-fold higher for the substrate with phenylalanine in the P1 position.

JOHNSTON, P. R. (1998). "Leaf endophytes of manuka (Leptospermum scoparium)." Mycol. Res. 102: 1009-1016.

Jolivet, S., N. Arpin, et al. (1998). "Agaricus bisporus browning: a review." Mycological Research

The diversity and frequency of leaf endophytic fungi occurring in naturally regenerating and planted stands of manuka were investigated at several sites. A restricted and characteristic range of species was isolated from all sites, although marked differences were noted between natural and planted stands. In natural stands a Phyllosticta species was the single dominant endophyte. This fungus appears to be host species specific, as it was not isolated from the closely related kanuka (Kunzea ericoides) in mixed, evenaged stands of manuka and kanuka. The frequency of the Phyllosticta sp. fiuctuated greatly between individual trees across single stands. No obvious environmental or other gradients were recognized which could explain this patchy distribution. The Phyllosticta sp., along with the two next most common species in natural stands, Diploceras leptospermi and an unidentified coelomycete, were absent from most of the planted stands sampled, and at very low frequencies when present. Although several of the planted stands were close to natural stands and had been established for several years, the difference between them has been maintained. The most common endophytes in planted stands were Botryosphaeria and Alternaria spp. These species, found at low levels in natural stands, are likely to be ` opportunistic ' endophytes. They are probably also characteristic of the epiphytic mycota, invading only the living leaves of plants under stress. The difference in leaf endophyte communities between planted and natural stands of manuka may be an indication of wider differences in the microbial communities of the respective stands, and could prove significant for site restoration projects. Such projects using nursery-raised manuka plants as a pioneer species may be establishing stands lacking much of the natural diversity of manuka communities for extended periods following establishment.

102(12): 1459-1483. Agaricus bisporus browning is a common and economically detrimental

phenomenon, in which melanogenic phenols are enzymically processed into quinones, which evolve eventually to melanins. This review deals with the two fundamental sides of this process, enzyme(s) and phenolic substrates. Mushroom tyrosinase, the main polyphenol oxidase encountered in the A. bisporus sporophore, is treated in the first part. Its overall molecular architecture, isoforms, primary sequence and genetic background are considered. The presentation of tyrosinase catalytic features, including enzyme assays, kinetic properties, substrates and inhibitors, is followed by a comprehensive description of the active site and reaction mechanisms. Because of their relevance for studies of mushroom browning during development and post-harvest storage, the occurrence and properties of latent enzyme forms, as well as the location

of tyrosinase and variations of its activity during the A. bisporus life cycle, are also reviewed. The second part deals with the substrates, particularly c-l-glutaminyl-4-hydroxybenzene (GHB) and its derivatives. Main data concerning the nature, obtention (by extraction or synthesis), spectrometric and chromatographic characteristics, chemical stabilities and biological properties of these typical Agaricaceae compounds are presented. Their distribution and levels according to the strains and flushes are described, as well as their variations during storage. Thirdly, the relationship between browning and the natural or pathogenic discolouration intensity is developed.

JONER, E. J. and A. JOHANSEN (2000). "Phosphatase activity of external hyphae of two arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi." Mycol. Res. 104: 81-86. Extraradical hyphae of Glomus intraradices or G. claroideum

were extracted from root free sand of two-compartment pot cultures and used to determine fungal phosphatase activity [p-nitrophenyl phosphate (p-NPP) hydrolysis]. Enzyme activity was assayed with respect to pH, temperature and different fractions of the hyphae (external soluble, wall-bound and internal phosphatases). The results showed an overall maximum enzyme activity at pH 5.2--5.6 for both fungi, with a possible secondary maximum at pH ≥8.8 for G. claroideum. Of the two fungi tested, G. intraradices had the highest external phosphatase activity in two experiments and the same activity in one experiment, reaching 184 µmol p-NPP hydrolysed mg-1 d.w. h-1. Phosphatase activity at pH 5.2 decreased sharply with temperature, with 4.5 and 10.5% of the enzyme activity remaining at 5 °C relative to that at 37° for G. intraradices and G. claroideum, respectively. Separation of the phosphatase activity into external soluble, wall-bound and internal fractions revealed that up to 70% of the measured activity was associated with the hyphal wall, and the rest with internal structures. Exuded phosphatases were not found in measurable amounts. The implications of these results on possible hyphal utilization of organic P in soil are

discussed. JONES, E., M. CARPENTER, et al. (1999). "Co-transformation of the sclerotial mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans with hygromycin B resistance and b-glucuronidase markers." Mycol. Res. 103: 929-937. Coniothyrium minitans was successfully co-transformed with

the uidA (b-glucuronidase) and the hygromycin-resistance (hph) genes. Both were under the control of the glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate promoter from Aspergillus nidulans. Hygromycin resistance was used as a selectable marker for transformation. In successive transformation experiments, transformation frequencies of up to 1000 transformants lg-1of plasmid DNA were obtained for isolate A69. Of the ten monospore hygromycin-resistant cultures tested, nine also expressed the uidA gene. Expression of hph and uidA was stable in all transformants after several

months of successive subculturing on non-selective medium, and after passage through a sclerotium of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Southern hybridization analyses showed all transformants carried multiple copies of each marker gene. When grown on PDA, the culture morphology of three of the transformants of (Tx2, Tx3 and Tx4) was similar to the wild type. Four of the ®ve transformants (Tx3, Tx4, Tx21 and Tx24) grew as well as the wild type on different media, and responded to changes in water potential in a similar manner to the wild type. All five transformants were equally parasitic on sclerotia of S. sclerotiorum compared with the wild type. Transformants Tx3 and Tx4 were the most similar to the wild type in biological characteristics and will be used in future studies. The results indicate that hph- and uidA-transformed strains of C. minitans will be useful for ecological studies on its survival and dissemination.

Jones, E. B. G. (2004). Fungi on Arthropods, Crustaceans and fish. Thai Fungal Diversity, BIOTEC, Thailand: 227-239.

Jones, E. B. G. and K. D. Hyde (2004). "Introduction to Thai fungal diversity." Thai Fungal Diversity

A wide range of fungi colonizes a range of domestic and wild animals. Fish are prone to attack by Saprolegniaceous organisms, while members of the Hypocreales parasitize...........

: 7-35.

Jones, E. B. G. and K. D. Hyde (2004). Epilogue. Thai Fungal Diversity

This chapter reviews the history of mycology in Thailand, the earlier days of which were primarily concerned with plant pathology. Early documentation of fungal diversity was by overseas mycologists but more recently Thai mycologist have developed a number of centers for the study of fungi. There is no checklist of Thai fungi although BIOTEC has established a database that records some of the fungi collected. We present here a list of many of the new fungal species described from Thailand, some 274 taxa. There is no known figure for the number of fungi recorded for Thailand, but Hywel-Jones (2001) suggests this to be 2,000-3,000 species. Evidence from the data presented in this book however, indicates that the figure may exceed 6,000 fungi. Current mycological research in Thailand is reviewed; attention is drawn to the need to train more taxonomists in Asia and the prospects for the future of mycology in the principality is considered.

, BIOTEC, Thailand: 259-262.

Jones, E. B. G., L. Manoch, et al. (2004). "Chromista (Stramenopiles)." Thai

This volume has reviewed our current knowledge of fungal diversity in Thailand, and both taxonomic and ecological groups have been convered. It highlights the richness of the fungi to be found in the principality ................

Fungal Diversity: 51-60.

Stramenopiles are a small group of fungal-like organism that are widely studied by mycologists. They are unicellular, or filamentous, the cell walls are not composed of chitin or Beta-glucan, mitochondria have tubular cristae and Golgi bodies are often present. They are mostly free-living with zoospores. They occur predominantly in water bodies or damp soil where they often cause root rot of commercial crops. Stramenopiles are widely distributed in fresh, brackish and seawater; the marine species are the least known and researched. The latter have recently attracted interest for their ability to produce omega 3 -fatty acids.

Jones, E. B. G., A. Pilantanapak, et al. (2006). "Thai marine fungal diversity." Sonklanakarin J. Sci. Technol.,2006 28(4): 687-708.

Jones, E. B. G., M. Tantichareon, et al. (2004). Thai Fungal Diversity

The marine fungaldiversity of Thailand was investigated and 116 Ascomycota, 3 Basidiomycota, 28 anamorphic fungi, 7 Stramenopiles recorded, with 30 tentatively identified. These species have primarily been collected from drifwood and attached decayed wood of mangrove trees. The holotype number of 15 taxa is from Thailand and 33 are new records from the contry.

, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC). Jones, E. B. G., S. W. Wong, et al. (1999). "Lignicolous freshwater Ascomycota from Thailand: Micropeltopsis quinquecladiopsis sp. nov." Mycological Research 103(6): 729-735.

JONES, E. E., A. STEWART, et al. (2003). "Use of Coniothyrium minitans transformed with the hygromycin B resistance gene to study survival and infection of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum sclerotia in soil." Mycol. Res.

A new freshwater ascomycete Micropeltopsis quinquecladiopsis sp. nov. was collected on submerged twigs in a stream in Thailand. The fungus is described at the light microscope, scanning and transmission eletron microscope level. Distinctive features are the appendaged 1-septate hyaline ascospores. The appendage arises as an outgrowth of the episporium from a basal stalk, then divides into five arms (three long and two short). The episporium and appendages are surrounded by an indistinct (at light microscope level) mucilaginous layer. The fungus is assigned to the Dothideales (Trichothyriaceae). Ascospore appendage ontogeny is compared with those of marine Ascomycota (Halosphaeriales).

107: 267-276. A Coniothyrium minitans strain (T3) co-transformed with the

genes for β-glucuronidase (uidA) and hygromycin phosphotransferase (hph), the latter providing resistance to the antibiotic hygromycin B, was used to investigate the survival and infection of sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum by C. minitans over time in four different soils. Infection of sclerotia was rapid in all cases, with the behaviour of transformant T3 and

wild type parent A69 being similar. Differences were seen between the soils in the rate of infection of sclerotia by C. minitans and in their indigenous fungal populations. Amendment of agar with hygromycin B enabled the quantification of C. minitans in soil by dilution plating where there was a high background of other microorganisms. In Lincoln soil from New Zealand, which had a natural but low population of C. minitans, the hygromycin B resistance marker allowed the umambiguous discrimination of the applied transformed isolate from the indigenous hygromycin B sensitive one. In this soil, although the indigenous C. minitans population was detected from sclerotia, none were recovered on the dilution plates, indicating the increased sensitivity of C. minitans detection from soil using sclerotial baiting. C. minitans was a very efficient parasite, being able to infect a large proportion of sclerotia within a relatively short time from an initially low soil population. The addition of hygromycin B to agar also allowed the detection of C. minitans from decaying sclerotia by inhibiting secondary fungal colonisers. This is the first report to show that fungi colonising sclerotia already infected by C. minitans mask the

detection of C. minitans from sclerotia rather than displacing the original parasite. JONES, K. G. and M. BLACKWELL (1998). "Phylogenetic analysis of ambrosial species in the genus Raffaelea based on 18S rDNA sequences." Mycol. Res. 102: 661-665.

JONES, K. G., P. F. DOWD, et al. (1999). "Polyphyletic origins of yeast-like endocytobionts from anobiid and cerambycid beetles." Mycol. Res.

Cladistic analysis of characters derived from nuclear-encoded 18S rDNA sequences was used to infer the phylogenetic placement of ambrosial species of the anamorph genus Raffaelea among perithecial ascomycetes. Of eight species in the genus investigated, seven resolve as a monophyletic lineage that forms a sister group to the sexual genus Ophiostoma. Raffaelea hennebertii, the single species excluded from this lineage, appears to be allied phylogenetically with species of Melanospora. These data are discussed in relation to the monophyly of Raffaelea and its relationship with other sexual and asexual fungal associates of wood-boring Coleoptera. In addition, we report the presence of significant length variation in PCR-amplified 18S rDNA fragments for three of the Raffaelea species studied.

103: 542-546. Cladistic analysis of nucleotide characters derived from partial

18S rDNA sequences has been used to infer phylogenetic relationships among five Candida species that exist in nature strictly as intracellular gut endocytobionts of anobiid or cerambycid beetles. Concordant with their assumed taxonomic status, all five species resolve within Saccharomycetales. For both the anobiid-derived taxa, C. ernobii, C. karawaeiwii and C. xestobii, and the cerambycid-derived taxa, C. tenuis and C. rhagii, this phylogenetic position clearly discriminates Candida yeasts from the anobiid yeast-like endocytobionts in Symbiotaphrina which

resolve within filamentous ascomycetes. The analyses provide no evidence for a discrete lineage of Candida endocytobionts within Saccharomycetales. Rather, each of the anobiid symbionts and the cerambycid-derived species resolve in separate clades. These data confirm the polyphyletic origins of intracellular symbioses between ascomycetes and Coleoptera and provide another example of convergent evolution in fungal-arthropod associations. The implications of the phylogenetic data for theories on the origins of endocytobiosis are discussed.

JONES, M. J. and L. D. DUNKLE (1998). "Factors regulating the synthesis of a cyclic peptide pathotoxin produced by Cochliobolus carbonum." Mycol. Res. 102: 1381-1386.

JONG, S. N. d., C. A. LEVESQUE, et al. (2001). "Phylogenetic relationships among Neofabraea species causing tree cankers and bull's-eye rot of apple based on DNA sequencing of ITS nuclear rDNA, mitochondrial rDNA, and the b-tubulin gene." Mycol. Res.

The cyclic tetrapeptide, HC-toxin, is a host-selective virulence determinant produced by the foliar pathogen of maize, Cochliobolus carbonum race 1. HC-toxin is synthesized by a multifunctional peptide synthetase (HTS) encoded by the HTS1 gene. Analyses of culture filtrates identified low toxin-producing and high toxin-producing strains among field isolates of the pathogen. These strains were analyzed by reverse transcription PCR to determine whether synthesis of the toxin is directly influenced by HTS1 transcript levels. The results indicated that expression of HTS1 was up-regulated and reached maximal levels several days before the toxin was detected in the culture medium and that HTS1 transcript levels were not correlated with toxigenicity. These observations suggest that genes in addition to HTS1 are involved in regulation of HC-toxin biosynthesis. The toxin-producing ability of low toxinproducing isolates was enhanced following inoculation and reisolation from leaves of susceptible maize genotypes, suggesting that additional factors within the host environment influence toxin production during pathogenesis.

105: 658-669. Three fungal species responsible for anthracnose canker,

perennial canker, and bull's-eye rot of apple have been considered members of the genus Pezicula for a number of years. Recent studies, however, have provided evidence to (re-)classify these species as Neofabraea. There has been a long historical debate regarding the taxonomy of two of these fungi. In Europe, both Neofabraea malicorticis and N. perennans have generally been considered N. malicorticis, while in North America a species distinction has been maintained. Phylogenetic analyses of Neofabraea isolates were based on DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer region of nuclear rDNA (38 isolates), the mitochondrial rDNA small subunit (partial ; 48 isolates), the b-tubulin gene (partial ; 25 isolates), and a combined data set (21 isolates). Our work

provides evidence for the existence of four distinct Neofabraea apple pathogens including N. malicorticis, N. perennans, N. alba, and a putative new Neofabraea species that was isolated in both Europe and eastern North America. Our results indicate that the primary Neofabraea species causing tree cankers and bull's-eye rot in North America are N. malicorticis and N. perennans in the west, and N. alba in eastern Canada. N. perennans, N. alba, and the undescribed Neofabraea species were found in Europe but the presence of N. malicorticis was not confirmed by our limited sampling. Inclusion of Rosa spp. in the host range of N. malicorticis is merited.

JONSSON, T., S. KOKALJ, et al. (1999). "Ectomycorrhizal community structure in a limed spruce forest." Mycol. Res. 103: 501-508.

JOSEFSEN, L. and S. K. CHRISTIANSEN (2002). "PCR as a tool for the early detection and diagnosis of common bunt in wheat, caused by Tilletia tritici." Mycol. Res.

The aim of this study was to compare the ectomycorrhizal community structure in spruce stands treated with different levels of dolomite lime. ITS-typing of randomly sampled mycorrhizas, without prior morphotyping, was used. Sixteen different ITS-RFLP patterns were found. By comparison with the available reference material, nine of these could be identified at least to genus level. Variation within treatments was large and statistically there were no significant differences between treatments with respect to specific taxa. A similarity assessment did, however, show less similarity between control and high dolomite (HD) than between low

dolomite (LD) and either control or HD, suggesting a shift in the community structure as a result of the treatment. The fruitbody production at Hasslov had been recorded in a different study during 1985-92 and 28 ectomycorrhizal species had been found in the treatments examined in the present study. Except for three species, all were present in the reference material used for identification of the ITS-types. Only three species, Russula ochroleuca, Lactarius necator and Boletus chrysenteron were found as both mycorrhizas and fruitbodies. There were five taxa which occurred on over 5% of the screened roots. These were Thelephora terrestris, 21.5%; Tylopilus felleus, 13%; Tylospora flbrillosa, 13%; and two unidentified taxa, 10% and 6%. Together these five taxa colonized over 60% of the mycorrhizal roots investigated, yet none of them was found among the fruitbodies recorded in the above-ground study. Despite the differences in taxa found below and above ground, similarity tests between treatments using the fruitbody data also revealed a shift in community structure.

106: 1287-1292. A method for the early detection and diagnosis of common

bunt, caused by Tilletia tritici, has been developed. The technique is based on a nested PCR amplification of DNA from T. tritici in infected plant inflorescence tissue at the stage of internode elongation. Primers

amplifying a 212 bp fragment in T. tritici were designed on the basis of sequences in the ITS2 region in the ribosomal RNA genes. Disease diagnosis obtained with nested PCR amplification correlated well with the

conventional disease diagnosis, which involves manual observation of disease symptoms at maturity. With the present method, wheat varieties can be screened for resistance towards common bunt at the first node stage. There was no variation between the ITS2 region from T. tritici, T. laevis, T. controversa, and T. bromi and the primers are therefore not species specific. ThePCRdiagnosis method has only been validated for common bunt caused by T. tritici, but it is likely also to be applicable to T. laevis and T. controversa.

JOSEPH, A. V. and P. MANIMOHAN (1998). "Rediscovery of two rare agaricoid basidiomycetes." Mycol. Res. 102: 476-478. Gloeocantharellus lateritius and Lentinellus pseudobarbatus,

previously known only from their type specimens, are described, illustrated and discussed based on fresh collections made in southern India.

Jr, G. P. (2003). "Coelomycetes in Dominican and Mexican amber." Mycol. Res. 107: 117-122.

jr, O. K. M., T. W. HENKEL, et al. (2001). "Pseudotulostoma, a remarkable new volvate genus in the Elaphomycetaceae from Guyana." Mycol. Res.

Three species of fossil epiphyllous coelomycetes are described from Dominican and Mexican amber in the new genera, Asteromites gen. nov., Leptostromites gen. nov. and Leptothyrites gen. nov. Characters of the pycnidia and spores most closely resemble members of their extant respective genera, Leptostroma, Asteromella, and Leptothyrium, respectively. A. mexicanus sp. nov. occurs on a petal (possibly from a caesalpinoid legume such as Peltogyne) in Mexican amber. Leptostromites ellipticus sp. nov. occurs on a dicot leaf in Dominican amber, and Leptothyrites dominicanus sp. nov. on a monocot (grass ?) leaf in Dominican amber.

105: 1268-1272.

JU, Y.-M. and J. D. ROGERS (2001). "New and interesting Biscogniauxia taxa, with a key to the world species." Mycol. Res.

Pseudotulostoma volvata gen. sp. nov. is described from the south-central Pakaraima Mountains of Guyana. Pseudotulostoma volvata is associated with ectomycorrhizal Dicymbe corymbosa trees (Caesalpiniaceae) and placed in the Ascomycota, Eurotiales, Elaphomycetaceae. Included are a description of the genus and species, illustrations of the macroscopic and microscopic features, and a discussion of the distinctive features and phylogenetic placement of this fungus.

105: 1123-1126. Six new taxa of Biscogniauxia are described from Taiwan,

including four new species : B. ambiens, B. cylindrispora, B. formosana, and B. latirima ; and two new varieties : B. albosticta var. orientalis and B. formosana var. kentingensis. Their cultural and anamorphic data are also provided. A description is provided for B. doidgeae based on its type. Cultural and anamorphic data are given for B. philippinensis var. microspora. A key to the 57 known species of Biscogniauxia in the world is also given.

JU, Y.-M. and J. D. ROGERS (2001). "Xylaria cranioides and Poronia pileiformis and their anamorphs in culture, and implications for the status of Penzigia." Mycol. Res. 105: 1134-1136.

Ju, Y.-M., J. D. Rogers, et al. (2003). "The genus Theissenia: T. pyrenocrata, T. cinerea sp. nov., and T. eurima sp. nov.." Mycologia,

Cultures of Penzigia cranioides and Poronia pileiformis obtained from material collected in Taiwan produced anamorphs in Xylocoremium and Lindquistia, respectively. The former is reminiscent of those produced by undoubted Xylaria species. Penzigia cranioides, the type species of the genus, is therefore accepted as X. cranioides. Penzigia thus becomes a taxonomic synonym of Xylaria. The position of P. pileiformis in Poronia is considered justified primarily on its anamorph; an epitype is designated.

95(1): 109-116.

Ju, Y.-M., J. D. Rogers, et al. (2004). "New Hypoxylon species and notes on some names associated with or related to Hypoxylon." Mycologia,

The diagnosis of Theissenia is emended to include taxa that lack a definite central perithecial columella and taxa that feature ascospores with a germ slit. Theissenia cinerea is described as a new species that lacks a perithecial columella; T. eurima is described as a new species with ascospores having a germ slit. The type species, T. pyrenocrata, is redescribed and compared with the new species. The taxonomic position of Theissenia is discussed.

96(1): 154-161. These new species of Hypoxylon are described: H.

elevatidiscus, H. squamulosum, H. subalbum and H. vinosopulvinatum. A referenced list of all

Ju, Y.-M., J. D. Rogers, et al. (2005). "New Hypoxylon and Nemania species from Costa Rica and Taiwan." Mycologia,

Hypoxylon species known to us described since 1996 is given and a key presented. Names associated with Hypoxylon that were not given in the Ju and Rogers monograph are annotated and diagnostic corrections of taxa discussed in that

monograph are given.

97(2): 562-567. Six xylariaceous fungi, including two Hypoxylon taxa and four

Nemania taxa, are described as new. They were collected from either

Costa Rica or

Ju, Y.-M., J. D. Rogers, et al. (2004). "Amphirosellinia gen. nov. and a new species of Entoleuca." Mycologia,

Taiwan. Two of the Nemania species—N. flavitextura and N. primolutea—were cultured and typical Geniculosporium anamorphs were produced.

96(6): 1393-1402. The new genus Amphirosellinia is erected to include five

xylariaceous fungi with erumpent or immersed perithecioid stromata. Amphirosellinia fushanensis, A. nigrospora and A. tennesseensis are newly described, whereas A. evansii and A. quercina are new combinations. Synnematous, geniculosporium-like anamorphs are known for A. fushanensis, A. nigrospora, A. tennesseensis and A. evansii; the anamorph of the latter species was produced on natural substratum, whereas those of the former three species were produced in culture. Dichotomous keys are presented for the Amphirosellinia species and for some genera that might be confused with Amphirosellinia. Entoleuca ellisii also is described as new. It readily can be separated from the known species in the genus by its smaller ascospore size range and short ascospore germ slit.

Ju, Y.-M., J. D. Rogers, et al. (2005). "Amphirosellinia gen. nov. and a new species of Entoleuca." Mycologia, 96(6): 1355–1369. JUDELSON, H. S. and G. YANG (1998). "Recombination pathways in Phytophthora infestans : polyploidy resulting from aberrant sexual development and zoosporemediated heterokaryosis." Mycol. Res. 102: 1245-1253.

Juliana CAMARGOS OLIVEIRA, Nadya DA SILVA CASTRO, et al. (2005). "Comparative analysis of the cDNA encoding a ClpA homologue of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis." Mycol. Res.

Pathways of genetic transfer outside of the normal sexual cycle were examined in Phytophthora infestans. Transformants expressing genes for resistance to G418 or hygromycin were employed to select hybrids or recombinants on double-drug media after in vitro or in planta mixing of zoospores or mycelia. In experiments using pairs of isolates of the same mating type, zoospores fused to form doubly resistant colonies. These were shown to be heterokaryons containing non-recombinant parental nuclei based on the analysis of DNA markers in the hybrids and their single-nuclear derivatives. Mixtures of vegetative hyphae failed to produce hybrids. The application of the drug selection scheme to mating cultures of A1 and A2 strains generally yielded normal progeny, but atypical

progeny were also recovered which appeared to be polyploids since all markers from the parents were present.

109(6): 707-716. A cDNA encoding a chaperone ClpA homologue of

Paracoccidioides brasiliensis was isolated and characterized. The ClpA

belongs to a group of ClpATPAses proteins, which are highly conserved, and include several heat inducible molecular chaperones. In this study, a 2879 bp cDNA designated as Pbclpa was obtained which encodes a predicted protein of 927 amino acids. Characteristic consensus motifs of the ClpATPases family are present. The PbClpA middle

Julich, W. (1981). Higher Taxa of Basidiomycetes. Bibliotheca Mycologica

region was compared to other related ClpA and ClpB proteins from fungi and bacteria. Comparative analysis demonstrated in the middle region the presence of a heptad repeat sequence, characteristic of ClpBs from prokaryotes and fungi, which are absent in ClpAs from prokaryotes but were present in all described fungal ClpAs. Our comparative analysis reveals that one of the criteria typically used to distinguish the prokaryotic subfamilies ClpA and ClpB, the size of the middle sequence, may not be useful in fungi. Phylogenetic analyses were performed with the complete sequences of ClpAs from fungi and bacteria and with the middle regions of those ClpAs present at NCBI and Pfam databases. Our results indicated that both types of analysis can be useful as a tool in the determination of phylogenetic relationships.

, J. Cramer. Band 85: 485. Jumpponen, A., A. W. Claridge, et al. (2004). "Ecological relationships among hypogeous fungi and trees: inferences from association analysis integrated with habitat modeling." Mycologia, 96(3): 510-525.

ectomycorrhizal fungi and potential host tree species from 136 study plots in forested habitats in southeastern mainland Australia. Results from both types of statistical approaches were highly congruent. As with previous experimental studies, no exclusive fungus-host tree associations were identified. However, the likelihood of occurrence of some species of fungi increased significantly in the presence of particular host tree species, suggesting fungal host preference or shared habitat preferences. Similarly, while most associations among fungal species were nonsignificant, a few taxa were more likely to be found in the presence of certain others. These were termed positively associated and are thought to share common climatic and microhabitat requirements or host preferences. In contrast, other combinations of fungal species were negatively associated with one another, perhaps indicating different habitat preferences. Furthermore, the finding that some fungi occurred

Jumpponen, A. and L. C. Johnson (2005). "Can rDNA analyses of diverse fungal

Association analyses by contingency tables and generalized linear modeling were compared to infer relationships among hypogeous (belowgroundfruiting)

more frequently in the presence of certain tree species provides a starting point for selection of compatible host-fungus combinations that could be used for forest nursery and restoration applications.

communities in soil and roots detect effects of environmental manipulations—a case study from tallgrass prairie." Mycologia, 97(5): 1177–1194. We tested whether fungal communities are impacted by

nitrogen deposition or increased precipitation by PCR-amplifying partial fungal rRNA genes from 24 soil and 24 root samples from a nitrogen enrichment and irrigation experiment in a tallgrass prairie at Konza Prairie Biological Station in northeastern Kansas, U.S.A. Obtained fungal sequences represented great fungal diversity that was distributed mainly in ascomycetes and basiodiomycetes; only a few zygomycetes and glomeromycetes were detected. Conservative extrapolated estimates of the fungal species richness suggest that the true richness may be at least twice as high as observed. The effects of nitrogen enrichment or irrigation on fungal community composition, diversity or clone richness could not be unambiguously assessed because of the overwhelming diversity. However, soil communities differed from root communities in diversity, richness and composition. The compositional differences were

Jumpponen, A., K. K. Newsham, et al. (2003). "Filamentous ascomycetes inhabiting the rhizoid environment of the liverwort Cephaloziella varians in Antarctica are assessed by direct PCR and cloning." Mycologia,

largely attributable to an abundant, soil-inhabiting group placed as a well-supported sister group to other ascomycetes. This group likely represents a novel group of fungi. We conclude that the great fungal richness in this ecosystem precluded a reliable assessment of anthropogenic impacts on soil or rhizosphere communities using the applied sampling scheme, and that detection of novel fungi in soil may be more a rule than an exception.

95(3): 457-466. We molecularly assesed the ascomycetous fungal

communities inhabiting the rhizoid environment of Cephaloziella varians, collected at Rothera Point on the western Antarctic Peninsula. The RFLPphenotyped and cloned PCR products of a partial small subunit of the ribosomal RNA gene were sequenced and analyzed with neighbor joining (NJ) and maximum parsimony (MP). Both analyses identified four bootstrap-supported groups: (i) a sister group to Onygenales, (ii) a well-supported clade with Phialocephala fortinii, (iii) a large group of clones nested within Chaetothyriales, and (iv) a group nested within Eurotiales with a likely affinity to the genus

Aspergillus. An additional marginally supported clade, including helotialean Hymenoscyphus fructigenus, was detected in the NJ analysis. Placement of one clone (possibly helotialean) was not supported by either analysis. We included Hymenoscyphus ericae (Helotiales) in our analyses to test for its presence in clone libraries. None of our clones showed strongly supported affinity to H. ericae. The culture-independent technique proved useful for assessing the composition of rhizoid fungal communities, although it remains unknown whether any of these fungi colonize C. varians tissues. Direct-community assays of this kind might be best combined with traditional isolation techniques to get a more holistic view of fungi occupying plant tissues.

JUNG, T., D. E. L. COOKE, et al. (1999). "Phytophthora quercina sp. nov., causing root rot of European oaks." Mycol. Res. 103: 785-798.

JUNG, T., E. M. HANSEN, et al. (2002). "Three new species of Phytophthora from European oak forests." Mycol. Res.

In a 3 year study of oak decline in Central and Southern Europe, a papillate homothallic Phytophthora species was isolated consistently, with other Phytophthora spp., from necrotic fine roots by direct plating on to selective agar medium and from rhizosphere soil samples by baiting with leaves of Quercus robur. The morphology, physiology, RAPD banding patterns and pathogenicity against apple fruits of this Phytophthora sp. are described and compared with those of other papillate Phytophthora species from Waterhouse's Group I, namely P. cactorum, P. clandestina, P. idaei, P. iranica, P. pseudotsugae and P. tentaculata, and semipapillate Group III P. citricola. The papillate Phytophthora isolates from oak differed from all other Group I species by their uniform,

dome-shaped and cottonwool-like colony growth pattern on V8 juice agar and malt extract agar, the frequent occurrence of sympodially branched primary hyphae, a high proportion of elongated, ellipsoid or ovoid oogonia, the absence of amphigynous antheridia and RAPD banding patterns. Additionally, there was no other species in Group I with as much variation in size and shape of the sporangia or large proportion of sporangia with a curved apex, hyphal projections, lateral displacement of the papilla and lateral attachment to the sporangiophore. In pathogenicity tests with infested soil, the isolates proved to be more pathogenic to Q. robur than any other Phytophthora sp. recovered from declining oaks in Central Europe. Based on their unique combination of cultural, sporangial and gametangial morphology, pathogenicity and close association with Quercus but not other trees, the papillate Phytophthora isolates from oak are described as Phytophthora quercina sp. nov.

106: 397-411. In several studies of oak decline in Europe, one semi-papillate

(Phytophthora psychrophila sp. nov.) and two nonpapillate homothallic Phytophthora species (P. europaea and P. uliginosa spp. nov.) were isolated, together with other Phytophthora species, from rhizosphere soil samples which could not be assigned to existing taxa. P. psychrophila differs from other semi-papillate species of Waterhouse's morphological Group IV, like P. ilicis and P. hibernalis, by its uniform, dome-shaped and cottonwool-like colony growth pattern on V8 juice agar and malt extract agar, the occurrence of sympodially branched primary hyphae, the high variation in size and shape of the sporangia, shorter pedicels, lower optimum temperature for growth, and ITS sequences. P. europaea is distinguished from related nonpapillate Group V and VI species, namely P. fragariae, P. cambivora, and the `alder phytophthora', by producing oogonia with tapered bases, irregular walls and exclusively paragynous

antheridia, its cardinal temperatures for growth, and ITS sequences. P. uliginosa differs from related Group V and VI species by its large oogonia with exclusively paragynous antheridia, the predominant occurrence of ellipsoid sporangia with markedly wide exit pores, its slow growth, low cardinal temperatures, its colony growth patterns, and ITS sequences. P. uliginosa is separated from P. europaea by its larger oogonia without tapering bases, lower cardinal temperatures and growth rates, different colony growth patterns, and greater aggressiveness on Q. robur.

JUNG, T., J. NECHWATAL, et al. (2003). "Phytophthora pseudosyringae sp. nov., a new species causing root and collar rot of deciduous tree species in Europe." Mycol. Res. 107: 772-789.

Jungehulsing, U. and P. Tudzynski (1997). "Analysis of genetic diversity in Claviceps purpurea by RAPD markers." Mycological Research

In several studies of oak decline in Europe, a semi-papillate homothallic Phytophthora taxon was consistently isolated, together with other Phytophthora species, from rhizosphere soil samples. It was also found associated with necrotic fine roots and stem necroses of Fagus sylvatica and Alnus glutinosa. Due to morphological and physiological similarities, the semi-papillate isolates were previously identified as P. syringae by various authors. The morphology, physiology and pathogenicity against fine roots of Quercus robur, Q. petraea and F. sylvatica, bark of A. glutinosa, leaves of Ilex aquifolium and apple fruits of this Phytophthora species are described and compared with those of related and similar Phytophthora species, namely P. ilicis, P. psychrophila, P. quercina, P. citricola and P. syringae. The phylogenetic placement on the basis of ITS and mtDNA sequence data was also examined. Isolates of this taxon produce colonies with stellate to rosaceous growth patterns and limited aerial mycelium on various agar media. Antheridia are predominantly paragynous. In water culture catenulate hyphal swellings and semi-papillate caducous sporangia, that are usually limoniform, ellipsoid or ovoid, are formed abundandly, mostly in lax or dense sympodia. This taxon is a moderately slow growing, low temperature species with optimum and maximum temperatures around 20 and 25 °C, respectively. Tested isolates are moderately aggressive to fine roots of oaks and beech, highly aggressive to holly leaves and apple fruits, and slightly pathogenic to alder bark. Thirteen tested isolates had an identical and distinct ITS sequence which was more similar to that of P. ilicis and P. psychrophila than any other known taxa. On the basis of their unique combination of morphological characters, colony growth patterns, cardinal temperatures for growth, growth rates, pathogenicity to oaks, beech, alder, apple and holly, their host range, and ITS and mtDNA sequences the semi-papillate caducous Phytophthora isolates from oaks, beech and alder are clearly separated from related and similar Phytophthora spp., and described as a new species, P. pseudosyringae sp. nov.

101(1): 1-6.

Twenty-nine field isolates of the broad host range pathogen Claviceps purpurea from various host plants and different geographical origin were compared by RAPD analysis. The RAPD patterns obtained showed considerable diversity ; it was even possible to discriminate all strains tested with single primers, indicating an unusual high degree of genetic diversity within this species. A parsimony analysis using the PAUP software grouped most strains from specific host plants together, indicating some degree of host specificity in this fungus. Those strains derived from rye seem to be genetically less diverse than those from other host plants. However, the geographic origin also seems to be important.

Juntaranotuy, P., S. mutapa, et al. (2006). Flora of Purua, Biodiversity Research and Training Program. JUSTESEN, A. F., D. YOHALEM, et al. (2003). "Genetic diversity in potato field populations of Thanatephorus cucumeris AG-3, revealed by ITS polymorphism and RAPD markers." Mycol. Res. 107: 1323-1331.

Kaewsrithong, S. (1999). Fungal Diseases of Forest Tree Seedlings in Nurseries. Forest Biology

DNA sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer region 1 (ITS1) and random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers were used to survey genetic variability in relation to agronomic and regional factors among 60 isolates of Thanatephorus cucumeris (anamorph Rhizoctonia solani) collected from lesions on potato stems or sclerotia of potato tubers. Based on comparative sequence analysis it was shown that all isolates belonged to anastomosis group 3 subgroup

Potato Type (AG-3 PT). ITS1 sequence polymorphisms were found within 45 of the 60 isolates showing that different types of the ITS-region are present in individual isolates. Cloning and sequence analysis of the ITS1 region from three selected isolates with sequence polymorphism showed that two different ITS1-types were present in each isolate. RAPD analysis identified 51 RAPD-phenotypes among the 60 investigated isolates indicating a high level of diversity within the subgroup AG-3 PT. Putative clonal isolates with identical RAPD- and ITS1-types were identified within fields, and in one case the same phenotype was found in two different fields separated by several hundred kilometers. Population subdivision analysis based on phenotypic as well as genotypic diversities showed differentiation among populations from different fields when isolates were sampled from tubers, indicating restricted gene flow among soil populations. Low differentiation was seen among field populations sampled from stems, indicating that gene flow is taking place. The population structure was not influenced by the previous crop in the rotation nor by the two cultivars ‘Sava’ and ‘Bintje’.

. Bangkok, Kasetsart University: 94. The study of fungal diseases of forest tree seedlings in nurseries was

carried out by direct microscopic examination onf fungal organisms and compared with the same diseases from other research publications and

compared with the..... KAGAN-ZUR, V., J. KUANG, et al. (1999). "Potential verification of a host plant for the desert truffle Terfezia pfeilii by molecular methods." Mycol. Res. 103: 1270-1274.

T. pfeilii fruit-body ITS-RFLP fragments. The significance of this finding with regard to T. pfeilii potential host range is discussed. KAITERA, J., M. M. MULLER, et al. (1998). "ÔOccurrence of Gremmeniella abietina var. abietina large- and small-tree types in separate Scots pine stands in northern Finland and in the Kola Peninsula, Russia." Mycol. Res.

The ITS region of the rRNA genes was amplified using DNA extracted from Terfezia pfeilii fruit-bodies. Two types of restriction fragment profiles were revealed among 11 fruit-bodies by the Hinf I restriction enzyme. An additional four truffles collected from the same field one year later were found to have a mixed profile combining both types. Germinated spores from one of these mixedpro file individuals had a single profile belonging to one or the other of the two types. Roots collected around and underneath one Terfezia fruit-body were traced to different plants. Roots of a watermelon plant (Citrullus vulgaris) showed a non-vesicular-arbuscular endomycorrhizal association. Restricted ITS amplification fragments of mycorrhized roots from C. vulgaris were shown to match

102: 199-205. Variation in Gremmeniella abietina var. abietina was studied in

three stands of Scots pine in northern Finland and in the Kola Peninsula. Eighty-four isolates of large- and small-tree types of G. abietina var. abietina (LTT and STT, respectively) were identified on the basis of tentative characteristics (spore morphology, disease type and host size), fatty acid and sterol profiles (FAST), and random amplified microsatellite technique (RAMS). Both LTT and STT occurred in all three stands. In general, the classifications obtained using the three methods agreed with one another, although a few contradicting results were observed. Variation in fatty acids and sterols in G. abietina var. abietina was rather low, although the amounts of some individual extractives showed statistically significant differences between the stands. All pathogenic and asymptotic G. abietina var. abietina isolates originating from branches located at heights above the annual snow cover were identified as LTT based on RAMS, but some were grouped to STT according to their FAST profiles. Both STT and LTT were detected among the isolates obtained from seedlings according to both FAST and RAMS. In addition, in two cases RAMS markers thought to be STT- or LTT-specific were found in the same isolate. The results presented here suggest that LTT of G. abietina var. abietina caused the devastating epidemics on pines in the first-thinning stage or middle age similar to pines in this study reported in northern Finland and in the Kola Peninsula during the 1980s.

KAITERA, J., L. SEITAMAKI, et al. (1999). "Inoculation of known and potential alternate hosts with Peridermium pini and Cronartium flaccidum aeciospores." Mycol. Res. 103: 235-241.

KAITERA, J., L. SEITAMAKI, et al. (1999). "Morphological variation of Peridermium pini and Cronartium flaccidum aeciospores." Mycol. Res.

The ability of Peridermium pini and Cronartium flaccidum aeciospores and mycelium to infect known (Vincetoxicum spp., Pedicularis spp., Paeonia spp.) and potential (Melampyrum spp., Pyrola sp., Dactylorhiza sp., Solidago sp., Salix sp., Geranium sp. and Maianthemum sp.) alternate hosts was tested. None of the mycelial cultures and only 10% of the aeciospore samples produced uredinia or telia on the tested species suggesting that most aeciospores in Finland belong to the autoecious P. pini. Aeciospores from three locations in northern Finland, however, produced uredinia or telia on Vincetoxicum mongolicum, V. nigrum, V. fuscatum, Paeonia anomala, three P. officinalis cultivars, Melampyrum sylvaticum and Pedicularis palustris either in vitro or in vivo, indicating that these aeciospores belong to the heteroecious C. flaccidum, which occurs sporadically in Finland. Interestingly, the host-specificity of C. flaccidum encountered in Finland was very low (e.g. one sample produced uredinia or telia on eight species). This, added to the wide distribution of Melampyrum spp. over northern Fennoscandia, suggests that the main alternate hosts for C. flaccidum in Finland may be in Melampyrum rather than Pedicularis.

103: 677-683.

KALE, S. P., J. W. CARY, et al. (2003). "Genetic analysis of morphological variants of Aspergillus parasiticus deficient in secondary metabolite production." Mycol. Res.

Morphological variation of germ tubes originating from aeciospores of Peridermium pini and Cronartium flaccidum populations on Pinus sylvestris was investigated in rust populations from Finland, the United Kingdom and Italy. The observed morphological variation was generally higher among than between these rust populations. The variation in germ tube length of the rust samples was high over the incubation period. Peridermium pini could not be distinguished from C. flaccidum based on its germ tube morphology.

Kakishima, M. (1982). A taxonomic study on the Ustilaginales in Japan (Agricultural and Forestry Science). Japan: 124.

107: 831-840. Aflatoxins (AFs) are secondary metabolites produced mainly

by Aspergillus parasiticus and A. flavus. To study AF regulation, previously isolated non-toxigenic A. parasiticus secx (for secondary metabolism minus) variants were genetically analysed. In parasexual crossing, the secx strains failed to form heterokaryons and diploids with other secx strains. Heterokaryon test results suggested that involvement

of cytoplasmic elements in the formation of secx phenotype was unlikely. At the molecular level, the coding sequence of the secx aflR (the only known positive regulator of AF pathway) was identical to that of their toxigenic sec+ (for secondary metabolism plus) parents. However, the sec- aflR expression was 5- to 10-fold lower compared to that in the sec+ forms. RT–PCR analysis demonstrated that the AF pathway genes were expressed in the sec- forms but in trace amounts and in their unprocessed forms. Combined, these results suggest that aflR is necessary but not sufficient for AF production and that elements involved in fungal development directly or indirectly influence its proper function.

KANG, J. C., K. D. HYDE, et al. (1999). "Studies on Amphisphaeriales: The Amphisphaeriaceae (sensu stricto)." Mycol. Res.

Kamel, B. S. and Y. Kakuda (1994). Technological Advances in Improved and Alternative Sources of Lipids, Blackie Academic and Professional: 397.

103: 53-64.

KANG, J. C., K. D. HYDE, et al. (1999). "Studies on Amphisphaeriales: The Cainiaceae." Mycol. Res.

The Amphisphaeriaceae (sensu lato) presently includes 36 genera and 23 synonyms and is a heterogeneous assemblage of ascomycetes. In this paper molecular and morphological data and teleomorph-anamorph connections are examined and confirm that the Amphisphaeriaceae (sensu stricto) should be confined to ten teleomorphic genera and their Pestalotia-like anamorphs. These include Amphisphaeria, Broomella, Discostroma, Ellurema, Griphosphaerioma and Neobroomella which are described and illustrated ; and Blogiascospora, Lepteutypa, Paracainiella and Pestalosphaeria which are discussed.

103: 1621-1627.

The Cainiaceae is revived to accommodate Atrotorquata, Arecophila, Cainia, Ceriophora and Reticulosphaeria, all of which are described and illustrated. Ommatomyces is also included in the family and discussed. The essential characteristics of the family are ascomata which are usually immersed under a clypeus, unitunicate asci with a complex, J+, apical apparatus comprising a series of rings, and brown ascospores which may have longitudinal germ slits, striations, reticulate ornamentations and/or germ pores.

KANG, J.-C., P. W. CROUS, et al. (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of Alternaria spp. associated with apple core rot and citrus black rot in South Africa." 106(10): 1151–1162. Dry core rot of apple (DCR) and Alternaria black rot of citrus

(ABR) have in the past respectively been ascribed to Alternaria alternata and A. citri. In recent years, however, it has been speculated that several other species of Alternaria could also be associated with these diseases. In an attempt to elucidate the identity of these taxa, 25 isolates associated

with DCR, and 26 isolates associated with ABR were selected for molecular characterisation. Nucleotide sequences of 1116 sites

including the histone gene section and the internal transcribed spacers (ITS 1 and 2) of the rRNA gene were determined for these isolates. The gene trees generated from the individual and combined data sets using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood and neighbour-joining analysis methods distinguished five clades with strong bootstrap support, namely Alternaria sp., A. arborescens, A. infectoria, A. tenuissima, and a clade containing isolates variable in morphology, referred to as the Alternaria group. In the alignment of the combined ITS and histone data set, unique transition/transversion substitutions, as well as positional insertions and deletions were observed for each of the above clades. In addition, key sequences in the form of serial composing nucleotides in both the ITS and histone sections of the alignment were also discovered for the molecular identification of A. arborescens, A. infectoria and A. tenuissima. The final phylogeny also indicated that no host specificity existed among the species associated with these two post-harvest disease complexes. Contrary to the host specificity observed on leaf diseases of these hosts in the field, it appears that the post-harvest diseases are the result of adverse storage conditions and opportunism of different small-spored Alternaria spp.

KANG, Z. and H. BUCHENAUER (2000). "Cytology and ultrastructure of the infection of wheat spikes by Fusarium culmorum." Mycol. Res. 104: 1083-1093. The infection of wheat spikes by Fusarium culmorum, one of

the agents responsible for wheat head blight, was examined by light and electron microscopy. Macroconidia of the pathogen germinated 6--12 h after inoculation on all host surfaces they contacted. Developing germ tubes did not infect host tissues immediately, but gave rise to hyphae that grew and branched on host surfaces. Hyphal networks were usually formed 2 d after inoculation (dpi) on the inner surfaces of lemma, glume and palea, but not on the outer surfaces of lemma, glume and rachis. Hyphae on the outer surfaces of lemma and glume often grew over their edges to reach their inner surfaces. Penetration of host tissues occurred by infection hyphae on the inner surfaces of lemma, glume and palea, and on the upper part of the ovary. Occasionally, the pathogen invaded the host tissues through stomatal openings on the inner surface. Thereafter, the pathogen spread downwards to rachilla and rachis node by inter- and intracellular growth from above infected tissues. From the rachis node, hyphae extended downward to rachis and upward to peduncle through vascular bundles and

cortical parenchyma tissue. When the pathogen arrived at the rachis 4--5 dpi, hyphae grew upwards and downwards inter- and intracellularly in vascular bundles and cortical parenchyma tissue of the rachis. During colonisation of the wheat spike, a series of alterations occurred in host tissues, including degeneration of host cytoplasm and organelles, collapse of

parenchyma cells, disintegration or digestion of host cell walls and appearance of electron-dense coating materials on vessel walls.

Kapat, A., G. Zimand, et al. (1998). "Biosynthesis of pathogenicity hydrolytic enzymes by Botrytis cinerea during infection of bean leaves and in vitro." Mycological Research 102(8): 1017-1024.

Karapapa, V. K., B. W. Bainbridge, et al. (1997). "Morphological and molecular characterization of Verticillium longisporum comb. nov., pathogenic to oilseed rape." Mycological Research

The ability of Botrytis cinerea to produce cutinolytic, pectolytic and cellulolytic enzymes was re-examined in vivo and in vitro. In liquid culture, B. cinerea produced both constitutive and inductive forms of hydrolytic enzymes. The constitutive levels were 44 mU, 720 mU, 1820 mU, 12.0 U and 22.4 mU for cutin esterase, endopolygalacturonase (endoPG), exopolygalacturonase (exoPG), pectin methyl esterase (PME) and pectate lyase (PL), respectively. Unlike the other enzymes, however, carboxymethyl cellulase (CMCase) production was found to be entirely inducible. The enzymes secreted at the germination and germ-tube growth stages, and during subsequent disease development, were quantified simultaneously. Complete germination was observed within 9 h of incubation of B. cinerea on the surface of bean leaves and disease symptoms gradually increased during days 1-6 of the incubation. Significant amounts of all hydrolytic enzymes studied in the early hours and monitored during 6 d of incubation were detected, supporting the possibility of a major role for the enzymes produced by B. cinerea in the development of disease. The amount of cutinase was found to be uniform from the beginning, indicating that this enzyme may have an important role in penetrating the impervious cutin layer. The exoPG level increased from the beginning of incubation whereas that of endoPG started to rise later. PL and PME were also detected on the leaf surfaces. The patterns of in vitro production of exoPG, endoPG and PL correlated with the in vivo production of these enzymes, but there was only partial correlation in the production of PME and no correlation in the patterns of cutinase and CMCase production.

101(11): 1281-1294. Verticillium wilt in winter-sown oilseed rape (Brassica napus L. ssp.

oleifera), which has not yet been reported in the U.K. but is widespread in Europe, was shown to be caused by the host-specific, ` near-diploid ' Verticillium longisporum comb. nov. Thirty-one cruciferous isolates (plus one from sugarbeet) of V. longisporum, mainly from oilseed rape from Germany, Sweden, Japan, France and Poland, were characterized and compared with nine typical isolates of V. dahliae and five of V. albo-atrum. Isolates of V. longisporum were distinguished from those of V. dahliae by three morphological characters, i.e. elongate microsclerotia, long conidia (7.1-8.8 lm) and mainly three phialides per node on conidiophores, whereas those of V. dahliae had ³spherical microsclerotia, short conidia

(3.5-5.5 lm), and 4-5 phialides per node. Isolates of V. longisporum lacked extracellular polyphenol oxidase activity (p.p.o.) ; they showed mean conidial nuclear diam. (DAPI fluorescence) of ca 1±85 lm, and ` near-diploid ' standardized arbitrary DNA values (Feulgen DNA microdensitometry) of 0.89-1.17 (mean, 1.02). For isolates of V. dahliae, extracellular p.p.o. activity was detectable, and the corresponding figures for conidial nuclear diam. were ca 1.16 lm and DNA values of 0.45-0.65 (mean, 0.57), respectively. Using three oligonucleotide primers, isolates of V. longisporum were clearly distinguishable from those of V. dahliae and V. albo-atrum by their RAPD band profiles. Greenhouse pathogenicity tests, employing five winter oilseed rape cvs, confirmed the pathogenicity of V. longisporum, whereas V. dahliae was non-pathogenic. On the basis of all the above characters, this host-specific pathotype, V. longisporum, should now be considered as a distinct species. Evidence is presented to suggest that it may have evolved by parasexual hybridization between a strain of V. albo-atrum and a strain of V. dahliae, thus explaining its ` near diploid ' state and the origin of four recombinants detected.

Karlovsky, P., B. Fartmann, et al. (1998). "Autonomously replicating sequences (ARS) from mitochondrial DNA of Phytophthora nicotianae : functional and structural analysis." Mycological Research 102(9): 1133-1141.

KARPOVICH-TATE, N. and F. M. DEWEY (2001). "Quantification of Ulocladium atrum in necrotic plant tissues by monoclonal antibody-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay." Mycol. Res.

Four DNA sequences (ARSs) that are able to initiate DNA replication in yeast were isolated from mitochondrial DNA of Phytophthora nicotianae and localized on its physical map. Nuclear sequences from P. nicotianae were shown to initiate DNA replication in yeast only very rarely. Minimal regions necessary for replication catalysed by mitochondrial ARSs were delimited by DNase I digestion and sequenced. Transformation efficiencies were estimated for full-length ARS-carrying DNA fragments. Segregation rates and mitotic stabilities in S. cerevisiae were determined for the two shortest subclones of each of the three delimited ARSs. Replication properties of all three ARSs were similar to those of a yeast nuclear ARS sequence. Sequence analysis revealed the presence of many copies of the motif (T/G)ATATTTT, which is related to the ARS core consensus sequences, in all three elements. In two of them, four copies of the motif and its reverse complements were arranged in palindromes. In addition, whole ARS core sequences and long segments consisting exclusively of A and T nucleotides were found in all ARS analysed. These features indicate that an HMG-like (high mobility group) DNA-binding protein similar to ABF2 from yeast may participate in DNA packaging also in non-fungal mitochondrial lineages.

105: 567-574. Five murine hybridoma cell lines secreting monoclonal

antibodies (MAbs) with similar binding specificities were raised to extracts

from cyclamen leaves colonized with Ulocladium atrum, a saprotrophic fungus used for biological control of Botrytis cinerea. One of the cell lines produced a MAb, UA--PC3, which was used to develop a quantitative ELISA to determine the biomass of U. atrum in extracts from colonized leaves. The antigen, which is water soluble, was present on the surface of conidia and hyphae and was secreted into culture fluids. Production of the antigen was much greater in vivo than in vitro. Germination of conidia took place in saline buffers at 4 °C after 6 h. To avoid amplification of the antigen in biomass assays of the fungus in extracts from sporulating tissues, coating of microtitre wells in ELISA was reduced to 1 h.

KASANEN, R., J. HANTULA, et al. (2001). "The occurrence of an undescribed species of Venturia in blighted shoots of Populus tremula." Mycol. Res. 105: 338-343.

KASANEN, R., J. HANTULA, et al. (2004). "North American populations of Entoleuca mammata are genetically more variable than populations in Europe." Mycol. Res.

Morphological characters and genetic markers from 35 single-ascospore isolates of a Venturia sp. collected from Populus tremula were analysed. The morphological data were compared with the literature, and genetic markers were amplified for comparison with isolates of V. populina, V. macularis and V. ditricha. According to ascospore morphology the fungus resembled V. populina, but the morphology of the conidia was closer to Pollaccia radiosa (the anamorph of V. macularis). Analysis of 49 RAMS markers, variation within the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence of the ribosomal gene cluster and a single marker locus derived from RAMS fingerprint suggested that the Venturia is a previously undescribed species.

108: 766-774.

conspecific; and (2) the fungus was introduced between continents causing both a founder effect and a genetic bottleneck. North American populations were found to be more polymorphic, but no major phylogenetic differences between fungal isolates collected from different continents were found. This result combined with the historical observations of the disease in Europe implies that E. mammata was introduced to Europe several

Entoleuca mammata (syn. Hypoxylon mammatum) is a damaging pathogen of Populus tremuloides and P. grandidentata in North America and P. tremula in Europe, where the fungus occurs only sporadically in alpine regions and Scandinavia. It has been hypothesized that E. mammata was introduced to Europe from North America. In this study, E. mammata isolates collected from Europe and North America were compared by a sequence analysis of two DNA markers derived from DNA fingerprints. The objective of the study was to elucidate the relationship between North American and European E. mammata populations by testing two hypotheses: (1) North American and European isolates are

centuries ago. KASANEN, R., J. HANTULA, et al. (2004). "Migrational capacity of Fennoscandian populations of Venturia tremulae." Mycol. Res. 108: 64-70. Genetic variation in three multiallelic loci was analysed with

Temperature Gradient Gel Electrophoresis in order to assess the genetic population structure of Venturia tremulae var. tremulae in order to understand the evolutionary potential of the pathogen against resistance breeding. Also the identification of the fungus was verified with molecular analysis of reference isolates. The Fst and Gst values were very low indicating no substructuring or restrictions to gene flow between Fennoscandian populations of V. tremulae. The results imply high epidemiological efficiency of the fungus and therefore continuous breeding programme should be implemented for Venturia resistance of aspen.

KASIAMDARI, R. S., S. E. SMITH, et al. (2002). "Identification of binucleate Rhizoctonia as a contaminant in pot cultures of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and development of a PCR-based method of detection." Mycol. Res. 106: 1427-1426.

KASSA, A., D. STEPHAN, et al. (2004). "Production and processing of Metarhizium anisopliae var. acridum submerged conidia for locust and grasshopper control." Mycol. Res.

Binucleate Rhizoctonia (BNR) was isolated (isolate CFM1) from cabbage grown in soil from pot cultures of the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus, Glomus mosseae, grown on subterranean clover, and was identified as AG-Bo by means of morphological and molecular characteristics. A PCR-based assay was developed to detect BNR in roots and soils of pot cultures of AM fungi. Two oligonucleotide primers (CF1f and CF2r) were designed from the ITS region of the rDNA sequence of BNR AG-Bo isolate CFM1. These allowed amplification of a specific fragment (438 bp). Specificity of the primers was tested against several isolates of various anastomosis groups (AGs) of BNR, other related and unrelated fungal species, and roots not infected or infected with fungi. The primers amplified DNA of isolates of both BNR AG-Bo and AG-A, and were used to detect them in roots in the presence or absence of AM fungi. Nested PCR amplification using CF1f and CF2r primers has advantages over microscopic methods for detection of BNR AG-Bo or AG-A on infected roots and soils of AM pot cultures and provides a powerful tool for detection of contamination of these pot cultures.

108: 93-100. Currently, mycopesticide development for locust and

grasshopper control depends on aerial conidia or submerged spores of entomopathogenic fungi. In our study, the production of submerged conidia of Metarhizium anisopliae var. acridum (IMI 330189) was investigated in a liquid medium containing 3% biomalt and 1% yeast extract (BH-medium). The effects of freeze and spray drying techniques on the quality of submerged conidia were determined. The influence of

different additives on the viability of fresh submerged conidia and their suitability for oil flowable concentrate formulation development was assessed. In a BH medium maintained at 180 rev min-1, at 30 °C for 72 h, IMI 330189 produced a green pigmented biomass of submerged conidia whereas in Adamek medium it produced a yellowish biomass of submerged spores. The spore concentration was high in both media; however, the size of the spores produced in the BH medium was significantly lower than those produced in Adamek medium (P<0.001). Submerged conidia can be effectively dried using either freeze or spray drying techniques. The viability and speed of germination were significantly affected by the drying and pulverizing process (P<0.001). The initial viability was significantly higher for spray-dried submerged conidia than for freeze-dried spores. Pulverizing of freeze-dried submerged conidia reduced the speed of germination and the viability by 63–95%. Dried submerged conidia can be stored over 45 wk at low temperatures (<10 °) without suffering a significant loss in viability. Furthermore, we have identified carriers that are suitable for oil flowable concentrate formulation development.

KATHIARA, M., D. A. WOOD, et al. (2000). "Detection and partial characterization of oxalate decarboxylase from Agaricus bisporus." Mycol. Res. 107: 345-350.

Kato, M. (1987). A Phylogenetic Classification of Ophioglossaceae. The Gardens'

Oxalate decarboxylase activity was present in liquid culture medium and mycelium of Agaricus bisporus. Enzyme activity in the mycelium peaked at two-weekly intervals after primary growth phase and into secondary metabolism, with activity peaks in the medium occurring 7 d later than in the mycelium. The enzyme was partially purified and had two isozymes with pIs 3.0 and 3.4. Characterization of the protein by SDS--PAGE and Western blotting against a polyclonal antibody raised to oxalate decarboxylase from Collybia velutipes showed a major protein band of 64 kDa. Oxalate decarboxylase was also detected in the fruit body up to the

cup stage of development. The pH optimum for the enzyme was 3.6 and temperature optimum was 35 °C.

Bulletin Singapore. 40: 1-14. Katumoto, K. (1996). Mycological Latin and Nomenclature. Japan, 1996 Ken Katumoto. Kauserud, H. (2004). "Widespread vegetative compatibility groups in the dry-rot fungus Serpula lacrymans." Mycologia, 96(2): 232-239. Serpula lacrymans is the most notorious decayer of wooden

buildings in temperate regions. The occurrence of geographically widespread vegetative

compatibility groups (VCG) in S. lacrymans in Europe is demonstrated in this study. Among 22 heterokaryotic isolates of S. lacrymans, five VCG were found. The most widespread VCG included isolates from Belgium, south and central Norway, separated by more than 1500 km. No other genetic variation, measured as DNA sequence variation or ISSR polymorphisms, was detected between the investigated S. lacrymans isolates, whereas a considerable level of genetic variation was found among five European isolates of the sister taxon, S. himantioides. It is hypothesised that isolates of S. lacrymans have lost their ability to recognize self from nonself due to sharing of similar VC alleles, caused by a recent genetic bottleneck during the establishment in northern Europe. Isolates re-isolated from overlapping mycelial zones between different compatible isolates had signifi- cantly slower growth than that of the original isolates and the different isolates within a VCG had different growth morphology, indicating that isolates within a single VCG may belong to different genets.

Kauserud, H., M. Lie, et al. (2005). "Molecular characterization of airborne fungal spores in boreal forests of contrasting human disturbance." Mycologia, 97(6): 1215–1224.

KAUSERUD, H., O. SCHMIDT, et al. (2004). "Extremely low AFLP variation in the European dry rot fungus (Serpula lacrymans) : implications for self/nonself-recognition." Mycol. Res.

In this study we present a new approach to characterize fungal diversity with DNA sequencing of mycelium grown from trapped airborne spores. Fungal spores were extracted systematically from air in three boreal forest sites (clear-cut, young and oldgrowth forests) using an air sampling device. Internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences from the nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) were generated, and the sequences most likely taxon affinities were established through DNA homology searches. Phylogenetic analyses were used to classify similar sequences into operational taxonomic units (OTUs). The analyses indicated that a total of 84 different OTUs had been sampled, 24 basidiomycetes and 60 ascomycetes. OTUs belonging to the ascomycete orders Helotiales and Pleosporales were most frequent (31 and 18 respectively). A total of 54, 29 and 33 OTUs were sampled, respectively, in the old-growth, young and clear-cut forest sites. Although heavy generalization should be avoided due to few replicates, the results could indicate that old-growth boreal forests have significantly higher airborne fungal species richness than recently managed forests. The study shows that the spore-trapping approach has a great potential for targeting and studying anonymous fungi.

108: 1264-1270. The devastating dry rot fungus, Serpula lacrymans, has a

worldwide occurrence in buildings. We investigated the genetic variation in European isolates belonging to five vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs) by AFLP analysis. Our results indicate that S. lacrymans in

Europe is genetically extremely homogenous; only five out of 308 scored AFLP fragments (1.6%) were polymorphic. In contrast, S. himantioides, the closest relative of S. lacrymans, possessed 31.3% polymorphic fragments (84 out of 268). AFLP polymorphisms observed in S. lacrymans were distributed independently of the VCG

boundaries, indicating that the VCGs do not represent clones but that different genets of S. lacrymans frequently share similar vic alleles due to low genetic variation. Thus, although the European S. lacrymans is genetically extremely homogeneous, and our results suggest that the species reproduces and spreads mainly sexually and not by clones.

KAUSERUD, H. and T. SCHUMACHER (2001). "Outcrossing or inbreeding: DNA markers provide evidence for type of reproductive mode in Phellinus nigrolimitatus(Basidiomycota)." Mycol. Res. 105: 676-683.

KAUSERUD, H. and T. SCHUMACHER (2003). "Genetic structure of Fennoscandian populations of the threatened wood-decay fungus Fomitopsis rosea (Basidiomycota)." Mycol. Res.

The aim of this study was to clarify the reproductive mode in the wood-rotting fungus Phellinus nigrolimitatus, using molecular markers and pairing experiments of cultural isolates. A 511 bp segment of the translation elongation factor 1a (EF1a) gene and the internal and intergenic transcribed spacer sequences (ITS and IGS) of the nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA), were amplified by PCR from somatic cultures derived directly from basidiomes and single spore cultures of the fungus. Sequence analyses of the partial EF1a sequence (511 bp) and ITS (732 bp) of single spore cultures gave five and fourteen variable sites, respectively. Five somatic isolates yielded double ITS sequences, which suggested the existence of different ITS types within the same isolate. Restriction digestion of the partial EF1a and the complete ITS and IGS (3.4±0.2 kbp) sequences with Hinf I and HaeIII gave restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) among the isolates. The sum of fragments exceeded the lengths of the initial PCR product in several somatic isolates, which indicated the existence of EF1a and nrDNA heterotypes within isolates. Segregation of ITS and IGS RFLPs in single spore isolates suggested heterokaryosis in somatic isolates of P. nigrolimitatus. The polymorphic EF1a and ITS restriction sites were used as codominant markers in a test for Hardy--Weinberg expectations. The molecular data suggests a predominant outcrossing

reproductive mode in P. nigrolimitatus. Results from cultural pairing experiments with single spore isolates corresponded poorly with the molecular data, suggesting that laboratory pairing experiments do not necessarily provide reliable information of the mode of reproduction in natural populations of fungi.

107: 155-163. The genetic structure of five Fennoscandian populations of the

threatened wood-decay fungus Fomitopsis rosea (Basidiomycota) was

investigated using codominant PCR–RFLP, allele specific amplification (ASA) markers, inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers and mating studies. Sequence analyses of a subset of single spore isolates revealed sequence variation in four target sequences; internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and intergenic spacer (IGS1) of the nuclear ribosomal DNA, the translation elongation factor 1 alpha (efa) gene and the super oxide dismutase (sod) gene. No sequence variation was found in amplified portions of the mitochondrial large and small rRNA genes. Genotype distributions were mostly (90%) in accordance with Hardy–Weinberg expectations, and the nrDNA markers (ITS/IGS1), efa and sod were in most cases (87%) in linkage equilibrium, indicating an outcrossing reproductive mode, panmictic conditions and large population sizes of the fungus. Mating tests confirmed that F. rosea exhibits an outcrossing bipolar heterothallic mating system. Mating allele richness was high in two investigated populations. Phylogenetic analyses of ITS and IGS1 sequences from the five geographic populations revealed some geographic sub-structuring of the ITS sequences, but no sub-structuring of IGS1. The nrDNA (ITS/IGS1), efa and sod markers gave a low overall FST (0.013). The ISSR markers gave no clustering of the populations in UPGMA, and the between-population variance component was very low in AMOVA (0.4%), indicating a high level of gene flow.

Kauserud, H. and T. Schumacher (2003). "Regional and local population structure of the pioneer wood-decay fungus Trichaptum abietinum." Mycologia, 95(3): 416-425. The population structure of 11 Fennoscandian geographic

populations of the pioneer wood-decay basidiomycete Trichaptum abietinum was assessed with PCR-RFLPs, intersequence simple repeats (ISSRs) and mating studies. The three codominant PCR-RFLP markers (1) internal transcribed spacer 2 (nrDNA), (2) glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and (3) translation elongation factor 1a showed that genotype distributions in most cases (94%) agreed with Hardy-Weinberg expectations and that random association of alleles occurred across loci. The molecular data suggest that T. abietinum is a highly outcrossing fungus that regularly proliferates and spreads by sexual spores. Interstock mating reactions suggest a high number of mating factors among individuals and that biological barriers to gene flow are nonexistent in the region. The three PCR-RFLP loci gave an overall FST 5 0.03, indicating a low level of genetic differentiation and presumably high gene flow among the geographic populations. The ISSR markers revealed no systematic substructuring and the among-population variance component was low (6.1%) in AMOVA. However, all PCRRFLP and most ISSR markers (7/12) showed significant deviation from the null hypothesis of an even distribution of allele frequencies across the 11 geographic populations. Allele frequencies varied in an apparently random manner, suggesting that genetic drift might be an important structuring factor in T. abietinum. The

spatial small-scale distribution of heterokaryons on three selected substrate units (logs) showed that most isolates represented discrete individuals and that a number of genets (19) may occupy a single log. The small-scale genotype distributions (within logs) were in agreement with panmictic Hardy- Weinberg expectations.

KEIPER, F. J., M. J. HAYDEN, et al. (2003). "Molecular genetic variability of Australian isolates of five cereal rust pathogens." Mycol. Res. 107: 545-556. Rust fungi cause economically important diseases of cereals,

and their ability to rapidly evolve new virulent races has hindered attempts to control them by genetic resistance. PCR-based molecular tools may assist in understanding the genetic structure of pathogen populations. The high multiplex DNA fingerprinting techniques, amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP), selectively amplified microsatellites (SAM) and sequence-specific amplification polymorphisms (S-SAP) were assessed for their potential in investigations of the genetic relationships among isolates of the wheat rust pathogens, Puccinia graminis f. sp. tritici (Pgt), Puccinia triticina (Pt), and P. striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst), the oat stem rust pathogen P. graminis f. sp. avenae (Pga), and a putative new P. striiformis special form tentatively designated Barley grass yellow rust (Bgyr). Marker information content, as indicated by the number of species-specific fragments, polymorphic fragments among pathotypes, percentage of polymorphic loci, and the marker index, was highest for the SAM assay, followed by the AFLP and S-SAP assays. UPGMA analysis revealed that all marker types efficiently discriminated the five different taxa and Mantel tests revealed significant correlations between the marker types. Within pathogen groups, the marker types differed in the amount of variation detected among isolates ; however, the major differences were consistent and polymorphism was generally low. This was reflected by the AMOVA analysis that significantly partitioned 90% of the genetic variation between taxa. Of the three marker types, SAMS were the most informative, and have the potential for the development of locus-specific microsatellites.

Keller, H. W., M. Skrabal, et al. (2004). "Tree canopy biodiversity in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park: ecological and developmental observations of a new myxomycete species of Diachea." Mycologia, 96(3): 537-547. A survey and inventory of tree canopy biodiversity for

cryptogams (myxomycetes, macrofungi, mosses, liverworts, lichens and ferns) in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park resulted in the discovery of an undescribed myxomycete species. This taxon is classified in the order Physarales, family Didymiaceae

and genus Diachea. A combination of morphological characteristics distinguishes Diachea arboricola H.W. Keller & M. Skrabal sp. nov. from all other species in the genus: peridium iridescent gold to silvery gray; stalk reddish orange above and whitish below, filled with crystals; capillitial threads stiff, dichotomously branched and arising from the tip of the columella; spore

ornamentation uniformly covering the entire spore surface, appearing spiny with light microscopy, with scanning electron microscopy as vertical processes with capitate, clustered, spikelike tips. This type of spore ornamentation has not been found in any other Diachea species. Diachea arboricola is known only from the tree canopy, ranging in height from roughly 3 to 21 m, on three tree species, Fraxinus americana, Juniperus virginiana and Quercus alba. Observations of plasmodial growth and fruiting body development are described based on moist chamber cultures. Tree canopy observations in

situ suggest that the plasmodium of this species migrates over extensive vertical areas of tree bark. Ecological factors are discussed that include pH of bark substrata. The species description is based on abundant sporangia from 17 different collections. A key to the species of Diachea is provided to aid in the identification of this taxon.

Keller, H. W. and K. L. Snell (2002). "Feeding activities of slugs on Myxomycetes and macrofungi." Mycologia, 94(5): 757-760. KERRIGAN, J., M. T. SMITH, et al. (2003). "Ascobotryozyma cognata sp. nov., a new ascomycetous yeast associated with nematodes from wood-boring beetle galleries." Mycol. Res. 107: 1010-1020.

Kerrigan, R. W. (2005). "Agaricus subrufescens, a cultivated edible and medicinal mushroom, and its synonyms." Mycologia,

A new species of Ascobotryozyma, A. cognata sp. nov. (anamorph Botryozyma cognata), was isolated from beetle galleries in Idaho, USA. A. cognata was found on the surface of free-living nematodes, Panagrellus dubius, collected from galleries created by the long-horned beetle Saperda calcarata in Populus (aspen), and the weevil Cryptorhynchus lapathi in Salix (willow). A. cognata isolates were collected from similar habits and in relatively close proximity to those of A. americana, the only species described from North America. The recognition of A. cognata as a distinct species was supported by morphological and molecular data. Thallus cells of A. cognata were significantly shorter than those of A. americana. Low DNA reassociation values, notably different randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), inter-sequence simple repeat (ISSR), and amplified fragment-length polymorphic (AFLP) fingerprints, and sequence divergence in both the D1/D2 domain of the nuc-LSU rDNA and an additional unidentified region were all consistent with the recognition of a new species.

97(1): 12-24. Agaricus subrufescens Peck was cultivated first in the late

1800s in eastern North America. The type consists partly of cultivated material and partly of field-collected specimens. Once a popular market mushroom, the species faded from commerce in the early 20th century. More recently, a mushroom species

growing wild in Brazil has been introduced into cultivation in Brazil, Japan and

elsewhere. This Brazilian mushroom has been referred to by various names, most commonly as A. blazei Murrill (sensu Heinemann) and most recently as A. brasiliensis Wasser et al. The author first cultivated A. subrufescens in 1981 and has grown and studied Brazilian isolates since 1992. The species has an amphithallic pattern of reproduction. Based on DNA sequence analysis of the rDNA ITS region and on mating studies and genetic analysis of hybrid progeny, there is a strong case for conspecificity of the Brazilian mushrooms with A. subrufescens. Based on a study of the type and other data, the recent lectotypification of A. subrufescens is accepted. Data are presented on mushrooms of diverse geographical origins, including A. rufotegulis Nauta from western Europe, another apparent conspecific. A possible role for interpopulational hybridization in current populations of A. subrufescens is proposed. The agronomic history of the species is reviewed.

KERRIGAN, R. W., P. CALLAC, et al. (1999). "Population and phylogenetic structure within the Agaricus subfloccosus complex." Mycol. Res. 103: 1515-1523.

KESHRI, G., M. CHALLEN, et al. (2003). "Differentiation of Agaricus species and other homobasidiomycetes based on volatile production patterns using an electronic nose system." Mycol. Res.

The name Agaricus subfloccosus (J. E. Lange) Pila! t, based originally on Danish specimens, has been applied to mushrooms growing in coastal northwestern Europe as well as to mushrooms associated with Picea (and Abies) at higher elevations in western Europe. Corresponding populations are also found in these two habitat zones in western North America. Material of both lowland and highland forms from Europe and North America was studied using morphological, cultural, and genotypic approaches. Homothallism was consistently observed in those isolates studied. Individual and population level genetic data are also consistent with homothallic reproduction. Dissimilarity analysis of multilocus nuclear and mitochondrial genotypes based on allozyme and DNA RFLP markers provided strong evidence that, within either ecologically distinct group, the amphiatlantic populations were genotypically very similar. Conversely, there were large genotypic differences between the two ecologically distinct groups, whether within or between continents. Supported by cultural and morphological evidence, these data indicate that two ancient, phylogenetically distinct entities exist within current concepts of A. subfloccosus. A formal taxonomic resolution is complicated by the lack of a holotype for Lange's species.

107: 609-613. Comparisons of the qualitative volatile production patterns

between seven species of Agaricus, and between two of Volvariella and Pleurotus and one Coprinus species when grown at 25 °C on agar media for 14 d were made. There was good reproducibility between the volatile production patterns of the same species using an electronic nose unit with

a 14 conducting sensor polymer array. Principle Component Analysis (PCA) showed that it was possible to discriminate between five of the seven Agaricus species, but that some overlap occurred between the others. Cluster analysis showed that there was also overlap between some species with the tropical collection of A. bitorquis separating out from the others. The volatile production profile of the commercial A. bisporus was close to that of a wild species, A. campestris. A. bisporus could be readily differentiated from other non-Agaricus species. This study demonstrates the potential for using electronic nose systems to rapidly differentiate mycelial cultures of homobasidiomycete mushrooms.

KESSEL, G. J. T., B. H. D. HAAS, et al. (2002). "Competitive substrate colonisation by Botrytis cinerea and Ulocladium atrum in relation to biological control of B. cinerea in cyclamen." Mycol. Res. 106: 716-728.

Khanh, V. D., V. Phiomanyvone, et al. (2004). Short-term Training in

The dynamics of competitive colonisation of necrotic cyclamen tissue by the plant pathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea and the saprophytic fungal antagonist Ulocladium atrum were studied immuno-histologically, while sporulation was studied macroscopically. The effect of different time intervals between inoculation of both fungi on resource capture by each species was explored. Colonisation and sporulation were used as indicators for competitive resource capture and the effectiveness of biological control of B. cinerea, using U. atrum. Mycelial biomass and sporulation showed logistical time courses in both species, in monocultures as well as in mixed cultures. Final colonisation and sporulation levels were lowered by competition, indicating competitive resource capture. Analysis of the extent to which sporulation of either fungus could be reduced by co-inoculation with the other fungus at different times, showed that B. cinerea can be completely excluded by ` early ' pre-inoculation with U. atrum, but not vice versa, indicating that U. atrum can exploit resources in the leaf that are not accessible to B. cinerea. A model of competitive substrate colonisation and resource capture was developed on the basis of the experimental results. Model results con®rm that competition for resources provides a sufficient biological explanation for the dynamic interactions between the fungi. The model provides a tool to optimise dose and timing of U. atrum applications providing effective biological control of B. cinerea.

Biotechnology : Collection, Isolation, Identification and Preservation of Insect Fungi. KHODAPARAST, S. A., S. TAKAMATSU, et al. (2001). "Phylogenetic structure of the genus Leveillula (Erysiphales : Erysiphaceae) inferred from the nucleotide sequences of the rDNA ITS region with special reference to the L. taurica species complex." Mycol. Res. 105: 809-818. The nucleotide sequences of the nuclear ribosomal DNA,

including ITS1, ITS2 and the 5.8S rDNA, were determined for 54 specimens representing 13 Leveillula species on 50 different host plant species. The maximum nucleotide sequence diversity among taxa in ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 was 7.1%. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that Leveillula species formed six clades and three basal taxa. The taxonomic positions of several species that are well characterized by morphology of conidia, especially primary conidia, are supported by the present molecular analyses. This result shows that the morphology of primary conidia mostly provides a good

criterion to identify Leveillula species. Twenty-six collections of Leveillula taurica recovered from 14 different plant families formed a distinct clade with L. chrozophorae, L. duriaei and L. elaeagni, and showed high homology in the ITS regions. Eight isolates of L. taurica recovered from the Asteraceae, Balsaminaceae, Fabaceae and Campanulaceae showed high sequence diversity, in contrast with other L. taurica specimens, and clustered separately or with other taxa. The result of Kishino-Hasegawa and Templeton tests demonstrated that the possibility of monophyly of L. taurica s. lat. could be significantly rejected, indicating that L. taurica s. lat. is a species complex composed of several biological species.

Kiew, R. (1992). Five New Species of Didymocarpus (Gesneriaceae) from Peninsular Malaysia. The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore, National Parks Board Singapore Botanic Gardens Cluny Road Singapore 1025. 44: 23-42. KIKUCHI, K., N. MATSUSHITA, et al. (2000). "Detection of Tricholoma matsutake by specific ITS primers." Mycol. Res. 104: 1427-1430. Sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of

the nuclear ribosomal DNA of ectomycorrhizal fungi were analysed and a specific PCR primer pair for Tricholoma matsutake was designed. Using the primer pair, part of the ITS region of T. matsutake (400 bp) was amplified, but no amplified fragment was detected for other ectomycorrhizal fungi. PCR was performed on DNA extracted from mycorrhizas of T. matsutake and Shiro soil (extramatrical mycelium of T. matsutake and soil complexes) and the 400 bp fragments were also specifically amplified. This indicates that presence of T. matsutake at any of its life stages can be easily confirmed by PCR typing.

KIM, H.-S., T. LEE, et al. (2003). "Polymorphism of trichothecene biosynthesis genes in deoxynivalenol- and nivalenol-producing Fusarium graminearum isolates." Mycol. Res. 107: 190-197. Diversity in trichothecene mycotoxin production by 167

isolates of Fusarium graminearum was examined by chemical and molecular methods. Isolates from barley, corn, and wheat grown in Korea produced either deoxynivalenol (DON) or nivalenol (NIV), whereas isolates from corn grown in the United States produced DON only. Southern blotting of MseI-digested genomic DNA’s from these isolates

was performed using a 0.6-kb fragment of Tri5, a key enzyme for trichothecene production, as a probe. This technique revealed a single-band polymorphism between these isolates, with 1.8- and 2.2-kb bands arising from DON and NIV producers, respectively. The same set of isolates was subjected to previously developed PCR assays using primers derived from Tri7 or Tri13. These assays also revealed a single-band polymorphism between NIV- and DON-producing chemotypes. The polymorphisms at Tri5, Tri7, or Tri13 in all of the US isolates were consistent with their chemotypes as identified by GC–MS. However, for seven Korean isolates, chemical and molecular analyses yielded seemingly inconsistent results. This issue was resolved by Southern blot analysis with the Tri5 probe using two other restriction enzymes and sequence comparison of a 3.8-kb region spanning Tri5. In addition, one of these exceptional isolates was found to carry both DON and NIV chemotype-specific regions, possibly resulting from recombination between the two chemotypes.

KIM, J.-J., Y. W. LIM, et al. (2005). "A new Leptographium species associated with Tomicus piniperda infesting pine logs in Korea." Mycol. Res. 109: 275-284. During the course of a survey of sapstaining fungi in Korea, a

Leptographium was isolated from Pinus densiflora and P. koraiensis logs, infested with the bark beetle Tomicus piniperda. The fungus grew optimally at 25 °C on 2% malt extract agar and showed a high level of tolerance to cycloheximide. The Leptographium has unusually short conidiophores and is morphologically similar to L. pini-densiflorae, L. lundbergii, L. yunnanense, and the Leptographium anamorph of Ophiostoma crassivaginatum. Comparisons of DNA sequence data for three gene regions, as well as morphological characteristics, confirmed that this fungus represents an undescribed taxon. We consequently provide the name Leptographium koreanum sp. nov. for it here.

KIM, J.-J., Y. W. LIM, et al. (2004). "Leptographium bistatum sp. nov., a new species with a Sporothrix synanamorph from Pinus radiata in Korea." Mycol. Res. 108: 699-706. Radiata pine (Pinus radiata) lumber from Australia, Chile, and

New Zealand is imported into Korea where it represents one of the most important sources of timber. Blue stain of this timber is a serious problem for which an integrated control strategy is being developed. One of the fungi that has been isolated from stained radiata pine sapwood in Korea is a Leptographium sp. that has a distinct Sporothrix synanamorph. The aim of this study was to classify this fungus. Morphological comparisons showed that this fungus is distinct from all other species of Leptographium and especially L. elegans and L. francke-grosmanniae that also have Sporothrix synanamorphs. Comparisons of sequence data for the ITS2 and part of the 28S rDNA genes as well as the β-tubulin gene also confirmed that this fungus represents an undescribed taxon, described

here as Leptographium bistatum sp. nov. Kim, K. M., Y.-G. Yoon, et al. (2005). "Evaluation of the monophyly of Fomitopsis using parsimony and MCMC methods." Mycologia, 97(4): 812–822. To evaluate the monophyly of Fomitopsis and elucidate

phylogenetic relationships of its members, partial nuclear large subunit (partial 28S) ribosomal

complex was rejected, thus rejecting the complex definition based on morphological similarities. The exclusion of Piptoporus betulinus (the type species of

KIM, M.-S., N. B. KLOPFENSTEIN, et al. (2001). "Use of flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy, and PCRbased techniques to assess intraspeciflc and interspeciflc matings of Armillaria species." Mycol. Res.

RNA genes were sequenced from 10 species of Fomitopsis and 15 related species. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that Fomitopsis was phylogenetically

heterogeneous and its members were divided into three subgroups. The constrained tree excluding F. palustris (the type species of Pilatoporus) from Fomitopsis

core group was rejected, thus rejecting the taxonomic concept to segregate Pilatoporus from Fomitopsis. The monophyly of taxa belonging to F. rosea

Piptoporus) from Fomitopsis core group was rejected and Piptoporus proved to be heterogeneous in both best MP and MAP trees. The monophyly of F. officinalis with Fomitopsis core group also was rejected. Fomitopsis officinalis was closely related to Antrodia xantha and formed an independent lineage from Fomitopsis core group at the basal position of brown rotting fungi comprising Antrodia, Daedalea, Fomitopsis, Piptoporus and Postia. The MAP tree topology obtained from MCMC computation of Bayesian inference was similar to the one of the best MP tree based on the parsimony analysis but showed a higher likelihood score in the Kishino-Hasegawa test and reflected better evolutionary patterns for

the phylogeny of Fomitopsis.

105: 153-163. For assessments of intraspecific mating using ¯ow cytometry

and fluorescence microscopy, two compatible basidiospore-derived isolates were selected from each of four parental basidiomata of North American Biological Species (NABS) X. The nuclear status in NABS X varied with basidiospore-derived isolates. Nuclei within basidiospore-derived isolates existed as haploids, diploids (doubled haploids), or a mixture of haploids and diploids (doubled haploids). Depending on the nuclear status of the basidiospore-derived lines of NABS X, intraspecifically mated cultures can exist as diploids or tetraploids, and possibly triploids or aneuploids under in vitro conditions. Based on previous in vitro mating studies, seven basidiospore isolates were specifically selected to assess rare, interspecific mating among Armillaria cepistipes, A. sinapina, NABS X, and NABS XI. Cultures from

basidiospore-derived isolates were paired to produce four interspecifically paired cultures, and matings were assessed using flow cytometry and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analyses. Based on flow cytometric analysis, the A. cepistipes isolate exhibited compatibility with a NABS X isolate, and the A. sinapina isolate exhibited compatibility with a NABS X isolate, and the A. sinapina isolates were individually compatible with isolates of NABS X and NABS XI. Mean fluorescence intensities of A. cepistipesx NABS X, A. sinapinax NABS X,

and A. sinapina x NABS XI mated cultures revealed a triploid or tetraploid nuclear status compared to the haploid or diploid (doubled haploid) nuclear status of initial basidiospore-derived isolates. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and RFLP of the intergenic spacer (IGS) region generated banding patterns for basidiospore-derived isolates and mated cultures. Four species-specific RFLP banding patterns were observed in basidiospore-derived isolates of A. cepistipes, A. sinapina, NABS X, and NABS XI. PCR-RFLP analysis showed combined banding patterns from mated cultures. Flow cytometry and PCR-RFLP analysis are effective tools to assess

KIM, S. H. and C. BREUIL (2001). "Common nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer sequences occur in the sibling species Ophiostoma piceae and O. quercus." Mycol. Res.

matings of Armillaria species.

105: 331-337. To determine the feasibility of using internal transcribed

spacers (ITS1 and ITS2) and 5.8S ribosomal DNA sequences as genetic markers in molecular systematic and phylogenetic studies of Ophiostoma, the presence of multiple types of ITS in the two sibling sapstain fungi, Ophiostoma piceae and O. quercus were examined in 22 isolates from diverse geographic regions. PCR and sequence analysis revealed that two different versions of ITS sequences were present in the PCR-products amplified with the ITS primers, ITS1-ITS4 or ITS5-ITS4 or ITS1-F-ITS4, in every isolate of the two Ophiostoma species tested. Surprisingly, the two ITS sequences were shared by both species. One ITS sequence which was major in O. piceae was designated as the OPC type, and the other ITS sequence which was minor in O. piceae was designated as the OPH type. In O. quercus the OPH type was major and the OPC type was minor. The major ITS comprised more than 99% of the amplicons in both species. The results suggest that common ITS gene pools have been maintained at different levels within these sibling species.

KIM, S.-J., S. T. HIREMATH, et al. (1999). "Cloning and identification of symbiosis-regulated genes from the ectomycorrhizal Laccaria bicolor." Mycol. Res. 103: 168-172. An in vitro conifer ectomycorrhizal model system was

developed to study changes in gene expression during the establishment of symbiotic relationship. Using the model system and the mRNA

differential display technique, we have identified cDNA clones from Laccaria bicolor that appear to be involved in establishing and maintaining the symbiotic relationship between L. bicolor and red pine. These differentially expressed cDNA clones were obtained from mRNA extracted from the fungus 6-24 h after initiation of interaction. BLAST analysis showed that sequences of these clones did not match with any of the previously characterized genes. The cDNAs had regions with varying degrees of similarity to genes involved in signal transduction and transcriptional activation.

Kim, Y. K., C. L. Xiao, et al. (2005). "Influence of culture media and environmental factors on mycelial growth and pycnidial production of Sphaeropsis pyriputrescen." Mycologia, 97(1): 25–32.

Kirchmair, M., S. Morandell, et al. (2004). "Phylogeny of the genus Omphalotus based on nuclear ribosomal DNA-sequences." Mycologia,

Sphaeropsis pyriputrescens, the causal agent of Sphaeropsis rot of pears and apples, is a recently described species. In this study the effects of culture media, temperature, water potential, pH and light on mycelial growth and pycnidial production of S. pyriputrescens were evaluated. Apple juice agar and pear juice agar were most suitable for mycelial growth of all six isolates tested. Cornmeal agar was not suitable for either mycelial growth or pycnidial production. The fungus grew from 23 to 25 C, with optimum growth at 20 C and no growth at 30 C. The fungus grew at water potential as low as 25.6 MPa on potassium chloride-amended potatodextrose agar (PDA). Hyphal extension was not observed at 27.3 MPa after 10 d incubation, but growth resumed when the inoculum plugs were placed on PDA. The fungus grew at pH 3.3–6.3 and optimum growth was at pH 3.3–4.2. No mycelial growth was observed at pH above 7.2 after 10 d incubation, but growth resumed when the inoculum plugs were transferred onto PDA. Regardless of medium tested, few pycnidia formed at 20 C in the dark. Pycnidial production was enhanced signifi- cantly by fluorescent light, but continuous light appeared to reduce pycnidial production, depending on the medium. Oatmeal agar (OMA) was most suitable for production of pycnidia and conidia. Pycnidia that formed on 3 wk old OMA cultures at 20 C under 12 h light/12 h dark produced abundant conidia, and the technique is recommended for inoculum production.

96(6): 1253-1260. The evolutionary history of the genus Omphalotus was inferred

from DNA sequences of the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 rDNA region. We analyzed 32 collections from different geographical areas: O. olearius (Europe), O. illudens (Europe, North America), O. subilludens (North America), O. olivascens var. olivascens (North America) and var. indigo (Mexico), O. mexicanus (Middle America), O. nidiformis (Australia), and O. japonicus ( Japan). Phylogenetic analysis was performed declaring Nothopanus eugrammus as outgroup. Our analyses show that the genus Omphalotus

is split into two major clades, the first consisting of O. illudens and O. mexicanus and the second comprising O. olearius, O. olivascens, O. japonicus, O. nidiformis and O. subilludens. Moreover, the often discussed synonymy of O. illudens and O. olearius is rejected. Omphalotus japonicus, a species formerly placed in the genus Lampteromyces Sing. for morphological reasons, clustered as the sister group of O. olearius.

Kirk, P. M., P. F. Cannon, et al. (2001). Dictionary of The Fungi 9th Edition (Answorth & Bisby's). U.K., CAB International. KIRSCHNER, R., D. BEGEROW, et al. (2001). "A new Chionosphaera species associated with conifer inhabiting bark beetles." Mycol. Res. 105: 1403-1408. An undescribed species of the heterobasidiomycetous genus

Chionosphaera is carried by the bark beetles Dryocoetus autographus, Hylurgops palliatus, Ips acuminatus, Ips sexdentatus, Ips typographus, Orthotomicus laricis, Pityogenes chalcographus, Pityokteines spinidens, and Polygraphus poligraphus infesting conifers in Europe (Abies alba, Larix decidua, Picea abies, and Pinus sylvestris). Chionosphaera cuniculicola sp. nov. differs morphologically from C. apobasidialis in the more slender basidiospores. The segregation of the two species is supported by comparison of partial sequences of the large subunit of the ribosomal gene. Isotype material of Chionosphaera lichenicola was re-examined. In contrast to C. cuniculicola and C. apobasidialis, C. lichenicola exhibits clamps at the septa. Fibulostilbum phylacicola is considered as a clamp-bearing species of Chionosphaera.

Kirschner, R. and C.-J. Chen (2004). "Two new species of the staurosporous hyphomycetous genera Ceratosporium and Diplocladiella from Taiwan." Mycologia, 96(4): 917-924.

KIRSCHNER, R. and F. OBERWINKLER (1999). "Cylindrocarpostylus, a new genus based on a hyphomycete rediscovered from bark beetle galleries." Mycol.

Ceratosporium verrucosum and Diplocladiella alta are described as new species. Ceratosporium verrucosum was found on a dead bamboo culm and D. alta on rotting wood in Taiwan. Compared with the other species of Ceratosporium, C. verrucosum differs by the verrucose ornamentation covering the arms of the conidia. Diplocladiella alta is easily distinguished by the length of its conidiophores. For comparison with the previously described species of Ceratosporium, type material of C. fasciculare first was reexamined and Bactrodesmium submoniliforme recognized as the correct name for this species.

Res. 103: 1152-1156. Diplocladium gregarium was described almost one hundred

years ago, later transferred to Cylindrocladium, and finally excluded from this genus. It has recently been rediscovered from bark beetle galleries in the bark of Picea abies and Pinus sylvestris in Germany. The fungus is

redescribed and a new genus is proposed to accommodate it. Kiryu, Y., V. S. Blazer, et al. (2005). "Factors influencing the sporulation and cyst formation of Aphanomyces invadans, etiological agent of ulcerative mycosis in Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus." Mycologia, 97(3): 569-575.

KIS-PAPO, T., I. GRISHKAN, et al. (2001). "Spatiotemporal diversity of filamentous fungi in the hypersaline Dead Sea." Mycol. Res.

Oomycete infections caused by Aphanomyces invadans occur in freshwater and estuarine fishes around the world. Along the east coast of the USA, skin ulcers caused by A. invadans are prevalent in Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus. From laboratory observations low salinities appear crucial to transmission of the pathogen. To better understand aspects of transmission, we characterized sporulation and cyst formation of secondary zoospores of two isolates of A. invadans at different salinities and temperatures. Sporulation occurred only at low salinities. At room temperature (ca. 20–22 C), using ‘‘pond water’’ augmented with artificial sea salts, the endemic strain WIC and the Thailand strain PA7 of A. invadans produced free-swimming secondary zoospores at salinities of 0, 1 and 2 psu (practical salinity unit 5 ‰), but not at 4 psu or higher. Secondary zoospores of another species, ATCC-62427 (Aphanomyces sp.), were observed at 1, 2, 4 and 8 psu but not at 0

and 12 psu. Secondary zoospores of all three isolates, especially WIC, were abundant and motile 1–2 d postsporulation. Sporulation was temperature dependent

and occurred over a relatively narrow range. No sporulation occurred at 4, 30 or 35 C for either WIC or PA7. For both strains zoospore production within 1– 3 d after the initiation of sporulation was more prolific at 25 C than at 20 and 15 C. At 15 C production of zoospores was sustained over 11 d for WIC and 5 d for PA7. At room temperature single WIC secondary zoospores remained motile 12–18 h. Salinities ex-ceeding 4 psu or vigorous shaking caused immediate cyst formation of WIC secondary zoospores. Exposure to menhaden tissue, but not tissues of other fishes to secondary zoospores (WIC), caused rapid (2 h) cyst formation. Cysts were capable of excysting when transferred to 1 psu water within 2–3 h of cyst formation. Cysts that had remained encysted in 6.5 psu for 24 h did not excyst when transferred to 1 psu water. Salinity and temperature requirements for sporulation indicate that juvenile menhaden must acquire infections during rain or in low salinity oligohaline

waters.

105: 749-756. To investigate the spatial and temporal diversity in the fungal

community of the Dead Sea, we collected Dead Sea water samples at eight near-shore localities and at different stations offshore over a 1-year period (1999--2000). In addition, depth profiles were sampled at a deep station (304 m) in the centre of the sea. In the course of the study we obtained 476 isolates, comprising 38 species from 19 genera of Oomycota

(1), Zygomycota (2), Ascomycota (13), and mitosporic fungi (3). This brings the total number of species recovered from the Dead Sea to 55. Approximately 43% of the isolates belonged to the genera Aspergillus and Eurotium.

Most of the species found appeared only in winter. Fungal diversity increased near the outlets of less saline springs near the shore. The species Aspergillus terreus, A. sydowii, A. versicolor, Eurotium herbariorum, Penicillium westlingii, Cladosporium cladosporoides and C. sphaerospermum were isolated consistently and probably form a stable core of the community. The results suggest that a remarkably diverse fungal diversity may be found in the hypersaline Dead Sea waters. To what extent the fungal diversity recovered was present as dormant spores or as vegetative mycelia remains to be determined.

Kiss, L. (1997). "Genetic diversity in Ampelomyces isolates, hyperparasites of powdery mildew fungi, inferred from RFLP analysis of the rDNA ITS region." Mycological Research 101(9): 1073-1080. Pycnidial hyperparasites of powdery mildew fungi, often used in biological

control experiments, are currently considered as belonging to a single species, Ampelomyces quisqualis. However, RFLP analysis of the nuclear rDNA ITS region in a worldwide collection of Ampelomyces isolates showed the existence of seven RFLP groups. Cultural characters, e.g. growth rate of isolates, correlated with the exhibited restriction patterns. The results suggested that A. quisqualis should be regarded as a problematic species complex. The geographical distribution of genetically distinct isolates showed that (i) isolates belonging to the same RFLP group were present even in different continents in their fungal hosts, and (ii) isolates representing various RFLP groups were found in the same geographical region, in the same species of the Erysiphaceae and on the same host plants. The detected genetic differences could influence the applicability of various isolates in biological control.

KISS, L., A. BOLAY, et al. (2002). "Spread of the North American snowberry powdery mildew fungus, Erysiphe symphoricarpi (syn. Microsphaera symphoricarpi), to Europe." Mycol. Res. 106: 1086-1092. Recently, a powdery mildew anamorph infecting snowberry

(Symphoricarpos albus) has been reported as a new plant pathogen in several European countries. We report here its occurrence in the UK, Germany and, for the first time, Switzerland. Based on morphological and scanning electron microscope (SEM) patterns, this novel pathogen appeared similar to the anamorph of a common North American powdery mildew, Erysiphe symphoricarpi (syn. Microsphaera

symphoricarpi). A phylogenetic analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) of an English and a North American snowberry powdery mildew fungus showed that they are conspecific. Ascomata of the pathogen were found only in one European

collection, that being in Germany in 2002. The similarity in morphology of the ascomata also confirmed the co-identity of the European and American snowberry powdery mildews.

KISS, L., R. T. A. COOK, et al. (2001). "Identification of two powdery mildew fungi, Oidium neolycopersici sp. nov. and O. lycopersici, infecting tomato in different parts of the world." Mycol. Res. 105: 684-697.

KJ∅LLER, R. and S. ROSENDAHL (2001). "Molecular diversity of glomalean (arbuscular mycorrhizal) fungi determined as distinct Glomus specific DNA sequences from roots of field grown peas." Mycol. Res.

A world-wide study of the Oidium species causing economic damage on tomato has identified two taxa using classical morphological, scanning electron microscope (SEM) and molecular phylogenetic analyses. The material consisted of a total of 25 tomato powdery mildew isolates and 29 herbarium specimens coming from all continents where tomatoes are grown. A taxon with non-catenate conidia widespread in Europe, Africa, North and South America and Asia was identified as an O. subgen. Pseudoidium species (teleomorph : Erysiphe sect. Erysiphe). Formerly mistaken for O. lycopersicum (or O. lycopersici), it is now recognised as a distinct species, O. neolycopersici sp. nov. A phylogenetic analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) indicated that O. neolycopersici is closely related to Erysiphe macleayae, E. aquilegiae and other Pseudoidium species. Only a taxon with catenate conidia was found on Australian specimens. This was identified as a species of O. subgen. Reticuloidium (teleomorph : Golovinomyces sp.). Phylogenetic analysis of the rDNA ITS sequences showed that this species is closely related to O. longipes infecting eggplant. Because it is most likely to be the same species as the original O. lycopersicum, which was actually first described in Australia, this is here neotypified as O. lycopersici.

105: 1027-1032. The molecular diversity of glomalean fungi was studied by

analysis of Glomus specific sequences amplified from field harvested peas. Glomus specific, large rDNA sequences were amplified from roots in a nested PCR reaction, following primary amplification with eukaryote specific primers. The nested primers were designed to amplify a lineage within the genus Glomus including G. mosseae, G. caledonium and G. geosporum, all of which had repeatedly been isolated from trap cultures set up with soil from the field. Singlestranded conformation polymorphism (SSCP) was used to screen the nested PCR products for presence of multiple sequence types. Nested PCR products were sequenced if necessary after reamplification of single SSCP types. The root derived sequences were

aligned with sequences from spores of 17 cultured Glomus isolates ; five of these isolated from the same field from where the peas were harvested. Some of the root-derived sequences were from lineages other than those

species isolated from the field and some of the isolated species were not retrieved as sequences from the roots.

Kjøller, R. and T. D. Bruns (2003). "Rhizopogon spore bank communities within and among California pine forests." Mycologia, 95(4): 603-613.

soils with pine seedlings followed by isolation of axenic cultures from individual root tips with typical Rhizopogon ectomycorrhizal morphology. The cultures were screened by ITS-RFLP and all unique patterns were sequenced. These sequences then were compared with those derived from identified sporocarp material. Bioassaying proved to be an efficient way to bring Rhizopogon species into culture. Approximately 50% of the pots contained ectomycorrhizal tips with

KLEPZIG, K. D., J. FLORES-OTERO, et al. (2004). "Effects of available water on growth and competition of southern pine beetle associated fungi." Mycol. Res.

In this study we examine the distribution of Rhizopogon species in spore banks from five California pine forests. Four of the forest sites were discontinuous

populations of Pinus muricata and a fifth was a Pinus ponderosa stand in Sierra National Forest. Rhizopogon species were retrieved by bioassaying the

Rhizopogon-like morphology, and axenic Rhizopogon cultures were obtained from half these pots. Our results showed that Rhizopogon spores usually are well distributed within local forest areas, while there is significant structuring of

species at the regional scale. Spore longevity and homogenization by soil and water

movement might explain their distribution within local forest areas, while the regional pattern might be explained by limited long distance dispersal or climatic and edaphic differences.

108: 183-188. Competitive interactions among bark beetle associated fungi

are potentially influenced by abiotic factors. Water potential, in particular, undergoes marked changes over the course of beetle colonization of tree hosts. To investigate the impact of water potential on competition among three southern pine beetle associated fungi, Ophiostoma minus, Entomocorticium sp. A and Ceratocystiopsis ranaculosus, we utilized artificial media with water potentials of 0,--5,--10, and --20 MPa. Growth of all three fungi, when grown alone, decreased on media with lower water potentials. Growth rates of all three fungi were likewise reduced in competition experiments. At --5 to --10 MPa, C. ranaculosus (a fungus with beneficial effects toward southern pine beetle) was nearly equal in competitive ability to O. minus (a fungus with antagonistic effects towards southern pine beetle). This was not true on control media, nor at other water potentials tested. The range of water potentials used in our assays was similar to the range of water potentials we measured in loblolly pines within a southern pine beetle infestation. This study indicates that water potential may alter the outcome of competitive interactions among bark

beetle-associated fungi in ways that favour bark beetle success. Klich, M. A. (2002). Identification of common Aspergillus Species. The Netherlands, Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Utrecht, The Netherlands. Klich, M. A. (2002). "Biogeography of Aspergillus species in soil and litter." Mycologia, 94(1): 21-27.

Klich, M. A., J. W. Cary, et al. (2003). "Phylogenetic and morphological analysis of Aspergillus ochraceoroseus." Mycologia,

Based on counts of Aspergillus species reported in over 250 studies of microfungi from soils and litter, chi-square analyses were conducted on species

occurrence in five biomes and five latitude ranges to determine variations from expected distributions. There was no overall trend in distribution of the members of the entire genus by biome, however, individual sections of the genus appeared to have distinct distribution patterns. Most members of sections Aspergillus, Nidulantes, Flavipedes and Circumdati occurred at greater than expected frequencies in desert soils. There was no distinct pattern of species occurrence for forest, wetland, or cultivated soils, although members of section Nidulantes were quite rare in cultivated soils. Most species occurred at or below expected frequencies in grassland soils. Members of the genus tended to occur at greater than expected frequencies at latitudes in the subtropical/warm temperate zone between 26 and 35 degrees. Most species occurred at expected frequencies in the lower latitudes, and below expected frequencies in latitudes greater than 35 degrees.

95(6): 1252-1260.

Versicolores. In the sequence comparisons, A. ochraceoroseus was related more closely to the species in subgenus Nidulantes than to species from subgenus Circumdati. KO, K. S., Y. W. LIM, et al. (2001). "Phylogeographic divergences of nuclear ITS sequences in Coprinus species sensu lato." Mycol. Res.

Aspergillus ochraceoroseus produces the yellow- gold conidia and other characteristics of Aspergillus subgenus Circumdati section Circumdati. However, this species produces aflatoxin, a secondary metabolite characteristic of some members of subgenus Circumdati section Flavi and sterigmatocystin, a related secondary metabolite usually associated with subgenus Nidulantes sections Nidulantes and Versicolores, as well as members of several other genera. Our morphological data support the placement of A. ochraceoroseus in subgenus Circumdati. Sequence data from A. ochraceoroseus aflatoxin and sterigmatocystin genes aflR and nor-1/stcE, as well as 5.8S ITS and beta tubulin genes, were compared to those of aspergilli in sections Circumdati, Flavi, Nidulantes and

105: 1519-1526. Phylogeographic divergences of four coprinoid species,

Coprinus comatus, Coprinellus disseminatus, Coprinellus micaceus and Coprinopsis lagopus were investigated using nuclear ITS sequences. Each taxon showed genetic variation that corresponds with the geographic origins of collections. Groupings produced from ITS1 and ITS2 sequences were similar together. In C. comatus, East Asian strains were well separated from New Zealand and North American strains. In C. disseminatus, Hawaiian strains formed an independent clade with that from Nepal, separating those from East Asia. And there were two distinct East Asian groups for C. disseminatus. East Asian C. micaceus strains constituted a distinct group from Hawaiian strains. In C. lagopus, Hawaiian and European strains were clearly separated from each other. There was a great genetic diversification in C. disseminatus and C. micaceus from East Asia, suggesting divergence process of these taxa in that region. However, Hawaiian strains lacked genetic variation, which indicated their recent origin in Hawaii.

Ko, W.-H., S.-Y. Wang, et al. (2004). "Pythium sukuiense, a new species from undisturbed natural forest in Taiwan." Mycologia, 96(3): 647-649. A new species, Pythium sukuiense, was isolated from an

undisturbed natural forest in northern Taiwan. The fungus produces sporangia indistinguishable

KOBELT, P., J. SIEMENS, et al. (2000). "Histological characterisation of the incompatible interaction between Arabidopsis thaliana and the obligate biotrophic pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae." Mycol. Res.

from hyphae and very small oogonia and oospores. Oogonia were smooth and terminal or intercalary and attached with a single antheridium. Oospores were aplerotic, with an average size of only 11 mm.

104: 220-225. The obligate biotrophic pathogen Plasmodiophora brassicae

induces cataplastic galls in the roots of various species of the Brassicaceae. The ecotypes Ze-0, Tsu-0, and Ta-0 of Arabidopsis thaliana carry alleles of a dominant single gene (RPB1) for resistance against this pathogen. The pathotype-specific resistance reactions in the roots were accompanied by a hypersensitive response. Infected cells were surrounded by necrotic boundaries and thereby the pathogen growth was restricted. The pathogen could induce hyperplasia and hypertrophy to a slight extent and develop spores within mini-galls surrounded by the necrotic cells, if it was able to colonise meristematic tissue. Ecotype Ze-0 showed the highest level of resistance to P. brassicae isolate ` e ' as indicated by the very limited

Kodsueb, R., S. Lumyong, et al. (2004). Terrestrial lignicolous microfungi. Thai

number of infected cells, whereas the resistance of the ecotype Ta-0 was rated lower. The results are discussed in relation to the interaction of the pathogen with Brassica crops.

Fungal Diversity, BIOTEC, Thailand: 155-161.

Lignicolous fungi live on or in wood and are usually responsible for its degradation and thus play an important role in nutrient cycling. The role of lignicolous fungi is critical due to their unique ability todegrade lignicolous......

Kodsueb, R., S. Lumyong, et al. (2004). "Acanthostigma and Tubeufia species, including T. claspisphaeria sp. nov., from submerged wood in Hong Kong." Mycologia, 96(3): 667-674.

on Lantau Island, Hong Kong. The collections of Acanthostigma scopulum and Tubeufia paludosa differed slightly from the original descriptions. Tubeufia

KOHLMEYER, J. and B. VOLKMANN-KOHLMEYER (2001). "Fungi on Juncus roemerianus: new coelomycetes with notes on Dwayaangam junci." Mycol. Res.

Acanthostigma scopulum, Tubeufia claspisphaeria sp. nov. and T. paludosa were identified from submerged wood collected in a small forest stream

claspisphaeria differs from previously described species in that it has hook-shaped setae that form radially around the ostiole. This new species is described

and illustrated and compared with the most similar species. A dichotomous key to the 16 accepted species in Tubeufia is provided.

105: 500-505.

KOHLMEYER, J. and B. VOLKMANN-KOHLMEYER (2002). "Fungi on Juncus and Spartina: New marine species of Anthostomella, with a list of marine fungi known on Spartina." Mycol. Res.

Pycnodallia dupla gen. sp. nov. and Hymenopsis chlorothrix sp. nov. are described from saltmarsh Juncus roemerianus in North Carolina. Conidiomata of P. dupla develop on senescent inflorescences and involucral leaves, between 40 and 60 cm above the rhizome, therefore, the species can be considered as facultative marine. Conidiomata of H. chlorothrix are found on dead culms, 16--43 cm above the rhizome. This species is classified as obligately marine. Dwayaangam junci, the anamorph of Orbilia junci, has been found for the first time in nature. Conidia develop on the medulla of leaves, in lesions caused by grasshoppers.

106: 365-374.

All 39 marine species described so far from Spartina spp. are listed. Anthostomella torosa sp. nov. is described from culms of Juncus roemerianus in North Carolina, and A. spissitecta sp. nov. is described from leaf sheaths of saltmarsh Spartina alterniflora in the USA (Connecticut, Florida, North Carolina, Rhode Island) and from S. densiflora in Argentina (Buenos Aires). Both species occur close to the rhizome and are classified as obligate marine fungi. The new species are compared with similar taxa, and a table comprises characteristics of the nine known aquatic Anthostomella species.

Kohlmeyer, J. and B. Volkmann-Kohlmeyer (2003). "Octopodotus stupendus gen. & sp. nov. and Phyllachora paludicola sp. nov., two marine fungi from Spartina alterniflora." Mycologia, 95(1): 117-123.

salt-marsh plant, Spartina alterniflora. Both species fruit only on the leaf blades, not on the leaf sheaths. Whereas O. stupendus is known so far only from North Carolina, P. paludicola has been collected from Florida to Delaware. The total number of marine fungi reported from Spartina spp. is 41.

KOIDE, R. T., D. L. SHUMWAY, et al. (2000). "Soluble carbohydrates of red pine (Pinus resinosa) mycorrhizas and mycorrhizal fungi." Mycol. Res.

The coelomycete Octopodotus stupendus and the ascomycete Phyllachora paludicola are described as obligate marine fungi from the decomposing

104: 834-840. In the field, the concentrations of several soluble

carbohydrates in mycorrhizas of red pine varied seasonally. Fructose, glucose, sucrose and trehalose concentrations were negatively correlated with soil temperature, while myo-inositol and mannitol concentrations were positively correlated. The patterns for the concentrations of fungal carbohydrates (trehalose and mannitol) were consistent with their previously-reported functions. Trehalose may serve as a storage carbohydrate, accumulating during the winter when host carbohydrate is plentiful and when fungal growth is reduced. In contrast, mannitol may serve a translocatory role,

KOJIMA, T. and M. SAITO (2004). "Possible involvement of hyphal phosphatase in phosphate efflux from intraradical hyphae isolated from mycorrhizal roots colonized by Gigaspora margarita." Mycol. Res.

increasing in concentration in warmer months when fungal growth is more rapid and when sporocarps are formed.

The carbohydrates of six species of ectomycorrhizal fungi grown at room temperature and at reduced temperatures were also analysed to determine the extent to which seasonal variation in concentrations of fungal carbohydrates of mycorrhizas may be due to fungal acclimation to temperature. Variation in carbohydrate concentration occurred both among fungal species and due to cooling treatment. The variation due to cooling was relatively small, generally less than the variation among species, and less than the seasonal variation observed in field-collected mycorrhizas. This suggests that seasonal variation in the fungal carbohydrate

trehalose in mycorrhizas could possibly be due to shifts in host carbohydrate supply rather than to independent shifts by the fungi in response to temperature. Production of a distinct pattern of carbohydrate concentrations by different ectomycorrhizal fungi suggests that fungal carbohydrates may be of taxonomic significance. This was further demonstrated using discriminant analysis of fungal carbohydrates.

108: 610-615. We developed a method for separating physiologically active

intraradical hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi from mycorrhizal roots, allowing the hyphae to be used for physiological and biochemical experiments. In the present study, the phosphate efflux from the intraradical hyphae in vitro was examined in relation to hyphal phosphatase activity. Onion seedlings (Allium cepa) were planted in the soil inoculated with Gigaspora margarita. Six weeks after transplanting, the intraradical hyphae were isolated from the mycorrhizal roots using plant cell-wall digestion enzymes. The hyphae were incubated briefly at 25 °C in a buffer solution (50 mM Tris/HCl, pH 7.4), then incubated for 2 h and gently shaken with various inhibitors. Phosphate efflux, the amount of phosphate released to the buffer, was analysed by EnzChek phosphate assay kit. Hyphal phosphatase activity was stained histochemically and the proportion of phosphatase-active arbuscules was examined for each inhibitor. Phosphate effluxes were to some degree reduced by all inhibitors used, while

the phosphatase inhibitor, BeSO4, greatly reduced the efflux. The degree of inhibition in the arbuscular phosphatase by each chemical was closely correlated to the decrease in the phosphate efflux. These results suggest that hyphal phosphatase may be partially involved in the phosphate efflux process from intraradical hyphae.

KOKER, T. H. D., K. K. NAKASONE, et al. (2003). "Phylogenetic relationships of the genus Phanerochaete inferred from the internal transcribed spacer region." Mycol. Res. 107: 1032-1040.

KOKER, T. H. d., J. ZHAO, et al. (2000). "Isolation and enzymic characterisation of South African whiterot fungi." Mycol. Res.

Phanerochaete is a genus of resupinate homobasidiomycetes that are saprophytic on woody debris and logs. Morphological studies in the past indicated that Phanerochaete is a heterogeneous assemblage of species. In this study the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the nuclear ribosomal DNA was used to test the monophyly of the genus Phanerochaete and to infer phylogenetic relationships of the 24 taxa studied. Maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian analyses do not support the monophyly of the genus. However, a core group of species represented by Phanerochaete velutina, P. chrysosporium, P. sordida, P. sanguinea and others are closely related and group together in a clade. Other common Phanerochaete species including Phanerochaete rimosa, P. chrysorhiza, P. omnivora, P. avellanea, P. tuberculata, P. flava, and P. allantospora, however, do not cluster with the core Phanerochaete group.

104: 820-824. Over 600 basidiomycetes were isolated from indigenous

forests and commercial Eucalyptus and Pinus plantations in South Africa. One hundred and twenty of the cultures were identified and biochemical tests were done to screen the cultures for characteristics that are favourable for biopulping. Most of the white-rot fungi previously associated

with biopulping elsewhere in the world were also isolated in South Africa, as well as an isolate with uniquely regulated ligninolytic systems. Phanerochaete chrysosporium was found to be a natural coloniser of wood chip piles in South Africa.

KOKER, T. H. D., J. ZHAO, et al. (1998). "Biochemical and molecular characterization of South African strains of Phanerochaete chrysosporium." Mycol. Res. 102: 88-92.

KOLARIK, M., A. KUBATOVA, et al. (2005). "A complex of three new white-spored, sympatric, and host range limited Geosmithia species." Mycol. Res.

Fifty-five strains of Phanerochaete chrysosporium were isolated in South Africa, and screened for indicators of ligninolytic activity : lignin peroxidase (LiP), manganese peroxidase (MnP) and glyoxal oxidase (GLOX). MnP-production as a function of time was followed in all strains. Nine strains were selected for quantification of MnP, LiP and GLOX activities. Statistically significant variation in MnP and GLOX activities existed among the different strains. Under low nitrogen, LiP activity of selected strains showed no significant variation, whereas strain PP25 had significantly increased LiP levels under high nitrogen conditions. Probing genomic

DNA with the genes encoding lignin peroxidase (lipD and lipI1), manganese peroxidase (mnp2), and glyoxal oxidase (glox) showed significant genetic diversity with lignin peroxidase and manganese peroxidase probes, but not with the glyoxal oxidase probe.

109(12): 1323-1336. All hypocrealean species of the genus Geosmithia are

anamorphic fungi with connections to bark beetles. G. fassatiae, G. langdonii and G. obscura are described as new sympatric species associated with Scolytus carpini, S. intricatus and S. rugulosus in Central Europe. The species represent a complex of three sister taxa with affinities to G. flava that may be distinguished by differences in morphology, unique RAPD patterns and by sequences of ITS region rDNA. Intraspecific

KOLARIK, M., A. KUBATOVA, et al. (2004). "Morphological and molecular characterisation of Geosmithia putterillii, G. pallida comb. nov. and G. flava sp. nov., associated with subcorticolous insects." Mycol. Res.

variability and habitat specificity of new species is described and discussed. The high morphological, genetic and ecological uniformity suggest that these Geosmithia spp. are recently derived. A key to all accepted hypocrealean species of the genus is provided.

108: 1053-1069. Geosmithia putterillii is an anamorphic fungus with connections

to bark beetles. Genetic variability of 89 isolates traditionally grouped in G. putterillii and G. lavendula isolated from different geographical regions from subcorticolous insects and from other unspecific substrata was

assessed using RAPD, sequencing of the ITS region (ITS1-5.8SrDNAITS2) and morphological characters. RAPD analysis revealed eight distinct groups. One group was represented by G. lavendula type strain and showed no relations to any other isolate. Five RAPD-types with similar ITS sequences and phenotype were related to the ex-type strain of Penicillium pallidum (generally given as a synonym of G. putterillii). Because of unique phylogenetic position and a phenotype markedly different from G. putterillii, the new combination

G. pallida is made here. For another group of isolates formerly identified as G. putterillii the new species G. flava is described based on a characteristic RAPD-type, a unique ITS sequences and a different phenotype. These newly recognized species are stable in culture and with worldwide distribution. Kollar, A. (1998). "Characterization of an endopolygalacturonase produced by the apple scab fungus, Venturia inaequalis." Mycological Research 102(3): 313-319. Secretion of a constitutive endopectinase was detected in cultures of

Venturia inaequalis grown in complex and defined media. Pectinylase or pectinesterase activity was not present. The attainable level of extracellular pectinase was present after 5-10 d post inoculation, when only about 5-10% of mycelial mass had developed. Time course culture experiments with conidial and mycelial inoculum indicated that enzyme secretion did not depend on physiological effects within or shortly after conidial germination. Cellulosic substrates did not affect pectinase production. Catabolite repression or repression by glucose was not detected and there was no stimulation of enzyme production in media supplemented with pectic substrates. Inhibition of enzyme activity by galacturonic acid was not detected. Nineteen isolates of V. inaequalis were tested, all of which displayed constitutive pectinase production. All isolates were able to grow in the defined media with galacturonic acid or the pectic substrates as the sole carbon source. Mycelial pectinolytic activity was only detectable in substantial quantities when the fungus was grown in media supplemented with 1% pectin. The pectinase preparations displayed a long-term stability at temperatures up to 20 °C and within a pH-range of 5-7.5. Activity was very low at 5 and 10° and there was a distinct increase at 15 and 20°. Enzyme activity was highest at pH 4 and decreased with increasing pH. Time course viscometric assays and hplc analyses of liberated galacturonic acid indicated an endo-type degradation of pectin and polygalacturonic acid. Di- and trigalacturonic acid were released from pectin with high enzyme concentration and long incubation. Pectin with a degree of esterification of 93% showed reduced degradability. Pectinase preparations had a macerating activity on solvent extracted apple leaves and caused galacturonic acid release. Isoelectric focusing followed by a zymogram technique revealed a single activity band at pI 10. The pectinase preparations from culture filtrates or mycelia of 19 isolates did not show any differences in characteristics of degradative activity or the activity band detected after isoelectric focusing.

Koller, G. E., K. Hoiland, et al. (2002). "The presence of orellanine in spores and basidiocarp from Cortinarius orellanus and Cortinarius rubellus." Mycologia, 94(5): 752-756. This is the first report quantifying the orellanine content in

basidiospores. The toxin content and tissue distribution of orellanine were determined from Cortinarius orellanus (Fr.) Fr. and Cortinarius rubellus Cooke. Basidiospores, the basidiocarp, divided into cap and stem, and mycorrhiza roots were analyzed

Kong, A., A. Montoya, et al. (2002). "Russula herrerae, a new species with marginal veil from Mexico." Mycologia,

to determine the amount of orellanine by reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography and thin layer chromatography. The orellanine contents in spores were 0.31% (C. orellanus) and 0.09% (C. rubellus). In caps, we found the toxin content to be 0.94% (C. orellanus) and 0.78% (C. rubellus), in stems 0.48% (C. orellanus) and 0.42% (C. rubellus) and in mycorrhiza roots from C. rubellus we determined the orellanine contents to 0.03%. In addition, extracts from the different structures of the basidiocarp of C. orellanus and C. rubellus, with an orellanine content corresponding to 25 nmol, inhibited the growth of Bacillus subtilis.

94(2): 290-296.

KONG, R. Y. C., J. Y. C. CHAN, et al. (2000). "Relationships of Halosarpheia, Lignincola and Nais inferred from partial 18S rDNA." Mycol. Res.

Russula herrerae, a new species belonging to section Plorantes, subsection Lactarioideae, characterized by the presence of a marginal veil and collected

in a temperate Quercus forest in Tlaxcala, Mexico, is described and illustrated.

104: 35-43.

KONSTANTINOVA, P., P. J. M. BONANTS, et al. (2002). "Development of specific primers for detection and identification of Alternaria spp. in carrot material by PCR and comparison with blotter and plating assays." Mycol. Res.

Cladistic analysis was performed on partial sequences from the nuclear-encoded small subunit ribosomal DNA. Four Halosarpheia spp., Lignincola laevis and Nais inornata were examined to determine the placement of these genera within the unitunicate ascomycetes. Two equally most parsimonious cladograms resulted from the analysis of the data. In a strict consensus of the two cladograms the taxa sampled did not form a monophyletic group, and Halosarpheia was shown to be polyphyletic. The marine Halosphaeriales formed a subclade with taxa from the Microascales. Data indicate that L. laevis and N. inornata may be congeneric, but other species of both genera require further study.

106: 23-33. Alternaria alternata, A. radicina and A. dauci are important

seed-borne fungi on carrot, with the first two species having a high toxigenic potential, for which a specific and sensitive detection method is

required. Because both the traditional deep-freeze-blotter method and plating on selective medium are time consuming and laborious, a PCR-based assay was developed. Sequences of the internal transcribed spacer regions of the ribosomal gene repeat (rDNA) from 45 different Alternaria isolates were determined, a restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis was performed and a phylogenetic tree was constructed. Based on the sequences, specific primers for detection and identification of the three Alternaria species on carrot seeds and roots were designed. The primers were highly sensitive and were shown to be able to differentiate between the three Alternaria species. A. alternata and A. radicina could be detected in DNA isolated from carrot material applying the specific primers, even at low infection levels. The PCRassay was compared to the deep-freeze-blotter method (DFBM) and plating on Alternaria radicina Selective Agar (ARSA, for A. radicina) by testing naturally infected seed samples and root material. Results of the PCR-assay were similar to those of the blotter method and plating on ARSA for the detection of A. alternata and A. radicina. A positive correlation was found between the percentage of seed infection established by the blotter method and the intensity of the amplified, specific product. The PCR-assay based on the specific primers developed seems to be a good alternative for the deep-freeze-blotter method and plating on ARSA, especially when time is an important issue.

Korf, R. P. (1974). "Instructions to authors for preparing camera-ready manuscripts for Mycotaxon." MYCOTAXON 1(1): 3-12. Korf, R. P. (1974). "Peziza flavovirens, an older name for Vibrissea pezizoides." MYCOTAXON 1(2): 134. Korf, R. P. (1974). "On the typification of Sclerotinia." MYCOTAXON 1(2): 146-148. Korf, R. P. and S. E. Carpenter (1974). "Bisporella, a generic name for Helotium citrinum and its allies, and the generic names calycella and calycina." MYCOTAXON 1(1): 51-62. Korf, R. P. and S. C. Gruff (1974-1984). "MYCOTAXON Cumulative Index." MYCOTAXON I-XX: 1-232. Korf, R. P. and S. C. Guruff (1984-1991). "MYCOTAXON Cumulative Index." MYCOTAXON XXI-XL: 1-352. Kornerup, A. and J. H. Wanscher (1963). Methuen Handbook of COLOUR, Methuen and Co Ltd. KOROLEV, N. and G. GINDIN (1999). "Vegetative compatibility in the entomopathogen Verticillium lecanii." Mycol. Res. 103: 833-840.

Isolates of Verticillium lecanii, from insects and other substrates, were tested for vegetative compatibility by observing heterokaryon formation among complementary nitrate-nonutilizing (nit) mutants, Among 33 V. lecanii isolates, 17 were self-incompatible. The 16 self-compatible isolates were divided into 13 vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs). Eleven VCGs were single-member VCGs, and the remaining two included two or three isolates each. Self-incompatibility occurred more frequently among isolates with abundant aerial mycelium, whereas most of the isolates with short or reduced aerial mycelium were self-compatible. Virulence to larvae of Bemisia tabaci ranged from 0 (four isolates) to 83% mortality 4 d after treatment with conidial suspensions. There was no correlation between the capacity of isolates to anastomose and their virulence to larvae of Bemisia tabaci : highly virulent isolates were found at similar frequencies among self-compatible and self-incompatible isolates. Those with abundant aerial mycelium were collectively more virulent (28.5% mortality) than those with reduced mycelium (10.7% mortality). Three isolates belong to VCG VL-11 were all highly virulent.

KOROLEV, N. and T. KATAN (1999). "Vegetative compatibility grouping in Verticillium nigrescens and V. tricorpus." Mycol. Res. 103: 65-76. Isolates of Verticillium nigrescens and V. tricorpus were

obtained from potato, cotton, eggplant, weeds and field soil in Israel. Chlorateresistant

KORTEKAMP, A. (2005). "Growth, occurrence and development of septa in Plasmopara viticola and other members of the Peronosporaceae using light- and epifluorescence-microscopy." Mycol. Res.

nitrate-nonutilizing (nit) mutants were generated from each isolate and used in complementation (heterokaryon) tests. Eleven vegetative-compatibility groups (VCGs) were found among 19 V. nigrescens isolates from nine sites, and nine VCGs among 26 isolates of V. tricorpus from eight sites. Optimal growth temperature was 24-27 °C for V. nigrescens and 24° for V. tricorpus. None of the isolates caused leaf symptoms or stunting in inoculated eggplant and cotton seedlings, while severe symptoms were caused by V. dahliae. Colonization of inoculated seedlings by V. nigrescens and V. tricorpus occurred primarily in roots and hypocotyls, while V. dahliae heavily colonized upper stems as well.

109(5): 640-648. Although Plasmopara viticola causes grape downy mildew in

most, if not all, wine producing countries, many basic biological or chemical aspects are still unknown and thus the histopathological changes during development of this oomycete pathogen were studied. The fluorochromes Aniline blue and Uvitex 2B were successfully used in whole leaf stainings to visualise intercellular hyphae and to investigate septal-development in sporangiophores. The occurrence and transfer of cytoplasm in sporangiophores was studied with the aid of Chlorazole

Black E and Phloxin B. Application of Chlorazole Black E was the most reliable method to differentiate between cytoplasm and septa in sporangiophores due to a high contrast between the dark cytoplasm and the pale septa. In P. viticola, septa were found in the stem and branches of the sporangiophores, but not in the intercellular hyphae, which was in contrast to other oomycetes, such as P. tabacina, Pseudoperonospora cubensis and P. humuli, where septa were frequently found in the mycelium. In order to verify chemical composition of septa, sporangiophores were digested using chitinase and b-1,3-glucanase. After staining with Aniline blue and Uvitex 2B, the intense fluorescence of septa was conserved after the application of chitinase but not after β-1,3-glucanase, indicating that septa are mainly composed of β-1,3-glucans. Pretreatments of infected vine leaves with 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DOG) at low concentrations (1–5 mM) led to a disorganisation of the sporangiophore structure of P. viticola, whereas the production of septa was unaffected. Application of 2-DOG at higher concentrations resulted in a reduced length of intercellular hyphae (10 mM) or total inhibition (50 mM) of the intercellular mycelium. Thus, 2 DOG or its analogues interferes with morphogenesis in Plasmopara viticola and may have a deleterious effect on the spread of this downy mildew between plants.

KOST, G. (1998). "Stipitocyphella keniensis gen. et sp. nov. from East Africa and a missing link in the basidiomycetes." Mycol. Res. 102: 505-509.

KOTHERA, R. T., A. P. KEINATH, et al. (2003). "AFLP analysis of a worldwide collection of Didymella bryoniae." Mycol. Res.

A stalked, cyphelloid basidiomycete from Kenya described as Stipitocyphella keniensis gen. et sp. nov. is illustrated. Possible relationships of this species with other basidiomycetes are discussed. Phylogenetic processes during gill and basidioma formation are proposed.

107: 297-304. Didymella bryoniae (anamorph Phoma cucurbitacearum) is an

ascomycete that causes gummy stem blight, a foliar disease that occurs on cucurbits in greenhouses and fields throughout the world. In a previous study using RAPD analysis, little genetic diversity was found among isolates of D. bryoniae from New York and South Carolina, USA. Here we report the use of amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis to assess the genetic variation within a worldwide

collection of D. bryoniae. 102 field and greenhouse isolates from ten states in the USA (California, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Maryland, Michigan, Oklahoma, South Carolina, and Texas) and seven other countries (Australia, Canada, China, Greece, Israel, Sweden, and The Netherlands) were examined. Seven different AFLP primer-pair combinations generated 450 bands, of which 134 were polymorphic (30%). Using cluster analysis, two groups and a total of seven subgroups were delineated. Representative isolates varied in their virulence on muskmelon and watermelon seedlings, but the degree of virulence was not strongly

associated with AFLP groupings. However, isolates from the northern USA grouped separately from isolates originating from the southern USA.

KOTTKE, I., A. BEITER, et al. (2003). "Heterobasidiomycetes form symbiotic associations with hepatics: Jungermanniales have sebacinoid mycobionts while Aneura pinguis (Metzgeriales) is associated with a Tulasnella species." Mycol. Res. 107: 957-968.

KOVICS, G. J., J. D. GRUYTER, et al. (1999). "Phoma sojicola comb. nov. and other hyaline-spored coelomycetes pathogenic on soybean." Mycol. Res.

In order to evaluate substrate dependence of the symbiotic fungal associations in leafy liverworts (Jungermanniopsida), 28 species out of 12 families were investigated by transmission electron microscopy and molecular methods. Samples were obtained from the diverse substrates: from naked soil, from the forest floor on needle litter, from between peat moss, from rotten bark of standing trees, and from stumps and rotten wood. Associations with ascomycetes were found in most of the specimens independent from the substrate. Seven species sampled from soil were found to contain basidiomycete hyphae. Ultrastructure consistently showed dolipores with imperforate parenthesomes. Molecular phylogenetic studies revealed that three specimens belonging to the Jungermanniales were associated with members of Sebacinaceae, while Aneura pinguis (Metzgeriales) was associated with a Tulasnella species. These taxa are so far the only basidiomycetes known to be symbiotically associated with leafy liverworts. The probability that the associations with Sebacinaceae are evolutionary old, but the Tulasnella associations more derived is discussed. The sebacinoid mycobionts form a similar interaction type with the jungermannialian leafy liverworts as do the associated ascomycetes. The term ‘jungermannioid mycorrhiza’ is proposed for this distinctive symbiotic interaction type.

103: 1065-1070.

Kowalski, T., E. Halmschlager, et al. (1998). "Cryptosporiopsis melanigena sp. nov., a root-inhabiting fungus of Quercus robur and Q. petraea." Mycological

Several hyaline-spored coelomycetes placed in Ascochyta, Phoma and Phyllosticta have been recorded from spots on leaves and pods of soybean. Comparison of herbarium material, pathogenicity tests and in vitro studies have demonstrated that Phoma sojicola comb. nov. (syn. Ascochyta sojicola) was predominantly involved as a pathogen of soybean. The diagnostic characters and history of this fungus and other hyaline-spored coelomycetes occurring on soybean are described.

Research 102(3): 347-354. A new species of Cryptosporiopsis is described. It was isolated frequently

from roots of healthy-looking and declining oaks (Quercus robur and Q. petraea). The relationship to C. radicicola, a similar species also occurring on oak roots, is discussed. The new species is separated from C.

radicicola by means of morphological and physiological characters, genomic analysis by the PCR-based RAPD technique as well as by the production of metabolites.

KOWALSKI, T., E. HALMSCHLAGER, et al. (1998). "Cryptosporiopsis melanigena sp. nov., a root-inhabiting fungus of Quercus robur and Q. petraea." Mycol. Res. 102: 347-354.

Kraus, G. n. F., I. Druzhinina, et al. (2004). "Trichoderma brevicompactum sp. nov." Mycologia,

A new species of Cryptosporiopsis is described. It was isolated frequently from roots of healthy-looking and declining oaks (Quercus robur and Q. petraea). The relationship to C. radicicola, a similar species also occurring on oak roots, is discussed. The new species is separated from C. radicicola by means of morphological and physiological characters, genomic analysis by the PCR-based RAPD technique as well as by the production of metabolites.

Kozakiewicz, Z. (1989). Aspergillus Species on Stored Products, C.A.B. International Mycological Institute: 188.

96(5): 1059-1073.

KRAUSS, U., A. MARTINEZ, et al. (2002). "Two-step liquid/solid state scaled-up production of Clonostachys rosea." Mycol. Res.

Trichoderma brevicompactum, a new species, was isolated from soil or tree bark in North, Central and South America, including the Caribbean Islands, and southwestern and southeastern Asia. Morphological and physiological characters, the internal transcribed spacer regions of the rDNA cluster (ITS1- 5.8SrDNA-ITS2) and partial sequences of translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef1) are described. Trichoderma brevicompactum is characterized by a pachybasium- type morphology, morphologically resembling other small-spored species referable to Trichoderma section Pachybasium but with essentially subglobose conidia. It is most closely related phylogenetically to Hypocrea lutea, from which it differs in morphological and physiological characters.

106: 1449-1454. Economic mass production is a crucial stage in the

development of biocontrol agents. This paper compares different solid substrates with and without preceding liquid culture for efficacy and economics in the scaled-up production of the mycoparasitic biocontrol agent Clonostachys rosea. In a basic liquid medium (BLM) containing (in g l-1) : molasses (80), neopeptone (10) and yeast extract (2), Clonostachys rosea produced 107 conidia ml-1 after 4 d in agitated culture. Spore

viability was 99% and did not differ from that of conidia derived from potato dextrose agar plates. Guata, an inert polyester fibre, coated with BLM and cassava starch (30 g l-1), was the best solid matrix yielding 109 conidia g-1 after 20 d. On a volume basis after extraction and on a production unit basis, Guata was in a similar range to Biodac®, a granular cellulose

complex, which had also been enriched with BLM, producing up to 107 conidia ml-1 or over 1010 conidia per 23x28 cm polypropylene bag, the production unit in which all solid matrices were incubated. Rice was the lowest-yielding solid matrix regardless of quality. Chlamydospores were not observed in liquid or on solid media. All conidia produced on solid matrices had a viability >90%. Conidia produced on Biodac had a higher viability (95.6%) than spores produced on Guata (93.1%) after 24 h on potato-dextrose plates. However, production on Biodac was more variable and negatively affected by prefermentation in liquid culture, whereas production on Guata and rice was unaffected by the origin of the starting inoculum. Guata of medium thickness (1.27 cm) was superior to thicker (2.54 cm) or thinner (0.64 cm) sheets with respect to both yield per gram and per production unit. Although prefermentation neither improved yield nor reduced cost, it increased throughput by a factor five and may be advantageous where fermentor and/or incubator space is limited. Biodac and Guata were the most economical solid matrices; inoculum to treat one hectare (3x1012 conidia) cost US $ 27, whereas rice-based production cost US $ 613 under Costa Rican conditions. Liquid culture alone would be fast but too costly: US $ 1078 ha-1. Experiments to further reduce costs in the Guata system are suggested.

KRAUSS, U., P. MATTHEWS, et al. (2001). "Strain discrimination by fungal antagonists of Colletotrichum musae: implications for biocontrol of crown rot of banana." Mycol. Res. 105: 67-76.

Kretzer, A. M., D. L. Luoma, et al. (2003). "Taxonomy of the Rhizopogon vinicolor species complex based on analysis of ITS sequences and microsatellite loci."

Single-strain biocontrol agents often look promising when tested against single-strain pathogens. When confronted with a biodiverse field population, however, biocontrol is inconsistent. This study implies that biodiversity of the crown rot pathogen Colletotrichum musae leads to strain discrimination by antagonists which results in variable biocontrol of the disease. Broad host-range mycoparasites of fungi of the crown rot disease complex of banana (C. musae, Fusarium moniliforme and Botryodiplodia theobromae) which attacked at least two of the pathogen genera, exhibited significant differences in aggression against different strains of C. musae, the main pathogen. Antagonists acted via several different mechanisms, i.e. parasitism, antibiosis or competition, simultaneously. The relative importance of each mechanism differed with the individual mycoparasites. Strain discrimination was correlated to differential susceptibility to one or more minor mechanism(s). When as many as four antagonists were combined into one inoculum, they complemented rather than antagonised each other. Biocontrol efficiency increased with the number of antagonist strains combined. Therefore, strain mixtures should be sought to control the crown rot disease complex of banana.

Mycologia, 95(3): 480-487.

KRISTENSEN, R., M. TORP, et al. (2005). "Phylogeny and toxigenic potential is correlated in Fusarium species as revealed by partial translation elongation factor 1 alpha gene sequences." Mycol. Res.

We are re-addressing species concepts in the Rhizopogon vinicolor species complex (Boletales, Basidiomycota) using sequence data from the internal-

transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the nuclear ribosomal repeat, as well as genotypic data from five microsatellite loci. The R. vinicolor species complex by our definition includes, but is not limited to, collections referred to as R. vinicolor Smith, R. diabolicus Smith, R. ochraceisporus Smith, R. parvulus Smith or R. vesiculosus Smith. Holo- and/or paratype material for the named species is included. Analyses of both ITS sequences and microsatellite loci separate collections

of the R. vinicolor species complex into two distinct clades or clusters, suggestive of two biological species that subsequently are referred to as R. vinicolor sensu Kretzer et al and R. vesiculosus sensu Kretzer et al. Choice of the latter names, as well as morphological characters, are discussed.

109: 173-186. Partial translation elongation factor 1 alpha (TEF-1a) gene and

intron sequences are reported from 148 isolates of 11 species of the anamorph genus Fusarium; F. avenaceum (syn. F. arthrosporioides), F. cerealis, F. culmorum, F. equiseti,F. flocciferum, F. graminearum, F. lunulosporum, F. sambucinum, F. torulosum, F. tricinctum and F. venenatum. The sequences were aligned with TEF-1a sequences retrieved from 35 isolates of F. kyushuense, F. langsethiae, F. poae and F. sporotrichioides in a previous study, and 39 isolates of F. cerealis, F. culmorum, F. graminearum and F. pseudograminearum retrieved from sequence databases. The 222 aligned sequences were subjected to phylogenetic analyses using maximum parsimony and Bayesian Markov Chain Monte Carlo maximum likelihood statistics. Support

for internal branching topologies was examined by Bremer support, bootstrap and posterior probability analyses. The resulting trees were largely congruent. The taxon groups included in the sections Discolor, Gibbosum and Sporotrichiella sensu Wollenweber & Reinking (1935) all appeared to be polyphyletic. All species were monophyletic except F. flocciferum that was paraphyletic, and one isolate classified as F. cfr langsethiae on the basis of morphology that grouped with F. sporotrichioides. Mapping of toxin profiles, host preferences and geographic origin onto the DNA based phylogenetic tree structure indicated that in particular the toxin profiles corresponded with phylogeny, i.e. phylotoxigenic relationships were inferred. A major distinction was observed between the trichothecene and non-trichothecene producers, and the trichothecene producers were grouped into one clade of strictly type A trichothecene producers, one clade of strictly type B trichothecene producers and one clade with both type A and type B trichothecene producers. Furthermore, production of

the type A trichothecenes T-2/HT-2 toxins are associated with a lineage comprising F. langsethiae and F. sporotrichioides. The ability to produce zearalenone was apparently gained parallel to the ability to produce trichothecenes, and later lost in a derived sublineage. The ability to produce enniatins is a shared feature of the entire study group, with the exception of the strict trichothecene type B producers and F. equiseti. The ability to produce moniliformin seems to be an ancestral feature of members of the genus Fusarium which seems to have been lost in the clades consisting of trichothecene/zearalenone producers. The aims of the present study were to determine the

phylogenetic relationships between the different species of Fusarium commonly occurring on Norwegian cereals and some of their closest relatives, as well as to reveal underlying patterns such as the ability to produce certain mycotoxins, geographic distribution and host preferences. Implications for a better classification of Fusarium are discussed and highlighted.

KRIVTSOV, V., B. S. GRIFFITHS, et al. (2004). "Some aspects of interrelations between fungi and other biota in forest soil." Mycol. Res. 108: 933-946.

Krokene, P., I. Barnes, et al. (2004). "A PCR-RFLP based diagnostic technique to rapidly identify Seiridium species causing cypress canker." Mycologia,

Interrelations of fungal mycelium with other soil biota are of paramount importance in forestry and soil ecology. Here we present the results of statistical analysis of a comprehensive data set collected in the first (and the only) British fungus sanctuary over a period of four months. The variables studied included a number of soil properties, bacteria, protozoan flagellates, ciliates and amoebae, microbial and plant feeding nematodes, various microarthropods, and two fungal biomarkers – glomalin and ergosterol. One way ANOVA showed that the dynamics of the microbiota studied was influenced by seasonal changes. Superimposed on these changes, however, was variability due to biological interactions and habitat characteristics. Two fungal biomarkers, ergosterol and glomalin, were differently influenced by other biota

and abiotic variables. The results indicate that the dynamics of soil fungi is influenced not only by soil microarthropods, but also by those found in forest litter. The overall outcome, therefore, is likely to be very complex and will depend upon specific conditions of any particular ecosystem.

96(6): 1352-1354. Seiridium cardinale, S. cupressi and S. unicorne represent

three distinct species of fungi that cause cankers on Cupressus species and the disease collectively known as cypress canker. These fungi cannot be distinguished reliably from each other using morphological characters or ribosomal DNA sequence

data. Here we describe a RFLP assay based on digesting β-tubulin amplicons with a single endonuclease, HaeIII, which easily can be used to distinguish among these three species. This RFLP assay provides an

inexpensive and simple means of identifying Seiridium species, which include some of the most serious threats to trees in Cupressaceae.

Kropp, B. R. and P. B. Matheny (2004). "Basidiospore homoplasy and variation in the Inocybe chelanensis group in North America." Mycologia, 96(2): 295-309.

America. The species concept of I. chelanensis is broadened to include the range of variation occurring for the species in North America. Despite similar

KRUPKE, O. A., A. J. CASTLE, et al. (2003). "The North American mushroom competitor, Trichoderma aggressivum f. aggressivum, produces antifungal compounds in mushroom compost that inhibit mycelial growth of the commercial mushroom Agaricus bisporus." Mycol. Res.

We present a morphological and phylogenetic study of Inocybe chelanensis and other North American species of Inocybe that have unusually elongated nodulose spores. Taxonomy and illustrations of these species are provided, along with a key to these and similar species found in Europe and North

basidiospore morphologies, I. chelanensis and I. candidipes are not closely related. Inocybe chelanensis is related more closely to I. stellatospora and I. candidipes is related to I. glabrodisca based on RPB1 and nLSU-rDNA nucleotide sequences. Distal enlongation of Inocybe basidiospores was achieved independently in at least two separate lineages of Inocybe. Inocybe candidipes and I. sierraensis are described as new.

107: 1467-1475.

originally described by Rifai were isolated on commercial mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) farms. These ‘aggressive’ biotypes cause devastating crop loss on mushroom farms. The aggressive biotype in North America was originally known as ‘Th4’ but has been recently renamed Trichoderma aggressivum f. aggressivum. In contrast, ‘non-aggressive’ biotypes, have no noticeable effect on the crop, are similar to T. harzianum and are commonly found on mushroom farms. The mechanism of disease establishment is unknown. We have identified a metabolite produced by T. aggressivum isolates in vitro that inhibits growth of A. bisporus and other fungi. This antifungal compound is not produced by ‘non-aggressive’ T. harzianum isolates under the culture conditions tested and is identified as 3,4-dihydro-8-hydroxy- 3-methylisocoumarin. Another compound was isolated from both liquid culture and infested compost. Although its chemical structure could not be precisely determined, this compound also inhibits A. bisporus growth, is predominant in infested compost and likely

Trichoderma harzianum is a ubiquitously distributed asexual soil fungus that produces a variety of antibiotic compounds. Colonisation of soil inhabited by competing microbiota is facilitated by the antibiotic activity of these compounds. In addition, T. harzianum produces hydrolytic enzymes that degrade the cell wall components of many microorganisms, which can then be used as a source of nutrients. Recently, biotypes of T. harzianum differing morphologically from those

has a inhibitory effect on the mycelia present in mushroom compost, resulting in devastating crop loss.

KULARATNE, H. A. G. C., A. C. LAWRIE, et al. (2004). "A specific primer PCR and RFLP assay for the rapid detection and differentiation in planta of some Mycosphaerella species associated with foliar diseases of Eucalyptus globulus." Mycol. Res. 108: 1476-1493.

M. tasmaniensis and M. aff. vespa. One of the unidentified field-isolated Mycosphaerella species was identified as M. grandis on the basis of ITS sequence data while the other species remains unidentified. A PCR-RFLP system based on the primer pair U1F/U1R, coupled with the restriction enzyme StyI, differentiated between the two unidentified species. Unexpectedly, unlike isolation and culture studies, these assays detected M. nubilosa, M. cryptica and M. grandis in all single lesions examined on both juvenile and adult leaves, and on both highly resistant and highly susceptible E. globulus trees at this site.

KULLNIG, C., G. SZAKACS, et al. (2000). "Molecular identification of Trichoderma species from Russia, Siberia and the Himalaya." Mycol. Res.

It is difficult to accurately identify Mycosphaerella species associated with leaf diseases of Eucalyptus based on morphological characters, as there is considerable overlap between very similar species and subspecies, and isolation from the host is not easy. Thus, a PCR and RFLP assay based on the ITS region of nr DNA was developed for the rapid detection and differentiation of M. nubilosa, M. cryptica and two non-sporing unidentified Mycosphaerella species isolated from the foliage of trees in resistant and susceptible families of E. globulus in a seed orchard at Kinglake West, Victoria, Australia. The M. nubilosa primer pair MNF/MNR was highly specific. A PCR-RFLP system based on the primer pair MCF/MCR, coupled with two restriction enzymes (DdeI and Tru1I), differentiated M. cryptica, M. nubilosa,

104: 1117-1125. About 35 Trichoderma species are currently recognised on the

basis of morphological and molecular characters. Besides the role of a few of these species in biotechnology, several seem to play prominent roles in soil ecosystems. With a goal of investigating global biodiversity in Trichoderma, we report on the occurrence of Trichoderma spp. in Russia (Moscow and Ural areas), Siberia (Krasnoyarsk area) and the Himalayan mountains -- areas from which no Trichoderma isolates are so far available. The ITS 1 and 2 sequence of the rDNA cluster of the 75 isolates obtained was compared with that of ex-type strains and taxonomically established isolates of Trichoderma. Thirty-nine isolates were positively identified as T. atroviride, T. virens, T. hamatum, T. asperellum, T. koningii and T.

oblongisporum. A further 26 isolates yielded six closely related ITS1/2 sequence types, which are highly similar yet different from the ex-(neo)type strains of T.

harzianum and T. inhamatum. Some of these genotypes (i.e. 1 and 2a) occurred only in Russia}Siberia, whereas others (2b, 3, 4 and 5) were found only in the Himalayas. RAPD analysis was consistent with these genotypes, and revealed genetic homogeneity even between strains from widely separated areas. Parsimony analysis placed these five genotypes, together with T. harzianum, T. inhamatum and the mushroom-aggressive T. harzianum ` biotype 2' in a large, unresolved ` harzianum' clade. Ten isolates were not safely alignable within known species, and five of them may be undescribed taxa : one isolate from 2700 m elevation in the Himalayas, which clustered in parsimony analysis at a basal position in section Longibrachiatum ; and four isolates, displaying two closely related sequence types, forming a separate clade with T. stromaticum. The five remaining isolates also exhibited three unique ITS1 and 2 sequence patterns, but parsimony analysis placed them into the unresolved ` harzianum' clade, and their relationship to T. harzianum is thus unclear. The study shows that molecular screening of uninvestigated geographic areas can lead to the identification of isolates with new ITS1 and ITS2 sequence patterns, some of which may be new taxa. It also reveals that T. harzianum is at present the genetically most diverse member of the genus. KULLNIG-GRADINGER, C. M., G. SZAKACS, et al. (2002). "Phylogeny and evolution of the genus Trichoderma: a multigene approach." Mycol. Res. 106: 757-767. The phylogeny of Trichoderma and the phylogenetic

relationships of its species was investigated by maximum parsimony analysis and distance analysis of DNA sequences from multiple genetic loci. 18S rDNA sequence analysis suggests that the genus Trichoderma evolved at the same time as Hypomyces and Fusarium and thus about 110 Myr ago. 28S rDNA sequence analysis shows that the genus Trichoderma is part of a monophyletic branch within the Hypocreaceae, which also includes Arachnocrea and Aphysiostroma in basal positions. Gene trees inferred from a combined analysis of the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS1 and 2), the D1 and D2 region of the 28S rDNA, the small subunit of the mitochondrial rDNA (mitSSU), the fifth and part of the sixth exon of translation elongation factor 2 (tef1), and a fragment of ech42 provide strong statistical support for a phylogeny consistent with the existence of four clades: clade A comprises species of Bissett's (1991) sect. Trichoderma but also T. hamatum, T. pubescens, T. asperellum, and T. strigosum; clade C comprises all the species contained in section Longibrachiatum as revised by Samuels et al. (1998), and clade D contains only T. aureoviride which is genetically most distant to all other species. Clade B, on the other hand, contains a large and taxonomically heterogeneous mixture of species, among which several subclades could be identified: subclade B1 containing H. lactea, H. citrina, H. citrina var. americana, H. lutea, and an unnamed T. sp. 1; subclade B2 containing T. stromaticum, and an unnamed T. sp. PPRI3559; subclade B3 containing T. fertile, T. oblongisporum, and H. hunua; subclade B5 containing T.

polysporum, T. croceum, Hypocrea pilulifera, and T. minutisporum; and a larger subclade (B4), in which three strain clusters could be distinguished : one comprising T. harzianum, T. inhamatum, H. vinosa, and T. aggressivum, another one containing T. fasciculatum, T. longipile, and T. strictipile ; and a third containing T. virens, T. flavofuscum, and T. crassum. The position of the remaining species of subclade B4 (T. spirale, T. cfr aureoviride, H. tawa, and T. tomentosum) was not resolved. A comparison of the topologies of the individual gene trees was concordant with the topology of the combined tree in most cases, but also revealed incongruent positions for a few species (T. oblongisporum, T. longipile, T. fasciculatum) which was most pronounced in the ITS1 and 2 tree. The results confirm the recent concept for sects Longibrachiatum and Trichoderma, indicate that the sects Hypocreanum and Pachybasium cannot be distinguished phylogenetically, and provide a first phylogenetic basis for dissection of the latter two sections.

Kumar, S. and N. S. Punekar (1997). "The metabolism of 4-aminobutyrate (GABA) in fungi." Mycological Research 101(4): 403.

KUMARESAN, V. and T. S. SURYANARAYANAN (2001). "Occurrence and distribution of endophytic fungi in a mangrove community." Mycol. Res.

Information on the genetics and metabolism of 4-aminobutyrate (GABA) in yeasts and fungi is reviewed. In spite of ubiquitous occurrence, there is limited information on its function and biological role. Most fungi utilize GABA both as a carbon and a nitrogen source. Fungal endogenous GABA largely originates from the decarboxylation of l-glutamate and is associated with sporulation}spore metabolism. Whatever its source, GABA is catabolized to succinate via succinicsemialdehyde. Taken together these steps define a potential bypass outside the classical tricarboxylic acid cycle. Evidence for the existence of such a functional bypass in fungi is reviewed. The role of GABA and its metabolism in various facets of fungal biology is gradually emerging.

105: 1388-1391.

KURIHARA, Y., Y. DEGAWA, et al. (2001). "A new genus Myconymphaea (Kickxellales) with peculiar septal plugs." Mycol. Res.

Seven dominant mangrove species of an estuarine mangrove forest in south India were studied for the presence of foliar endophytes. Mitosporic fungi, ascomycetes and sterile mycelia were isolated from the leaves of the mangrove hosts studied. Although many endophytes were common to more than one host, the endophyte assemblage of each mangrove species was dominated by different endophyte species.

105: 1397-1402. Myconymphaea yatsukahoi gen. sp. nov. is described in the

Kickxellaceae (Kickxellales, Zygomycetes). The fungus is characterised by unicellular sporocladia formed on apical vesicles of sporangiophores, conspicuously long sporangiospores and peculiar septal plugs with

prominent protuberances. In addition, a key to all known genera of the Kickxellales is provided.

KURIHARA, Y., Y. DEGAWA, et al. (2004). "Two novel kickxellalean fungi, Mycoemilia scoparia gen. sp. nov. and Ramicandelaber brevisporus sp. nov." Mycol. Res. 108: 1143-1152.

KWASNA, H. and G. L. BATEMAN (1998). "Four rare microfungi from the rhizosphere of wheat in the United Kingdom." Mycol. Res.

Mycoemilia scoparia gen. sp. nov. is described as a new member of Kickxellales. It is characterized by lageniform sporocladia produced acrogenously in mass and bears wet and fusiform spores on the sporocladia. Ramicandelaber brevisporus sp. nov. is distinguished from the type species of the genus, R. longisporus, by producing much shorter asexual spores, (3–)8(–13) long fertile branches arising from a globose body, and lateral branches.

102: 1487-1490.

KWASNA, H., G. L. BATEMAN, et al. (1999). "Coemansia species from the rhizospheres of wheat and barley in the United Kingdom." Mycol. Res.

Four rare microfungi, Dactylaria appendiculata, Exserohilum novae-zelandiae, Monacrosporium psychrophilum and Pleurocatena acicularis, were found when root pieces taken from wheat crops were incubated on low nutrient agar (SNA).

103: 896-900.

KWASNA, H., W. A. J. M. DAWSON, et al. (1999). "Mycoparasitism of Coemansia species." Mycol. Res.

Coemansia aciculifera, C. scorpioidea and C. thaxteri were found in the rhizosphere of wheat and a fungus resembling C. spiralis was found in the rhizosphere of barley from two fields in eastern England when serially washed root pieces were incubated on low nutrient agar (SNA).

103: 925-928.

KWASNA, H., W. A. J. M. DAWSON, et al. (2000). "Ramulispora cerealis sp. nov. from the stems of cereals in the United Kingdom." Mycol. Res.

The mode of hyphal interaction and parasitism of Coemansia spp., mainly C. aciculifera and C. thaxteri, by Gliocladium roseum, Fusarium flocciferum and Verticillium psalliotae, species that occurred with the Coemansia spp. in wheat rhizospheres, was observed in mixed cultures on low nutrient medium. Two types of interaction occurred. G. roseum and F. flocciferum coiled round, penetrated and grew within the host's hyphae. V. psalliotae grew parallel to and along the host's hyphae, coiling only rarely, and sometimes formed thick mycelial layers on the host's sporangiophores. After infection by each fungus, the host's hyphae became narrower, collapsed and then disintegrated. The observations suggest parasitism followed by lysis rather than the involvement of antibiotics.

104: 765-

768.

KWASNA, H. and B. KOSIAK (2003). "Lewia avenicola sp. nov. and its Alternaria anamorph from oat grain, with a key to the species of Lewia." Mycol. Res.

A new species of Ramulispora, R. cerealis sp. nov., isolated from the stem base of a barley plant, is described.

107: 371-376.

KWASNA, H. and H. I. NIRENBERG (2005). "Delimitation of Penicillium virgatum sp. nov. and P. daleae on the basis of morphological and molecular characters." Mycol. Res.

Lewia avenicola sp. nov. (anamorph Alternaria sp.) is described. The fungus was isolated from oat grain in Norway. The fungus produced conidia within a month, and ascomata with fully mature ascospores within 8 months following inoculation, when stored on slants of synthetic nutrient agar (SNA) at 4 °C in darkness. A comparison with other known Lewia species is made, and a key to the five known Lewia species is included.

109(9): 974-982. Penicillium virgatum sp. nov. is described from the soil of a

soybean field in New Caledonia. Its delimitation from P. daleae, isolated from forest soils in Poland and Germany, is discussed. The species are differentiated on the basis of morphological features of their cultures in vitro, comparison of the PCR-RFLP profiles with DdeI, HpaII, Sau3A1, and TagI restriction endonucleases, and nucleotide sequences.

KWASNA, H., M. J. RICHARDSON, et al. (2002). "Morphological variation in the Coemansia spiralis complex." Mycol. Res. 106: 252-256.

Kwon, K. S., J. H. Lee, et al. (1996). "Differential carbon catabolite repression of two intracellular B-glucosidases in Aspergillus nidulans." Mycological Research

The possibility that the Coemansia spiralis complex contains three species is discussed on the basis of six descriptions. The name C. spiralis is retained for the fungus first described with the appropriate generic placement and incorporates C. nantahalensis. The second species, for which preserved material is not available, is named as C. bainieri nom. nov., and C. linderi sp. nov. is the third species.

101(4): 473-476. Two intracellular b-glucosidases, designated P-I and P-II, were found in

Aspergillus nidulans. While both enzymes were subject to carbon catabolite repression, they exhibited different degrees of repression. P-I biosynthesis was repressed only by a strongly repressing carbon source such as glucose. By contrast, P-II biosynthesis was repressed by even weakly repressing carbon sources such as acetate or lactose. Repression of both was relieved in the creAd mutant strain, except for the strong repression of P-II biosynthesis which was still repressed by glucose. Thus P-II biosynthesis seems to be more sensitive to carbon catabolite

repression than P-I. LADAY, M., F. BAGI, et al. (2000). "Isozyme evidence for two groups of Fusarium graminearum." Mycol. Res. 104: 788-793. Cellulose-acetate electrophoresis (CAE) was used to

investigate isozyme polymorphisms of 34 Group 1 and Group 2 isolates of Fusarium graminearum. Of the 26 enzyme systems screened, alkaline phosphatase, NADP-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase, peptidase D and phosphoglucomutase were found to be suitable for distinguishing members of Group 1 from members of Group 2. A great deal of similarity in the isozyme patterns among the isolates of a same group, independently of geographic origin, indicated that isolates within a given group are descendant from a same ancestral population. Significant differences in the isozyme patterns between the isolates of Group 1 and Group 2 indicated, however, that the two groups were of different ancestry. Group 1 isolates have since been named F. pseudograminearum. Due to the short run time, minimal need of equipment, small sample volume and staining requirements, CAE generally provides a rapid and accurate method for isozyme analysis of Fusarium species.

LAICH, F., F. FIERRO, et al. (2003). "Isolation of Penicillium nalgiovense strains impaired in penicillin production by disruption of the pcbAB gene and application as starters on cured meat products." Mycol. Res. 107: 717-726. The presence of some fungi on a variety of food products, like

cheeses or cured meat products, is beneficial for the ripening of the product and for the development of specific flavour features. The utilization of these fungi as starters, which are inoculated normally as asexual spores on the food products at the beginning of the ripening process, is becoming a usual procedure in the food industry. The starter culture also prevents undesirable fungi or bacteria from growing on the product. Penicillium nalgiovense is the most frequently used starter for cured and fermented meat products, but the fact that this fungus can secrete penicillin to the meat product makes it important to get strains unable to synthesize this antibiotic. In this work we report that P. nalgiovense strains impaired in penicillin production can be obtained by disruption of the pcbAB gene (the first gene of the penicillin biosynthetic pathway). When applied as starter on cecina (a salted, smoke-cured beef meat product from the region of Leo´ n, Spain), the pcbAB-disrupted strain showed no differences with respect to the parental penicillin-producing strain in its ability to colonize the meat pieces and to control their normal mycoflora. Both strains exerted a similar control on the presence of bacteria in cecina. A similar proportion of penicillin-sensitive and penicillin-resistant bacteria were isolated from pieces inoculated with the penicillin-producing or the non-producing P. nalgiovense strains. The decrease of the bacterial population on the surface of cecina seems to be due to the

higher competition for nutrients as a consequence of the inoculation and development of the P. nalgiovense mycelium and not due to the production of penicillin by this fungus. Penicillin production was less affected than growth in a solid medium with high NaCl concentrations; this suggests that the high salt concentration present in cecina is not a limiting factor for penicillin production by P. nalgiovense.

Lairini, K. and M. Ruiz-Rubio (1998). "Detoxification of a-tomatine by Fusarium solani." Mycological Research 102(11): 1375-1380.

LAKROD, K., C. CHAISRISOOK, et al. (2000). "RAPD analysis of genetic variation within a collection of Monascus spp. isolated from red rice (ang-kak) and sofu." Mycol. Res.

The steroidal glycoalkaloid a-tomatine of tomato plants has been reported to protect Lycopersicon species against fungal attack. Two isolates from Fusarium solani were found to produce an extracellular enzyme inducible by a-tomatine. TLC showed that the enzyme catalyzes the hydrolysis of the glycoalkaloid into b-lycotetraose and tomatidine. The enzymatic activity was concentrated against polyethylene glycol 35000, and the enzyme was partially purified by preparative isoelectric focusing, preparative gel electrophoresis and ion exchange chromatography. The enzyme was found to be a monomer of about 32 kDa by both SDS-PAGE and gel filtration. This molecular mass differs from that of the tomatinase of Fusarium oxysporum (50 kDa). Moreover, polyclonal antibody antitomatinase of F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici did not recognize the tomatinase from F. solani, suggesting that this tomatinase may be a novel enzyme.

104: 403-408.

isolates which were quite distinct from each other and all other isolates. The fifth cluster, a single isolate from Japan, was very different from all others in RAPD patterns and was used as an outgroup. Resampling analysis indicated that the 25 isolates represented four genetic lineages of red rice fungi, suggesting that a relatively narrow genetic source of Monascus isolates is used in food products in Asia.

Genetic variation within a collection of 25 isolates of Monascus from red rice and sofu was assessed with RAPD markers using genetic distances (1-Jaccard's coefficient) calculated for all combinations of isolates. Cluster analysis based on genetic distance was performed using the Ward's minimum variance method. Five distinct clusters were revealed based on genetic distances between and among clusters. The robustness (reproducibility) of the cluster assignments was tested by resampling (bootstrap) analysis. Cluster distribution was visualized as a three-dimensional graph based on multiple correspondence analysis. A dendrogram, based on the clusters, was constructed to examine the relationships. Three clusters accounted for 21 isolates ; the fourth cluster consisted of three

Lam, D. M. (2006). Fungal Diversity on Leaf Litter of Selected Tree Species in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. Biodiversity and Ethnobiology. Chiang Mai, Chiang Mai University: 138.

LANDVIK, S., T. K. SCHUMACHER, et al. (2003). "Morphology and ultrastructure of Neolecta species." Mycol. Res.

The fungal diversity on leaf litter on five tree species in Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, Chiang Mai, Thailand was carried out between October 2003 and October 2005. These hosts were chosen based on their occurrence at Doi Suthep-Pui National Park and their hierarchical.....

107: 1021-1031.

LANGER, G., E. LANGER, et al. (2000). "Botryobasidium musaisporum sp. nov. collected in Tai." Mycol. Res.

Several independent molecular phylogenetic analyses have indicated that the genus Neolecta has a unique position within the Ascomycota. It is the only taxon outside the core-group of filamentous, ascoma-forming ascomycetes that also has the ability to form ascomata. Light and electron microscope studies indicate that hymenial structure and development in Neolecta spp. are unique. Ascogenous hyphae in N. vitellina branched repeatedly and successively to produce asci.

Non-ascogenous hyphae were multinucleate, often with nuclei in pairs. Nuclear pairing was particularily prominent in the ascogenous hyphae. A basal septum delimited the dikaryotic ascus. Ascosporogenesis was initiated by nuclear fusion followed by a meiotic and mitotic division to form eight nuclei. The ascus apex was thin with an annular subapical thickening. Ascospores were forcibly released through a ‘ split ’ in the ascus apex. Woronin bodies were frequently associated with hyphal septa. Attempts to culture N. vitellina and to obtain molecular information from the type species, N. flavovirescens, were unsuccessful. However, N. flavovirescens showed several microscopic characters that indicated close relationships with the two other species in the genus, N. vitellina and N. irregularis. The position of Neolecta spp. within the Ascomycota is discussed.

104: 510-512.

LANGRELL, S. R. H. (2002). "Molecular detection of Neonectria galligena (syn. Nectria galligena)." Mycol. Res.

The morphology of Botryobasidium musaisporum sp. nov., a species with bananiform basidiospores collected in Taiwan, is illustrated, described, and discussed. Only one other Botryobasidium with bananiform basidiospores is known, B. bananisporum described from Africa. A key to 13 Taiwanese Botryobasidium species is provided.

106: 280-292. A pair of primers specific for Neonectria galligena were

designed from comparisons of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions 1 and 2 of 32 isolates of diverse origins with sequences from 7 other nectriaceous species : `Nectria' ditissima, N. coccinea, N. coccinea var. faginata, N. punicea, N. fuckeliana, N. cinnabarina, and N. radicicola.

Comparisons were also made with sequences from several commonly encountered fungal endophyte species of apple

LANOISELET, V., E. J. COTHER, et al. (2001). "Production, germination and infectivity of chlamydospores of Rhynchosporium alismatis." Mycol. Res.

wood, in particular Fusarium lateritium. Under stringent PCR conditions, primers Ch1 and Ch2 amplify a 412 bp fragment from N. galligena DNA nectriaceous but not from other nectriaceous species, fungal apple endophyte species, rosaceous, or beech host tissues. The identity of PCR products from total DNA extracts from woody tissues was confirmed by Southern hybridization. A 500 bp heterologous internal standard incorporating identical primer recognition sites was generated for use as an internal positive control for individual PCR assays to identify false negatives due to the presence of high levels of co-precipitated PCR inhibitory compounds. Further adaptation of this approach allowed for semi-quantitative competitive PCR enabling the determination of target fungal levels in infected lignified tissues.

105: 441-446. Rhynchosporium alismatis, a pathogen of several Alismataceae

species, is being studied in Australia as a potential weed biocontrol agent for Alisma lanceolatum, A. plantago-aquatica and Damasonium minus. Chlamydospores of R. alismatis are described for the first time. Large numbers (5.34x105 cm-2) were produced on potato dextrose agar within 8--15 d and range in size from 4.7 to 14 µm. There was variability between isolates in mean diameter but size was not related to the host of origin. Within 24 h at 30 °C 60% of chlamydospores, 8 d to 3 months old, germinated. Each germinated chlamydospore produced up to four germ-tubes. Chlamydospores were detected in leaf lesions on naturally-infected A. plantago-aquatica. One-month-old chlamydospores were pathogenic to leaf discs cut from mature leaves of A. lanceolatum and Damasonium minus. The relative robustness of chlamydospores is an advantage over conidia for the future production of a biological control agent if they can be produced and harvested in broth culture.

Lanoiselet, V. M., E. J. Cother, et al. (2005). "Comparison of two total cellular fatty acid analysis protocols to differentiate Rhizoctonia oryzae and R. oryzae-sativae." Mycologia, 97(1): 77-88. Two fatty acid analysis protocols (the MIDI and a modified

MIDI method) were investigated for their utility to characterize and differentiate Rhizoctonia oryzae and R. oryzae-sativae isolates from four countries. Only the modified MIDI method permitted a clear differentiation between the two species, regardless of the isolates’ country of origin. The modified MIDI method gave the most consistent and reproducible fatty acid results. The failure of the MIDI method to differentiate between R. oryzae and R. oryzae-sativae isolates suggests that the 30 minutes saponification step is insufficient to completely break the cell wall of these

two species. This study demonstrated that fatty acid profiles, obtained by the modified MIDI protocol, have the potential as a diagnostic tool for both R. oryzae and R. oryzae-sativae.

LAPPALAINEN, J. H. and T. YLI-MATTILA (1999). "Genetic diversity in Finland of the birch endophyte Gnomonia setacea as determined by RAPD-PCR markers." Mycol. Res. 103: 328-332.

the ability to form local populations. LARDNER, R., P. R. JOHNSTON, et al. (1999). "Morphological and molecular analysis of Colletotrichum acutatum sensu lato." Mycol. Res.

We studied the occurrence of genotypes of Gnomonia setacea by RAPD-PCR analysis at two natural sites in SW Finland to study site-, tree- and leaf-level genetic diversity. The analysis was performed with two primers by using 40 isolates from a total of 250 colonies isolated from two trees from each of two sites. Genetic diversity of G. setacea was found to be very high: every isolate studied was a unique genotype, even within the same leaf. This is probably due to sexual reproduction and the horizontal transmission system of airborne spores. Genotype distribution exhibited site-level similarity, indicating limited spore deposition and

103: 275-285. The genetic relationships between several morphological

groups recognized within Colletotrichum acutatum sensu lato were investigated using RAPD analysis and vegetative compatibility analysis. Isolates were examined from fruit rots originating in New Zealand and Australia, from Lupinus spp. in New Zealand, Canada, France and the U.K., and from Pinus radiata in New Zealand and Australia. The genetic distinctness of the groups recognized morphologically is confirmed. Two genetically distinct groups of C. acutatum-like pathogens are recognized from lupin, one comprising isolates from New Zealand and the U.K., the other isolates from Canada and France. C. acutatum f. sp. pineum isolates from New Zealand and Australia form two genetically distinct groups.

LARDNER, R., B. E. STUMMER, et al. (2005). "Molecular identification and detection of Eutypa lata in grapevine." Mycol. Res. 109(7): 799-808. Eutypa lata, the causal agent of Eutypa dieback of grapevines,

is difficult to identify on the basis of colony morphology and is often out-competed by other fungi when isolated from wood. To facilitate diagnosis of the pathogen, we designed SCAR primers capable of amplifying DNA of E. lata and constructed a genomic DNA library from which DNA sequences specific to E. lata were identified and sequenced. SCAR primers were used to identify E. lata directly from culture without the requirement for DNA extraction or prolonged incubation periods and could also detect the pathogen in DNA isolated from grapevine wood. RFLP probes were used in slot-blot assays to detect the pathogen in DNA isolated from 1 yr old cane as well as from mature grapevine trunks. The markers developed in this study have the

potential to be used as a research tool to gather information on the epidemiology of the disease and to assess the efficacy of potential control agents against E. lata.

Largent, D. L. (1986). How to Identify Mushrooms to Genus I : Macroscopic Features, Mad River Press, Inc. I: 166.

Largent, D. L. and H. D. Thiers (1949). How to Identify Mushrooms to Genus II : Field Identification of Genera, Mad River Press, Inc. II: 32. LARSEN, J., K. MANSFELD-GIESE, et al. (2000). "Quantification of Aphanomyces euteiches in pea roots using specific fatty acids." Mycol. Res.

Largent, D. L. and T. J. Baroni (1988). How to Identify Mushroom to Genus VI : Modern Genera, Mad River Press, Inc.: 277.

Largent, D. L., D. Johnson, et al. (1977). How to Identify Mushrooms to Genus III : Microscopic Features, Mad River Press, Inc. III: 148.

104: 858-864. The fatty acid composition of pea roots with and without the

root pathogen Aphanomyces euteiches was studied using whole cell fatty acids (WCFA), phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) and neutral lipid fatty acids (NLFA). Initial screening for A. euteiches markers using WCFA analysis showed that the fatty acids 14:1x9, 14:0, 20:4 and 20:5 were specific to roots infected with A. euteiches. The amounts of these fatty acids correlated positively with the percentage of the root system containing A. euteiches oospores, suggesting that they could be useful indicators of A. euteiches root-infection levels. Analysis of the composition of phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) and neutral lipid fatty acids (NLFA) of pea roots with and without A. euteiches showed similar specificity as found with WCFA analysis. PLFAs and NLFAs specific to roots inoculated with A. euteiches were also present in mycelium from pure culture of A. euteiches. The PLFAs 14:0, 20:4 and 20:5 were used to estimate biomass of A. euteiches and the NLFAs 14:1x9, 14:0, 20:4 and 20:5 were used as indicators of energy reserves of the pathogen. The possible use of specific fatty acids to study growth and development of A. euteiches in pea roots is discussed.

LARSEN, J., P. A. OLSSON, et al. (1998). "The use of fatty acid signatures to study mycelial interactions between the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices and the saprotrophic fungus Fusarium culmorum in root-free soil." Mycol. Res. 102: 1491-1496. The saprotrophic fungus Fusarium culmorum, Penicillium

hordei, Rhizoctonia solani and Trichoderma harzianum and the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices were examined for content of phospholipid fatty acids (PLFA) and neutral lipid fatty acids (NLFA). The

AM fungus differed from the saprotrophic fungi especially by its content of the fatty acid 16:1x5 which was absent in the saprotrophs. The fatty acid 18:2x6,9 was the dominant fatty acid of the saprotrophic fungi while it was negligible in mycelium of G. intraradices. Specificity in content of fatty acids made it possible to quantify G. intraradices. and F. culmorum simultaneously in soil. Furthermore, a compartmented growth system made it possible to study mycelial interactions in the absence of roots. We measured hyphal spread of both fungi, hyphal 33P transport of G. intraradices and sporulation of F. culmorum. The two fungi did not interact according to the parameters used in this study. We conclude that fatty acid signatures may be a valuable tool when studying interactions between AM fungi and other fungi in root-free soil.

LARSSON, E. and S. JACOBSSON (2004). "Controversy over Hygrophorus cossus settled using ITS sequence data from 200 year-old type material." Mycol. Res. 108: 781-786. Sowerby described Agaricus cossus in 1799. The fungus

possessed a smell, resembling that of a wounded larva of Cossus cossus (Lepidoptera). The species belongs in Hygrophorus, and since more than one white Hygrophorus species has this distinctive smell the epithet cossus has been variously interpreted. The complete internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the original type collection made in 1794, preserved in the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew herbarium, was successfully sequenced. Comparison with the ITS sequences from four other white aromatic-acidulous smelling Hygrophorus species, including the type specimen of H. quercetorum, showed that H. cossus is a species associated with Quercus and an older name for H. quercetorum. The differences in basidiome colouration developing with age and host-tree association appear to be the most useful characters to discriminate between the four species with a Cossus cossus smell. A table of morphological and ecological characters is provided.

Larsson, E. and K.-H. Larsson (2003). "Phylogenetic relationships of russuloid basidiomycetes with emphasis on aphyllophoralean taxa." Mycologia, 95(6): 1037-1065. Many homobasidiomycetes are characterized by a

combination of gloeocystidia and amyloid basidiospores. They display a great variation in basidioma morphology, including

erect and effused forms and gilled and nongilled forms. Earlier studies have shown these taxa to be

related, and the group has been named the russuloid clade. Phylogenetic relationships among russuloid basidiomycetes were investigated using sequence data from the nuclear 5.8S, ITS2 and large-subunit rDNA genes. A dataset including 127 ingroup sequences representing 43 genera and ca 120 species were analyzed by maximumparsimony and neighbor-joining methods. The sampling of taxa had an emphasis on

nongilled taxa and two-thirds of the species possessed corticioid basidiomata. Thirteen major well-supported clades were

identified within the russuloid clade. All clades except one include corticioid species. Ten characters from basidioma morphology and cultured mycelium were observed and evaluated. Results suggest that

gloeocystidia are a synapomorphy for taxa within the russuloid clade while the amyloidity of spores is inconsistent. The ornamentation of spores and type of nuclear behavior seems to be informative characters

at genus level. The agaricoid genera Lactarius and Russula are nested in a clade with corticioid species

at the basal position. The new combinations Boidinia aculeata, Gloeodontia subasperispora, Gloeocystidiopsis cryptacantha and Megalocystidium wakullum are proposed.

LARSSON, K.-H., E. LARSSON, et al. (2004). "High phylogenetic diversity among corticioid homobasidiomycetes." Mycol. Res. 108: 983-1002.

of them. Nine groups are strongly supported but support for euagarics and polyporoid clades is poor. Phlebioid fungi were in earlier studies merged with the polyporoid clade but are here identified as a separate clade. Athelia is allied with ectomycorrhizal genera, inter alia Piloderma and Amphinema, in a separate clade forming a sister group to the boletes. We conclude that corticioid fungi hold a considerable share of the phylogenetic diversity displayed by homobasidiomycetes, and should always be considered when phylogenetic studies of larger basidiomycetes are designed.

Lastra, C. C. L., A. C. Scorsetti, et al. (2005). "Trichomycetes living in the guts of aquatic insects of Misiones and Tierra del Fuego, Argentina." Mycologia,

Homobasidiomycetes display a variety of fruit body morphologies. Examples include gilled mushrooms, coral fungi, polypores and puffballs but also species with simple crust-like basidiomata, usually called corticioid fungi. The latter group has largely been neglected in recent studies of homobasidiomycete evolution. The major goal of the present study was to explore the impact that the addition of a wide selection of species with crust-like basidiomata would have on homobasidiomycete phylogeny. Two genes, 5.8S and 28S in the nuclear rDNA repeats, were sequenced and a data set with 178 taxa analysed using neighbour-joining and maximum parsimony methods. Support for clades was evaluated by bootstrap. Basal nodes generally received weak support and branching order for major clades remained largely unresolved. Twelve major groups were recovered and corticioid fungi make up a major or important constituent in most

97(2): 320-328. Fourteen species of Trichomycetes living in the guts of aquatic

insects are reported from two provinces of Argentina, Misiones and Tierra del Fuego.

Twelve of the species belong to the Harpellales and two are Amoebidiales. Five harpellid species are reported from Misiones in the extreme northeast of the country (Genistellospora homothallica, Harpella tica, Smittium culisetae, Smittium sp., Stachylina sp.) and seven are from Tierra del Fuego, the southern tip of South America (H. meridianalis, Glotzia sp., S. culicis, S. cellaspora, S. imitatum, Stachylina minima, Penella simulii). Insect hosts all were immature stages of Culicidae, Simuliidae, Chironomidae, Ceratopogonidae (Insecta: Diptera), and Ephemeroptera and Plecoptera. The lower diversity of Trichomycetes found at Misiones, which has a subtropical climate and rainforest vegetation, was due possibly to the warmer temperatures of the water (15–24 C), compared to the colder streams of Tierra del Fuego (9– 15 C), with forests and steppes as typical vegetation.

Le, H. T., J. Nuytinck, et al. (2007). "Lactarius in Northern Thailand: 1. Lactarius subgenus Piperites." Fungal Diversity 24: 173-224.

Leal, J. A., B. Gomez-Miranda, et al. (1997). "Possible chemotypes from cell wall polysaccharides, as an aid in the systematics of Penicillium and its teleomorphic states Eupenicillium and Talaromyces." Mycological Research

This papers reports on Lactarius subgenus Piperites from northern Thailand and is the first in a series resulting from a complete.....

101(10): 1259-1264. From the alkali-extractable material obtained from cell walls of 44 species

(49 strains) of Penicillium a water-soluble fraction (F1S) was isolated. The main component (F1S-S) of fraction F1S was purified by gel permeation chromatography through Sepharose CL6B, analysed chemically and its structure determined by 1H- and 13C-NMR. Galactose was the predominant neutral sugar in this fraction. Six different polysaccharidic structures were found and the species investigated were arranged into six groups according to these structures. These results illustrate the complexity of the cell wall components of Penicillium and add to existing information on the relatedness of species of the genus with Eupenicillium and Talaromyces. The results show that there are several types of cell wall in Penicillium.

Leal, S. C. M., D. J. Bertioli, et al. (1997). "Amplification and restriction endonuclease digestion of the Pr1 gene for the detection and characterization of Metarhizium strains." Mycological Research 101(3): 257-265. A method is described for identifying strains of Metarhizium suitable for

use in field experiments. It involves the restriction endonuclease digestion of a PCR product derived from the Pr1 protease gene and the analysis of the fragments by electrophoresis. Using this technique, 40 Metarhizium strains produced 15 different profile types and were clustered into four groups. Correlation between the profile of restriction fragments and geographic origin was observed foMetarhizium suitabler certain groups of

strains. This PCR strategy allowed the identification of fungal strains, using as samples spores scraped from the surface of single insects killed by the fungus or single whole dead insects with external mycelium. The sequence of the Pr1 PCR product from two strains revealed that Pr1 gene has at least three introns.

LEAL-BERTIOLI, S. C. M., T. M. BUTT, et al. (2000). "Genetic exchange in Metarhizium anisopliae strains coinfecting Phaedon cochleariae is revealed by molecular markers." Mycol. Res. 104: 409-414. Recombination between two strains of Metarhizium anisopliae,

subcultured on artificial medium and passed through an insect host was investigated. When grown on agar culture, or passed through a host, strains did not show detectable genetic changes. When passed through an insect in the presence of the other strain, genotypic changes in the isolates, as detected by esterase electrophoresis, restriction digestion of total genomic DNA and RAPD-PCR, were apparent. The instability of molecular markers suggests recombination between strains.

LEANO, E. M., L. L. P. VRIJMOED, et al. (1999). "Saprolegnia diclina isolated from pond cultured red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) in Hong Kong." Mycol. Res. 103: 701-706.

Lebel, T. and M. A. Castellano (2002). "Type studies of sequestrate Russulales II. Australian and New Zealand species related to Russula." Mycologia,

Mass mortality among pond cultured red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) was observed in Hong Kong. Affected fish were lethargic and lost their appetite but no lesions on the body surface were apparent. Patches of white to brownish cottony growth on the gills of affected fish were observed and microscopic examination revealed mats of hyaline mycelia with mature zoosporangia and oogonia which were identified as Saprolegnia diclina. During induced sporulation, production of primary and secondary zoospores, oogonia, and antheridia were observed. A physiological study of the growth and sporulation of a representative isolate determined its optimum growth requirements. The isolate can grow from pH 4 to 10, in distilled water, at salinities of 5--30%ο, and temperatures of 4--30°. Maximum growth was observed at pH 5 and 8--10, at salinities of 5-10%ο, and 25-30°. Production of zoosporangia only occurred in distilled water, 5 and 10%ο salinities, with zoospores released in distilled water and 5%ο salinity. Zoospore release was also observed from 4 to 30° with greater abundance at 25 and 30°, while oogonia and antheridia were produced in distilled water and from 5 to 30%ο salinities and at 20--30°.

94(2): 327-354. Nomenclatural types of the basionyms of species of

sequestrate relatives of Russula from Australia and New Zealand were studied and original descriptions emended. Illustrations of microscopic

characters are provided for the first time for many species. Several recombinations are proposed, including:

(i) Arcangeliella crichtonii comb. nov. ([ Cystangium crichtonii), (ii) Arcangeliella hepaticus comb. nov. ([ Elasmomyces hepaticus), (iii) Macowanites tomentosa

comb. nov. ([ Hydnangium tomentosum). LEBEL, T., D. K. THOMPSON, et al. (2004). "Description and affinities of a new sequestrate fungus, Barcheria willisiana gen. et sp. nov. (Agaricales) from Australia." Mycol. Res. 108: 206-213.

Lechner, B. E., J. E. Wright, et al. (2004). "The genus Pleurotus in Argentina." Mycologia,

A new sequestrate fungus, Barcheria willisiana gen. et sp. nov., is described and its affinities evaluated using nLSU rDNA sequence data. This unusual fungus has several characters that are reminiscent of species of Agaricus and Lepiota, but with a very reduced basidiome form. The nLSU rDNA of four Australian taxa, Barcheria willisiana, Agaricus xanthodermus, Leucoagaricus naucinus, and Lepiota discolorata, was sequenced for this study. Parsimony analysis of the sequences placed Barcheria within an Agaricus clade.

96(4): 845-858.

LECLERC-POTVIN, C., V. BALMAS, et al. (1999). "Development of reliable molecular markers to detect nonpathogenic binucleate Rhizoctonia isolates (AG-G) using PCR." Mycol. Res.

Macro- and micromorphological characters of specimens of the genus Pleurotus (Fr.) P. Kumm. in Argentina obtained in the field and from different national herbaria were analyzed. Cultivation techniques were used to obtain basidiomata, allowing for a macro- and micromorphological study of fresh developing fruit bodies. We concluded that in Argentina there are, so far, six species, namely P. albidus, P. cystidiosus, P. ostreatus, P. pulmonarius, P. rickii and P. djamor, the latter with three varieties: var. djamor, var. cyathiformis and var. roseus.

103: 1165-1172. Non-pathogenic binucleate Rhizoctonia species (BNR)

belonging to the anastomosis group AG-G are commonly associated with members of the Rhizoctonia solani complex. They provide effective protection to young bean seedlings against root rot caused by R. solani AG-4. Both fungi are morphologically similar and it is difficult to differentiate between them without using laborious conventional techniques. RAPD assays were carried out on a large range of isolates of binucleate Rhizoctonia species to identify markers common to all AG-G isolates. Two fragments of 1368 bp and 882 bp were isolated, cloned and used to probe Southern blots of DNA from: AG-G isolates ; isolates from other AGs of binucleate and multinucleate Rhizoctonia species ; various heterogeneous pathogens known to infect bean plants ; and co-inoculated bean plants with BNR AG-G and R. solani AG-4. The fragments

hybridized only to DNA from AG-G isolates. Both fragments were nucleotide sequenced and two pairs of SCAR (sequence characterized amplified region) primers (BR1a F/R and BR1b F}R) were generated for use in PCR. Two fragments of anticipated size were generated following PCR of all isolates of AG-G and not from any range of other fungal species associated with root and leaf diseases of beans. The SCAR primers were also used to detect AG-G isolates in DNA extracted from bean and soil samples co-inoculated with binucleate and multinucleate Rhizoctonia species. The assays were capable of detecting as little as 2.6 pg of fungal DNA in extracts of soil samples. This system offers the potential to determine the presence of AG-G isolates in infected soil and plant samples.

Lee, O. H. K. and K. D. Hyde (2002). "Phylloplane fungi in Hong Kong mangroves: evaluation of study methods." Mycologia, 94(4): 596-606.

LEE, S. and P. W. CROUS (2003). "New species of Anthostomella on fynbos, with a key to the genus in South Africa." Mycol. Res.

Many methods have been used to study phylloplane fungi, most of which have constraints and may result in biased results. This study used light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to investigate fungal abundance on the leaves of the most common mangrove trees in Hong Kong, Kandelia candel and Aegiceras corniculatum. Species richness was investigated using light microscopy and a leaf washing method. Methods to study phylloplane fungi are discussed and the performances of these three investigation methods are evaluated. Seven mitosporic fungal taxa were found by light microscopy, while 30 sporulating taxa and 18 Mycelia sterilia were isolated using the leaf washing method. Fungal abundance in terms of percentage cover investigated with light microscopy was similar using the SEM method, and was significantly higher on Aegiceras corniculatum than on Kandelia candel. Fungal abundance peaked in the summer and was lowest in the winter. This study indicates that light microscopy reveals the most typical phylloplane fungi and is more efficient than SEM, while the leaf washing method reveals many

casual species and is not quantitative.

107: 360-370. A study of saprobic fungi occurring on the fynbos of the

Western Cape Province of South Africa yielded four unknown Anthostomella species. A. proteae from Protea nitida, A. cynaroides from P. cynaroides, A. leucospermi from Leucospermum oleifolium, and A. brabeji from Brabejum stellatifolium are described as new. New records for South Africa include A. conorum from Leucadendron sp., Protea magnifica and P. neriifolia, and A. clypeata from Ischyrolepis subverticellata, Cannomois virgata, Restio egregius, and R. cfr confusus. A dichotomous key to the Anthostomella species in South Africa is also provided.

Lee, S., J. Z. E. Groenewald, et al. (2003). "Rhynchostomatoid fungi occurring on Proteaceae." Mycologia, 95(5): Seonju Lee J. Z. (Ewald) Groenewald

A new ascomycete fungus, with longnecked perithecia having central ostioles and striate ascospores, was isolated from flowerheads of Protea burchellii and P. laurifolia in South Africa and is described here as Rhynchostoma proteae sp. nov. Sequence data obtained from the small-subunit ribosomal DNA (SSU nrDNA) place this fungus with 100% bootstrap support in a clade containing the type species of Rhynchostoma, R. minutum. A similar fungus with verruculose ascospores also was observed on a member of the Proteaceae from Australia, Lomatia polymorpha, which is described here as Rhynchomeliola lomatiae sp. nov. These two species are illustrated and contrasted with a third species from Proteaceae, Rhynchomeliola australiense, known from Grevillea in Australia.

LEE, S., J.-J. KIM, et al. (2005). "Leptographium longiclavatum sp. nov., a new species associated with the mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae." Mycol. Res.

Joanne E. Taylor Francois Roets Pedro W. Crous.

109(10): 1162-1170. The mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae, and its

fungal associates are devastating the lodgepole pine forests in British Columbia, Canada. During our fungal survey, an unknown Leptographium species has been consistently isolated from both D. ponderosae and infested lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia). This Leptographium species has similar morphology with the Leptographium anamorph of Ophiostoma clavigerum whose association with the

LEEUWEN, G. C. M. v., R. P. BAAYEN, et al. (2002). "Distinction of the Asiatic brown rot fungus Monilia polystroma sp. nov. from M. fructigena." Mycol. Res.

D. ponderosae is well known. However, thorough morphological comparisons showed that this fungus is distinct from all the other Leptographium species described in the literature, and especially from O. clavigerum. Comparison of DNA sequences of multiple loci and the profiles by the PCR-RFLP marker also confirmed that this Leptographium species represents an undescribed taxon. Based on its distinct morphological, physiological characteristics and phylogenetic position, we describe it as L. longiclavatum sp. nov.

106: 444-451. Monilinia fructigena isolates from Japan were compared with

isolates from Europe. General colony characteristics, stroma formation, growth rate and conidial dimensions were determined for six isolates each from both groups, as well as sporulation intensity on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and germ tube features. Potential differences in pathogenicity were

tested on the pear cultivars `Conference' and `Doyenne! du Comice', and on the apple cultivar `Cox's Orange Pippin'. A marked difference in stroma formation occurred, the area of stromatal plates ranged from 4.1 to 5.2 cm2 in the Japanese group, and from 0 to 0.9 cm2 in the European. The mean growth rate was significantly higher for Japanese isolates (t-test, P=0.01). Length and width of conidia were significantly greater in European isolates (t-test,

LEEUWEN, J. V. and H. J. WICHERS (1999). "Tyrosinase activity and isoform composition in separate tissues during development of Agaricus bisporus fruit bodies." Mycol. Res.

P=0.01). Conidia measured on average 19 x 11.5 µm in European isolates, and 16 x 10 µm in Japanese ones when grown on cherry agar. On fruits, the difference in conidium size was even more pronounced. Sporulation intensity on PDA and germ tube features did not differ between both groups. No differences were found in latency period, lesion growth rate or sporulation intensity on apple and pear fruits between both groups. Together with previously published differences in the ITS region of ribosomal DNA, our results show that the Japanese isolates belong to a distinct species, Monilia polystroma sp. nov. A description of the anamorph is given, as well as a table summarising key features for all four brown rot associated Monilia species.

103: 413-418.

LEGER, R. J. S. and S. E. SCREEN (2000). "In vitro utilization of mucin, lung polymers, plant cell walls and insect cuticle by Aspergillus fumigatus, Metarhizium anisopliae and Haematonectria haematococca." Mycol. Res.

During growth of Agaricus bisporus fruit bodies the amount of active tyrosinase increased. The amount of active tyrosinase can be related to the degree of browning, as opposed to the fully activated tyrosinase level. Isoelectric focusing revealed that active and latent tyrosinase isoforms having different isoelectric points could be distinguished. The isoform composition was dependent on the tissue and developmental stage. In the later developmental stages new active isoforms appeared.

104: 463-471. Aspergillus fumigatus is saprotrophic with an unusual ability to

colonize the respiratory tract. The mechanisms that permit pathogenicity may have evolved to adapt the fungus to life as a saprobe. To define the nature of these adaptations and identify common themes in fungal pathogenesis to vertebrates, insects and plants, we compared A. fumigatus with a plant pathogen (Haematonectria haematococca) and an insect pathogen (Metarhizium anisopliae) in their abilities to degrade and utilize host-derived macromolecules (horse lung polymers, porcine mucin, hyaluronic acid, alfalfa cell walls and cockroach cuticle). Each fungus produced a similar range of proteases on mucin and lung polymers, and high levels of several glycosidic enzymes on mucin and plant cell walls, which contain inductive carbohydrate substrates. Following 18 h of growth

by A. fumigatus at pH 4 or pH 8, the degradation of mucin carbohydrates and mucin protein were approximately 40% and 75% respectively, suggesting that the aspartyl proteases (produced at pH 4) and the subtilisin proteases (produced at pH 8) are more important than carbohydrases for degrading mucin. The highly glycosylated mucin residue remaining after 18 h growth resisted further degradation, in part due to bound sialic acid as A. fumigatus secretes a sulphatase but not sialidase. Hyaluronidase activity (an important virulence factor in bacteria) was not produced by A. fumigatus, M. anisopliae or H. haematococca, but each fungus secreted a range of other enzymes (phospholipase A2, phospholipase C, acid phosphatase, alkali phosphatase, phosphodiesterase and esterase) that are common toxic components of bacteria as well as reptilia and invertebrate venoms. Thus thermotolerant opportunists such as A. fumigatus may sustain themselves and cause disease in human hosts using depolymerases that are widely distributed in fungi and that provide them with the versatility to exploit many environments.

LEGREAVE, A., P. DELFOSSE, et al. (2002). "Phylogenetic analysis of Polymyxa species based on nuclear 5.8S and internal transcribed spacers ribosomal DNA sequences." Mycol. Res. 106: 138-147.

A region of the nuclear ribosomal DNA containing the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1), the 5.8S DNA and the internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) was sequenced in 12 Polymyxa graminis and P. betae isolates, with particular emphasis on P. graminis from peanut clump-infested areas of the Indian subcontinent and West-Africa. Four different sequences were obtained from the seven isolates on sorghum or pearl millet, which differed from four sequences

previously published for Polymyxa species and obtained for P. graminis isolates on barley, oat and wheat originating from temperate areas in Europe and America (two distinct sequences), for isolates on rice from Colombia and for P. betae isolates on sugar beet from several origins. The sequence variations concerned mainly the composition and length of ITS1 and ITS2 regions. Phylogenetic trees built with the distinct sequences currently known for Polymyxa spp. using

parsimony, maximum likelihood and neighbour-joining methods separated P. betae from P. graminis. Within P. graminis, the hierarchy of the clustering partially matched the host range and geographical origin of the isolates. These results confirm the great diversity within P. graminis that has already been observed in host range and temperature requirements studies, and provide new arguments for considering several taxa within the species. On the basis of the ecological requirements and rDNA sequences of distinct P. graminis isolates, five special forms are proposed: P. graminis f. sp. temperata, P. graminis f. sp. tepida, P. graminis f. sp. subtropicalis, P. graminis f. sp. tropicalis and P. graminis f. sp. colombiana.

Leinhos, G. M. E., R. E. Gold, et al. (1997). "Development and morphology of Uncinula necator following treatment with the fungicides kresoxim-methyl and penconazole." Mycological Research 101(9): 1033-1046. Epifluorescence microscopy and low temperature scanning electron

microscopy were used to document the development of Uncinula necator on vine leaves and the antifungal effects of kresoxim-methyl and penconazole. Post-germinational growth and development followed a regular time course which was classified into 10 stages. Kresoxim-methyl was applied at a range of concentrations and at different times before and after inoculation. In glasshouse trials at moderate relative humidity (60 %), all pre-infectional applications completely inhibited conidial germination. Lower efficacies were observed with detached leaves at high humidity in Petri dishes. Post-infectional applications of at least 8 mg a.i. l-1 inhibited sporulation and mycelial growth and 67 mg a.i. l-1 caused a partial collapse of surface structures. Penconazole applied at 17 mg a.i. l-1 did not inhibit germination, but prevented hyphal development and caused growth distortion with hyphal tip swelling. Pre- and post-infectional treatments had similar effects. Applications made 3 d after inoculation increased multiple appressoria and conidiophore formation.

LEITE, L. G., S. B. ALVES, et al. (2003). "Effect of salts, vitamins, sugars and nitrogen sources on the growth of three genera of Entomophthorales: Batkoa, Furia, and Neozygites." Mycol. Res. 107: 872-878. Entomophthorales pathogenic to insects and mites often cause

epizootics in their host populations, but some have been difficult to culture in vitro and, therefore, to develop as biopesticides. Grace’s insect cell culture medium supplemented with lactalbumin hydrolysate and yeastolate has allowed growth of several species which until recently were referred to as obligate parasites. The research reported here was designed to evaluate the effects of the salts, vitamins and amino

acids used to prepare the insect cell culture medium on in vitro growth of Batkoa sp. and Furia sp., pathogens of the spittlebug pests of pasture and sugar-cane in Brazil, and Neozygites floridana, a pathogen of several mite species. Also, several sources of carbon and nitrogen were examined. Batkoa sp., Furia sp. and N. floridana were similar concerning their growth patterns in a basic medium with added salts, vitamins and amino acids, as well as with a combination of all three compoments. The addition of salts to the basic medium of sugars plus lactalbumen hydrolysate and yeastolate caused a significant increase in biomass production of the three fungal species. The addition of vitamins and amino acids had less effect. Batkoa sp., Furia sp. and N. floridana are similar in growth patterns in media with various sources of carbon, but different in media with different sources of nitrogen. The production of the three fungal species is significantly higher in medium containing 2.66% glucose than in medium with 2.66% sucrose. The addition of 0.1% monossacarides to media

containing 2.66% sucrose did not significantly increase biomass production.

LEITE, L. G., S. B. ALVES, et al. (2005). "Simple, inexpensive media for mass production of three entomophthoralean fungi." Mycol. Res. 109: 326-334.

the lower cost. The combination of 1%each of yeast extract+peptone+skim milk was the most suitable for production of N. floridana hyphal bodies.

Leonard C. Ferrington, J., R. W. Lichtwardt, et al. (2005). "Symbiotic Harpellales (Trichomycetes) in Tasmanian aquatic insects." Mycologia,

The entomophthoralean fungi Batkoa sp., Furia sp. and Neozygites floridana have been suggested for biocontrol of insect pests: the first two for control of spittlebug pests of pasture and sugarcane, and the third for mites of agricultural importance. To develop these agents as biopesticides and bioacaricides, it is important to have available culture media that maximize production at low cost. The research reported here evaluates, in different combinations and concentrations, the effect of four complex sources of nitrogen on production of mycelium or hyphal bodies in liquid media of all three species. Yeast extract allowed the highest production of Batkoa sp., with a concentration of 0.5% being the most suitable for vegetative (mycelial) growth. The combination of 0.33% each of yeast extract+beef extract+skim milk allowed the highest production of Furia sp. Mycelium. The combination of yeast extract+skim milk (0.5% of each) allowed the second highest production of Furia sp., and was the most suitable for mass production due to

97(1): 254-262. Surveys for symbiotic fungi in the guts of aquatic insect larvae

(Trichomycetes: Harpellales) in Tasmania, Australia, resulted in the discovery of four new species: two in Gripopterygidae (Plecoptera) nymphs, Plecopteromyces leptoperlarum and P. trinotoperlarum, and two associated with Diptera larvae, Smittium magnosporum in Thaumaleidae and Stachylina dolichospora in Chironomidae. Previously described species of Harpellales from other localities are reported and new host records summarized. A key to all Tasmanian species of Harpellales is provided.

Leslie, J. F., B. A. Summerell, et al. (2005). "Description of Gibberella sacchari and neotypification of its anamorph Fusarium sacchari." Mycologia, 97(3): 718–724. We described the teleomorph of Fusarium sacchari as

Gibberella sacchari, sp. nov. This species can be separated from other species of Gibberella on the basis of the longer, narrower ascospores found in G. sacchari and by sexual cross fertility. Female-fertile mating type tester strains were developed that can be

used for making sexual crosses with this heterothallic fungus under laboratory conditions. The anamorph, Fusarium sacchari, was neotypified.

Letcher, P. M. and M. J. Powell (2002). "Frequency and distribution patterns of zoosporic fungi from moss-covered and exposed forest soils." Mycologia, 94(5): 761-771.

Letcher, P. M., M. J. Powell, et al. (2004). "Phylogenetic relationships among Rhizophydium isolates from North America and Australia." Mycologia,

Uniflagellate zoosporic ‘‘fungi’’ (5Chytridiomycota and the zoosporic protista Hyphochytriomycota) are common inhabitants of soil. However, at what scale differences in their spatial distribution can be detected is poorly known. The first objective of this study was to assess the association of organismal distribution and frequency with two microhabitats: moss-covered and exposed forest soils, at four macroscopically similar but spatially separate sites in the Blue Ridge and Allegheny Mountains of Virginia. The second objective was to provide statistically either acceptance or denial of inferences derived from sampling regimes involving a more limited number of samples. To evaluate the scale where distributional differences may occur within a site, protocols involved four collection regimes and random

point and linear transect sampling. Chytrid frequency on thalli of two moss genera was greatest in the soil surrounding and under the moss rhizoids. Random point sampling methods suggested differences in zoosporic fungal frequency between mosscovered soil and the exposed soil adjacent to mosses, as well as between two moss taxa. Linear transect sampling methods also suggested differences in zoosporic fungal frequencies between moss-covered soil and soil proximal to mosses. However, statistical analysis of random point samples using a goodness-of-fit test demonstrated that there was no significant difference in frequency of zoosporic fungi from moss-covered soil and exposed soil proximal to mosses. More importantly, there was a significant difference in the frequency of ubiquitous and common zoosporic fungal species between different moss/soil complexes. This study demonstrates that differences in chytrid distribution can be detected at a microscale while at a larger scale, similarity in frequency and distribution was found.

96(6): 1339-1351. The order Chytridiales is the largest and most diverse of five

orders in phylum Chytridiomycota. Rhizophydium is one of two genera in the Chytridiales with more than 220 described species. Because thallus characters used in classical descriptions of Rhizophydium species often intergrade into other species, as well as other genera, species distinctions frequently are unclear. Species often are delimited solely on substrate or host; many described species consequently may be synonymous. On the other hand, because the thallus is relatively simple morphologically similar forms actually may be genetically distinct. As a beginning for the revision of the genus Rhizophydium, this study used molecular and ultrastructural analyses to characterize cultures identified as Rhizophydium species. A broad geographic sampling of Rhizophydium-like organisms from North

American and Australian soils was studied as a foundation for enhanced identification of soil chytrids. The first objective was to ascertain the genetic variability of Rhizophydium isolates with spherical to angular sporangia and multiple discharge pores, using

nuclear large subunit rRNA gene sequence analysis. Sequences of 45 isolates of Chytridiales, including 29 isolates in the Rhizophydium clade were analyzed. Alignment based on LSU rRNA secondary structure revealed a similar reduced stem and loop structure in the C1p3 helix region that distinguished morphologically

similar Rhizophydium clade members from other members of the Chytridiales. In our parsimony analysis, the Chytriomyces clade was sister of the Nowakowskiella, Lacustromyces and Rhizophydium clades. Six subclades within the Rhizophydium clade were resolved. Several closely related isolates appeared geographically widespread because North American and Australian isolates were found together in three of the six subclades. The second objective was to sample zoospore ultrastructure among isolates in the six subclades and an unresolved polytomy group within the Rhizophydium clade, thus evaluating the application of zoospore ultrastructure for lower level taxonomic decisions. All isolates were examined by transmission electron microscopy, and four types of zoospores were found. Thus, within the well-supported Rhizophydium clade, zoospore ultrastructure appeared divergent. Because similar zoospore types also were found in two distinct subclades, zoospore structure might be interpreted superficially as convergent.

However, unresolved polytomys indicated molecular divergence among these taxa and the need for a

more diverse taxa and gene sampling to resolve relationships. One of the zoospore types characterized

represents the most simplified form of zoospore described so far in the Chytridiales. The range in molecular

secondary structure composition and in zoospore morphology suggested that isolates we provisionally

placed in Rhizophydium actually represent multiple genera. LEUCHTMANN, A. and C. L. SCHARDL (1998). "Mating compatibility and phylogenetic relationships among two new species of EpichloeX and other congeneric European species." Mycol. Res. 102: 1169-1182. EpichloeX species are endophytic symbionts of grasses which

may differ in the relative importance of their sexual or asexual life cycles. Sexual reproduction of the fungus by stroma-formation prevents host flowering (choke) and thus is highly antagonistic, whereas asexual reproduction through clonal propagation in host seeds does not affect host fitness. Stroma-forming EpichloeX endophytes from Bromus erectus and non-stromal strains from B. benekenii and B. ramosus were recognized as a distinct mating population (MP) based on complete sexual compatibility among strains and intersterility between other MPs established by mating

tests. This biological species represents the only documented case of highly antagonistic strains interfertile with highly mutualistic strains. A second distinct MP of Epichloe was evident on Brachypodium sylvaticum including both stroma-forming and non-stromal isolates. These two MPs were further characterized by distinct morphologies of fruiting structures, allozyme divergence, β-tubulin gene phylogeny, and host preferences, and were described as new species : E. bromicola associated with Bromus spp. and E. sylvatica with Bp. sylvaticum. Additional mating tests among EpichloeX from several, previously unexamined, hosts including Brachypodium pinnatum, Calamagrostis villosa, Festuca spp., Phleum pratense, and Poa spp., expanded the known host ranges of three other European species, E. typhina, E. festucae and E. baconii. Genetic variability of all five European species and gene diversity of host subpopulations were analysed based on allozyme data from a total of 497 EpichloeX isolates. Average gene diversity (Hs) within MPs ranged from 0.09 to 0.36 with E. typhina being the most diverse, and GST values, a measure for between subpopulation differentiation, ranged from 0.73 to 0.90 indicating that genetic isolation of endophytes on many host grasses is likely.

LEUNG, P.-C. and S. B. POINTING (2002). "Effect of different carbon and nitrogen regimes on Poly R decolorization by white-rot fungi." Mycol. Res. 106: 86-92.

LEVENFORS, J. P. and J. FATEHI (2004). "Molecular characterization of Aphanomyces species associated with legumes." Mycol. Res.

Production of lignin-modifying enzymes by 10 white-rot fungi, as measured by decolorization of Poly R 478 dye, varied in response to different carbon and nitrogen regimes. Fastest decolorization rates were achieved with wood polysaccharide monomers (glucose, xylose) as carbon source, although cellulose was the only carbon source to facilitate decolorization by all test fungi. Enzyme production by most isolates was strongly dependant on nitrogen levels, with high nitrogen conditions generally suppressing enzyme production. One unidentified isolate (HKUCC 4062) displayed apparent nitrogen deregulation of enzyme production. A cellulose-low nitrogen growth medium is recommended for agar-based screening procedures of lignin-modifying enzyme production by white-rot fungi.

108: 682-689. The identification of plant-associated isolates of Aphanomyces

spp. has been mainly based on morphological characters. These types of features, however, can be unreliable due to their high variation and degree of overlap between different taxa. In this work, strains of Aphanomyces, with plant pathogenic and non-pathogenic characteristics, derived mainly from the roots of several leguminous crops in Sweden, as well as a number of reference strains of A. euteiches, A. cladogamus and A. cochlioides were compared by morphology, AT-rich DNA RFLPs and

sequence analysis of the total ITS/5.8S rRNA gene region. Parsimony analysis of the sequence data of the total ITS region of 21 strains separated the taxa at the specific level, while two intra-specific groups were also detected within A. euteiches. One comprised all

pathogenic isolates of A. euteiches from Sweden, together with two isolates from France and the USA. These isolates formed a homogenous group with identical ITS regions and a single AT-rich DNA RFLP banding pattern. The second ITS subspecific group included reference strains of A. euteiches with preferential pathogenicity to bean and alfalfa, all of which originated from the USA. The bean and alfalfa pathotypes were further distinguished by their different AT-rich DNA RFLPs. The non-pathogenic isolates of Aphanomyces from Sweden associated with the roots of several legumes, formed a genotypically uniform group with an identical ITS sequence and a single AT-rich DNA RFLP pattern. The ITS sequence of this group was identical to that of reference strains of A. cladogamus, suggesting that the non-pathogenic isolates belonged to this species. Intra-specific AT-rich DNA banding profiles were also obtained for isolates of A. cladogamus and these patterns corresponded well to the original hosts.

LEVESQUE, C. A. and A. W. A. M. D. COCK (2004). "Molecular phylogeny and taxonomy of the genus Pythium." Mycol. Res. 108: 1363-1383. The phylogeny of 116 species and varieties of Pythium was

studied using parsimony and phenetic analysis of the ITS region of the nuclear ribosomal DNA. The D1, D2 and D3 regions of the adjacent large subunit nuclear ribosomal DNA of half the Pythium strains were also sequenced and gave a phylogeny congruent with the ITS data. All the 40 presently available ex-type strains were included in this study, as well as 20 sequences of recently described species from GenBank. Species for which no ex-type strains were available were represented by either authentic strains (6), strains used in the 1981 monograph of the genus by van der Plaats-Niterink (33), or strains selected on morphological criteria (17). Parsimony analysis generated two major clades representing the Pythium species with filamentous or globose sporangia. A small clade of species with contiguous sporangia was found in between the two main clades. A total number of 11 smaller clades was recognized, which often correlated with host-type or substrate and in several cases with a subset of morphological characters. Many characters used in species descriptions, such as antheridium position, did not correlate with phylogeny. A comparison of the ex-type and representative strains with all ITS sequences of Pythium in GenBank revealed limited infraspecific variation with the exception of P. rostratum, P. irregulare, P. heterothallicum, and P. ultimum. The total number of species examined was 116 (including 60 ex-type strains). Twenty-six species had ITS sequences identical or nearly identical to formerly described species, suggesting possible conspecificity. The importance of comparing ITS sequences of putative new species to the now available ITS database in

order to avoid unwarranted new species names being introduced. Levin, L., F. Forchiassin, et al. (2002). "Copper induction of lignin-modifying enzymes in the white-rot fungus Trametes trogii." Mycologia, 94(4): 377-383. Trametes trogii, a white rot basidiomycete involved in wood

decay worldwide, produces several ligninolytic enzymes, laccase being the dominant one, with higher titers than those reported for most other white rot fungi studied up to date. The effect of copper on in vitro production of extracellular ligninolytic activities was studied. CuSO4·5H2O concentrations from 1.6 µM to 1.5 mM were tested in a synthetic medium with glucose 20 g/L and asparagine 3 g/L. The addition of copper (up to 1 mM) did not affect growth but strongly stimulated ligninolytic enzyme production; faster decolorization of the polymeric dye Poly R-478 was observed as well. Maximal production of manganese peroxidase, laccase, and glyoxal oxidase [1.28 U/mL, 93.8 U/mL (with a specific activity of 720 U/mg protein), and 0.46 U/mL

respectively] was attained with 1 mM CuSO4-5H2O. However, higher copper concentrations inhibited growth and notably decreased manganese peroxidase

LEWINSOHN, D., E. NEVO, et al. (2000). "Ecogeographical variation in the Pleurotus eryngii complex in Israel." Mycol. Res.

production, although they did not affect laccase secretion. Laccase activity in the culture filtrate was maximal at 50 C and pH 3.4, and the enzyme was completely stable at pH 4.4 and above, and at 30 C for up to 5 d. Denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of extracellular culture fluids showed two laccase activity bands (mol wt 38 and 60 kDa respectively). The pattern of isoenzyme production was not affected by medium composition but differed with culture age.

104: 1184-1190. The geographical distribution and ecological habitats of the

Pleurotus eryngii complex in Israel are described from a study of 60 genotypes from 10 populations. Both MEA and PDA media were suitable for growth of all genotypes at all temperatures tested (4--37 °C). There was a high correlation between a coefficient of growth and the mean colony diameter growth rate. All genotypes reached the maximum growth at 27°. Growth rate at 30° was greater than at 19°. We found highly signi®cant (P<0.0001) variability among growth rates of Israeli genotypes, indicating ecogeographical differences among populations. The growth rate of 12 European genotypes from the Ukraine and Slovakia was higher than most of the Israeli genotypes when grown at 27° (nonstress conditions), but Israeli genotypes tolerated 37° (stress conditions) better, and recovered faster than European populations when returned to 27°. We conclude that Israeli genotypes are better adapted to hot and dry climates than European genotypes. Based on multiple regression analyses, strong correlations were found between relative humidity and

rainfall parameters, but not temperature, of the locations from which Israeli isolates were collected, and their

growth rates. This indicates that, paradoxically, relative humidity and rainfall have a stronger effect than temperature on the adaptability of this complex to different environments.

LEWINSOHN, D., E. NEVO, et al. (2001). "Genetic diversity in populations of the Pleurotus eryngii complex in Israel." Mycol. Res. 105: 941-951.

Lewis, E. A., G. F. Bills, et al. (2002). "A new species of endophytic Balansia from Veracruz, Mexico." Mycologia,

Random amplified polymorphic DNA polymerase chain reaction (RAPD--PCR) was used to assess the genetic diversity in twelve populations (a total of 144 isolates) of the Pleurotus eryngii complex, sampled in Israel. Our results show a higher level of diversity of RAPD polymorphism in the populations, especially in the drier, stressful climates. Twelve primers used in this study amplified 164 scorable RAPD loci, of which 163 (99.4%) were polymorphic and only 1 monomorphic. Out of the 164 loci, 123 (75%) varied significantly (P<0.05) in allele frequencies among populations. This total proportion (75%) of significant polymorphic loci far exceeds the 5% level expected by chance (binomial test, P<0.000001). The levels of polymorphism and gene diversity appeared to be highly significantly different between the populations. Sixty-eight per cent of the RAPD diversity was within populations and 32% was between populations. Inter-population genetic distances showed positive association with geographic distance, which was confirmed with spatial autocorrelation analysis of RAPD frequencies. Spearman rank correlation revealed a strong positive association between high polymorphism and the aridity index. In multiple regression, the coefficient of determination of polymorphism and gene diversity was explained by climatic variables linked to temperature and humidity. Our findings further demonstrate the validity of the ` environmental theory of genetic diversity ' hypothesis within P. eryngii populations in Israel. We suggest that natural selection develops a high level of RAPD polymorphism as adaptation to cope with stressful and temporally heterogeneous environments.

94(6): 1066-1070. A new graminicolous species of Clavicipitaceae, Balansia

brunnans sp. nov., has been found to infect Panicum xalape´nse. Staining of living host tissues indicates the presence of intercellular endophytic mycelium. Stromata develop just below the nodes on the culms. Balansia brunnans is comparable to Balansia aristidae, B. discoidea, B. gaduae, B. nigricans, and B. strangulans in development of stromata on culms and possession of an endophytic mycelial stage. Among the differences between Balansia brunnans and other comparable species is that it possesses a brown perithecial stroma, whereas comparable species have black perithecial stromata. A key is provided to distinguish B. brunnans from similar species.

Li, D. C., Y. J. Yang, et al. (1997). "Protease production by the thermophilic fungus Thermomyces lanuginosus." Mycological Research 101(1): 18-22. A total of 500 strains of the thermophilic fungus Thermomyces

lanuginosus were screened for their ability to produce proteases. A selected strain, T. lanuginosus P134' showed high enzymatic activity for proteases. The maximal yield of proteases was obtained with 4% casein, 4% glucose and 4% yeast extract in submerged culture. The protease system was shown to contain at least two protease isoenzymes by SDS-PAGE with gels containing gelatin as protease substrate. The effects of inhibitors imply that the two enzymes appear to be serine proteases. The crude proteases of T. lanuginosus P134 displayed unusual properties. The proteases were shown to be one of the most thermostable proteases so far isolated in fungi. The proteases were 100% stable at 50 °C. The half-life at 60 and 70° was approximately 160 min and 60 min, respectively. Temperature optimum of activity was 70°. The crude proteases were stable over a broad pH range (4-11). Optimum pH of activity was at 5.0 and 9.0.

LI, D.-C., Z.-W. LUI, et al. (2001). "Purification and characterization of lipoxygenase from the thermophilic fungus Thermomyces lanuginosus." Mycol. Res. 105: 190-194. A thermostable intracellular lipoxygenase from Thermomyces

lanuginosus was purified to sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) homogeneity by ion-exchange chromatography on diethylaminoethyl (DEAE)-Sepharose, ion-exchange chromatography on carboxymethyl (CM)-Sepharose and Phenyl-Sepharose hydrophobic interaction chromatography. The molecular weight of the enzyme was estimated to be 100 kDa by SDS-PAGE. The lipoxygenase exhibited maximal activities at pH 6.0. The optimum temperature for the activity was 55 °C. The enzyme was thermostable at 50° with half-lives at 60° of 20 min and 70° of about 7 min. The lipoxygenase activity was completely lost by heating at 80° for 5 min. The lipoxygenase catalyzed the oxidation of linoleic acid into 13-l-hydroperoxy-9,11(Z,E)-octadecadienoic acid(13-HPOD) as the major product. The enzyme had an apparent Km of 8.5 µm and Vmax of 10.8 lmol mg-1 min-1 with linoleic acid as substrate.

LI, D.-C., Y.-J. YANG, et al. (1998). "Purification and characterization of extracellular glucoamylase from the thermophilic Thermomyces lanuginosus." Mycol. Res. 102: 568-572. A thermostable extracellular glucoamylase from Thermomyces

lanuginosus in static culture was purified to SDS-PAGE homogeneity by fractional ammonium sulphate precipitation, ion-exchange chromatography on DEAE-Toyopearl, Butyl±Toyopearl hydrophobic interaction chromatography, gel filtration on Sephacryl S-300 and ion-

exchange chromatography on FPLC MonoQ. The molecular weight of the enzyme, consisting of a single polypeptide, was estimated to be 72000 by SDS-PAGE. The glucoamylase exhibited maximal activities at pH 5.0. The optimum temperature for the activity was 70 °C. The enzyme was thermostable at 60° with halflives at 70° of 20 min and 80° of about 6 min. The glucoamylase was a glycoprotein with 11.4% carbohydrate content. The enzyme hydrolysed soluble starch, amylose, amylopectin, dextrin, glycogen, maltotroise and maltose. Starch was the best substrate.

LI, D.-C., Y.-J. YANG, et al. (1997). "Protease production by the thermophilic fungus Thermomyces lanuginosus." Mycol. Res. 101: 18-22. A total of 500 strains of the thermophilic fungus Thermomyces

lanuginosus were screened for their ability to produce proteases. A selected strain, T. lanuginosus P134, showed high enzymatic activity for proteases. The maximal yield of proteases was obtained with 4% casein, 4% glucose and 4% yeast extract in submerged culture. The protease system was shown to contain at least two protease isoenzymes by SDS-PAGE with gels containing gelatin as protease substrate. The effects of inhibitors imply that the two enzymes appear to be serine proteases. The crude proteases of T. lanuginosus P134, displayed unusual properties. The proteases were shown to be one of the most thermostable proteases so far isolated in fungi. The proteases were 100% stable at 50 oC. The half-life at 60 and 70o was approximately 160 min and 60 min, respectively. Temperature optimum of activity was 70o. The crude proteases were stable over a broad pH range (4-11). Optimum pH of activity was at 5.0 and 9.0.

LI, D.-W. (2005). "Release and dispersal of basidiospores from Amanita muscaria var. alba and their infiltration into a residence." Mycol. Res. 109(11): 1235-1242. Release and dispersal of basidiospores of Amanita muscaria

var. alba and their potential to infiltrate a nearby residence were investigated. Basidiospore release mainly occurred in the first three days following the expansion of the caps. The concentrations of released basidiospores near basidiomata were 77 137, 75 062, and 41 738 spores m-3 in the first three days, respectively, with the highest concentration at 281 738 spores m-3 air. After three days, the concentration dropped

by 95%. At the second location, airborne basidiospore concentrations dropped 96–99% after three days with the concentrations of 940, 575, and 1359 spores m-3 in the first three days, respectively. The diurnal pattern showed a relatively extended night peak. Relative humidity and dew were positively correlated with basidiospore release and short distance dispersal. Rain and rain rate were positively correlated with basidiospore release, but not correlated with short distance dispersal. The basidiospore release period of Amanita muscaria var. alba was short, but within such a period it released a large amount of basidiospores. However, only less

than 5% of basidiospores released were dispersed to the second location 5.2 m away and 2.7 m above the basidiomata. Only <0.1% of basidiospores dispersed from the

LI, G., D. WANG, et al. (2000). "First report of Sclerotinia nivalis on lettuce in central China." Mycol. Res.

basidiomata were found inside a nearby residence. Amanita muscaria var. alba showed a low potential of infiltrating the residence.

104: 232-237.

LI, G.-Q., H. C. HUANG, et al. (2003). "Occurrence and characterization of hypovirulence in the tan sclerotial isolate S10 of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum." Mycol.

Sclerotinia nivalis causing lettuce drop was found in central China. It was identified on the basis of comparisons of morphological features, cultural characteristics and sclerotial proteins with those of S. sclerotiorum, S. trifoliorum, S. minor and S. nivalis. This is the first report of S. nivalis in China and lettuce is a new host for this pathogen.

Res. 107: 1350-1360.

LI, H. M., J. A. CROUCH, et al. (2005). "Fungal endophyte N-acetylglucosaminidase expression in the infected host grass." Mycol. Res.

Spontaneously-occurring hypovirulence in the tan sclerotial isolate S10 of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum from sunflower in Canada was characterized and compared to another hypovirulent isolate Ep-1PN of S. sclerotiorum from eggplant in China. Hypovirulent isolates derived from S10 were purified by single hyphal tip isolations from colonies of S10 showing abnormal growth on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and tested for pathogenicity on leaves of canola (Brassica napus cv. ‘Westar’). These abnormal isolates differed from the virulent isolate wtS10 derived from a normal colony of S10 by the reduced hyphal growth, induced production of abnormal hyphal branches, enhanced production of brown pigments, reduced sclerotial formation on PDA, reduced oxalic acid accumulation in potato dextrose broth, and reduced pathogenicity on canola. Vegetative transfers revealed that the hypovirulence phenotype of the hypovirulent isolate S10-2A-11 was stable. This preliminary in vitro transmission test indicated that the hypovirulence in the isolate S10-2A-11 was transmissible but at a lower rate than that of the hypovirulent isolate Ep-1PN. Double-stranded ribonucleic acids (dsRNAs) were detected in isolate Ep-1PN, but not in hypovirulent and virulent isolates derived from S10. The existence of dsRNA-free hypovirulence in S10 progenies suggests that another hypovirulence mechanism may exist in S. sclerotiorum.

109: 363-373. Fungal endophytes of the genera Neotyphodium and

Epichloeare important mutualistic symbionts and pathogens of many cool-season grass species. Here we report the characterization of a secreted N-acetylglucosaminidase from the Neotyphodium sp. endophyte that infects the grass Poa ampla. The enzyme was expressed at low levels

within the host, and activity could be detected in the apoplastic protein fraction. Low-level expression could also be detected in endophyte-infected perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), Chewings fescue (Festuca rubra subsp. fallax), and tall fescue

(L. arundinaceum). The enzyme may function in the recycling of chitin oligomers generated from turnover of the fungal cell wall. This is the first report of a secreted N-acetylglucosaminidase expressed by an endophytic fungus in the infected host plant.

Li, H. M., R. Sullivan, et al. (2004). "Expression of a novel chitinase by the fungal endophyte in Poa ampla." Mycologia, 96(3): 526-536.

LI, J.-Y., R. S. SIDHU, et al. (1998). "Stimulation of taxol production in liquid cultures of Pestalotiopsis microspora." Mycol. Res.

Many wild and cultivated cool-season grass species are naturally infected with fungal endophytes of the genera Neotyphodium and Epichloe.These associations generally are considered mutualistic with the plants benefiting from reduced herbivory and the fungi benefiting from nutrients supplied by the plants. The fungi secrete proteins that might have a role in the interspecies symbiosis. In the interaction between Poa ampla Merr. and the endophyte Neotyphodium sp., a fungal chitinase was detected in the apoplastic protein fraction. The chitinase was also the major protein secreted in culture. Sequence analysis of the chitinase revealed it has a low level of amino acid sequence identity to other fungal chitinases and one of the conserved active site residues is altered. DNA gel-blot analysis indicated the chitinase was encoded by a single gene. Expression of similar chitinases also was detected in endophyte-infected tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) and Chewings fescue (Festuca rubra L. subsp. fallax [Thuill] Nyman). This is the first report of an endophyte chitinase expressed in the infected host grass. As a secreted hydrolytic enzyme, the chitinase might have roles in the nutrition, growth or defense of the endophyte.

102: 461-464.

LI, K.-N., D. I. ROUSE, et al. (1999). "The generation of specific DNA primers using random amplified polymorphic DNA and its application to Verticillium dahliae." Mycol. Res.

Pestalotiopsis microspora is an endophyte associated with many plants including Taxus wallachiana. Isolates commonly produce taxol in liquid culture. Defining culture amendments to optimize taxol production by P. microspora is a critical step toward the realization of fungal taxol for treating human cancers. The lowering of phosphate and the addition of sodium benzoate in the medium increased taxol production. Sterol biosynthesis inhibitors, such as tebuconazole and triadimefon, dramatically increased taxol yields.

103: 1361-1368. A DNA fragment apparently unique to Verticillium dahliae was

found by comparing RAPD pro®les of V. dahliae to those of other closely

related fungi. RAPD analyses were performed on eight V. dahliae, six V. albo-atrum and three V. tricorpus isolates to identify DNA sequences specific to V. dahliae. RAPD primer E20 (AACGGTGACC) yielded a 567 bp band shared only by V. dahliae isolates. This band from isolate V14 was cloned and sequenced. No significant sequence similarity was found between this amplicon and any other nucleic acid sequence in the databases. Based on the sequence information, a pair of PCR primers, VDS1 (5'-CACATTCAGTTCAGGAGACGGA- 3') and VDS2 (5'-CCTTCTACTGGAGTATTTCGG-3') was designed. PCR tests showed that VDS1 and

VDS2 amplified the expected fragment of DNA from 62 V. dahliae isolates from diverse hosts and geographical origins, but not from any other sources of DNA tested, including DNA from the most closely related species, V. albo-atrum. Southern blot analysis showed that the PCR product specifically hybridized to V. dahliae genomic DNA. An internal control was constructed for competitive PCR and used to develop a detection and quanti®cation assay for V. dahliae, for which the detection limit was determined.

LI, S.-D., Z.-Q. MIAO, et al. (2003). "Monacrosporium janus sp. nov., a new nematode-trapping hyphomycete parasitizing sclerotia and hyphae of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum." Mycol. Res. 107: 888-894.

LI, Y., I. P. ADAMS, et al. (2005). "Cloning and characterization of a gene

During an investigation of mycoparasitic fungi on sclerotia of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in China, a new fungal species was consistently encountered and isolated from natural soils taken from soybean fields of Shandong and Jiangsu Provinces. The fungus is featured by its sphaeroid conidia with 1–2 transverse septa, but mostly (>65%) with only one septum at the base. It resembles Monacrosporium indicum, M. sphaeroides and M. sinense, but can be distinguished from the first

two species by lack of basal hila and large vacuoles on its conidia, respectively, and from M. sinense by its typically two-celled and broadly turbinate to napiform conidia. Colonization frequencies on S. sclerotiorum sclerotia by the new species were 10% and 33.3% in the two field soils, respectively, when the sclerotia were introduced into soils and coincubated at 22–24 xC for 4 wk. Reinoculation tests by placing surface-sterilized sclerotia onto the tested isolate colony for 2 wk and then surface-sterilized again resulted in 23.3% sclerotia colonized. Microscopic observations indicated that the fungus coiled around hyphae of Rhizoctonia solani and grew along and appressed to hyphae of Fusarium solani f.sp. pisi, S. sclerotiorum and Phytophthora cactorum when dual-cultured in slides. Tests on agar plates demonstrated that the fungus formed adhesive networks and was an active predator of Panagrellus redivivus. This study indicated the diverse mechanisms for the fungus to survive in soil. For expression of its mycoparasitic and nematode-trapping capacities, the fungus is named as Monacrosporium janus.

encoding a malic enzyme involved in anaerobic growth in Mucor circinelloides." Mycol. Res. 109: 461-468. A 3193 bp contiguous sequence has been cloned from the

oleaginous fungus Mucor circinelloides, that contains a fulllength gene encoding a putative NADP+:dependent malic enzyme (EC. 1.1.1.40). The cloned DNA contains a 2154 bp putative open reading frame containing five introns and encoding a protein of 616 amino acids. The gene encoded what appeared to be an anaerobic isoform of malic enzyme (isoform II) ; this conclusion is supported by transcript analysis and by the fact that the ORF contains an N-terminal mitochondrial target sequence (a similar cellular location was identified for the anaerobic malic enzyme in Saccharomyces cerevisiae ; Boles et al. 1998). The cloned gene did not encode either isoform III (the isoform associated with active growth) or isoform IV (associated with lipid accumulation) previously identified. M. circinelloides therefore must possess (at least) two structural genes for malic enzyme.

Li, Y., K. D. Hyde, et al. (2005). "Phylogenetics and evolution of nematode-trapping fungi (Orbiliales) estimated from nuclear and protein coding genes." Mycologia, 97(5): 1034–1046.

The systematic classification of nematodetrapping fungi is redefined based on phylogenies inferred from sequence analyses of 28S rDNA, 5.8S

rDNA and β-tubulin genes. Molecular data were analyzed with maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian analysis. An emended generic concept of nematode-trapping fungi is provided. Arthrobotrys is characterized by adhesive networks, Dactylellina by adhesive knobs, and Drechslerella by constricting-rings. Phylogenetic placement of taxa characterized by stalked adhesive knobs and nonconstricting rings also is confirmed in Dactylellina. Species that produce unstalked adhesive knobs that grow out to form loops are transferred from Gamsylella to Dactylellina, and those that produce unstalked adhesive knobs that grow out to form

networks are transferred from Gamsylella to Arthrobotrys. Gamsylella as currently circumscribed cannot be treated as a valid genus. A hypothesis for the evolution of trapping-devices is presented based on multiple gene data and morphological studies. Predatory and nonpredatory fungi appear to have been derived from nonpredatory members of Orbilia. The adhesive knob is considered to be the ancestral type of trapping device from which constricting rings and networks were derived via two pathways. In the first pathway adhesive knobs retained their adhesive material forming simple two-dimension networks, eventually forming complex three-dimension networks. In the second pathway adhesive knobs lost their adhesive materials, with their ends meeting to form nonconstricting rings and they in turn formed constricting rings with three inflated-cells.

LIBERATO, J. R., R. W. BARRETO, et al. (2004). "Streptopodium caricae sp. nov., with a discussion of powdery mildews on papaya, and emended descriptions of the genus Streptopodium and Oidium caricae." Mycol. Res. 108: 1184-1195.

LICHT, H. H. D. F., A. ANDERSEN, et al. (2008). "Termitomyces sp. associated with the termite Macrotermes natalensis has a heterothallic mating system and multinucleate cells." Mycol. Res.

A new powdery mildew infecting papaya (Carica papaya) in Brazil, Streptopodium caricae sp. nov., is described. The species is compared with other anamorphic Erysiphales known to infect papaya: Oidiopsis sicula, Ovulariopsis papayae,Oidium caricae, O. papayae, O. caricicola, O. indicum, O. caricae-papayae, Podosphaera (syn. Sphaerotheca) spp., and Erysiphe spp. An emended description Streptopodium and a key to the anamorphs of powdery mildews on papaya are also presented. A re-examination of the type material of Phyllactinia caricaefolia showed that conidia in this material are

dimorphic, indicating that its anamorph does not belong to Ovulariopsis and that the teleomorph is not conspecific with Phyllactinia guttata. Oidium caricae, the common powdery mildew of papaya, was re-examined, recognized as a member of subgenus Pseudoidium, an emended description was prepared, and a new type was indicated. O. papayae was recognized as a synonym of O. caricae, and many of the records of this fungus are considered to be doubtful or incorrect, either omitting a description of the fungus or including a description or illustration of an euodium conidiophore morphology.

109: 314-318.

Fungi of the genus Termitomyces live in an obligate symbiosis with termites of the subfamily Macrotermitinae. Many species of Termitomyces frequently form fruit bodies, which develop from the fungus comb within the nest. In this study, we determined the mating system of a species of Termitomyces associated with the South African termite Macrotermes natalensis. Termite nests were excavated and a Termitomyces sp. was isolated into pure culture from the asexual fruit bodies (nodules) growing in the fungus gardens. For one strain, single basidiospore cultures were obtained from basidiomes growing from the fungus comb after incubation without termites. Using nuclear staining, we show that both comb cultures and single spore cultures have multinucleate cells and that the majority of spores has a single nucleus.

However, DNA sequencing of the ITS region in the nuclear RNA gene revealed that the comb mycelium had two different ITS types that segregated in the single spore cultures, which consequently had only a single ITS type. These results unambiguously prove that the strain of Termitomyces studied here has a heterothallic mating system, with the fungus garden of the termite mound being in the heterokaryotic phase. This is the first time the mating system of a Termitomyces species has been studied.

Lickey, E. B., K. W. Hughes, et al. (2002). "Biogeographical patterns in Artomyces pyxidatus." Mycologia, 94(3): 461-471.

LIECKFELDT, E., C. M. KULLNIG, et al. (2001). "Trichoderma aureoviride : phylogenetic position and characterization." Mycol. Res.

Artomyces pyxidatus (Auriscalpiaceae) is a lignicolous, coralloid basidiomycete found throughout temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Previous studies established that populations from the eastern United States, Sweden, and China were conspecific based on mating compatibility and enzyme profiles. In this study, mating compatibility was extended to include collections from Russia, Costa Rica, Mexico, and Utah. The molecular diversity of A. pyxidatus was examined by DNA sequence and restriction site analyses of the nuclear ribosomal internally transcribed spacer region (ITS1–5.8S-ITS2). A phylogenetic analysis of twelve isolates based on ITS sequences revealed a broad geographical pattern in which Eurasian isolates comprise a sister clade to North American isolates. North American isolates appear to be further subdivided into northeastern and southwestern clades. A survey of 255 A. pyxidatus isolates using restriction enzymes revealed variable

RFLP patterns that follow similar geographical patterns.

105: 313-322.

Liew, E. C. Y., A. Aptroot, et al. (2002). "An evaluation of the monophyly of Massarina based on ribosomal DNA sequences." Mycologia,

The identity of strains identi®ed as Trichoderma aureoviride/Hypocrea aureoviridis was reconsidered. Trichoderma aureoviride was isolated originally from a specimen identified as H. aureoviridis and thus is H. aureoviridis. The morphological and molecular characters of most strains identified as T. aureoviride differ from those of the ex-type but are more typical of T. harzianum, a member of sect. Pachybasium. Molecular data do not support inclusion of T. aureoviride in sect. Trichoderma, nor was there strong phenotypic similarity between H. aureoviridis and H. rufa. In the ITS phylogeny the T. aureoviride ex-type and other collections of H. aureoviridis form a strongly supported clade that is separate from any other recognized section of Trichoderma. Hypocrea vinosa, which was originally included in the T. aureoviride aggregate species concept, is distinct from T. aureoviride, but closely allied with H. rufa/T.

viride. Trichoderma aureoviride/H. aureoviridis is a rare species, restricted to the UK and the Netherlands. We redefine T. aureoviride, limiting it to strains with very slow growth rate, effuse conidiation, and the ITS-1 and 2 sequence type D.

94(5): 803-813. The monophyletic status of the genus Massarina was

evaluated on the basis of phylogenetic analysis of the partial small subunit gene (SSU), internal

transcribed spacers (ITS 1 & 2), and 5.8S gene sequences of the ribosomal DNA. Species of Massarina used in the study clustered into two distinct clades with high bootstrap support in trees generated from maximum

parsimony, weighted parsimony, maximum likelihood, and neighbor-joining analyses. The hypothesis that Massarina species belong to a phylogenetically monophyletic group is rejected. Species with narrowly fusiform ascospores form a monophyletic clade with Lophiostoma, a genus highly similar in morphology. The five species currently accepted in Massarina with such spore morphology are here transferred into the genus Lophiostoma. Massarina species with broadly fusiform to ellipsoidal ascospores are retained as Massarina s. str., lectotypified by M. eburnea. Massarina walkeri is presently excluded from both Massarina and Lophiostoma. The transfer of M. papulosa to a new genus Oletheriostrigula is verified.

LIEW, E. C. Y., D. J. MACLEAN, et al. (1998). "Specific PCR based detection of Phytophthora medicaginis using the intergenic spacer region of the ribosomal DNA." Mycol. Res. 102: 73-80.

Lilleskov, E. A. and T. D. Bruns (2005). "Spore dispersal of a resupinate ectomycorrhizal fungus, Tomentella sublilacina, via soil food webs." Mycologia,

A technique based on the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the specific detection of Phytophthora medicaginis was developed using nucleotide sequence information of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) regions. The complete IGS 2 region between the 5 S gene of one rDNA repeat and the small subunit of the adjacent repeat was sequenced for P. medicaginis and related species. The entire nucleotide sequence length of the IGS 2 of P. medicaginis was 3566 bp. A pair of oligonucleotide primers (PPED04 and PPED05), which allowed amplification of a specific fragment (364 bp) within the IGS 2 of P. medicaginis using the PCR, was designed. Specific amplification of this fragment from P. medicaginis was highly sensitive, detecting template DNA as low as 4 ng and in a host-pathogen DNA ratio of 1000000:1. Specific PCR amplification using PPED04 and PPED05 was successful in detecting P. medicaginis in lucerne stems infected under glasshouse conditions and field infected lucerne roots. The procedures developed in this work have application to improved identification and detection of a wide range of Phytophthora spp. in plants and soil.

97(4): 762–769. Patterns of fungal spore dispersal affect gene flow, population

structure and fungal community structure. Many Basidiomycota produce resupinate (crust-like) basidiocarps buried in the soil. Although spores are actively discharged, they often do not appear to be well positioned for aerial dispersal. We investigated the potential spore dispersal mechanisms of one exemplar of this growth form, Tomentella sublilacina. It is a widespread ectomycorrhizal fungus that sporulates in the soil organic horizon, can establish from the spore bank shortly after disturbance, but also can be a dominant species in mature forest stands. We investigated whether its spores could be dispersed via spore-based

food webs. We examined external surfaces, gut contents and feces from arthropod fungivores (mites, springtails, millipedes, beetles, fly larvae) and arthropod and vertebrate predators (centipedes, salamanders) from on and around T. sublilacina sporocarps. Spore densities

were high in the guts of many individuals from all fungivore groups. Centipede gut contents, centipede feces and salamander feces contained undigested invertebrate

exoskeletons and many apparently intact spores. DAPI staining of spores from feces of fungivores indicated that 7–73% of spores contained intact nuclei, whereas spores from predators had lower percentages of intact nuclei. The spiny spores often were lodged on invertebrate exoskeletons. To test the viability of spores that had passed through invertebrate guts we used fecal droppings of the millipede Harpaphe haydeniana to successfully inoculate seedlings of Pinus muricata (Bishop pine). These results indicate the potential for T. sublilacina spore dispersal via invertebrates and their predators in soil food webs and might help to explain the widespread distribution of this species. It is likely that this is a general mechanism of dispersal for fungi producing resupinate sporocarps, indicating a need to develop a fuller understanding of the linkages of soil food webs and spore dispersal.

Lim, Y. W. and H. S. Jung (2003). "Irpex hydnoides, sp. nov. is new to science, based on morphological, cultural and molecular characters." Mycologia, 95(4): 694-699.

LINDBLOM, L. and S. EKMAN (2005). "Molecular evidence supports the distinction between Xanthoria parietina and X. aureola (Teloschistaceae,lichenized Ascomycota)." Mycol. Res.

Irpex, one of the most common polypore genera, is easily identified by macro- and microscopic characters. During field trips to Korea’s Kangwon Province, some Irpex specimens with conspicuous morphological differences from I. lacteus were collected. Cultural characters and molecular evidence differentiated this new strain from I. lacteus, and this taxon is proposed as I. hydnoides sp. nov.

109: 187-199. This study aims to clarify taxonomic relationships within the

current concept of Xanthoria parietina in northern Europe. For comparison, X. calcicola was also included in the study. Morphological as well as molecular data were utilized. Morphology indicated the presence of three species, Xanthoria parietina, X. calcicola, and X. aureola, the latter of which is resurrected here from synonymy. The most important separating characters involve colour and thickness of the thallus, lobe width, morphology of laminar structures, and the texture of the upper surface. X. aureola, as recognized here, mostly occurs on seashore rocks. Part of the IGS region as well as the complete ITS were sequenced in 70 individual thalli representing ten geographical regions in Europe. In total, 19 different IGS haplotypes and 20 different ITS haplotypes were present

in the data set. Owing to indications of possible recombination between the IGS and the ITS,

the two data sets were analyzed separately. Haplotype networks were estimated, both of which indicate that X. parietina is distinct from X. aureola and X. calcicola. In our sample, the two latter do not share haplotypes, but are only separated by a few mutational steps.

LINDEMUTH, R., N. WIRTZ, et al. (2001). "Phylogenetic analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial rDNA sequences supports the view that loculoascomycetes (Ascomycota) are not monophyletic." Mycol. Res. 105: 1176-1181.

LIOU, J. Y., J. Y. SHIH, et al. (1999). "Esteya, a new nematophagous genus from Taiwan, attacking the pinewood nematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus)." Mycol.

The loculoascomycetes are de®ned by the initiation of ascoma development prior to dikaryotisation and functionally bitunicate asci. Previous molecular studies suggested non-monophyly of loculoascomycetes and consequently, Chaetothyriomycetes and Dothideomycetes were distinguished. We have used sequences of nu SSU rDNA, nu LSU rDNA, and mt SSU rDNA to re-evaluate the monophyly of loculoascomycetes. 13 new sequences of these regions from 10 species, including two representatives of Pezizomycetes used as outgroup, were aligned with sequences obtained from GenBank. A combined data set was analysed phylogenetically using maximum parsimony. The Chaetothyriomycetes and Eurotiomycetes form a sister-group, supported by a bootstrap value of 97%,

suggesting that loculoascomycetes are not monophyletic. A topology constrained to loculoascomycete monophyly can be rejected as being significantly worse using parametric bootstrapping. Our results also indicate that mt SSU rDNA sequence data are useful as additional characters to elucidate the phylogeny of ascomycetes at the rank of different classes. Additional data from more representatives of these groups and other ascomycetes are required to clarify whether the loculoascomycetes are a paraphyletic or polyphyletic assemblage.

Res. 103: 242-248. Esteya vermicola gen. et sp. nov. isolated from infected

pinewood nematodes, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, is described and illustrated. The new species is characterized by the production of two types of conidiophores, conidiogenous cells, and conidia. The first type of conidiophore is subhyaline to greyish green, flask-shaped, apex tapering at the apex into a thin neck, sometimes crooked; the conidiogenous cells are integrated, phialidic, rarely percurrent ; the conidia are hyaline, one-celled, lunate, concave, containing an endospore-like apparatus, adhesive. The second type of conidiophore is subhyaline to greyish green, cylindrical, subulate, septate, the base somewhat swollen ; conidiogenous cells integrated, phialidic ; conidia hyaline, one-celled, bacilloid, often forming an aggregate

droplet at the apex, non-adhesive. Esteya vermicola exhibits high infectivity towards the pinewood nematode, and the potential for its development as a biocontrol agent against the pinewood nematode is briefly discussed.

LITVINTSEVA, A. P. and J. M. HENSON (2002). "Characterization of two laccase genes of Gaeumannomyces graminis var. graminis and their differential transcription in melanin mutants and wild type." Mycol. Res. 106: 808-814.

Liu, B. (1984). The Gasteromycetes of China. Nova Hedwigia

Recently we cloned and characterized three laccase genes from Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici, an important pathogen of wheat. Here we report cloning and characterization of two laccase genes from G. graminis var. graminis, a weak pathogen of rice and turf grasses. LAC1 and LAC2 genes were present in both varieties of the fungus. The genes were 94--95% identical, and intron positions were conserved between the two varieties. Our data demonstrated that

laccases might be useful for phylogenetic studies to detect fine differences between G. graminis subspecies, varieties, or strains of the fungus that cannot be detected by traditional sequencing of 18S rRNA genes or ITS regions. We previously characterized two G. graminis var. graminis melanin mutants with altered lytic enzyme secretion patterns. Here we demonstrate altered transcription patterns of laccase genes between the two varieties and between the wild type and melanin mutants of G. graminis var. graminis. Transcription of LAC2 was downregulated in the overmelanized mutant as compared to wild-type G. graminis var. graminis and the unmelanized mutant, whereas transcription of LAC1 in planta was up-regulated in the over-melanized mutant, as compared to the wild type and the

unmelanized mutant. In the unmelanized mutant transcription of both genes was similar to that observed in the wild type.

, A. R. Gantner Verlag K. G., FL-9490 Vaduz. Beiheft 76: 235. LIU, M. and K. T. HODGE (2005). "Hypocrella zhongdongii sp. nov., the teleomorph of Aschersonia incrassata." Mycol. Res. 109(7): 818-824. A new Hypocrella species with white pulvinate stromata

collected in Puerto Rico and Costa Rica is described as H. zhongdongii sp. nov. Morphological and molecular evidence confirms that the new species of Hypocrella is the teleomorph of Aschersonia incrassata. It most closely resembles H. andropogonis; both A. incrassata and A. andropogonis are common yellow-spored species. The relationships of H. zhongdongii with other species in the genus are elucidated through phylogenetic analyses of three different genetic loci (LSU, RPB2, and mtSSU). Our analysis also sheds light on current subgeneric concepts in Aschersonia, in which the presence or absence of conidiomatal paraphyses is a major character to separate the genus into two subgenera. The present phylogenetic tree suggests that paraphyses have

been lost or gained multiple times during evolutionary history, and do not define monophyletic groups.

Liu, M., M. C. Rombach, et al. (2005). "What’s in a name? Aschersonia insperata: a new pleoanamorphic fungus with characteristics of Aschersonia and Hirsutella." Mycologia, 97(1): 246-253.

LIU, Z.-y., Z.-q. LIANG, et al. (2002). "Molecular evidence for teleomorph--anamorph connections in Cordyceps based on ITS-5.8S rDNA sequences." Mycol. Res.

A new anamorphic species from a Philippine tropical forest occurs as reddish-orange to orange, tuberculate stromata on unidentified homopteran larvae, and produces both Aschersonia and Hirsutella- like synanamorphs. A molecular phylogenetic analysis was conducted to determine the most appropriate

generic placement for this fungus. Based on its phylogenetic relationships, a comparison of the complexity and persistence of each anamorph, and the speculated relevance of each synanamorph to survival, we describe the new fungus as Aschersonia insperata sp. nov.

106: 1100-1108.

LIU, Z.-Y., Y.-J. YAO, et al. (2001). "Molecular evidence for the anamorph±teleomorph connection in Cordyceps sinensis." Mycol. Res.

The relationship between teleomorphs of Cordyceps spp. and their presumed anamorphs have been investigated by analysis of 5.8S and ITS rDNA sequences. The morphological and sequence data confirm that Paecilomyces hawkesii is the anamorph of Cordyceps gunnii, while Cordyceps hawkesii is a synonym of C. gunnii, and P. gunnii is a synonym of P. hawkesii. The following presumed connections are also confirmed: Beauveria brongniartii is the anamorph of C. brongniartii, Metarhizium anisopliae var. majus is the anamorph of C. brittlebankisoides, Beauveria sobolifera is the anamorph of C. sobolifera, Mariannaea pruinosa is the anamorph of C. pruinosa, Paecilomyces militaris is the anamorph of C. militaris, and Hirsutella sinensis is the anamorph of C. sinensis. The other isolates sequenced are unlikely to be anamorphs of the teleomorphs from which they were isolated because the sequences from the culture and the teleomorph are quite different. 5.8S and ITS sequences provide useful information for establishing anamorph±teleomorph connections and assisting in the delimitation of species within Cordyceps.

105: 827-832. Cordyceps sinensis, the caterpillar fungus in traditional Chinese

medicine, has been intensively collected from nature in recent years. As a result, the establishment of the anamorph of this species has become important for large-scale culture to meet increasing demand for medicinal use and to ease exploitation of natural populations. To establish a reliable connection between the teleomorph and anamorph stages, the ITS nrDNA sequences were sequenced from both the stroma of the telemorph and

cultures of the anamorph. Observations of microcyclic conidiation were also made on germinated ascospores and compared with the anamorph in culture. Hirsutella sinensis was confirmed as the anamorph of C. sinensis by both DNA sequences and microcyclic conidiation. Two recently described species, C. multiaxialis and C. nepalensis, were shown to share identical or almost identical ITS sequences with C. sinensis. These minor variations were considered to be within the range of variation exhibited within a species, but representing different populations. Sequences from other Cordyceps species included in this study exhibited considerable differences from each other. Therefore, these three entities are probably conspecific, and the names should be regarded as synonymous. The morphological characters used in the description of the two new species are discussed. It is suggested that ITS sequences provided useful

information on establishing the anamorph-telemorph connection and assisting in the delimitation of species within Cordyceps.

LoBuglio, K. F. and J. W. Taylor (2002). "Recombination and genetic differentiation in the mycorrhizal fungus Cenococcum geophilum Fr.." Mycologia, 94(5): 772-780.

LOCHMAN, J., O. SERY, et al. (2004). "Variations in rDNA ITS of Czech Armillaria species determined by PCR and HPLC." Mycol. Res.

Population genetic analyses of the mycorrhizal fungus Cenococcum geophilum were conducted to test for a clonal or recombining population structure.

Multilocus genotypes based on polymorphisms in 9 loci, identified in this study by PCR-SSCP techniques, were obtained for two populations. Genotypic variation occurred on a fine scale because unique genotypes were identified at most every transect point, and in some cases occurred even within one soil sample (equivalent to about a 500 mL volume). The largest genet observed occurred over a 30 meter transect space. The two population genetic methods employed to distinguish between clonality and recombination, (1) Index of Association; and (2) ‘‘Parsimony Tree Length Permutation Test’’ (PTLPT), could not reject the null hypothesis of recombination in either population. Wright’s Fst, as estimated by theta, was used to examine gene flow between the two populations based on allele frequencies. Two of the nine loci had theta values that were not signifi- cantly different from what one would expect for the null hypothesis of panmixia. However, the other seven loci were consistent with reduced gene flow. The theta value for the Fisher combined probability (combining all 9 loci) was significant and indicated that there was genetic differentiation between these two populations.

108: 1153-1161. We analysed 40 isolates of species Armillaria. borealis, A.

cepistipes, A. gallica, A. mellea, A. ostoyae and A. tabescens, mostly collected in the Czech Republic, by PCR-RFLP of the ITS rRNA genes using the restriction endonucleases AluI, HinfI and MboI. Restriction

fragments were analysed by ion-exchange high performance liquid chromatography which proved to be more useful informative, and less time-consuming than classical electrophoresis on agarose gel. The HPLC method enabled detection of some heterozygous strains. HinfI discriminated between all six species. Ten isolates were sequenced to confirm changes in restriction sites found by restriction analysis. Cluster analysis based on the restrictions

patterns of restriction endonucleases AluI and HinfI divided the analysed species into three groups. The first and the most distant group contained all A. mellea isolates, the second group was formed by A. tabescens and the third group contained species A. borealis, A. cepistipes, A. gallica and A. ostoyae. The A. tabescens group was very homogenous regardless of the origin of isolates (Czech Republic, France and Finland).

LOHTANDER, K., I. OKSANEN, et al. (2002). "A phylogenetic study of Nephroma (lichen-forming Ascomycota)." Mycol. Res. 106: 777-787.

LOMASCOLO, A., J.-L. CAYOL, et al. (2002). "Molecular clustering of Pycnoporus strains from various geographic origins and isolation of monokaryotic strains for laccase hyperproduction." Mycol. Res.

The phylogeny of Nephroma was studied by nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial ribosomal small subunit (mtSSU rDNA) and the internal transcribed spacers of the nuclear ribosomal repeat (ITS), together with chemical characters. The biological material included both bipartite and tripartite species and all Nephroma species native to northern Europe. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that all Nephroma species form a monophyletic group and that Peltigera constitutes the sister group to Nephroma. The two gene regions revealed qualitatively similar relationships within Nephroma and chemical characters had a minor impact on tree topologies. The results demonstrated that tripartite Nephroma species do not form a monophyletic group within the genus, this being in agreement with previous findings from bi- and tripartite Peltigera species. The results also indicated that N. resupinatum does not form a monophyletic group with all other bipartite Nephroma species but form a sister group to the studied Nephroma taxa. Furthermore, N. helveticum s. lat. is highly variable and seems to represent aggregates of closely related taxa. Also N. laevigatum and N. resupinatum are genetically variable. All European Nephroma species can be rapidly and accurately identified on the basis of their fungal ITS sequences. This will prove useful in ecological and environmental studies.

106(10): 1193–1203. The production of laccase, an enzyme of industrial interest, was

screened among species of the genus Pycnoporus, in particular P. sanguineus. Strains were isolated from various tropical Chinese environments and phylogenetically compared to ones deposited in international collections. Molecular clustering, based on ribosomal ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 genomic sequence analysis, showed that the Chinese strains of

P. sanguineus formed an homogeneous phylogenetic group distinguished by its laccase-overproducing character. The dikaryotic strain P. sanguineus G05 was selected for its ability to produce up to 40 000 U l-1 laccase in the presence of 2,5-xylidine, Tween 80 and maize bran. Since fruit bodies of P. sanguineus could be formed in the laboratory, monokaryotic laccase-hyperproducing strains were isolated using classic genetical methods. Among these isolates, strain G05.10 synthesized up to 71 000 U l-1 laccase, with a productivity of 5069 U l-1 d-1. The

Longato, S. and P. Bonfante (1997). "Molecular identification of mycorrhizal fungi by direct amplification of microsatellite regions." Mycological Research

laccase was purified and identified as a 70 kDa protein with an acidic pI, and was very stable at high temperatures.

101(4): 425-432. We have screened the genome of ecto- and endo-mycorrhizal fungi by

using primers designed on microsatellite sequences : (CT)8' (CA)8' (GACA)4'(TGTC)4'(GTG)5' PCR experiments proved that microsatellites such as (GTG)5 exist as short repeated sequences in 11 species of Tuber (Ascomycetes) and seven species within Glomales (Zygomycetes). Variations in the banding pattern obtained by DNA fingerprinting enabled all these species and some isolates to be distinguished according to the number, size and intensity of the fragments. (GACA)4 and (TGTC)4 also led to successful amplifications in some isolates from Tuber and Glomales. These experiments demonstrate that microsatellite primers are reliable, sensitive and technically simple tools for assaying genetic variability in mycorrhizal fungi, and can be used to discriminate mycorrhizal symbionts with different taxonomic features. (GTG)5 in fact led to species-specific fingerprints in both truffles, which are closely related species, and in Glomales, which are quite separate species in evolutionary terms.

Longcore, J. E. (2004). "Rhizophydium brooksianum sp. nov., a multipored chytrid from soil." Mycologia, 96(1): 162-171. Rhizophydium136 was isolated from pollen bait placed in a

water culture containing garden soil from Penobscot County, Maine. It is an important isolate because its entire mitochondrial genome has been sequenced and it is the representative member of the Chytridiales in a fungal phylogeny based on mitochondrial protein sequences. Also, this isolate is included in an 18S rDNA, chytrid phylogeny. On nutrient agar, many inflated rhizoidal axes extend from the base of the zoosporangium, zoosporangia mature in 3 d and zoospores discharge through numerous, lenticular, discharge pores. Smooth-walled resting spores form in crowded cultures. Zoospores are a variation of the Rhizophydium subtype. This chytrid differs from R. sphaerotheca sensu Barr and because it cannot be placed in a described species it herein is described as Rhizophydium brooksianum sp. nov. Many of the differences between Rhizophydium

brooksianum and other multipored Rhizophydium isolates were observed only in pure culture. Attributing a spherical, multipored Rhizophydium to a species that was described without developmental information from pure culture is untenable. Epitypes or neotypes for inadequately characterized species need to be selected, and cultures made available.

Lopez-Llorca, L. A. and C. Olivares-Bernabeu (1997). "Growth inhibition of nematophagous and entomopathogenic fungi by leaf litter and soil containing phenols." 1997 101(6): 691-697.

LOPEZ-LLORCA, L. V. and C. OLIVARES-BERNABEU (1997). "Growth inhibition of nematophagous and entomopathogenic fungi by leaf litter and soil containing phenols." Mycol. Res.

In a soil survey, nematophagous fungi were recovered less from agar plates sprinkled with forest soil (Quercus ilex subsp. rotundifolia) than from those incubated with agricultural (Citrus orchards) soil. Nematodes were present in all soils. The organic matter was higher in forest soils. Water extracts from forest soils with high levels of phenols, leaf litter and Q. rotundifolia fresh leaves affected the development and growth of common species of nematophagous and entomopathogenic fungi. These results show that phenolics from leaf letter could play an important role in the ecology and biology of these invertebrate pathogens in soil.

101: 691-697.

LOPEZ-LLORCA, L. V., C. OLIVARES-BERNABEU, et al. (2002). "Pre-penetration events in fungal parasitism of nematode eggs." Mycol. Res.

In a soil survey, nematophagous fungi were recovered less from agar plates sprinkled with forest soil (Quercus ilex subsp. rotundifolia) than from those incubated with agricultural (Citrus orchards) soil. Nematodes were present in all soils. The organic matter was higher in forest soils. Water extracts from forest soils with high levels of phenols, leaf litter and Q. rotundifolia fresh leaves affected the development and growth of common species of nematophagous and entomopathogenic fungi. These results show that phenolics from leaf letter could play an important role in the ecology and biology of these invertebrate pathogens in soil.

106: 499-506. The present investigation deals with the main factors involved

in early infection of nematode eggs by fungal parasites. We studied the effect of hydrophobicity on appressorium formation by germlings of Pochonia rubescens (syn. Verticillium suchlasporium), P. chlamydosporia (syn. V. chlamydosporium) and Lecanicillium lecanii (syn. V. lecanii). Appressoria were frequently formed on hydrophobic surfaces such as polyvinyl chloride or polystyrene and were infrequently formed on hydrophilic materials such as glass or aluminium. Infected eggs probed with the FITC-labelled lectin Concanavalin-A showed intense labelling corresponding to appressoria formed by fungal parasites on the eggshell

surface. Proteolytic activity was found in extracts from conidia and germlings of fungal parasites (especially P. chlamydosporia) in the absence of nematode eggs. Addition of the serine proteinase inhibitors phenylmetylsulphonyl fluoride (PMSF) or diisopropyl fluorophosphonate (DFP) to the extracts reduced their proteolytic activity. PMSF was the most effective inhibitor. Zymography also revealed proteolytic activity in extracts from the three fungi tested. This activity mostly corresponded to bands of Rf's of substrate degradation similar to that of purified main protease (P32)

from P. rubescens. Other bands with molecular weight higher than P32 (low Rf) were found especially for P. chlamydosporia extracts. For L. lecanii only bands of low Rf were found. Serum anti-P32 partially inhibited proteolytic activity of extracts from conidia and germlings. Application of PMSF and DFP to the inoculum, reduced egg penetration for the three species studied. PMSF caused the highest reduction in eggs infected by L. lecanii, while DFP significantly reduced egg infection by both P. chlamydosporia and L. lecanii. Our results therefore show hydrophobicity, appresorium formation and protease production as factors involved in early parasitism of nematode eggs.

Loprete, D. M. and T. W. Hill (2002). "Isolation and characterization of an endo-(1,4)-β-glucanase secreted by Achlya ambisexualis." Mycologia, 94(6): 903-911.

Lorenz, R. and H. P. Molitoris (1997). "Cultivation of fungi under simulated deep sea conditions." Mycological Research

Models of wall loosening in fungi and other walled eukaryotes require the action of proteins able to reduce the degree of linkage between components of the wall. In the oomycete Achlya ambisexualis, such a role has been proposed for a suite of endoglucanases that are secreted during branching and during the measurable wall softening associated with osmotic stress. We report here the isolation and characterization of one of these isoenzymes. The enzyme has a molecular weight of 32 kDa, a pH optimum of 6.75, a pI of 4.5, and a temperature optimum of 35 C. It is partially inhibited by sulfhydryl-binding reagents and completely inhibited by the tryptophanbinding reagent NBS. The enzyme has an endohydrolytic mode of action with substrate specificity towards glucans that contain β-(1,4) linkages, either

alone (carboxymethyl cellulose) or as mixed linkage (1,4–1,3)-β-glucans (e.g., Avena glucan). It does not, however, degrade amorphous insoluble (phosphoric acid swollen) cellulose. Most significantly, the enzyme can also hydrolyze linkages in an Achlya cell wall fraction previously shown to consist of a mixed-linkage (1,4–1,3)-β-glucan. This property is consistent with the long-standing hypothesis that the branching-related endoglucanases of oomycetes play a role in cell wall loosening.

101(11): 1355-1365. In order to investigate the barotolerance of marine fungi and to elucidate

their ecological role in the deep sea, high-pressure equipment was built

and tested. Cultures of the marine yeasts Debaryomyces hansenii, Rhodotorula rubra and Rhodosporidium sphaerocarpum were inoculated into gas-permeable plastic foil bags and incubated in pressure vessels filled with hydraulic fluid that serves also as an oxygen reservoir. The equipment was used at temperatures from 7° to 34 °C and pressures from 0.1 to 80.0 MPa. Comparison of five types of plastic foil showed effects on total cell number in batch culture. An exchange of the hydraulic ¯uid increased yield by replenishing oxygen, the growth-limiting factor. There were no detectable growth differences between buffered (TRIS, HEPES, imidazole, MES) and unbuffered media and thus unbuffered medium was used. Yeasts were best cultivated in an unbuffered sea-water medium (glucose-peptone-yeast extract) sealed in bags made from polyethylene foil. The fluorocarbon liquid FC-77 provided the best oxygen reservoir owing to its high oxygen and carbon dioxide solubility. An exchange of the hydraulic fluid is not necessary if sensitive growth determination methods are used. All marine yeasts cultivated under simulated deep sea conditions were able to grow at least up to a pressure of 20 MPa, with Rhodotorula rubra and Rhodosporidium sphaerocarpum growing at 40 MPa, corresponding to 4000 m depth. Thus, marine yeasts are able to grow under simulated deep sea conditions and may participate in the degradation of organic matter in the deep sea.

LORENZO, L. E. and M. I. MESSUTI (1998). "Noteworthy hysteriaceae from southern South America." Mycol. Res. 102: 1101-1107.

Lowe, J. L. (1975). "Polyporaceae of North America: The genus Tyromyces." MYCOTAXON

Species of Gloniella, Glonium and Gloniopsis from southern South America were studied. A new fungus Glonium colihuae sp. nov., with hysterothecia is described from Argentina, Patagonia ; Glonium chusqueae is synonymized with Gloniella typhae ; Gloniopsis argentinensis and Glonium costesi are validated, and some comments on the taxonomy and occurrence of Gloniopsis araucana, G. praelonga, Glonium abbreviatum and G. cumingii are presented.

2(1): 1. Lowry, D. S., K. E. Fisher, et al. (2004). "Functional necessity of the cytoskeleton during cleavage membrane development and zoosporogenesis in Allomyces macrogynus." Mycologia, 96(2): 211-218. Cleavage membrane development and cytokinesis were

examined in zoosporangia of Allomyces macrogynus treated with cytoskeletal inhibitors and

compared to zoosporogenesis under control conditions. Developing membranes were visualized in living zoosporangia with laser-scanning confocal microscopy

using the lipophilic membrane dye FM4-64. Under control conditions, cleavage membranes developed in four discrete stages, ultimately interconnecting

to delimit the cytoplasm into polygonal uninucleate domains of near uniform size. Disruption of microtubules did not impede the normal four-stage development of cleavage membranes, and cytokinesis occurred with only minor detectable anomalies, although zoospores lacked flagella. Disruption of actin microfilaments did not inhibit membrane formation but blocked nuclear migration and significantly disrupted membrane alignment and cytoplasmic delimitation. This resulted in masses of membrane that remained primarily in cortical regions of the zoosporangia, as did nuclei, throughout zoosporogenesis. Zoospores formed in the absence of microtubules had only a slightly larger mean diameter than control zoospores, although nearly 50% of spores contained two or more nuclei. Microfilament inhibitor treatments produced spores with substantially larger mean diameters and correspondingly larger numbers of nuclei per spore, with greater than 85% containing three or more nuclei. These results showed that a functional actin microfilament cytoskeleton was required for proper alignment of cleavage elements and cytokinesis in Allomyces zoosporangia while microtubules played a less significant role.

Lowy, B. (1971). Flora Neotropica Monograph No.6 Tremellales. New York, Hafner Publishing Company, Inc. New York. Lowy, B. (1980). Flora Neotropica Monograph Number 6 (Supplement) Tremellales. Flora Neotropica, The New York Botanical Garden. Monograph Number 6: 18. Lozupone, C. A. and D. A. Klein (2002). "Molecular and cultural assessment of chytrid and Spizellomyces populations in grassland soils." Mycologia, 94(3): 411-420. We developed a molecular method for the detection and

quantification of members of the genus Spizellomyces in the environment and used this technique, together with traditional cultural techniques, to measure the effects of cultivation and nitrogen availability on Spizellomyces populations in grassland soils. Primer sets specific for Spizellomyces acuminatus and S. kniepii were developed by sequencing internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) of the gene encoding ribosomal RNA for 9 isolates within the genus Spizellomyces, 5 representatives of different genera within the order Spizellomycetales and one member of the order Chytridiales. These primers were used with fungal-specific primers in a nested PCR approach to generate a specific molecular signal for S. acuminatus and S. kneipii in a soil from which S. acuminatus had previously been recovered. Using MPN-PCR (a quantitative molecular technique) and traditional cultural techniques, we found that chytridiomycetous fungi, including members of the genus Spizellomyces, are abundant in the grassland ecosystems studied. No significant differences in occurrence

were observed between native and disturbed control soils but it appeared in 2

separate MPN assays and one MPN-PCR assay that chytrid populations increased

in response to disturbance. No significant differences in chytrid or Spizellomyces populations were observed with variations in nitrogen availability. The primer sets and protocols developed in this study worked well to complement traditional cultural data to better assess Spizellomyces populations in the environment. These molecular approaches should provide a foundation for further work with these interesting and oft neglected fungi.

LU, B.-S., K. D. HYDE, et al. (2000). "Eight new species of Anthostomella from South Africa." Mycol. Res. 104: 742-754.

LU, G., P. F. CANNON, et al. (2004). "Diversity and molecular relationships of endophytic Colletotrichum isolates from the Iwokrama Forest Reserve, Guyana." Mycol. Res.

Eight new species of Anthostomella, A. acuminata, A. applanata, A. caffrariae, A. colligata, A. meerensis, A. palmae, A. raphiae and A.

spiralis, are described from South Africa. They are compared with similar species and illustrated with differential interference contrast photomicrographs.

108: 53-63.

LUANGSA-ARD, J. J., N. L. HYWEL-JONES, et al. (2005). "On the relationships of Paecilomyces sect. Isarioidea species." Mycol. Res.

The diversity and host specificity were studied of a collection of Colletotrichum strains derived from endophytic colonies in leaves of 12 tree species in the Iwokrama Forest Reserve, Guyana. Analysis included ISSR-PCR and RAPD molecular fingerprinting techniques, rDNA ITS sequencing and morphological and cultural characterization. Most strains belonged to one of two species, C. gloeosporioides and a further taxon which is probably referable to C. boninense. Almost no

strains were found to be genetically identical, indicating that clonal reproduction does not play a prominent role. No degree of host specificity could be detected even at molecular fingerprint level. The implications for estimation of fungal diversity in closed tropical forests may be profound.

109(5): 581-589.

Luangsa-ard, J. J., N. L. Hywel-Jones, et al. (2004). "The polyphyletic nature of

Phylogenetic relationships of Paecilomyces sect. Isarioidea species were analysed using the β-tubulin gene and ITS rDNA. Maximum parsimony analyses showed that the section does not form a natural taxonomic group and is polyphyletic within the Hypocreales. However, a group was recognized, designated as the Isaria clade, to be monophyletic comprising of the following Paecilomyces species: P. amoeneroseus, P. cateniannulatus, P. cateniobliquus, P. cicadae, P. coleopterorus, P. farinosus, P. fumosoroseus, P. ghanensis, P. javanicus and P. tenuipes. Some of these species have teleomorphs in Cordyceps.

Paecilomyces sensu lato based on 18S-generated rDNA phylogeny." Mycologia, 96(4): 773-780.

Lubbe, C. M., S. Denman, et al. (2004). "Characterization of Colletotrichum species associated with diseases of Proteaceae." Mycologia,

Nuclear-encoded small-subunit ribosomal DNA was used to examine phylogenetic relationships in Paecilomyces sensu lato. Phylogenetic analysis of the 18S nr DNA demonstrates that Paecilomyces is polyphyletic across two subclasses, Sordariomycetidae and Eurotiomycetidae. The type species, Paecilomyces variotii, and thermophilic relatives belong in the order Eurotiales (Trichocomaceae), while mesophilic species related to Paecilomyces farinosus are in the order Hypocreales (Clavicipitaceae and Hypocreaceae). One species, Paecilomyces inflatus, had affinities for the order Sordariales. Within the Eurotiales, Paecilomyces is monophyletic. Within the Hypocreales, species of Paecilomyces are polyphyletic, although the data failed to fully resolve these relationships.

96(6): 1268-1270.

LUBBEHUSEN, T. L., J. NIELSEN, et al. (2003). "Morphology and physiology of

Colletotrichum spp. are known to occur on and cause diseases of Proteaceae, but their identities are confused and poorly understood. The aim of the present study thus was to identify accurately the Colletotrichum spp. associated with diseases of cultivated Proteaceae. Colletotrichum spp. associated with proteaceous hosts growing in various parts of the world were identified based on morphology, sequence data of the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS-1, ITS- 2), the 5.8S gene, and partial sequences of the btubulin gene. Four species of Colletotrichum were found to be associated with Proteaceae. Colletotrichum

gloeosporioides, a cosmopolitan species known to occur on numerous hosts, was isolated from Protea cynaroides cultivated in South Africa and Zimbabwe, and from a Leucospermum sp. in Portugal. A recently described species, C. boninense was associated with Zimbabwean and Australian Proteaceae but also occurred on a Eucalyptus sp. in South Africa. This represents a major geographical and host extension for the species and a description of the African strains is provided. Colletotrichum crassipes was represented by a single isolate obtained from a Dryandra plant in Madeira. Colletotrichum acutatum was isolated from Protea and Leucadendron in South Africa as well as from other hosts occurring elsewhere. A pathologically distinct population of this species was found to occur on Hakea in South Africa. This population is described as C. acutatum f. sp. hakeae, and its relationship with other strains of C. acutatum is discussed. Contrary to earlier literature reports linking C. gloeosporioides to anthracnose of Proteaceae, the present study has shown that several distinct species of Colletotrichum are associated with different diseases of this crop, which has serious implications for quarantine and disease control practices.

the dimorphic fungus Mucor circinelloides (syn. M. racemosus) during anaerobic growth." Mycol. Res. 107: 223-230. The dimorphic Mucor circinelloides requires an anaerobic

atmosphere and the presence of 30% CO2 to grow as a multipolar budding yeast, otherwise hyphal growth predominates. Establishing other means to control the morphology would be a distinct advantage in the development of a fermentation process for this organism for the production of heterologous proteins. Thus, conditions suppressing polarised growth while at the same time abolishing the CO2 requirement were investigated in submerged cultivations. It was found that supplementing cultures with mixtures of ergosterol and Tween 80 resulted in yeast-like growth under 100% N2. Their impact on growth and morphological development was assessed at a range of concentrations. Maximum biomass levels and the specific growth rate decreased

LUBECK, M., I. A. ALEKHINA, et al. (1999). "Delineation of Trichoderma harzianum into two different genotypic groups by a highly robust fingerprinting method, UP-PCR, and UP-PCR product cross-hybridization." Mycol. Res.

at elevated levels of ergosterol and Tween 80. Possible effects of carbon dioxide and the added fatty acid/sterol mixture on supporting yeast growth by influencing the fluidity of the plasma membrane or affecting polarised growth are discussed.

103: 289-298. Strains of Trichoderma harzianum possess biocontrol

capabilities. As background for identification of strain-specific markers for monitoring strains of interest, the relationship of strains designated as T. harzianum, including representatives of three biological forms Th1, Th2 and Th3, were analysed by Universally Primed PCR, UP-PCR, using UP and random primers. Cross dot blot hybridization of UP-PCR products generated with either of two different UP primers or a random primer showed unequivocal differences among strains. Using this approach, T. harzianum strains were distributed into two different genotypic groups. One of the

T. harzianum groups included forms Th1 and Th2 while the other group accounted for the Th3 form. The relatedness of strains of each group was estimated by UPGMA analysis based on markers revealed with three primers. It was found that both genotypic groups are heterogeneous, and Th2 form strains definitely cluster together with those of Th1. Division of the three biological forms of T. harzianum into two groups was also supported by rDNA-ITS1 analysis, where Sau3A digestion of the amplified ITS1 region gave a restriction fragment profile specific for each genotypic group. Two strains with known biocontrol capabilities were found to relate to the genotypic group containing Th1 and Th2 forms and, based on

variation within this group, to belong to a homogeneous group of form Th1 strains. The robustness and reliability of UP-PCR fingerprinting were demonstrated by obtaining identical banding profiles using different

conditions for PCR in different laboratories. LUBECK, M., I. M. B. KNUDSEN, et al. (2002). "GUS and GFP transformation of the biocontrol strain Clonostachys rosea IK726 and the use of these marker genes in ecological studies." Mycol. Res. 106: 815-826.

LUCAS, J. R. D., C. AMOR, et al. (1997). "Purification and properties of isocitrate lyase from Aspergillus nidulans, a model enzyme to study catabolite inactivation in filamentous fungi." Mycol. Res.

Marker genes were introduced in the biocontrol strain Clonostachys rosea IK726 (IBT 9371) as a tool for monitoring the strain in ecological studies. The b-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene and a gene encoding the green fluorescent protein (GFP) were, in separate experiments, integrated into the genome of IK726 using the Hygromycin B (HygB) resistance gene as selective marker. In order to select GUS and GFP transformants that resembled the wildtype strain, growth rate, production of enzymes and of metabolites of four GUS positive and six GFP positive transformants were tested in vitro. In addition, the biocontrol efficacy against disease caused by seed-borne Fusarium culmorum was evaluated on barley grown in sand. Compared to the wildtype, two selected GUS and GFP transformants, IK726c5 and IK726d11, did not vary in physiological properties. Both maintained the ability to colonize barley roots, and to reduce efficiently the severity of F. culmorum without affecting plant emergence. Quantification of GUS activity of IK726c5 in peat and vermiculite and on seeds was carried out. The GFP transformant, IK726d11, was visualized by epifluorescence and confocal scanning laser microscopy directly in soil, vermiculite, on carrot seed and roots, and on barley leaves. It was shown that C. rosea can thrive in very different niches. Conidia germination, colonization and conidiogenesis were demonstrated in vivo in all four environments. This is the first report on transformation of Clonostachys rosea with marker genes.

101: 410-414. In order to facilitate the puriÆcation of isocitrate lyase from

Aspergillus nidulans, the isocitrate lyase overexpressing strain JCB4a was derived. Isocitrate lyase was puriÆed to homogeneity by the criterion of polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and anti-isocitrate lyase polyclonal antibodies were raised. Stabilization of puriÆed enzyme, when stored at -20 oC, required the addition of 1 mm dithiothreitol (DTT) plus 1 mm ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA). Aspergillus nidulans isocitrate lyase is a multimeric enzyme with a native molecular weight of 240 kDa and composed of four monomers of 59 kDa. The enzyme required 5 mm Mg2+ and 1 mm DTT or cysteine for full activity. EDTA at 1 mm replaced the requirement of a thiol compound for activity. The Km for threo Ds-isocitrate was 0.050 mm, and the enzyme activity was inhibited by succinate, itaconate and structural analogs of glyoxylate as well as by fructose-1,6-bisphosphate.

LUCKING, R. and M. CACERES (2004). "Corticolous species of Trichothelium (Ascomycota: Porinaceae)." Mycol. Res. 108: 571-575.

Lucking, R., B. L. Stuart, et al. (2004). "Phylogenetic relationships of Gomphillaceae and Asterothyriaceae: evidence from a combined Bayesian analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial sequences." Mycologia,

A survey of corticolous crustose lichen collections in connection with the Flora Neotropica project revealed a number of undescribed species of Trichothelium. While a few typically foliicolous taxa may occasionally be found on bark, five species seem to be exclusively corticolous, all with a Trentepohlia photobiont. Three of them are new species : T. angustisporum, T. caudatum, and T. kalbii spp. nov. A key is provided to all five corticolous species, accompanied by data on their distribution and ecology. A considerable range extension is reported for T. horridulum, with new collections from Costa Rica and north-eastern Brazil.

96(2): 283-294.

Lugo, M. A. and M. N. Cabello (2002). "Native arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) from mountain grassland (Co´ rdoba, Argentina) I. Seasonal variation of fungal spore diversity." Mycologia,

The phylogeny and systematic position of Gomphillaceae was reconstructed using a combined Bayesian analysis of nuclear LSU rDNA and mitochondrial

SSU rDNA sequences. Twenty-four partial sequences of 12 taxa (11 Gomphillaceae and one Asterothyriaceae) plus two new sequences of Stictis radiata (Ostropales outgroup) were generated and aligned with the corresponding sequences retrieved from GenBank, resulting in an alignment of 82 taxa that was analyzed using a Bayesian approach with Markov chain Monte Carlo (B/MCMC) methods. Our results confirm Gomphillaceae sensu Vezda and Poelt plus Asterothyriaceae to be a monophyletic group, with an unresolved relationship between the two families. Placement of Gomphillaceae and Asterothyriaceae within Ostropales sensu Kauff and Lutzoni, as sister of Thelotremataceae, also is strongly supported. Alternative hypotheses placing Gomphillaceae in Lecanorales (Cladoniaceae), Agyriales

(Baeomycetaceae) or within bitunicate Ascomycota (Arthoniomycetes, Chaetothyriomycetes, Dothideomycetes) were rejected with our dataset. After recent synonymization of Dimerella with Coenogonium (Ostropales: Coenogoniaceae), we propose the new combination Coenogonium pineti (one of our Ostropales

outgroup taxa in this analysis).

94(4): 579-586. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) were studied in the

rhizosphere of 3 Poaceae with metabolic pathway C3 (Briza subaristata Lam., Deyeuxia hieronymi

(Hack.) Tu¨rpe and Poa stuckertii (Hack.) Parodi), 2 Poaceae with C4 metabolic type (Eragrostis lugens Nees and Sorghastrum pellitum (Hack.) Parodi.),

and a Rosaceae (Alchemilla pinnata Ruiz & Pav.) from a natural mountain

grassland in Central Argentina (South America). Host species, their metabolic type,

seasonal changes, and grazing effects over AM fungal diversity were analyzed. Seventeen mycorrhizal fungi taxa were found, widespread in all families of Glomales.

Density of endomycorrhizal fungi was found to be strongly influenced with seasons and host metabolic pathway, although biodiversity (H), richness (S)

and evenness (E) did not change. In most cases grazing did not affect these variables.

Lugo, M. n. A., M. E. G. l. Maza, et al. (2003). "Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a mountain grassland II: Seasonal variation of colonization studied, along with its relation to grazing and metabolic host type." Mycologia, 95(3): 407-415.

LUGONES, L. G., H. A. B.WOSTEN, et al. (1999). "Hydrophobins line air channels in fruiting bodies of Schizophyllum commune and Agaricus bisporus." Mycol. Res.

The relationships among seasons, host metabolic type, grazing and arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization were analyzed in a high South American native grassland. This study investigated seasonal changes and grazing effects on the symbiotic endomycorrhizal interaction in 5 Poaceae [C3 metabolic pathway: Briza subaristata Lam., Deyeuxia hieronymi (Hack.) Tu¨rpe and Poa stuckertii (Hack.) Parodi; with C4 metabolic pathway: Eragrostis lugens Nees and orghastrum

pellitum (Hack.) Parodi; and a Rosaceae (Alchemilla pinnata Ruiz & Pav.)]. All hosts were dominant species in the mountain grassland in central Argentina. It was found that the seasons markedly influenced endomycorrhizal colonization, whereas grazing did not affect this interaction. C4 grasses presented the highest root colonization. Hosts Briza subaristata (C3 metabolic pathway) and Sorghastrum pellitum (C4 metabolic pathway) showed Arum- and Paris-type colonization and intermediate forms.

103: 635-640. The hydrophobin SC4 was isolated from the medium of a

dikaryon from Schizophyllum commune with disrupted SC3 genes. Although not glycosylated, its biophysical properties were similar to those of SC3. As the hydrophobins SC3 from S. commune and ABH1 and ABH3 from Agaricus bisporus, SC4 self-assembled at hydrophilic-hydrophobic interfaces into an SDS insoluble amphipathic film with a typical rodlet structure at its hydrophobic face, and also proved to be a powerful surfactant. Similar rodlet structures were observed in the fruiting body plectenchyma. By immunodetection SC4 could be localized lining air channels within this tissue.

A similar localization was found for the ABH1 hydrophobin in fruiting bodies of A. bisporus. Probably, these hydrophobin coatings prevent collapse of air channels allowing efficient gas exchange even under wet conditions.

LUMBSCH, H. T. and R. LINDEMUTH (2001). "Major lineages of Dothideomycetes (Ascomycota) inferred from SSU and LSU rDNA sequences." Mycol. Res. 105: 901-908.

LUMBSCH, H. T., I. SCHMITT, et al. (2001). "Molecular systematics supports the recognition of an additional order of Ascomycota: the Agyriales." Mycol. Res.

The phylogeny of the Dothideomycetes was investigated using nucleotide sequences of SSU and LSU rDNA. 32 new sequences of these regions from 18 species were aligned with five sequences obtained from GenBank, including two representatives of Pezizomycetes used as outgroup. A combined data set of SSU and LSU rDNA was analysed phylogenetically using neighbour-joining and maximum likelihood. The pseudoparaphysate taxa (Pleosporales incl. Melanommatales) form a monophyletic group. A separation of Melanommatales can be rejected using parametric bootstrapping, and this supports previous results obtained from SSU rDNA studies. The aparaphysate Dothideomycetes form a sister-group to the Pleosporales, but with low bootstrap support. Within these species, two well-supported groups can be distinguished, the Dothideales s. str. and the Capnodiales with Myriangiales as sister-groups. The Myriangiales appear paraphyletic, but this has only poor bootstrap support. A monophyly of Dothideales comprising Capnodiales can be rejected with parametric bootstrapping as well as a subdivision of the loculoascomycetes based on form and opening of the ascomata and ascus. The phylogeny of the aparaphysate taxa requires further studies.

105: 16-23.

LUMBSCH, H. T., I. SCHMITT, et al. (2001). "ITS sequence data suggest variability of ascus types and support ontogenetic characters as phylogenetic discriminators in the Agyriales (Ascomycota)." Mycol. Res.

SSU rRNA gene sequences of Anamylopsora pulcherrima (Anamylopsoraceae), Placopsis gelida, Trapelia involuta and T. placodioides (Agyriaceae) were determined and aligned with the corresponding sequences of 39 other ascomycetes. Phylogenetic analysis (maximum parsimony, spectral analysis) of these sequences placed the Agyriineae outside the Lecanorales and suggested a sister group relationship to Ostropales}Pertusariales. The resurrection of the order Agyriales is proposed based on molecular and morphological data, such as faintly amyloid asci opening by dehiscence. The sequence data support the two families Agyriaceae and Anamylopsoraceae to be accomodated within the order Agyriales. The Agyriales, Ostropales and Pertusariales can be placed in the class Lecanoromycetes.

105: 265-274. The phylogeny of the Agyriales was investigated using

nucleotide sequences of ITS1, 5.8S, and ITS2 rDNA. Sequences of these regions from 15 new sequences of 13 agyrialean fungi were aligned to those of four representatives of Ostropales used as outgroup. Six different

alignments were analysed cladistically using maximum parsimony. The Agyriales were supported as a monophyletic group in the strict consensus tree and the synonymy of the Rimulariaceae and Saccomorphaceae was confirmed. The Schaereriaceae is also shown to belong to the Agyriaceae. The distribution of selected characters in the Agyriales is investigated and it is shown that the ascus type is variable within the group, while the ascoma ontogeny is invariant within the Agyriaceae. Trapelia as usually

circumscribed is polyphyletic. The T. geochroa group is not closely related to Trapelia s. str. and the new genus Ainoa is described to accommodate T. geochroa and T. mooreana.

Lumyong, S., P. Lumyong, et al. (2004). Endophytes. Thai Fungal Diversity, BIOTEC, Thailand: 197-205.

Luo, H., M. Mo, et al. (2004). "Coprinus comatus: A basidiomycete fungus forms novel spiny structures and infects nematode." Mycologia,

Endophytic fungi live within healthy plant tissues without causing any symptoms or apparent injury to the host. .....

96(6): 1218-1225.

Luque, J., S. Martos, et al. (2005). "Botryosphaeria viticola sp. nov. on grapevines: a new species with a Dothiorella anamorph." Mycologia,

Nematophagous basidiomycete fungi kill nematodes by trapping, endoparasitizing and producing toxin. In our studies Coprinus comatus (O.F.Mull. : Fr.) Pers. is found to be a nematode-destroying fungus; this fungus immobilizes, kills and uses free-living nematode Panagrellus redivivus Goodey and root-knot nematode Meloidogyne arenaria Neal. C. comatus produces an unusual structure designated spiny ball. Set on a sporophore-like branch, the spiny ball is a burr-like structure assembled with a large number of tiny tubes. Purified spiny balls exhibit moderate nematicidal activity. Experiments show that spiny balls are not chlamydospores because of the absence of nuclei in the structures and quick formation within 3 d in a young colony. Nematodes added to C. comatus cultures on potato-dextrose agar (PDA) and cornmeal agar (CMA) become inactive in hours. Infection of nematodes by the fungus occurs only after the nematodes are immobilized (feeble or dead), probably by a toxin. Electron micrographs illustrate that C. comatus infect P. redivivus by producing penetration pegs with which hyphae colonize nematode bodies. An infected nematode is digested and consumed within days and hyphae grow out of the nematode.

97(5): 1111–1121. Botryosphaeria viticola sp. nov., isolated from pruned canes of

Vitis vinifera in NE Spain, is described and illustrated. Phylogenetic analysis based

on ITS and EF1-α sequences and morphological characters of both anamorph and teleomorph confirmed this taxon to be included within the group of

Botryosphaeria species with Dothiorella anamorphs. It is related most closely to

B. sarmentorum and B. iberica from which it differs in morphological characters of the teleomorph and DNA sequences. LUTZ, M., R. BAUER, et al. (2004). "Tuberculina – Thanatophytum/Rhizoctonia crocorum – Helicobasidium: a unique mycoparasitic–phytoparasitic life strategy." Mycol. Res. 108: 227-238.

Lutz, M., R. Bauer, et al. (2004). "Tuberculina-Helicobasidium: Host specificity of the Tuberculina-stage reveals unexpected diversity within the group." Mycologia,

Tuberculina species are mitosporic parasites of rust fungi. Phylogenetically they belong to the Urediniomycetidae, therefore being closely related to their rust fungal hosts. We reveal by means of molecular analyses, ultrastructural and morphological features, observations in the field, and infection experiments that species of the genus Tuberculina and the violet root rot (Helicobasidium/Rhizoctonia crocorum) are stages of the life-cycle of one holomorph. This opens up new perspectives on parasitic life strategies as the resulting life-cycle is based on interkingdom host jumping between rusts and spermatophytes. In addition, we point at the consequences for any practical application dealing with Helicobasidium as an economically important plant pathogen and Tuberculina as a biological agent in rust control.

96(6): 1316-1329.

Lutz, M., R. Bauer, et al. (2004). "Tuberculina: rust relatives attack rusts." Mycologia,

Tuberculina species are mitosporic parasites of rust fungi. It was demonstrated recently that Tuberculina represents the asexual life stage of the plant-parasitic genus Helicobasidium. Here we reveal the host specificities of Tuberculina and Helicobasidium species on rust fungal hosts by means of infection experiments and molecular analyses. We inoculated species of the rust genera Chrysomyxa, Coleosporium, Cronartium, Gymnosporangium, Puccinia, Tranzschelia and Uromyces with conidia and with basidiospores of Helicobasidium longisporum and H. purpureum and with conidia of Tuberculina maxima, T. persicina and T. sbrozzii. In addition we analyzed base sequences from the nuclear ITS region of 51 Tuberculina and Helicobasidium specimens collected in the field together with the sequences from the Tuberculina infections obtained by infection experiments. The resulting data show that at least six monophyletic lineages are within the Tuberculina/Helicobasidiumgroup that can be unambiguously distinguished by combining molecular and morphological characters and by specific host spectra of the Tuberculina-stage. This diversity opens up new vistas on the evolution of this exceptional mycoparasitic-phytoparasitic fungal group.

96(3): 614-626. Molecular sequence data together with ultrastructural features

were used to infer the phylogenetic position of Tuberculina species.

Additional ultrastructural characteristics were used to determine their mode of nutrition. We investigated

ultrastructural morphology of the type species Tuberculina persicina and determined base sequences from the D1/ D2 region of the nuclear large-subunit ribosomal DNA of the three commonly distinguished Tuberculina species, T. maxima, T. persicina and T. sbrozzii. Analyses of sequence data by means of a Bayesian method of phylogenetic inference using a Markov Chain Monte Carlo technique reveal the basidiomycetous nature of Tuberculina. Within the Urediniomycetes, Tuberculina clusters as a sister group of Helicobasidium, closely related to the rusts (Uredinales). This phylogenetic position is supported by the uredinalean architecture of septal pores in Tuberculina. In addition, we present aspects of the ultrastructural morphology of the cellular interaction of Tuberculina and rusts showing a unique interaction with large fusion pores, revealing the mycoparasitic nature of Tuberculina on its close relatives, the rusts.

Lygis, V., R. Vasiliauskas1, et al. (2005). "Clonality in the postfire root rot ascomycete Rhizina undulata." Mycologia, 97(4): 788–792.

LYONS, G. A., G. J. McKAY, et al. (2000). "Molecular comparison of Scytalidium thermophilum isolates using RAPD and ITS nucleotide sequence analyses." Mycol. Res.

The aim of the present work was to investigate the potential for territorial and dispersive clonality in natural populations of the postfire root rot ascomycete Rhizina undulata. Population studies based on vegetative compatibility tests were done with strains isolated from individual sporocarps at five burned sites in three different localities (separated by 20–40 km) in the Curronian Spit of western Lithuania. Among a total of 103 strains, the tests identi- fied 14 distinct vegetative compatibility groups (VCGs) of R. undulata, 13 of which were represented by 2–48 strains and three were encountered at 2–4 different sites. Occurrence on spatially separated sites of the same VCG of the fungus indicated a presence of dispersive clonality in R. undulata populations. On a local scale clusters of vegetative compatible sporocarps usually occupied discrete territories, implying territorial clonality. The two largest VCGs covered areas up to 7 and 3 m across. The results show that both dispersive and territorial clones are characteristics of natural populations of the fungus.

104: 1431-1438. Scytalidium thermophilum plays an important role in determining

selectivity of compost produced for growing Agaricus bisporus. The objective of this study was to characterise S. thermophilum isolates by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis and sequence analysis of internally transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of the rDNA, to assess the genetic variation exhibited by this species complex and to compare this with existing morphological and thermogravimetric data. RAPD analysis of 34 isolates from various parts of the world revealed two distinct groups, which could be separated on the basis of the differences

in the banding patterns produced with five random primers. Nucleotide sequence analysis of the ITS region, which was ca 536 bp in length, revealed only very minor variation among S. thermophilum isolates examined. Several nucleotide base changes within this region demonstrated variation. Genetic distance values among type 1 and 2 S. thermophilum isolates, as determined by ITS sequence analysis, varied by a value of 0±005%. Molecular analyses carried out in the present study would suggest that isolates within this species complex exhibit genetic differences which correlate well with morphological variation and thermogravimetric data previously determined.

LYONS, G. A. and H. S. S. SHARMA (1998). "Differentiation of Scytalidium thermophilum isolates by thermogravimetric analyses of their biomass." Mycol. Res. 102: 843-849.

Lyons, G. A. and H. S. Shekhar (1998). "Differentiation of Scytalidium thermophilum isolates by thermogravimetric analyses of their biomass." Mycological Research

The characterization of type cultures of the S. thermophilum complex remains unclear and morphological features have been relied upon to recognize such isolates. The aim of this study was to compare morphological and thermal methods, in order to identify relationships between cell wall and cultural characteristics. The differences in the proportions of structural and non-structural fractions and the peak decomposition temperatures of the test isolates were significant. The thermograms produced can be grouped into two distinct types, which can be further sub-divided, in agreement with microscopic classification. The relationship between the various

morphological parameters including extension rate, sporulation, microscopic type and DTG parameters are discussed briefly.

102(7): 843-849.

MA, M., T. K. TAN, et al. (2003). "Identification and molecular phylogeny of Epulorhiza isolates from tropical orchids." Mycol. Res.

The characterization of type cultures of the S. thermophilum complex remains unclear and morphological features have been relied upon to recognize such isolates. The aim of this study was to compare morphological and thermal methods, in order to identify relationships between cell wall and cultural characteristics. The differences in the proportions of structural and non-structural fractions and the peak decomposition temperatures of the test isolates were significant. The thermograms produced can be grouped into two distinct types, which can be further sub-divided, in agreement with microscopic classification. The relationship between the various morphological parameters including extension rate, sporulation, microscopic type and DTG parameters are discussed briefly.

107: 1041-1049. 24 isolates of Epulorhiza were obtained from the roots and

protocorms of orchids in Singapore. Two groups were distinguished based on morphological and cultural characteristics. Group 1 comprised 20 isolates which were identified as E. repens, while those in group 2 were identified as E. calendulina-like Rhizoctonia. The ITS-5.8S rDNA sequence identity ranged from 88–100% among isolates of E. repens and six sub-groups were further delineated. The sequence identity was 98–100% among E. calendulina-like Rhizoctonia isolates. The sequence identity between E. repens isolates and E. calendulina-like Rhizoctonia isolates ranged from 18–44%. Apparently, isolates from both groups 1 and 2 were genetically distinct. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the distribution of the isolates correlated with the sites and the hosts from which the fungi were isolated. No matching sequences have been found in the GenBank database for the ITS region of E. repens and E. calendulina-like Rhizoctonia.

MAANEN, A. v., D. DEBOUZIE, et al. (2000). "Distribution of three fungi colonising fallen Pinus sylvestris needles along altitudinal transects." Mycol. Res. 104: 1133-1138.

MAANEN, A. V. and F. GOURBIERE (2000). "Balance between colonization and fructification in fungal dynamics control : a case study of Lophodermium pinastri on Pinus sylvestris needles." Mycol. Res.

This work tested the hypothesis that the abundance of fungal species on coniferous needles is correlated to climatic factors at a regional scale. The proportions of Pinus sylvestris needles colonised by Lophodermium pinastri, Cyclaneusma minus and Verticicladium trifidum were examined along two altitudinal transects in 2 successive years. L. pinastri and C. minus colonisation increased with altitude, whereas that of V. trifidum decreased. The data are discussed in relation to the importance of climatic controls on species distributions.

104: 587-594.

Maas Geesteranus, R. A. (1965). Geoglossaceae of India and Adjacent

An investigation was conducted into whether fungal dynamics are determined by the balance between colonization and fructification, both of which are controlled by climatic factors, particularly rainfall. The distribution of Lophodermium pinastri on Pinus sylvestris needles was studied along two altitude transects over two successive years. Annual rainfall increased in a similar way along the two transects. colonization (black zones) and the presence of fruiting bodies (ascomata and/or conidiomata) were observed. Both increased with altitude. At low altitude, needles bore black lines only. The number of needles bearing fruiting bodies increased at altitudes above 1000 m and were present on all needles at high altitude. Empirical and dynamic mathematical models were developed and evaluated in relation to rainfall, assuming that spore production correlates with fructification, and colonization to spore dispersal.

Countries. Persoonia. R. A. M. Geesteranus, the Rijksherbarium, Leiden. 4: 19-47. Maas Geesteranus, R. A. (1971). Hydnaceous Fungi of The Eastern Old World. Verhandelingen Der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie Van Wetenschappen, Afd. Natuurkunde Tweede Reeks, Deel 60, No. 3. London, North-Holland Publishing Company-Amsterdam, London-1971. Deel 60: 1-176. Maas Geesteranus, R. A. (1992). Mycenas of The Northern Hemisphere. II. Conspectus of the Mycenas of The Northern Hemisphere. deel 90: 493.

Macnish, G. C., D. E. Carling, et al. (1997). "Relationship of microscopic and macroscopic vegetative reactions in Rhizoctonia solani and the occurrence of vegetatively compatible populations (VCPs) in AG-8." Mycological Research

Maas Geesteranus, R. A. and A. A. R. de Meijer (1997). Mycenae paranaenses. deel 97: 164.

101(1): 61-68.

MAEKAWA, N., H. SUHARA, et al. (2005). "Haloaleurodiscus mangrovei gen. sp. nov. (Basidiomycota) from mangrove forests in Japan." Mycol. Res.

An examination of microscopic and macroscopic vegetative reactions between paired isolated of Rhizoctonia solani AG-8 revealed that pairs of isolates that give a C2 anastomosis reaction at the microscopic level always gives a ` tuft ' reaction at the macroscopic level. Similarly, any pair that gives a C3 anastomosis reaction at the microscopic level always gives a `merge' reaction at the macroscopic level. Thus, macroscopic vegetative (` tuft type') reactions can be used to predict the microscopic (anastomosis) reaction (and vice versa) between paired isolate of AG-8. This pattern also seems to apply to paired isolates of AG-3, AG-7 and AG-10 but not the other AGs of R. solani. The C2 anastomosis reaction is always observed when two isolates from different zymogram groups of R. solani AG-8 are paired. When isolates from within any of the five zymogram groups comprising AG-8 are paired, either a C2 or a C3 anastomosis reaction will result. Many field isolates of AG-8, when paired, give a C3 anastomosis reaction. We propose that a group of field isolates of R. solani that give a C3 anastomosis reaction be designated a ` vegetatively compatible population ' (VCP).

109(7): 825-832. Haloaleurodiscus gen. nov. (Homobasidiomycetes) is

described from Japanese mangrove forests with one species H. mangrovei sp. nov. The genus is morphologically characterized by having resupinate basidioma, nodose-septate hyphae, sulphoaldehyde-positive gloeocystidia, dendrohyphidia and amyloid basidiospores with minute warts. These morphological features are similar to those of Aleurodiscus s. lat., but H. mangrovei differs from the Aleurodiscus primarily in

occurring in white pocket-rot and is not closely related based on ribosomal DNA sequence analyses. Molecular data suggest that this species is phylogenetically placed in the root of the ‘Peniophorales’ clade. In addition, ecological and physiological features of the species are provided.

M∅LLER, K. and J. HOCKENHULL (2001). "Biometry of oospores and intraspecific variation of four Pythium species." Mycol. Res. 105: 1206-1215.

MAFFI, D., M. BASSI, et al. (1998). "Possible role of chitosan in the interaction between barley and Erysiphe graminis after tetraconazole treatment." Mycol.

Evidence that the biometric characters of the oogonial unit of Pythium are of significant taxonomic value, allowing for a good species separation, has been presented by other workers, based on 40 species, each represented by fairly few isolates. Since broad intraspecific variation and interspecific overlapping of biometric parameters was observed in isolates of four Pythium species from Denmark, it was suspected that a such wide variability would weaken the conclusions obtained by previous biometric approaches. Species to be studied should be represented by higher numbers of isolates to refiect intraspecific variation. In the present biometric

study 49 isolates were used to test the robustness of the biometric approach and to examine the taxonomic value of biometric characters from a practical perspective.

Good species separation was obtained despite intraspecific variation. The biometric parameter set for the oogonium, consisting of oogonial, oospore and ooplast diameters, supplemented with the thickness of the oospore wall or the protoplast diameter and with derived indices of volume or linear ratios of the measured parameters were all of taxonomic value for the separation of species, as shown from canonical variate plots after linear discriminant analysis. More detailed information on species separation, isolate-species or isolate--isolate associations could be obtained by separation based on the Mahalanobis distance function in the linear discriminant analysis. Both the derived volume and linear indices contributed significantly to species separation and appeared to be equally satisfactory.

The substrates used for oogonium production may influence the biometric parameters to an extent which may seriously affect the results of the biometric approach to taxonomy. These results stress the importance of standardizing substrates in morphological taxonomy and identification work.

Res. 102: 599-606. Barley plants experimentally infected with Erysiphe graminis f.

sp. hordei were subjected to a curative treatment with tetraconazole (TC), to find out if the thickenings induced by the treatment in the fungal and host cell walls might be related to an increased production of chitosan. The presence of chitosan was assessed by colorimetric method,

histological staining and ultrastructural localization with chitosanase bound to colloidal gold. The results showed that after TC treatment the amount of chitosan increase in the cell walls of hyphae and haustoria, and also in the haustorial encasements.

MAGAE, Y., T. NISHIMURA, et al. (2005). "3-O-alkyl-D-glucose derivatives induce fruit bodies of Pleurotus ostreatus." Mycol. Res. 109: 374-376.

Magarey, R. C., H. Y. Yip, et al. (1997). "Effect of the fungicide mancozeb on fungi associated with sugarcane yield decline in Queensland." Mycological

Amphipathic glucose derivatives 3-O-octyl- and 3-O-decyl-D-glucose were synthesized, and the ability to induce fruit bodies on Pleurotus ostreatus was examined. Surfactants such as CHAPS, CHAPSO, MEGA-8, MEGA-9, and MEGA- 10 were also assayed. The result was that both glucose derivatives could stimulate fruiting on P. ostreatus, while none of the surfactants assayed in this study stimulated the fruiting of P. ostreatus. These results suggest that sugar moiety is necessary for amphipathic compounds to work as a fruiting signal for P. ostreatus.

Research 101(7): 858-862. The broad spectrum fungicide mancozeb was applied to monocultured

sugarcane soils affected by the growth constraint known as sugarcane yield decline. The constraint is associated with the long-term monoculture of sugarcane and has been shown to decrease sugarcane growth by 20% in commercial crops in Queensland. The fungicide was shown to decrease root colonization by soil fungi, particularly dematiaceous sterile fungi. Higher doses of mancozeb (up to 400 mg kg-1) sometimes led to increased populations of Penicillium spp. The fungicide greatly improved plant growth and root health when applied at doses of 100 mg kg-1 and above. Results suggest that the role of dematiaceous sterile fungi in sugarcane yield decline should be further examined.

Maggi, O., A. M. Persiani, et al. (2005). "Effects of elevation, slope position and livestock exclusion on microfungi isolated from soils of Mediterranean grasslands." Mycologia, 97(5): 984–995. The fungal communities of grassland soils in Spain from four

sites at different elevations were studied. Each site contained grazed and fenced ungrazed plots. These plots were situated in two slope positions (upper and lower zones). The ungrazed plots, fenced off 6 y before the sampling, were part of a study of global change that simulates conditions of rural abandonment, which is widespread in Iberian countries, since Spain joined the European Union. We analyzed the structure of the

soil fungi communities and its relationship with herbaceous vegetation. The distribution of 207 taxa of fungi revealed that the elevation was the main factor of fungal variability; the effect of grazing and slope position were associated with less variability. Although a halt in grazing resulted in the

accumulation of standing plants and plant litter in these ecosystems, it had relatively little effect on soil microfungi and appeared to be related mainly to growing conditions affected by that accumulation.

Magingo, F. S., N. M. Oriyo, et al. (2004). "Cultivation of Oudemansiella tanzanica nom. prov. on agricultural solid wastes in Tanzania." Mycologia, 96(2): 197-204.

MAHONEY, D., W. GAMS, et al. (2004). "Umbelopsis dimorpha sp. nov., a link between U. vinacea and U. versiformis." Mycol. Res.

The edible mushroom Oudemansiella tanzanica nom. prov., which is new to science, has been studied as a potential crop to reduce agricultural solid

wastes and increase domestic mushroom production. The substrates sawdust, sisal waste and paddy straw supplemented with chicken manure resulted in the highest biological efficiencies of any mushroom cultivated in Tanzania so far. In addition, the mushroom has one of the shortest cultivation cycles at 24 d. Despite the fact that the mushroom extracts substantial amounts of nutrients, the spent substrate can be used as fodder, as a soil conditioner and fertilizer and in bioremediation.

108: 107-111.

MAHUKU, G. S., T. HSIANG, et al. (1998). "Genetic diversity of Microdochium nivale isolates from turfgrass." Mycol. Res.

The new species Umbelopsis dimorpha sp. nov. was isolated from a soil sample in the Red Hills area of Mt Richmond Forest Park, in the northern part of the South Island of New Zealand. It has two kinds of pale pinkish sporangia: (1) single-spored, indistinguishable from those of U. versiformis; and (2) multi-spored, similar to those of U. vinacea. ITS sequences place the species in the immediate vicinity of the former species.

102: 559-567. Conserved primers were used in a polymerase chain reaction

to amplify the ITS region of the rDNA of 100 Microdochium nivale isolates collected from different turfgrasses in southern Ontario. The profile of the restriction digestion of the amplified ITS region revealed that all the M. nivale isolates analysed belonged to var. nivale. RAPD profiling and RFLP analyses of the IGS regions of rDNA revealed extensive genetic diversity within var. nivale. With RAPD markers, the average similarity coefficient was 66% and the estimate of genotypic diversity was 0.179. Population subdivision analysis showed that 92.2% of the total genetic diversity was

found among individuals within populations compared to 7.8% among populations. In dendrograms derived from genetic distances using RAPD and IGS-RFLP markers, there was some evidence for host specialization. Most RAPD markers were shared by individuals from different turfgrasses, and the populations were not highly differentiated. The high level of genotypic diversity detected within populations and the low level of genetic differentiation among populations show that recombination and migration

are likely playing important roles in the population biology of M. nivale var. nivale.

Maijala, P., T. C. Harrington, et al. (2003). "A peroxidase gene family and gene trees in Heterobasidion and related genera." Mycologia, 95(2): 209-221.

MAKOWSKI, R. M. D. and K. MORTENSEN (1998). "Latent infections and penetration of the bioherbicide agent Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. malvae in non-target ®eld crops under controlled environmental conditions." Mycol. Res.

Four putative peroxidase-encoding gene fragments, named mnp1a, mnp1b, mnp2 and mnp3, were amplified with degenerative primers from the

white-rot basidiomycete genus Heterobasidion. The fragments were cloned and sequenced. Similar fragments were produced and analyzed from the related

genera Amylostereum, Bondarzewia and Echinodontium. Each amplified fragment contains three identically positioned introns. According to the predicted amino acid sequence, these fragments are most similar to two Mn peroxidase-encoding genes (MPGI and mnp2) and gene pgv of Trametes versicolor. Conserved

residues thought to be essential for peroxidase function were identified. All four MnP gene loci of Heterobasidion were detected only in H. parviporum. Variation occurred in the predicted amino-acid sequences (131–132 amino acids) of all four fragments originating from the 47 Heterobasidion isolates tested. Amino acid variation in fragments of mnp2 and mnp3 separated European Heterobasidion parviporum (‘‘S-type’’) and H. abietinum (‘‘F-type’’), known to have identical rDNA sequences. Asian and western North American isolates from fir, spruce and other hosts had the peroxidase amino acid sequences of European H. parviporum. American and European H. annosum (‘‘P-type’’) isolates had different amino acid sequences and might be cryptic species.

102: 1545-1552. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. malvae (C. g. malvae) is

effective in controlling round-leaved mallow (Malva pusilla), a common weed in the Canadian prairies. To con®rm host range experiments, the latent period and penetration of C. g. malvae was determined under controlled environmental conditions on field crops (wheat, flax, lentil, mustard, rape seed, sugar beet, sunflower, safflower) and on crops in the Malvaceae (okra and cotton) as well as on round-leaved mallow, from which C. g. malvae was originally isolated. In non-target crop plants, very little germination, appressoria formation, or penetration of C. g. malvae were observed compared with the infection occurring on round-leaved mallow. Of the non-target species tested, most penetration was observed on safflower, with

only 5.1% penetration form the total appressoria formed compared with 17% on round-leaved mallow. C. g. malvae was re-isolated from all crop cvs

tested, but only from inoculated stems and leaves. The recovery of C. g. malvae significantly decreased with time of isolation of plant material for most cvs. Of the millions of conidia applied to non-target crops, only a few were present after 72 h, few appressoria were produced, and only minimal penetration occurred. The behaviour of C. g. malvae conidia on the surface of leaf material of non-target plants supports the visual disease ratings observed in the experiments of crop tolerance under controlled and field condition and host-range tests.

Malvick, D. K., C. R. Grau, et al. (1998). "Characterization of Aphanomyces euteiches strains based on pathogenicity tests and random amplified polymorphic DNA analyses." Mycological Research 102(4): 465-475.

Managbanag, J. R. and A. P. Torzilli (2002). "An analysis of trehalose, glycerol, and mannitol accumulation during heat and salt stress in a salt marsh isolate of Aureobasidium pullulans." Mycologia,

Genotypic variation among 62 strains of Aphanomyces euteiches, four of A. cochlioides, and a Saprolegnia sp. was investigated using RAPD analysis. Pathogenicity assays on pea, bean, alfalfa, red clover, and sugarbeet were used to determine host preference among the strains of A. euteiches and A. cochlioides. Pathogenicity tests revealed six pathotypes of A. euteiches with host preferences for bean, alfalfa, pea, pea and alfalfa, red clover and alfalfa, and bean and alfalfa. Another group of strains was non-pathogenic on the five plant species. The host of origin tended to be the host on which each strain incited the highest disease severity. A. euteiches did not incite root rot symptoms on sugarbeet, and A. cochlioides was pathogenic only to sugarbeet. RAPD analyses provided a measure of genetic diversity in Aphanomyces. Fifty random decanucleotide primers were screened with five test strains from four hosts representing different pathotypes, and 32 primers amplified DNA fragments from all five strains. Eight primers were chosen for most of this study based on number and polymorphic nature of the bands generated. RAPD assays of 62 strains of A. euteiches with the eight primers yielded 159 polymorphic and no monomorphic, strongly amplified bands. Cluster analyses of RAPD data revealed genotypic differences among three groups of A. euteiches which corresponded to their host of origin and host preference for bean, alfalfa, and red clover}alfalfa. Strains nonpathogenic on all plants tested formed another genotypic group, corroborating results from the pathogenicity assays that indicated this is a discrete group. The bean and non-pathogenic groups were the most distinct. The A. cochlioides and Saprolegnia strains were genotypically distinct from the pathogenic, but not the non-pathogenic strains of A. euteiches. Reproducibility of RAPD assays was confirmed by replicated amplifications and DNA hybridization analysis. Results indicated that A. euteiches is composed of distinct subspecific groups based on genotype and host preference.

94(4): 384-391.

Polyhydroxy compounds from Aureobasidium pullulans exposed to stress treatments of heat, salt, and simultaneous heat and salt were isolated, identified, and quantified. Results from both thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) showed that concentrations of trehalose, mannitol, and glycerol increased under stress conditions that induce osmotic- and thermotolerance in A. pullulans. The cellular concentration of trehalose increased in heat-stressed and in simultaneously heat- and salt-stressed cells but not in cells subjected to salt stress alone. Mannitol increased under all stress conditions examined, while

Mankowski, M. E. and J. J. Morrell (2004). "Yeasts associated with the infrabuccal pocket and colonies of the carpenter ant Camponotus vicinus." Mycologia,

an increase in intracellular glycerol was apparent only in salt-stressed cells. The significance of these findings in relation to stress tolerance in salt marsh environments is discussed. Key Words: Aureobasidium, glycerol, HPLC, mannitol, stress response, TLC, trehalose

96(2): 226-231.

Manoch, L. Methods for Isolating Microfungi from Soils and Other Substrates

After scanning electron microscopy indicated that the infrabuccal pockets of carpenter ants (Camponotus vicinus) contained numerous yeast-like cells, yeast associations were examined in six colonies of carpenter ants from two locations in Benton County in western Oregon. Samples from the infrabuccalpocket contents and worker ant exoskeletons, interior galleries of each colony, and detritus and soil around the colonies were plated on yeast-extract/ malt-extract agar augmented with 1 M hydrochloric acid and incubated at 25 C. Yeasts were identified on the basis of morphological characteristics and physiological attributes with the BIOLOGt microbial identification system. Yeast populations from carpenter ant nest material and material surrounding the nest differed from those obtained from the infrabuccal pocket. Debaryomyces polymorphus was isolated more often from the infrabuccal pocket than from other material. This species has also been isolated from other ant species, but its role in colony nutrition is unknown.

. Manoch, L. (2004). Soil fungi. Thai Fungal Diversity, BIOTEC, Thailand: 141-154. Soil fungi been widely studied worldwide and forest and mangrove soils

have been sampled in Thailand. A wide range of species have been documented for Thailand, and strains deposited in the BIOTEC Culture Collection and other collections within the country ........

Manoch, L., J. Chana, et al. "Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes from Soil and Plant." 432-443. The present work deals with an investigation on microfungi from forest

and agricultural soils and other plant tissues by using various methods, such as soil plate, dilution plate, alcohol and heat treatment, direct isolation and tissue transplanting. A number of Ascomycetes and Deuteromycetes were isolated as follows: Acremonium polychromum, Leternaria tenuis, Arthrinium sp., Aspergillus clavatus, A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. japonicus, A. niger, A. restrichus, A. terreus, A. sterotiorum, A. ustus, Beauveria bassiana, Botryosporium longibrachiatum, Chaetomium globosum, C. trilaterale, C. venezuelense, Cladosporum oxysporum, Clonostachys sp., Curvularia lunata, Cylindrocladium parvum, C. scoparium, Diheterospora sp., Drechslera ellisii, Drechslera spp., Eupenicillium sp., Emericella nidulans, Fusarium moniliforme, F. oxysporium, F. semitectum, F. solani, Fusarium spp., Fusicoccum sp., Gelasinospora sp., Gliocladium roseum, G. virens, G. viride, Gonytrichum chlamydosporium, Hamigera avellanea, Hamicpla sp., Idriella sp., Mariannaea elegans, Memnoniella echinata, Monodictys sp., Myrothecium cinctum, M. roseum, M. verrucarria, Neosartorya fischeri, Nectria sp., Nodulisporium gregarium, Paecilomyces lilacinus, P. marquandii, P. variotii, Penicillium ducclauxii, P. rubrum, P. striatisporum, Periconia sp., Pestalotia sp., Pithomyces, P. maydicus, Sclerotium rolfsii, Scytalidium sp., Sesquicillium candelabrum, Sordaria sp., Spegazzinia tessarthra, Stachybotrys sp., Trichoderma spp., These pure cultures were maintained in a culture Collection for furthur study. Antagonistic test has been conducted.

Manoch, L., J. Chana, et al. "Myxomycetes Hyphomycetes and Coprophilous Fungi from Huay Kha Khang Wildlife Sanctuary." 444-452. During a survey on the microflora from Huay Kha Khang Wildlife

Sanctuary, slime molds on fallen logs, soil samples, organic debris and wild animal excrements were collected. They were examined under stereo and compound microscopes and several methods, such as direct isolation, moist chamber, dilution plate, alcohol and heat treatment were used to isolate microfungi from soil and dung. The results showed that five genera and six species of slime mold were found Arcyria cinneria, A. denudata, Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa, Dictydium cancellatum, Hemitrichia calyculata and Stemonitis fusca fungi included Dictyostelium discoideum (cellular slime mold), Blakeslea trispora, Pilobolus sp., Syncephalastrum sp. (Zegomycetes), Gelasinospora sp., Sordaria sp. (Ascomycetes), Aspergillus spp., Drechslera sp., Myrothecium spp., Penicillium spp., Trichoderma spp., (Hyphomycetes) and Coprinus spp. (Basidiomycetes). Hyphomycetes from soil and debris included Acrodontium sp., Aspergillus clavatus, A. flavus, A. niger, A. nidulans, A. ochraceus, A. terreus, Cladosporium sp., Fusarium sp., Gliocephatrichum sp., Idriella lunata,

Myrothecium cinctum, M. verrucaria, Pencillium rubrum, Penicillium spp., Pithomyces sp., Stachybotrys sp. and synnematous fungi. Slime molds were kept as specimens in a Herbarium, whereas pure study and analysis for agricultural, medical and industrial uses.

Mansuetus, A. S. B., G. N. Odvody, et al. (1997). "Biological species in the Gibberella fujikuroi species complex (Fusarium section Liseola) recovered from sorghum in Tanzania." Mycological Research 101(7): 815-820.

Mansur, M., M. E. Arias, et al. (2003). "The white-rot fungus Pleurotus ostreatus secretes laccase isozymes with different substrate specificities." Mycologia,

In Fusarium section Liseola, the teleomorph is used to identify mating populations that represent different biological species when distinguishing morphological characters are absent in the anamorph. The Gibberella fujikuroi mating populations to which strains of Fusarium section Liseola belong were determined for isolates from sorghum grown at Ifakara, Ilonga and Kachiri, Tanzania. Representatives of all of the mating populations (A±F) were recovered at Ilonga, but C and E were absent at Ifakara and C was absent from Kachiri. The frequency of the different mating populations was similar at all three sites with A (21%) and F (49%) being the most frequent and C and E the least frequent, if they were recovered at all. The relative proportions of mating populations A and F in the population were significantly different from each other at Ilonga, but were not significantly different at Ifakara or Kachiri. Female fertile strains were more common within mating population A than within mating population F. The inbreeding effective population sizes for the A and F mating populations, respectively, were 69 and 91% of count based on mating type, and 88 and 53% of count based on male/hermaphrodite ratios.

95(6): 1013-1020.

MAOR, R., M. PUYESKY, et al. (1998). "Use of green fluorescent protein (GFP) for studying development and fungal-plant interaction in Cochliobolus heterostrophus." Mycol. Res.

Four laccase isozymes (LCC1, LCC2, LCC3 and LCC4) synthesized by Pleurotus ostreatus strain V-184 were purified and characterized. LCC1 and LCC2 have molecular masses of about 60 and 65 kDa and exhibited the same pI value (3.0). Their N termini were sequenced, revealing the same amino acid sequence and homology with laccases from other microorganisms. Laccases LCC3 and LCC4 were characterized by SDS-PAGE, estimating their molecular masses around 80 and 82 kDa, respectively. By native isoelectrofocusing, their pI values were 4.7 and 4.5, respectively. When staining with ABTS and guaiacol

in native polyacrilamide gels, different specificities were observed for LCC1/LCC2 and LCC3/ LCC4 isozymes.

102: 491-496. The green fluorescent protein (GFP) has been widely used as

an extremely useful vital marker in a large number of organisms, but good expression in filamentous ascomycetes has not been reported. To facilitate the research of fungal development and fungal-plant interaction, we constructed two plasmid vectors for the expression of the synthetic SGFP-TYG gene in ascomycete species, and used these vectors for transformation of the maize pathogen Cochliobolus heterostrophus. High level expression of GFP was obtained, as detected by anti-GFP antibodies and by fluorescence microscopy. The intense fluorescence was used as a highly efficient vital marker to detect cytoplasmic and developmental changes that occur in the fungus, and to follow phytopathogenic development of the

MARAIS, G. J. and M. J. WINGFIELD (2001). "Ophiostoma africanum sp. nov., and a key to ophiostomatoid species from Protea infructescences." Mycol. Res.

fungus on and inside maize leaves. The hyphae within the leaf form a unique parallel growth pattern, closely associated with, and apparently determined by, the anatomy of the leaf. Fluorescence intensity was quantified by digital analysis of the green fluorescence image and was highly correlated with the amount of mycelium and levels of disease. Expression of GFP was obtained in additional ascomycetes that were transformed with the new constructs, indicating that SGFP-TYG can be used as a highly effective vital marker in ascomycetes.

105: 240-246.

MARCAIS, B., O. CAEL, et al. (2000). "Genetics of somatic incompatibility in Collybia fusipes." Mycol. Res.

Two distinct and unrelated groups of ophiostomatoid fungi are associated with Protea infructescences. Two species, Gondwanamyces proteae and G. capensis, have unique anamorphs that reside in Knoxdaviesia. This anamorph genus is infrequently found amongst species of Ceratocystis sensu lato. The second group includes Ophiostoma splendens and O. protearum that have Sporothrix anamorphs typical of Ophiostoma. During recent collections of Protea gaguedi infructescences from the Northern Province in South Africa, an apparently new species of Ophiostoma with a Sporothrix anamorph was discovered. It can be distinguished from O. splendens and O. protearum based on its short ostiolar hyphae and its associated plant host. This teleomorph is described as O. africanum and the anamorph as S. africanum. Five species of ophiostomatoid fungi are now known from Protea infructescences and a key is presented

for them.

104: 304-310. The genetics of somatic incompatibility in tetrapolar Collybia

fusipes was studied using eight dikaryotic isolates collected from the wild and their experimentally derived progeny. Monokaryons from each isolate were all paired with the same unrelated monokaryon and also paired together in all combinations. The somatic compatibility of the two resulting

sets of dikaryons was studied. Two different types of somatic incompatible interaction were observed, lightly or heavily pigmented lines developing between the two isolates. The dikaryons that had one nuclear type in common and one coming from sibling monokaryons were compatible in 7--27% of the cases, incompatible with a lightly pigmented interaction in 30--93% and incompatible with a heavily pigmented interaction in 0--53%. The results suggest that at least three to four loci control the somatic incompatibility in C. fusipes, one of them alone controlling the heavily pigmented interaction.

MARCAIS, B., F. MARTIN, et al. (1998). "Structure of Collybia fusipes populations in two infected oak stands." Mycol. Res. 102: 361-367.

MARCHISIO, V. F., D. AIRAUDI, et al. (1997). "One-year monitoring of the airborne fungal community in a suburb of Turin (Italy) and assessment of its functional relations with the environment." Mycol. Res.

Collybia fusipes is the cause of a root rot of oak trees. We studied the structure of C. fusipes populations in two infected oak stands by using somatic incompatibility and DNA amplification. Isolates were obtained from different oak root systems or from within the same root system and somatic incompatibility groups (SIG) were identified. Many small SIGs that seldom encompassed more than one root system were present in both stands. More than one SIG was usually present on an individual root system: there were 3.1±1.3 SIGs on the pedunculate oaks and 2.2±0.6 on the red oaks. The largest SIG contained more than 70% of the isolates

obtained from the root system of 14 of the 20 trees studied. Isolates that belonged to the same SIG usually had the same ribosomal intergenic spacer. It is concluded that C. fusipes spreads poorly from tree to tree by vegetative means.

101: 821-828. The composition and concentration of airborne fungal

propagules are probably determined by many interrelated environmental factors, such as temperature, relative humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind speed, rainfall and gas pollutants. The importance of these variables was assessed in an outdoor sampling survey conducted at regular intervals for 12 months at a single site in Turin. Samples were collected with a single-stage volumetric sieve sampler on potato dextrose agar supplemented with 15 mg l-1 streptomycin and 50 mg l-1 chloramphenicol.

Canonical Correspondence Analysis showed that the four ordination axes accounted for 93.5% of the variance in relationships between fungal entities present in more than 20% of samples and the environmental variables. The Monte Carlo permutation test demonstrated that the ordination was highly signiÆcant (PØ=0.01). The community's qualitative and quantitative composition mainly depended on the factors that have the greatest inØuence on Turin's climate, i.e., in descending order, temperature, relative humidity and rainfall. The relative importance of

these environmental variables on diåerent groups of fungi was assessed. Wind speed positively correlated with the fungi producing conidia of larger sizes.

MARIN, M., O. PREISIG, et al. (2005). "Phenotypic and DNA sequence data comparisons reveal three discrete species in the Ceratocystis polonica species complex." Mycol. Res. 109(10): 1137-1148.

MARIN, S., E. COMPANYS, et al. (1998). "Effect of water activity and temperature on competing abilities of common maize fungi." Mycol. Res.

Ceratocystis polonica and C. laricicola are two morphologically similar species that occur on conifers and reside in the Ceratocystis coerulescens species complex. They, however, represent two ecologically distinct entities. C. polonica causes blue stain on Norway spruce (Picea abies) and other spruce species (Picea spp.) in Eurasia and is associated with the bark beetles Ips typographus, I. typographus japonicus, I. amitinus and I. duplicatus. In contrast, C. laricicola lives in a symbiotic relationship with the bark beetles Ips cembrae and I. subelongatus that infest various larch species (Larix spp.). The objective of this study was to consider the phylogenetic relationships of C. polonica and C. laricicola and more specifically to determine the identity of Japanese isolates from both spruce and larch, based on sequences derived from the ITS regions of the rRNA operon, the β-tubulin gene and the HMG box of the MAT-2 gene. Isolates were also compared based on morphology and cultural characteristics. Comparisons of anamorph and teleomorph structures confirmed that C. polonica and C. laricicola are indistinguishable based on morphology. Both species had an optimal growth temperature of 25 °C. However, at temperatures between 31–33°, C. polonica isolates grew slowly or not at all, while C. laricicola isolates grew more actively at these temperatures. Thus, a growth test at 32 ° can differentiate these species. Phylograms generated using parsimony for the three gene regions were strongly congruent. These showed three distinct clades supported by high bootstrap values. Two of the clades clearly separate C. laricicola from Europe and C. polonica, supporting the view that they represent two discrete taxa. A third clade included isolates obtained from galleries of Ips subelongatus on Larix kaempferi in Japan. This fungus clearly represents a discrete taxon that is closely related to, but distinct from C. laricicola, which is described here as C. fujiensis sp. nov.

102: 959-964. The effect of water activity (aw, 0.995-0.85) and temperature

(15, 25 °C) on the in vitro inter- and intra-specific interactions between thirteen fungi commonly isolated from maize grain were investigated. The fungi were paired and their interactions given a numerical score to obtain an Index of Dominance (ID) for each species. Aspergillus niger had the highest overall ID in most of the conditions tested, while the Aspergillus species tested were also quite dominant. Fusarium species appeared to

be dominant only at high water availability (0.995 aw), while Eurotium species dominated at the lower aws (0.85-0.90). The relative growth rates of each fungus were also calculated under the same range of environmental conditions. In general, Aspergillus, Fusarium and Trichoderma species grew most rapidly under the combination of aw and temperature conditions in which they were able to grow, while Penicillium species had the slowest growth rates. There was a positive correlation between growth rate and ID for Trichoderma viride and three Fusarium spp. but not for Aspergillus and Penicillium and Eurotium spp. The different possible strategies in fungal competition for grain are discussed in relation to these in vitro findings.

MARIN, S., V. SANCHIS, et al. (1998). "Environmental factors, in vitro interactions, and niche overlap between Fusarium moniliforme, F. proliferatum, and F. graminearum, Aspergillus and Penicillium species from maize grain." Mycol. Res. 102: 831-837. The effects of temperature and water availability on growth and

interactions between fumonisin-producing isolates of Fusarium moniliforme and F. proliferatum and seven other fungi from maize grain were determined in vitro. The type of interaction and index of dominance (ID) between species were markedly influenced by temperature and aw. Generally, F. moniliforme and F. proliferatum were very competitive and dominant against the Penicillium spp. and A. flavus. They were in turn dominated by A. niger, but mutually antagonistic when paired with F. graminearum and A. ochraceus. Under slightly drier conditions (<0.98 aw) A. ochraceus became more competitive and dominant over the fumonisin-producing species. A. flavus was dominant only at 30 °C and <0.96 aw. F. moniliforme and F. proliferatum demonstrated dominance against all species over a range of temperatures and 0.994 to 0.96 aw. At lower aw levels they were less competitive. The growth rate of the two fumonisin-producing species was significantly reduced by F. graminearum, regardless of aw. F. moniliforme and F. proliferatum reduced growth of Penicillium and Aspergillus spp., especially at >0.96 aw. At <0.96 aw, growth of these species was unaffected. Using Biolog plates the effect of aw and temperature on utilization patterns of carbon sources in maize were evaluated for the first time. The niche overlap indices relative to F. moniliforme and F. proliferatum were determined and compared with that of each interacting species. NOIs for F. moniliforme and F. proliferatum were >0.90 at >0.96 aw and 25 and 30°, indicative of co-existence with other species. Most of species had NOIs >0.90, except in some cases when paired with F. moniliforme, where NOIs <0.80 suggested the occupation of different niches. Although there was no significant correlation between the ID and NOI methods both suggested that the niche overlap between species was in a state of flux and significantly influenced by both temperature and water availability. This suggests that interpretation of ID, or NOIs carried out under one set of environmental

conditions may be misleading when considering interactions between species and also where screening for biocontrol potential is being considered.

MARKOVINA, A.-L., J. I. PITT, et al. (2005). "Diversity of the Trichocomaceae in the Katandra Nature Reserve, Central Coast, NSW, Australia." Mycol. Res. 109(9): 964-973.

Marmolejo, J. G. and H. Butin (1997). "Forest fungi from Nuevo Leo! n. A new variety of Coccodothis sphaeroidea from Mexico." Mycological Research

The diversity of the family Trichocomaceae, which includes the major anamorph genera Aspergillus and Penicillium, was studied in the Katandra Nature Reserve, Central Coast, NSW, Australia. Soil, living leaves, leaf litter and detritus were examined by both direct and dilution plating techniques. Fungi were isolated on dichloran Rose Bengal chloramphenicol agar, and dichloran 18% glycerol agar, media suitable for cultivation of many species within this family. Species of Trichocomaceae were isolated from all sites and all substrates examined. A high diversity was found, with more than 50 known species identified, and an equal number of undescribed species detected. More species of Penicillium were recovered than other genera, with Aspergillus species the next most common. Most of the species recovered were anamorphs, though 16 known and unknown ascosporic species were also isolated from heated and unheated soil. Soils, leaf litter, a scat from a native herbivore and leaves of living native plants yielded higher diversity than insects, worms or introduced plants. More species belonging to the family were isolated from soil in dry sclerophyll forest than in rainforest. Conversely, native rainforest plants harboured more diversity than the dry sclerophyll forest plants examined.

101(12): 1515-1516.

MARTIN, F. N. and P. W. TOOLEY (2003). "Phylogenetic relationships of Phytophthora ramorum, P. nemorosa, and P. pseudosyringae, three species recovered from areas in California with sudden oak death." Mycol. Res.

Coccodothis sphaeroidea var. mexicana var. nov., a fungus parasitic on Juniperus flaccida, is described and compared with typical C. sphaeroidea.

107: 1379-1391. Sudden oak death has been an emerging disease problem in

coastal California and has caused significant losses in forest ecosystems in some regions of the state. The causal agent of this disease has been described as Phytophthora ramorum with two other less aggressive species, P. nemorosa and P. pseudosyringae, recovered from some symptomatic plants. The phylogenetic relationship of these species with other members of the genus was examined by sequence alignment of 667 bp of the mitochondrially-encoded cytochrome oxidase II gene and the

nuclear encoded rDNA internal transcribed spacer region. P. ramorum was most closely related to P. hibernalis and P. lateralis in trees from both regions, although the specific relationship among species differed depending on the tree. In the cox II tree these species were on a single clade with P. lateralis basal to a group containing P. ramorum and P. hibernalis. On the maximum parsimony ITS tree P. ramorum was most closely affiliated with P. lateralis and in the same clade as P. hibernalis, but with maximum likelihood analysis P. ramorum was basal to a grouping of P. hibernalis and P. lateralis. While bootstrap support was strong for the grouping of these species together, it was not for determining the relationship among them. In contrast to the cox II tree, the clade containing these three species grouped with P. cryptogea, P. drechsleri, P. erythroseptica, and P. syringae in the ITS tree. Since the same isolates of these species were used for both the cox II and ITS sequence analysis, this difference in species grouping suggests either a differential rate of evolutionary divergence for these two regions, incorrect assumptions about alignment of ITS sequences, or different evolutionary histories of the regions under study. Analysis of combined cox II and ITS data sets gave trees where the relationships among these species were the same as for the ITS tree alone, although the results of the partition homogeneity test (P=0.072) suggest caution should be used in interpretation of this data. All analyses supported a close relationship between P. ilicis, P. nemorosa and P. pseudosyringae, although the analysis did not clarify the evolutionary relationships among these three species. Interestingly, these three species had a unique 6 bp deletion in the cox II gene just before the termination codon. While there was some similarity in phylogenetic grouping of these species and morphological characteristics, this was not consistent across all comparisons in the genus. Data would suggest that P. ramorum, P. nemorosa and P. pseudosyringae are phylogenetically distinct new species and not the result of interspecific hybridization.

Martin, F. N. and P. W. Tooley (2003). "Phylogenetic relationships among Phytophthora species inferred from sequence analysis of mitochondrially encoded cytochrome oxidase I and II genes." Mycologia, 95(2): 269-284. The phylogenetic relationships of 51 isolates representing 27

species of Phytophthora were assessed by sequence alignment of 568 bp of the mitochondrially encoded cytochrome oxidase II gene. A total of 1299 bp of the cytochrome oxidase I gene also were examined for a subset of 13 species. The cox II gene trees constructed by a heuristic search, based on maximum parsimony for a bootstrap 50% majority-rule consensus tree, revealed 18 species grouping into seven clades and nine species unaffiliated with a specific clade. The phylogenetic relationships among species observed on cox II gene trees did not exhibit consistent similarities in groupings for morphology, pathogenicity, host range or temperature optima. The topology of cox I gene trees, constructed by a heuristic search based on maximum parsimony for a bootstrap 50%

majority-rule consensus tree for 13 species of Phytophthora, revealed 10 species grouping into three clades and three species unaffiliated with a specific clade. The groupings in general agreed with what was observed in the cox II tree. Species relationships observed for the cox II gene tree were in agreement with those based on ITS regions, with several notable exceptions. Some of these differences were noted in species in which the same isolates were used for both ITS and cox II analysis, suggesting either a differential rate of evolutionary divergence for these two regions or incorrect assumptions about alignment of ITS sequences. Analysis of combined data sets of ITS and cox II sequences generated a tree that did not differ ubstantially from analysis of ITS data alone, however, the results of a partition homogeneity test suggest that combining data sets may not be valid.

MARTIN, M. P., N. HOGBERG, et al. (1999). "Macowanites messapicoides, a hypogeous relative of Russula messapica." Mycol. Res. 103: 203-208.

MARTIN, M. P., N. HOGBERG, et al. (1998). "Molecular analysis confirms morphological reclassification of Rhizopogon." Mycol. Res.

Two fruitbodies each of Russula messapica and Macowanites messapicoides, identified by morphological characters, were screened for polymorphism in the ITS and the IGS of their ribosomal DNA, as well as in mitochondrial rDNA by RFLP analysis of PCRproducts. The two species were monomorphic for all markers with the exception of the IGS. This limited genetic differentiation indicates a close relationship between these two species. The overall correspondence of the RFLPs between R. messapica and M. messapicoides adds molecular evidence to the relatedness of Russula and Macowanites, and suggests the possibility that M. messapicoides is recently derived from R. messapica.

102: 855-854.

Martin, M. P., C. Lado, et al. (2003). "Primers are designed for amplification and direct sequencing of ITS region of rDNA from Myxomycetes." Mycologia,

PCR was used to amplify ribosomal internal transcribed spacer and 5.8 S DNA from type material of Rhizopogon colossus var. colossus, R. hawkerae, R. parksii, R. reticulatus and R. villosulus plus a number of collections belonging to the same section (Sect. Villosuli). Different restriction enzymes were used to digest these amplified rDNAs to find polymorphisms useful in identification. On the basis of these studies and our previous morphological observations, the conclusion is that the names proposed by Smith & Zeller for collections studied, as well as R. reticulatus, represent only one species, R. villosulus.

95(3): 474-479. Four new primers were designed, based on comparison of

Physarum polycephalum sequences retrieved from Genbank (primers PHYS-5 and PHYS-

4) and our own sequences (primers PHYS-3 and PHYS-2), to amplify the ITS

regions of rDNA, including the 5.8S gene segment from Lamproderma species. Sequencing analysis shows that Lamproderma contains ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 regions of approximately 900 bp, which is similar in size to most eukaryotes. However,

the corresponding region in another common myxomycete, Fuligo septica, is more than 2000 bp due to the presence of large direct-repeat motifs in ITS1. Myxomycete rDNA ITS regions are interesting both as phylogenetic markers in taxonomic studies and as model sequences for molecular evolution.

MARTINEZ, C., D. RIOUX, et al. (2004). "Ultrastructure of the infection process of potato tuber by Helminthosporium solani, causal agent of potato silver scurf." Mycol. Res. 108: 828-836.

Martinez, C., C. Roux, et al. (2002). "The biological cycle of Sporisorium reilianum f.sp. zeae: an overview using microscopy." Mycologia,

Silver scurf is an important postharvest disease affecting potato tubers worldwide, caused by Helminthosporium solani. In the present study, key steps of infection of potato tubers (cv. ‘Dark Red Norland’) by H. solani were described using transmission (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The fungus entered potato tubers mainly via hyphae, although germ tubes were also able to directly penetrate the tubers. An extracellular sheath was observed around hyphae growing over the surface of tubers and the host cell wall appeared lyzed at the point of penetration. Observations suggested that both mechanical and enzymatic processes are involved in periderm penetration. Hyphae of H. solani, 9 h

after tuber inoculation, were present intracellularly mostly in the periderm and in some cortical cells. Two days after inoculation, host cells were invaded and both infected and neighbouring host cells showed signs of necrosis (disrupted cytoplasm, absence of typical organelles or endomembrane systems, collapsed peridermal cells) that were not observed in healthy control tubers. Four days after inoculation, completing the infection cycle, conidiophores emerged from peridermal cells directly by erupting through the host cell walls.

94(3): 505-514. Sporisorium reilianum f.sp. zeae is the causal agent of maize

head smut. Using microscopy, we describe the development of the fungus during its

saprophytic and parasitic phase. When compatible, the yeast forms fused to produce dicaryotic hyphae. These hyphae were infectious and penetrated the maize in the root. Surprisingly, the formation of conjugation tubes was rarely observed in vitro. In contrast, extensive development of long hyphae was observed from the haploid form of the yeast, these hyphae being able to fuse when arising from compatible strains. In planta, the fungus acted as a biotrophic endophyte until sporogenesis, which occurred in the floral meristem of the maize. The symptoms of the infection were reduced.

Penetration in the root was never accompanied by drastic damage of the host cell and we did not observe thickening or apposition of plant material to reinforce the wall structure. Moreover, the fungus was embedded in an amorphous matrix and thus appeared isolated from the host cell. In the floral meristem, radical changes were observed, the host cell was totally invaded by the fungus in the course of sporogenesis. The deposits observed on the fungal wall are likely related to the echinulation of the teliospores.

Martini, H., M. Weidenborner, et al. (1997). "Increased antifungal activity of 3- and 7-hydroxyflavone against Cladosporium herbarum and Penicillium glabrum through ester formation." Mycological Research 101(8): 920-922.

MARTINO, E., J. D. COISSON, et al. (2000). "Influence of heavy metals on production and activity of pectinolytic enzymes in ericoid mycorrhizal fungi." Mycol. Res.

3- and 7-hydroxyflavone and their acetic acid esters were tested against Cladosporium herbarum and Penicillium glabrum for antifungal activity. The effect of the hydroxylated flavones was relatively low whereas the ester derivatives were substantially more active

104: 825-833.

MARTINO, E., K. TURNAU, et al. (2000). "Ericoid mycorrhizal fungi from heavy metal polluted soils : their identification and growth in the presence of zinc ions." Mycol. Res.

Ericoid mycorrhizal fungi increase the ability of their host plants to colonise soils polluted with heavy metal ions, although the mechanisms are not clearly understood. Two mycorrhizal mycelia of Oidiodendron maius isolated from contaminated soil were previously shown to tolerate high concentrations of heavy metal ions in the growth medium. The influence of zinc ions on the secretion and activity of polygalacturonase (PG), an extracellular enzyme that hydrolyses the pectin component of the plant cell walls, was investigated because of their significance during saprotrophic growth. Two major PG isoforms expressed both in the absence and in the presence of increasing concentrations of zinc ions were identified. The PG isoforms were purified from the tolerant Oidiodendron strains as well as from ericoid fungal isolates from non-polluted soils. Addition of increasing concentrations of Zn and Cd ions to the purified enzymes resulted in an increase of PG activity of both tolerant and non tolerant O. maius isolates at doses below 1 mm. By contrast, at the same metal ion concentrations PG activity of a sterile isolate from non-polluted soil was unaffected or slightly inhibited. We speculate that the response of PG to heavy metal ions may have been a pre-adaptive factor for the colonisation of polluted soils by O. maius.

104: 338-344. Ericoid mycorrhizal fungi can alleviate heavy metal toxicity to

their host plant, but the mechanisms that lie behind this increased tolerance are unknown. As a first step in the characterisation of two

isolates of Oidiodendron maius from mycorrhizal roots of Vaccinium myrtillus growing in heavily contaminated soils, we investigated their taxonomic position, their mycorrhizal capabilities and their ability to grow in the presence of heavy metals. When growth was compared with isolates from non-polluted soils, a better performance was observed in the presence of increasing concentrations of zinc salts, especially at higher ion concentrations. The mechanisms of tolerance may include the production of mucilage and extracellular pigments.

MARVANOVA, L. and F. BARLOCHER (1998). "New species of Filosporella, Pachycladina and Pleuropedium from Canadian streams." Mycol. Res. 102: 750-754.

MASAPHY, S. (2005). "External ultrastructure of fruit body initiation in Morchella." Mycol. Res.

Filosporella pinguis sp. nov., Pachycladina parva sp. nov. and Pleuropedium macrum sp. nov. from stream foam collected in the catchment of the Miramichi River, New Brunswick, are described and illustrated. Filosporella pinguis has a microconidial state. Keys to species in the above genera are provided.

109: 508-512.

MASUKA, A. J. and L. RYVARDEN (1999). "Dichomitus in Africa." Mycol. Res.

The external morphological changes occurring during initiation and early stages of fruit body development of a Morchella sp., before the development of asci, were examined by scanning electron microscopy. Four stages of primordial development were distinguished. First, disk-shaped knots of 0.5–1.5 mm were observed on the surface of the substrate. Next, the knot inflated and a primordial stem emerged from its centre. Afterward, the stem lengthened, oriented upward, and two types of hyphal elements developed: long, straight and smooth basal hairy hyphae and short stem hyphae, some of which were inflated and projected out of a cohesive layer of tightly packed hyphal elements. Finally, when the stem was 2–3 mm long, pre-apothecia emerged in the apical end, with ridges and pits having distinguished types of paraphyses. Extracelluar mucilage covered the ridge layer and helped give the tissue its shape and rigidity.

103: 1126-1130.

Masuya, H., M. J. Wingfield, et al. (2004). "Leptographium pruni, sp. nov. from bark beetle-infested Prunus jamasakura in Japan." Mycologia,

Dichomitus is re-examined in Africa and six species are accepted. Dichomitus citricremeus and D. kirkii are described as new species. Megasporoporia is reduced to synonymy with Dichomitus, and the new combinations D. carvernulosus, D. delicatulus and D. setulosus, are proposed. An emended description of Dichomitus is provided, to accommodate species with hyphae with a dextrinoid reaction. A key to all accepted species in Dichomitus is given.

96(3): 548-557.

Leptographium species are anamorphs of Ophiostoma, commonly isolated from conifer. There are, however, a small number of these fungi that have

been collected from angiosperm hosts. In this study, we describe Leptographium pruni, sp. nov. isolated from the bark of Prunus jamasakura infested by the bark beetle Polygraphus ssiori. This new species is unusual in having a distinct Sporothrix synanamorph with ramoconidia. No evidence of a teleomorph was found, but a high level of tolerance to the antibiotic cycloheximide and the presence of a Sporothrix synanamorph suggest that L. pruni is an Ophiostoma anamorph. Analysis of sequence data for the domain 1 region of the LSUrDNA operon also supports the phylogenetic relationship of L. pruni with Ophiostoma. In addition, sequence data suggest that L. pruni is related to other species of Leptographium rather than Pesotum species with distinct Sporothrix synanamorphs.

MATHENY, P. B., M. C. AIME, et al. (2003). "New species of Inocybe from Dicymbe forests of Guyana." Mycol. Res. 107: 495-505.

Matsuda, Y. and A. Yamada (2003). "Mycorrhizal morphology of Monotropastrum humile collected from six different forests in central Japan." Mycologia,

Four new species of Inocybe (Agaricales) with pleurocystidia and nodulose spores are recorded from a remote region of rain forest in Guyana, in northeastern South America. All four species of Inocybe occur in association with the arborescent legume genus, Dicymbe (Caesalpiniaceae, tribe Amherstieae). This constitutes the first report of a legume host genus with Inocybe in the neotropics. The new species are I. ayangannae, I. epidendron, I. lilacinosquamosa and I. pulchella. A dichotomous key, morphological descriptions, illustrations, taxonomic commentary, and a discussion of Inocybe in the tropics, are provided.

95(6): 993-997.

MATSUMOTO, C., K. KAGEYAMA, et al. (2000). "Intraspecific DNA polymorphisms of Pythium irregulare." Mycol. Res.

A survey of the nonphotosynthetic plant Monotropastrum humile was conducted to determine its mycorrhizal status and characterize the fungal structures observed. Thirteen populations and 40 individuals were collected from six forest types, including coniferous and broadleaf trees, in central Japan. The nearly spherical root system of M. humile intertwines with the root systems of neighboring trees, and individual roots were branched up to third-order structure, forming monopodial-pinnate or monopodial- pyramidal morphologies. In addition to the formation of a fungal mantle and Hartig net in association with the epidermis, fungal penetration pegs consistently were observed around and within the epidermal cells. These structures indicate that the mycorrhizal status of M. humile is of the monotropoid type.

104: 1333-1341.

Forty-seven isolates of Pythium irregulare from different hosts and geographic origins were compared from molecular, morphological and physiological viewpoints. They were divided into four groups (I±IV) based on ITS-RFLP analysis and RAPD analysis. Groups I and II included 32 and eight isolates, respectively, collected from diverse hosts and geographic origins, and groups III and IV comprised seven isolates derived from sugar beet and sugar beet field soil. Group I had smaller oogonia and oospores than did the other three groups. In groups I and II, a significantly higher percentage of the oogonia produced multiple projections compared to groups III and IV which occasionally produced one projection. The growth rate of the four groups was similar at 5--30 °C. At 33°, many isolates of group I grew rapidly but most of the isolates of other groups grew slowly, and at 35°, the former grew but the latter did not. In phylogenetic analysis based on sequences of the ITS region, four groups of P. irregulare were included in one cluster with P. sylvaticum. Groups I±II and III--IV clustered more tightly in the same branch, respectively. The genetic divergence between I±II and III±IV was higher than between each group (I±II and III--IV) and P. sylvaticum, indicating that groups I--II and III--IV may represent two different species.

Matsushima, T. (1971). Microfungi of The Solomon Islands and Papua-New Guinea, The Author Kobe. Matsushima, T. (1975). Icones Microfungorum A Matsushima Lectorum. Japan, The Nippon & Publishing Co., Ltd. Matsushima, T. (1980). Matsushima Mycological Memoirs No.1 (Saprophytic Microfungi From Taiwan Part 1 Hyphomycetes). Saprophytic Microfungi From Taiwan Part 1 Hyphomycetes: 82. Matsushima, T. (1980). Saprophytic Microfungi From Taiwan Part 1 Hyphomycetes. Matsushima Mycological Memoirs No.2: 68. Matsushima, T. (1980). Saprophytic Microfungi From Taiwan Part 1 Hyphomycetes. Matsushima Mycological Memoirs No.3: 90. Matsushima, T. (1980). Saprophytic Microfungi From Taiwan Part 1 Hyphomycetes. Matsushima Mycological Memoirs No.4: 68. Matsushima, T. (1980). Saprophytic Microfungi From Taiwan Part 1 Hyphomycetes. Matsushima Mycological Memoirs No.5: 100. Matsushima, T. (1980). Saprophytic Microfungi From Taiwan Part 1 Hyphomycetes. Matsushima Mycological Memoirs No.6: 100. MAUCHLINE, T. H., B. R. KERRY, et al. (2004). "The biocontrol fungus Pochonia

chlamydosporia shows nematode host preference at the infraspecific level." Mycol. Res. 108: 161-169. A RAPD-PCR assay was developed and used to test for

competitive variability in growth of the nematode biological control fungus Pochonia chlamydosporia. Saprophytic competence in soil with or without tomato plants was examined in three isolates of the fungus: RES 280 (J), originally isolated from potato cyst nematode (PCN) cysts ; RES 200 (I) and RES 279 (S), both originally isolated from root knot nematode (RKN) eggs. Viable counts taken at 70 d indicated that I was the best saprophyte followed by S, with J the poorest. RAPD-PCR analysis of colonies from mixed treatments revealed that there was a cumulative effect of adding isolates to the system. This suggested that the isolates did not interact and that they may occupy separate niches in soil and the rhizosphere. To investigate parasitic ability, soils were seeded with two isolates of the fungus: J and S, singly or in combination. Tomato or potato plants were grown in these soils ; free of nematodes, or inoculated with PCN or RKN, and incubated for 77 d. The abundance of the PCN isolate J in PCN cysts was significantly greater than that of the RKN isolate S but in RKN egg masses, S was significantly more abundant than J. RAPD-PCR analysis of colonies from mixed treatments confirmed that J was more abundant than S in PCN cysts whereas the converse was observed on RKN egg masses. This substantiates the phenomenon of nematode host preference at the infraspecific level of P. chlamydosporia and highlights its relevance for biological control of plant parasitic nematodes.

MAURER1, P., Y. COUTEAUDIER, et al. (1997). "Genetic diversity of Beauveria bassiana and relatedness to host insect range." Mycol. Res. 101: 159-164. Thirty-eight strains of the entomopathogenic Beauveria

bassiana, isolated from diverse species of Lepidoptera (Pyralidae) or Coleoptera (Curculionidae, Chrysomelidae, and Scolytidae) from various geographical sites, were examined by RFLP and RAPD analyses. Similar groupings were recovered from both approaches and these showed clear relationships between the population structure of B. bassiana and some defined host species. Strains isolated from members of the Pyralidae were recovered as two main groups, one group consisted of all strains isolated from Ostrinia irrespective of their origin. The second group consisted primarily of strains isolated from Diatraea in Cuba. All strains isolated from the curculionid genus Sitona clustered as a single distinct group, separated from strains from other curculionids. In contrast, strains isolated from the pyralid genus Maliarpha, and the coleopteran Chrysomelidae, gave heterogenous patterns and were not recovered as distinct groups. Groups from cluster analysis and nonhierarchic

Maurer, P., Y. Couteaudier, et al. (1997). "Genetic diversity of Beauveria

ordination methods were compared and the relative merits of the different grouping strategies are discussed.

bassiana and relatedness to host insect range." Mycological Research 101(2): 159-164.

MAVRIDOU, A. and M. A. TYPAS (1998). "Intraspecific polymorphism in Metarhizium anisopliae var. anisopliae revealed by analysis of rRNA gene complex and mtDNA RFLPs." Mycol. Res.

Thirty-eight strains of the entomopathogenic Beauveria bassiana, isolated from diverse species of Lepidoptera (Pyralidae) or Coleoptera (Curculionidae, Chrysomelidae, and Scolytidae) from various geographical sites, were examined by RFLP and RAPD analyses. Similar groupings were recovered from both approaches and these showed clear relationships between the population structure of B. bassiana and some defined host species. Strains isolated from members of the Pyralidae were recovered as two main groups, one group consisted of all strains isolated from Ostrinia irrespective of their origin. The second group consisted primarily of strains isolated from Diatraea in Cuba. All strains isolated from the curculionid genus Sitona clustered as a single distinct group, separated from strains from other curculionids. In contrast, strains isolated from the pyralid genus Maliarpha, and the coleopteran Chrysomelidae, gave heterogenous patterns and were not recovered as distinct groups. Groups from cluster analysis and nonhierarchic ordination methods were compared and the relative merits of the different grouping strategies are discussed.

102: 1233-1241.

MAXWELL, A., B. DELL, et al. (2003). "Mycosphaerella species associated with Eucalyptus in south-western Australia: new species, new records and a key." Mycol. Res.

Intraspecific variation of 25 Metarhizium anisopliae var. anisopliae isolates from various insect hosts and geographical origins was studied using RFLP analysis of the rDNA gene complex and the mtDNA. Heterologous and homologous mitochondrial and ribosomal probes were used to produce RFLP profiles of the isolates. The rDNA analysis allowed the differentiation of only seven isolates but provided evidence for the possible presence of introns in different sites of the nuclear rRNA-gene-complex. PCR amplification of the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 rDNA region and the mtDNA regions corresponding to the SrRNA and the LrRNA, followed by restriction analysis of the PCR products underlined the conserved nature of these regions. By contrast, digestion with any one of endonucleases Hae III, Cfo I, Hpa II and subsequent RFLP analysis of the mtDNA, allowed the classification of the 25 isolates in 10 distinct groups. Double digestions using the restriction endonucleases Kpn I and Sac I led to maximum isolate differentiation, producing unique patterns for 16 isolates and subdividing the remainder into four groups of two or three isolates. This indicates the potential of mtDNA RFLP analysis as an excellent tool for fingerprinting M. anisopliae isolates and for studying genetic polymorphism.

107: 351-359.

Mycosphaerella ambiphylla sp. nov. (anamorph: Phaeophleospora) and Mycosphaerella aurantia sp. nov., are described from diseased Eucalyptus globulus leaves. In addition, a new fungal record in Australia, M. mexicana, and two new records for Western Australia, M. gregaria and M. parva, are discussed. A key is provided to Mycosphaerella species on E. globulus in Western Australia.

MAXWELL, A., S. L. JACKSON, et al. (2005). "PCR-identification of Mycosphaerella species associated with leaf diseases of Eucalyptus." Mycol. Res. 109(9): 992-1004.

Maxwell, J. F. (2006). Vascular Flora of Ko Hong Hill, Songkla Province, Thailand. Thai Studies in Biodiversity

A PCR-based technique based on the ITS1-5.8s-ITS2 domain of the rRNA gene for identifying five species associated with Mycosphaerella leaf disease (MLD) of eucalypts was developed. Primer pairs MC2F and MC2R; ML1F and ML1R; MM1F and MM1R; MN1F and MN1R; and MP1F and MP1R amplified a product for DNA extracted from their single target species, those being M. cryptica, M. lateralis, M. marksii, M. nubilosa and M. parva, respectively. The possibility of false positive amplification by each primer pair was tested in reactions with DNA extracts from 16 other Mycosphaerella species associated with eucalypts and against non-infected Eucalyptus globulus leaves. Under the PCR conditions used, there were no false positive amplifications of the 16 non-target Mycosphaerella species, or from non-symptomatic E. globulus leaves for the primer pairs ML1F and ML1R; MM1F and MM1R; MN1F and MN1R; and MP1F and MP1R. The primer pair MC2F and MC2R amplified a 402 nt product from both the target M. cryptica and non-target M. nubilosa. However, these two speci es were differentiated by digesting the product with the restriction enzyme Sacc II which resulted in a single 402 nt product for M. cryptica, and two products of 78 and 324 nt for M. nubilosa. All of the primers were able to detect their target Mycosphaerella species from Eucalyptus globulus lesions. PCR reactions with these primers on DNA extracted from Mycosphaerella lesions confirmed the presence of all five species from leaf material collected from three plantations in Western Australia.

, Biodiversity Research and Training Program: 472. Maxwell, J. F. and E. Stephen (2001). Vegetation and Vascular Flora of Doi Sutep-Pui National Park, Northern Thailand, The Biodiversity Research and Trainning Program. MAY, K. J. and J. B. RISTAINO (2004). "Identity of the mtDNA haplotype(s) of Phytophthora infestans in historical specimens from the Irish Potato Famine." Mycol. Res. 108: 471-479. The mtDNA haplotypes of the plant pathogen Phytophthora

infestans present in dried potato and tomato leaves from herbarium specimens collected during the Irish potato famine and later in the 19th and early 20th century were identified. A 100 bp fragment of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) specific for P. infestans was amplified from 90% of the specimens (n=186), confirming infection by P. infestans. Primers were designed that distinguish the extant mtDNA haplotypes. 86% percent of the herbarium specimens from historic epidemics were infected with the Ia mtDNA haplotype. Two mid-20th century potato leaves from Ecuador (1967) and Bolivia (1944) were infected with the Ib mtDNA haplotype of the pathogen. Both the Ia and IIb haplotypes were found in specimens collected in Nicaragua in the 1950s. The data

suggest that the Ia haplotype of P. infestans was responsible for the historic epidemics during the 19th century in the UK, Europe, and the USA. The Ib mtDNA haplotype of the pathogen was dispersed later in the early 20th century from Bolivia and Ecuador. Multiple haplotypes were present outside Mexico in the 1940s–60s, indicating that pathogen diversity was greater than previously believed.

MAZZAGLIA, A., N. ANSELMI, et al. (2001). "Development of a Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) assay for the specific detection of Biscogniauxia mediterranea living as an endophyte in oak tissues." Mycol. Res. 105: 955-956.

MAZZAGLIA, A., N. ANSELMI, et al. (2001). "Sequence analysis of the 5.8S rDNA and ITS regions in evaluating genetic relationships among some species of Hypoxylon and related genera." Mycol. Res.

The present work reports the development of a PCR assay to detect the ascomycete Biscogniauxia mediterranea in asymptomatic tissues of Quercus cerris. To this purpose, two specific primers (MED1 and MED2) were designed by comparison of sequences comprised between ITS1 and ITS4 generic primers of 21 isolates of B. mediterranea and related species. Specificity of the primers was tested against 19 isolates of B. mediterranea and 20 isolates of related and unrelated genera, and against Quercus cerris DNA. The reliability of the results was confirmed by Southern Blot analysis. The 2 specific primers MED1 and MED2 were able to detect B. mediterranea DNA in the host tissues at picogram quantity of target DNA. This assay would greatly enhance the possibility to study

the presence and localization of B. mediterranea during its latent phase in Quercus species.

105: 670-675. Species belonging to Hypoxylon and related genera are bark

pathogens and wood decay agents of angiosperms, sometimes able to live asymptomatically in host tissues. In the present work the ITS regions of the ribosomal DNA from 21 isolates belonging to five species were sequenced and then compared with each other. A phylogenetic parsimony analysis among isolates was carried out. ITS2 appears to be the most informative among the sequenced portions of rDNA. Results are strictly

consistent with the latest taxonomic arrangements obtained with classical morphological approaches. The ITS sequence analysis is an efficient and accurate method for discriminating among taxa of Hypoxylon and related genera.

McAlpin, C. E. (2004). "Synnema and sclerotium production in Aspergillus caelatus and the influence of substrate composition on their development in selected strains." Mycologia, 96(5): 937-947. The ability of Aspergillus caelatus, a species in Aspergillus

section Flavi, to produce synnemata and sclerotia was investigated. Forty-eight isolates of A. caelatus differed widely in their production of synnemata and sclerotia; 83% of the isolates produced varying numbers of synnemata and sclerotia, and 17% produced neither sclerotia nor synnemata. Most strains produced synnemata and mostly sessile and few stipitate sclerotia on the same Czapek agar (CZA) plate. Two strains of A. caelatus were selected for further study because of the contrasting morphology of their synnemata and sclerotia. Those strains are NRRL 25528, the type species and a representative of the synnema- and black sclerotium-forming isolates, and NRRL 26119, considered an atypical strain that produced numerous synnemata and few slightly melanized or tan sclerotia. The induction and maturation of sclerotia in A. caelatus were affected greatly by the type of media as well as the kind and concentration of the carbon and nitrogen sources. CZA induced synnema and sclerotium production in both strains, whereas other media did not. Production of abundant synnemata and sclerotia also occurred when the carbon source in CZA is replaced with dextrose, xylose, cellobiose, melibiose and trehalose. CZA amended with serine, threonine, KNO3 and NaNO3 induced the production of numerous sclerotia and synnemata. For both strains, the optimal levels of sucrose and NaNO3 for maximum production of synnemata or sclerotia were 3 and 0.9%, respectively. The production of synnemata and stipitate/ sessile sclerotia by several wild-type strains of A. caelatus further substantiates previous suggestions for an evolutionary link between Aspergillus section Flavi and synnematal species A. togoensis, which also produces stipitate sclerotia.

McAlpin, C. E., B. W. Horn, et al. (2005). "DNA fingerprinting analysis of vegetative compatibility groups in Aspergillus caelatus." Mycologia, 97(1): 70-76. Forty-three isolates of Aspergillus caelatus, whose vegetative

compatibility groups (VCGs) have been identified, were assessed by DNA fingerprinting using a repetitive sequence DNA probe (pAF28) cloned from A. flavus. Thirteen distinct DNA fingerprint groups or genotypes were identified among the

43 isolates. Twenty-four isolates belonging to VCG 1 produced identical DNA fingerprints and included isolates from the United States and Japan. Four other DNA fingerprint groups had multiple isolates sharing identical fingerprints corresponding to VCGs 2, 3, 12 and 13. Eight of the 13

fingerprint groups corresponding to VCGs 4–11 were represented by a single isolate with a unique fingerprint

pattern. These results provide further confirmation that the pAF28 probe can distinguish VCGs of species within Aspergillus section Flavi based on DNA fingerprint patterns and that the probe can be used to estimate the number of VCGs in a sample population. Most of the A. caelatus isolates produced fewer restriction fragments and weakly hybridized with the repetitive DNA probe pAF28 compared to hybridization patterns obtained with A. flavus, suggesting less homology of the probe to A. caelatus genomic DNA.

McCABE, P. M., M. P. GALLACHER, et al. (1999). "Evidence for segregation of somatic incompatibility during hyphal tip subculture of Rhizoctonia solani AG 4." Mycol. Res. 103: 1323-1331.

MCCABE, P. M., M. P. GALLAGHER, et al. (1999). "Microscopic observation of perfect hyphal fusion in Rhizoctonia solani." Mycol. Res.

Field isolates of Rhizoctonia solani are presumed to consist of heterokaryotic cells, but the number of different nuclear types present in each cell is unknown, nor is it known if there is any regulation of the heterokaryotic state. To investigate the nature of heterokaryosis in AG 4, hyphal tip subcultures of two strains were examined using vegetative compatibility as a marker. Upon subculture, each isolate could be placed into one of two VCGs, members of which were compatible within the group but incompatible with those of the other group and the parent strain. No other phenotype could distinguish these groups from each other or the parents. Pairing of hyphal tip isolates never resulted in regeneration of the parental strain. Examination of nuclei in the tip cells of incompatible strains by DAPI staining and fluorescence microscopy showed variation in nuclear numbers in different parts of the fungal colony and a significant tendency for some adjacent branch tips to have a similar number of nuclei. These results suggest a mosaic of nuclear, and perhaps mitochondrial, types within the colony, and that subcultures of components of the mosaic

retain their differences. This variation implies that regulation of nuclear number within a colony is loosely controlled.

103: 487-490.

McCreadie, J. W. and C. E. Beard (2003). "The microdistribution of the trichomycete Smittium culisetae in the hindgut of the black fly host Simulium

Anastomoses between hyphae, leading to both successful cell fusions and death of fused cells (vegetative incompatibility) were observed by video microscopy. Anastomosis was seen only to occur between tip cells from side branches, never main runner hyphae, and tip to side fusion was never observed. Perfect hyphal fusion was only observed following pre-contact tropism between the hyphae involved. The time taken for the process of cell wall dissolution and reformation following contact was 15 min.

vittatum." Mycologia, 95(6): 998-1003.

McHUGH, R., C. REID, et al. (2000). "Genesis of taenia on the capillitium of Tric." Mycol. Res.

We examined the distribution of hyphae of the trichomycete fungus Smittium culisetae (Harpellales: Legeriomycetaceae) in the hindgut of a larval black fly (Simulium vittatum, cytospecies IS-7) by analyzing its prevalence and relative abundance. Hyphal prevalence was highest in the posterior colon (93.1%) and rectum (86.3%), with low prevalence (12.0%) in the anterior colon. Relative abundance of hyphae was highest in the posterior colon, followed by the rectum; relative abundance of hyphae in the anterior colon was lower. Hyphae of S. culisetae were not observed in the pylorus. We used a novel method of quantifying the relative abundance of S. culisetae in the host hindgut. The hindgut was observed with an ocular grid, and abundance was expressed as the ratio of grids occupied by hyphae to the number of grids occupied by hindgut.

104: 210-212.

MCKAY, G. J., D. EGAN, et al. (1998). "Identification of benzimidazole resistance in Cladobotryum dendroides using a PCR-based method." Mycol. Res.

A mechanism is proposed for the creation of taenia on the capillitium of Trichiales. Polymerization of elater wall material forms spiralling fibrils, releasing water which passes by osmosis into the lumen. This extends the bulbous extremities of Trichia decipienselaters producing the characteristically tapered tips. The edge of the elater shrinks as water is lost, and is moulded by the fibrils into a system of taenia.

102: 671-676.

cysteine. Species-specific PCR primers were designed to amplify the region of the b-tubulin gene containing this substitution. The point mutation removed an Acc I restriction site in the b-tubulin gene sequence of resistant isolates. Digestion of the PCR product with Acc I thus provides a rapid diagnostic test to differentiate sensitive and resistant isolates of this fungus. EMBL accession number: Y12256.

McKenzie, E. H. C., A. Pinnoi, et al. (2002). "Two new hyaline Chalara species, and a key to species described since 1975." Fungal Diversity

Cladobotryum dendroides, causal agent of cobweb disease of Agaricus bisporus, has become increasingly resistant to methylbenzimidazole carbamate (MBC) fungicides following the extensive use of MBC in cultivated mushroom production in Ireland. Of 38 isolates of C. dendroides obtained from Irish mushroom units, 34 were resistant to carbendazim. Primers based on conserved regions of the b-tubulin gene were used to amplify and sequence a portion of the b-tubulin gene in C. dendroides. A point mutation was detected at codon 50 in isolates resistant to benzimidazole fungicides, causing an amino acid substitution from tyrosine to

11: 129-139. Chalara siamense sp.nov. is described from dead petioles of Eleiodoxa

conferta (Arecacaea) collected in Thailand, while a second hyaline species, C. schoenoplecti sp. nov., is described from senescent culms of Schoenoplectus litoralis (Cyperaceca) collected in Hong Kong. They are compared with similar species. Three species informally described by T. Matsushima are given Latin binomials and type specimens indicated, and a key to species described since 1975 is provided.

MCKEOWN, T. A., S. A. ALIAS, et al. (2001). "Ultrastructural studies of Trematosphaeria malaysiana sp. nov. and Leptosphaeria pelagica." Mycol. Res. 105: 615-624.

McPARTLAND, J. M. and A. Cubeta (1997). "New species, combinations, host associations and location records of fungi associated with hemp (Cannabis sativa)." Mycological Research

Trematosphaeria malaysiana sp. nov. is described based on light microscope and ultrastructural studies. It was found on driftwood, exposed test blocks of Avicennia marina and Rhizophora apiculata, and split twigs of R. apiculata exposed in Kuala Selangor and Morib mangroves, Malaysia. T. malaysiana is characterized by striate, pale brown ascospores and trabeculate pseudoparaphyses. Ascospore cell walls are two layered, an outer thick layer comprising fibrillar mucilaginous material, and an inner bilamellate layer (the inner layer electron-transparent ; the outer electron-dense and containing melanin). Both T. malaysiana and Leptosphaeria pelagica were examined at the transmission electron microscope level and their structure compared with that of other bitunicate ascomycetes.

T. malaysiana and L. pelagica were similar in that the mucilaginous sheath was the outer most layer, in the former the spore wall was two layered, while in L. pelagica it was three layered. In L. pelagica the spore wall was smooth, while in T. malaysiana it was longitudinally striate.

101(7): 853-857.

McPARTLAND, J. M. and M. A. CUBETA (1997). "New species, combinations, host associations and location records of fungi associated with hemp (Cannabis sativa)." Mycol. Res.

Micropeltopsis cannabis sp. nov. and Orbilia luteola (Roum.) comb. nov. are proposed. New Cannabis host associations include binucleate Rhizoctonia spp., Curvularia cymbopogonis, Sphaerotheca macularis, Glomus mosseae, and Pestalotiopsis sp. The geographic ranges of Pseudoperonspora cannabina, Septoria neocannabina and Fusarium graminearum are expanded.

101: 853-857. Micropeltopsis cannabis sp. nov. and Orbilia luteola (Roum.)

comb. nov. are proposed. New Cannabis host associations include binucleate Rhizoctonia spp., Curvularia cymbopogonis, Sphaerotheca macularis, Glomus mosseae, and Pestalotiopsis sp. The geographic ranges of Pseudoperonspora cannabina, Septoria neocannabina and Fusarium graminearum are expanded.

Mcquilken, M. P., S. P. Budge, et al. (1997). "Effects of culture media and environmental factors on conidial germination, pycnidial production and hyphal extension of Coniothyrium minitans." Mycological Research 101(1): 11-17. The effects of growth media, temperature, pH and light on the

development of four isolates of Coniothyrium minitans (CONIO and CH8 (colony type 3), G4 (colony type 4) and G9 (colony type 5)) were examined. Conidial germination, pycnidial production and hyphal extension rate were initially studied on seven different agar-based growth media at 18-20 °C. Potato-dextrose agar (PDA) and malt extract agar (MEA) consistently gave the greatest conidial germination, pycnidial production and hyphal extension rate for all four isolates. Growth and development on molasses-yeast agar was equivalent to that on PDA and MEA except that hyphal extension rate was slower. Subsequently, the effects of temperature, pH and light on the development of C. minitans were investigated on PDA only. The temperature range of conidial germination and pycnidial production of the four isolates was between 10-25° with the optimum at approximately 20°. Hyphal extension occurred over a greater temperature range, between 4 and 25°, with a maximum extension rate of approximately 3.5 mm d-1 for all isolates occurring between 20-25°. Conidial germination, pycnidial production and hyphal extension occurred over a pH range between 3-8 with optimum values for all growth assessments occurring between pH 4.5 and 5.6. Increasing light period from continuous dark, to 12 h light}12 h dark or continuous light had no effect on conidial germination or extension growth, but significantly increased pycnidial production. Isolates G4 and G9, previously characterized by sparse production of pycnidia in comparison with CONIO and CH8, consistently exhibited a reduced production of pycnidia on all media, at all temperatures and pH ranges, and all light regimes tested. This demonstrates the stability of this character among these isolates of C. minitans. The significance of these results for improving production of inoculum of this biocontrol agent and in the identification and classification of isolates of C. minitans is discussed.

MECTEAU, M. R., J. ARUL, et al. (2002). "Effect of organic and inorganic salts on the growth and development of Fusarium sambucinum, a causal agent of potato dry rot." Mycol. Res. 106: 688-696. Potato dry rot, caused by Fusarium sambucinum, is a major

postharvest disease of economic significance worldwide. Postharvest application of thiabendazole to control dry rot is becoming less effective since many strains of F. sambucinum have become resistant to this fungicide. Thus, alternative control strategies are needed. In vitro studies showed that several salts (0.2 m) inhibited completely mycelial growth and spore germination of F. sambucinum. Among

these salts, sodium benzoate, sodium metabisulfite, potassium sorbate, trisodium phosphate and aluminium salts were fungitoxic. In vivo studies showed

that aluminium chloride in curative application and sodium metabisulfite, sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate in preventive application significantly reduced the development of dry rot in potato tuber. Results from this study demonstrate that selected salts can be used to control potato dry rot.

MEEKES, E. T. M., S. v. VOORST, et al. (2000). "Persistence of the fungal whitefly pathogen, Aschersonia aleyrodis, on three different plant species." Mycol. Res. 104: 1234-1240.

phyllosphere microorganisms, secondary plant metabolites and microclimate are discussed.

MEENU and KAMAL (1998). "New species of Corynespora." Mycol. Res.

Persistence of Aschersonia aleyrodis, a fungal pathogen of whitefly, was studied on cucumber, gerbera and poinsettia. Germination capacity and infectivity of conidia, which stayed on the plants for up to 1 month, were assessed. Average germination of conidia on the leaves was low (<14%), whereas most of the conidia transferred from the leaf to water agar were viable, even after having been on the leaf surface for 1 month. Germination capacity was highest on cucumber, followed by poinsettia and lowest on gerbera. On cucumber leaves, conidia stayed viable and were able to infect 90% of white¯y nymphs 31 d after spore application. On gerbera,

germination capacity decreased considerably from 80% (day 0) to 40% (day 31). This was refiected in nymphal mortality, which declined from 75% to 40%. Despite the high germination capacity (60%) of conidia on poinsettia after an exposure of one month, nymphal mortality decreased from 70% at the day of spore application to 10% after 3 d at leaf surface, and remained low throughout the monitoring period. Relations between germination capacity, infectivity and the host plant environment such as

102: 344-346. Three new species of Corynespora : C. morindae-tinctoriae, C.

nana and C. rosacearum on Morinda tinctoria, Lantana indica and Eriobotrya

MEHARG, A. A. (2003). "The mechanistic basis of interactions between mycorrhizal associations and toxic metal cations." Mycol. Res.

japonica respectively, are described and illustrated from Gorakhpur (U.P.) India.

107: 1253-1265. Mycorrhizal associations, including ericoid, arbuscular and

ecto-mycorrhizas, are found colonising highly metal contaminated soils. How do mycorrhizal fungi achieve metal resistance, and does this metal resistance confer enhanced metal resistance to plant symbionts? These are the questions explored in this review by considering the mechanistic basis of mycorrhizal adaptation to metal cations. Recent molecular and physiological studies are discussed. The review reappraises what constitutes metal resistance in the context of mycorrhizal associations and

sets out the constitutive and adaptive mechanisms available for mycorrhizas to adapt to contaminated sites.

The only direct evidence of mycorrhizal adaptation to metal cation pollutants is the exudation of organic acids to alter pollutant availability in the rhizosphere. This is not to say that other mechanism of adaptation do not exist, but conclusive evidence of adaptive mechanisms of tolerance are lacking. For constitutive mechanisms of resistance, there is much more evidence, and mycorrhizas possess the same constitutive mechanisms for dealing with metal contaminants as

other organisms. Rhizosphere chemistry is critical to understanding the interactions of

mycorrhizas with polluted soils. Soil pH, mineral weathering, pollutant precipitation with plant excreted organic acids all may have a key role in constitutive and adaptive tolerance of mycorrhizal associations present on contaminated sites.

The responses of mycorrhizal fungi to toxic metal cations are diverse. This, linked to the fact that mycorrhizal diversity is normally high, even on highly contaminated sites, suggests that this diversity may have a significant role in colonisation of contaminated sites by mycorrhizas. That is, the environment selects for the fungal community that can best cope with the environment, so having diverse physiological attributes will enable colonisation of a wide range of metal contaminated micro-habitats.

Mekhtieva, N. A. (1997). "A new nematophagous fungus, Candelabrella shahriari sp. nov., from south Azerbaijan." Mycological Research 101(3): 334.

MEKHTIEVA, N. A. (1998). "New nematophagous fungi from Azerbaijan." Mycol.

A new nematophagous-predacious hyphomycete, Candelabrella shahriari sp. nov., which captures nematodes by means of adhesive networks, is described and illustrated.

Res. 102: 683-684.

Mekwatanakarn, P., W. Kositratana, et al. (2000). "Pathotype and Avirulence Gene Diversity of Pyricularia grisea in Thailand as Determined by Rice Lines Near-Isogenic for Major Resistance Genes." Plant Dis.

Arthrobotrys chazarica sp. nov. and Nematophagus tabrizicus sp. nov., which capture nematodes by means of adhesive networks, are described and illustrated.

84: 60-70.

Melo, I. S., J. L. Faull, et al. (1997). "Relationship between in vitro cellulase production of uv-induced mutants of Trichoderma harzianum and their bean rhizosphere competence." Mycological Research

Five hundred twenty-seven isolates of Pyricularia grisea were collected from trap rice cultivars of indigenous and exotic......

101(11): 1389-1392. Strains of Trichoderma harzianum with either elevated or reduced

production of cellulase-complex enzymes b-glucosidase and

endoglucanase were constructed using uv-light mutagenesis. In tests for rhizosphere competence two of the cellulase minus strains were found to have significantly enhanced rhizosphere competence, whilst two cellulase overproducers were found not to colonize either the rhizosphere or rhizoplane of bean plants. These results indicate that rhizosphere competence of Trichoderma strains is not always associated with extracellular enzyme production.

MELO, I. S., J. L. FAULL, et al. (1997). "Relationship between in vitro cellulase production of uv-induced mutants of Trichoderma harzianum and their bean rhizosphere competence." Mycol. Res. 101: 1389-1392.

MENA-PORTALES, J., A. HERNANDEZ-GUTIERREZ, et al. (1999). "Acarocybiopsis, a new genus of synnematous hyphomycetes from Cuba." Mycol. Res.

Strains of Trichoderma harzianum with either elevated or reduced production of cellulase-complex enzymes β-glucosidase and endoglucanase were constructed using uv-light mutagenesis. In tests for rhizosphere competence two of the cellulase minus strains were found to have significantly enhanced rhizosphere competence, whilst two cellulase overproducers were found not to colonize either the rhizosphere or rhizoplane of bean plants. These results indicate that rhizosphere competence of Trichoderma strains is not always associated with extracellular enzyme production.

103: 1032-1034.

MENDES-PEREIRA, E., M.-H. n. BALESDENT, et al. (2003). "Molecular phylogeny of the Leptosphaeria maculans–L. biglobosa species complex." Mycol.

A new anamorph genus, Acarocybiopsis, with A. cubitaensis as type species, is described. It is characterized by an unusual combination of indeterminate synnemata having two kinds of hyphae and terminal head composed of a single conidium.

Res. 107: 1287-1304. Leptosphaeria maculans (anamorph Phoma lingam), the

ascomycete causing stem canker of crucifers, is a species complex that can be separated into at least seven distinct subgroups using a combination of biochemical and molecular criteria. In the present study sequences of the entire ITS region, including the 5.8S rDNA, of 38 isolates representing the seven subgroups, along with specimens from culture collections, were analysed, compared to those of closely related Leptosphaeria species, and the phylogeny inferred using parsimony and distance analyses. A well-supported clade encompassed all isolates of the seven subgroups along with L. conferta, a known saprobe of dried crucifer stems. The L. maculans isolates were further separated into two well-supported clades corresponding to L. maculans s. str. and the recently named L. biglobosa. Parsimony and distance analyses further separated groups within both species, usually

corresponding to specific host plants or geographic origin, e.g. L. maculans ‘brassicae’ from cultivated Brassica, L. maculans ‘ lepidii ’, from Lepidium sp., L. biglobosa ‘brassicae’, from various Brassica species, L. biglobosa ‘ thlaspii ’ from Thlaspi arvense, L. biglobosa ‘erysimii’ from Erysimum sp., and L. biglobosa ‘canadensis’ mostly found in central Canada. The oldest L. maculans specimens maintained in international collections clustered with either L. maculans

‘brassicae’, L. biglobosa ‘brassicae ’, or a still different group closely related to L. biglobosa ‘ thlaspii ’. The evolutionary relationships between the seven infraspecific groups are discussed in terms of phytopathological relevance and species isolation linked with specific life cycle, geographic isolation or host specificity.

MENG, X. and W. CHEN (2001). "Applications of AFLP and ISSR techniques in detecting genetic diversity in the soybean brown stem rot pathogen Phialophora gregata." Mycol. Res. 105: 936-940.

MENG, X. Q., R. C. SHOEMAKER, et al. (1999). "Analysis of pathogenicity and genetic variation among Phytophthora sojae isolates using RAPD." Mycol. Res.

AFLP (amplified fragments length polymorphism) and ISSR (inter simple sequence repeat) analyses were used to detect genetic diversity among 46 Phialophora gregata isolates including 41 from soybean, four from mung bean, and one from adzuki bean. Five AFLP primers amplified 55 fragments, of which 20 bands were polymorphic. Thirteen ISSR primers amplified 66 fragments, of which 45 bands were polymorphic. The ISSR technique detected more polymorphism than the AFLP technique did. A UPGMA (unweighted pair-group arithmetic mean) dendrogram was constructed based on the 121 amplified fragments with AFLP and ISSR

primers to depict genetic diversity and relationships among the 46 isolates. Various levels of DNA polymorphism were detected among P. gregata isolates from soybean and mung bean. The estimated average genetic diversity is 0.079 for the population of 45 isolates from soybean and mung bean. The ISSR technique was shown to be more effective and economic than the AFLP technique in detecting genetic variation in P. gregata.

103: 173-178. Fifty-five Phytophthora sojae isolates were collected from soil

samples and diseased soybean plants from Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, and Minnesota in 1994 and 1995. Races for the isolates were determined. DNA of P. sojae isolates was amplified with 16 Operon decanucleotide primers. Twenty-three of 75 amplified fragments were polymorphic. Based on the 23 RAPD markers, a dendrogram depicting the relatedness of the isolates was constructed using UPGMA. The P. sojae isolates clustered into four distinct groups. The isolates of races 3, 4 and 25 clustered into group I. The isolates of races 1, 8 and 13 clustered into group II. The isolates of race 5 clustered into group III, and the isolates of race 7

clustered into group IV. Genetic diversity was detected among isolates of races 1,

3, 4, 5, 7 and 25 but not among isolates of races 8 and 13. MENKIS, A., J. ALLMER, et al. (2004). "Ecology and molecular characterization of dark septate fungi from roots, living stems, coarse and fine woody debris." Mycol. Res. 108: 965-973.

Mercado-Flores, Y., C. Hernaindez-Rodriguez, et al. (2003). "Proteinases and exopeptidases from the phytopathogenic fungus Ustilago maydis." Mycologia,

The aim of the present work was to determine the identity and molecular relationships between 127 strains of dark septate (DS) fungi isolated from healthy root tips, decayed coarse roots, live healthy-looking stems, coarse (stumps, snags and logs) and fine (tree branches and tops) woody debris in temperate-boreal forests in Sweden and Lithuania. Sequence analysis of ITS rDNA was used to identify the fungi. In a neighbour-joining similarity tree, all sequences were grouped into five distinct clusters. Within each of these, ITS rDNA sequence variation consisted of 2–18 nucleotides, corresponding to 1–3% of their total length. The four least variable clusters were supported with high bootstrap values of 86–100%. Comparisons with the sequences in the GenBank database showed that all our strains had a 95–100% homology with identified Phialocephala species, and they were thus assigned to this genus. The representatives of two clusters were identified, as P. fortinii and P. dimorphospora. The representatives of three remaining clusters were defined as Phialocephala sp. 35, Phialocephala sp. 6 and Phialocephala sp. 18. Within each of these clusters, ITS rDNA sequence uniformity was higher than that observed within P. fortinii and P. dimorphospora. Consequently, their clusters were most discrete, supported with bootstrap values of 100%. Genetic variation in the five distinguished Phialocephala species and their possible ecological roles are discussed. Phialocephala sp. 6 was confined to healthy root tips of conifers. P. dimorphospora was only associated with dead woody tissue of P. abies. P. fortinii, Phialocephala sp. 18 and sp. 35 were isolated from both dead and living conifers and Betula pendula. In conclusion, the present study revealed the ability of fungi from the genus Phialocephala to colonise and persist in live and dead trees under strikingly different ecological conditions.

95(2): 327-339. The proteolytic system of the phytopathogenic and dimorphic

fungus Ustilago maydis is not known. In this work, we report the presence of at least four proteases from two haploid strains of U. maydis. Activities of two proteinases pumA and pumB, aminopeptidase pumAPE, and dipeptidylaminopeptidase pumDAP were measured under several nutritional and morphological conditions, including the yeast-mycelium transition. The activity of pumA was found in the intracellular and extracellular fractions, pumAi and pumAe, respectively. The latter activity

was detected only during the yeast-mycelium dimorphic transition induced by growth at acid pH in a medium containing ammonium as the sole nitrogen source. Activity of pumAe was partially inhibited by Pepstatin A, which also inhibited mycelium formation.

Activity of pumAi was inhibited by this specific inhibitor of aspartyl-proteases. Activity of pumB was detected in intracellular and extracellular fractions, mostly bound to an endogenous inhibitor, which was removed by treatment at acid pH. This fungus contains at least two soluble pumAPE, which might be metallo-proteases, because they were inhibited by EDTA and 1–10, phenanthroline. When the fungus was grown in media containing proline or corn infusion as the nitrogen source, an intracellular

pumDAP activity was detected. No carboxypeptidase activity was found with N-benzoyl-L-tyrosine-4-nitroanilide as substrate in any of the conditions tested in any of the U. maydis strains analyzed.

Mercado-Sierra, A., J. Gene, et al. (2004). "Penzigomyces catalonicus, a new species of hyphomycetes from Spain." Mycologia, 96(2): 424-427.

characterized by short, dark brown, percurrent conidiophores, usually doliiform

conidiogenous cells and ellipsoidal or slightly obclavate, (2–)3–4(–6) euseptate,

MESKAUSKAS, A., M. D. FRICKER, et al. (2004). "Simulating colonial growth of fungi with the Neighbour-Sensing model of hyphal growth." Mycol. Res.

Penzigomyces catalonicus sp. nov., collected on dead branches of an unknown tree species in Spain, is described and illustrated. This fungus is

thin-walled conidia. The new taxon is compared with species from other morphologically similar genera, and a key to the known species of Penzigomyces

is provided.

108: 1241-1256. The Neighbour-Sensing model brings together the basic

essentials of hyphal growth kinetics into a vector-based mathematical model in which the growth vector of each virtual hyphal tip is calculated by reference to the surrounding virtual mycelium. The model predicts the growth pattern of many hyphae into three spatial dimensions and has been used to simulate complex fungal fruit body shapes. In this paper we show how the Neighbour-Sensing model can simulate growth in semi-solid substrata like agar or soil, enabling realistic simulation of mycelial colonies of filamentous fungi grown in ‘ Petri-dish style ’ experimental conditions. Newly implemented capabilities in the model include: a measurement and logging system within the program that maintains basic statistics about the mycelium it is simulating, this facilitates kinetic experimentation; inclusion of ‘substrates’ in the data space causing positive or negative tropisms for the growing mycelium; a horizontal plane tropism that provides a way of simulating colonies growing in or on a

substratum like agar or soil by imposing a horizontal constraint on the data space the cyberhyphal tips can explore; three categories of hypha – standard hyphae are those that start the simulation, leading hyphae can emerge from the colony peripheral growth zone to take on a leading role, and secondary hyphae are branches that can arise late, far behind the peripheral growth zone, when mature hyphal segments resume branching to in-fill the older parts of the colony. We show how the model can be used to investigate hyphal growth kinetics in silico in experimental scenarios that would be difficult or impracticable in vivo. We also show that the Neighbour-Sensing model can generate sufficiently realistic cord-like structures to encourage the belief that this model is now sufficiently advanced for parameters to be defined that simulate specific in silico cyberfungi. The potential utility of these cyberspecies is that they provide a means to model the

morphogenetic effects of a variety of factors, from environmental and nutritional features to mutations, in experimentally realistic situations, offering a valuable addition to the experimental toolkit of all those interested in fungal growth and morphology.

MESKAUSKAS, A., L. J. McNULTY, et al. (2004). "Concerted regulation of all hyphal tips generates fungal fruit body structures : experiments with computer visualizations produced by a new mathematical model of hyphal growth." Mycol. Res. 108: 341-353. Filamentous hyphal growth is inherently suited to kinetic

analysis, and in many respects the fungal mycelium can be viewed as a very mechanical biological system, which lends itself to mathematical modelling. The mathematics of hyphal tip extension growth are well-established. However, even though a hyphal growth equation can be written with confidence, and we have a good understanding of the effects of tropisms on growth, it is not easy to form a mental picture of the behaviour of large populations of hyphal tips. What is required, and what we believe we have produced, is a mathematical model that is sufficiently sophisticated to produce a realistic visualization of fungal hyphal growth. This provides us with a cyberfungus that can be used for experimentation on the theoretical rules that might govern hyphal

Messuti, M. I. and L. E. Lorenzo (1997). "A new species of Hysterium from

patterning, hyphal interactions, and tissue formation and organ development by actually visualizing the virtual hyphal growth patterns that result from different regulatory scenarios. From a series of model experiments the most significant observation is that complex fungal fruit body shapes can be simulated by applying the same regulatory functions to all of the growth points active in a structure at any specific time. No global control of fruit body geometry is necessary. No localized regulation is necessary. The shape of the fruit body emerges from the concerted response of the entire population of hyphal tips, in the same way, to the same signals.

Patagonia, Argentina." Mycological Research 101(3): 302-304.

Metrod, G. (1949). Les Mtcenes de Madagascar (Mycena, Corrugaria, Pterospora). Les Mtcenes de Madagascar (Mycena, Corrugaria, Pterospora)

Investigations of corticolous fungi in Patagonia have revealed the existence of a new species of Hysterium. H. andinense sp. nov. is described and compared to the related species. H. andicola is synonymized with H. insidens.

. Paris. III: 146. Meyer, S. L. F., L. K. Carta, et al. (2005). "Morphological variability and molecular phylogeny of the nematophagous fungus Monacrosporium drechsleri." Mycologia, 97(2): 405-415. An isolate of the nematode-trapping fungus Monacrosporium

drechsleri was collected from cultures of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne arenaria

where M. drechsleri fits within the existing phylogeny of nematode-trapping fungi, the ITS1-ITS2 regions of rDNA and the nuclear gene EF1-a were sequenced

MEYER, U. M. and F. M. DEWEY (2000). "Efficacy of different immunogens for raising monoclonal antibodies to Botrytis cinerea." Mycol. Res.

that had been maintained on tomato roots in greenhouse pots in Beltsville, Maryland. The plant-parasitic nematodes Heterodera glycines, Meloidogyne incognita

and Pratylenchus zeae and the free-living nematodes Caenorhabditis elegans and Panagrellus redivivus were placed on colonies of M. drechsleri grown in Petri dishes to study ability of the isolate to trap various nematode hosts. None of the nematodes placed near adhesive knobs were motile within 1 d. To determine

for the new isolate of M. drechsleri, for the species M. parvicolle and M. lysipagum, and for an isolate of M. ellipsosporum distinct from the one listed in GenBank. Parsimony trees were constructed showing the closest molecular relative of M. drechsleri to be the newly sequenced isolate of M. ellipsosporum; the latter had a highly divergent sequence from the sequence recorded in GenBank for a different isolate of M. ellipsosporum. Unique, consistent and discrete morphological characters are absent in these related taxa, so an independent molecular character should be considered essential for their accurate identification.

104: 979-987. A panel of monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) was raised to

Botrytis cinerea using four different immunogens. Co-immunization with cross-reactive monoclonal antibodies helped to increase the percentage of specific hybridoma cell lines produced. The abilities of the MAbs to detect fungal antigens in extracts from infected tissue was correlated with their taxonomic specificities and with the localization of the antigens on the surfaces of the hyphae and conidia. Four distinct groups were identified :

taxonomically unrelated, near-genus-, genus- and near-isolate-specific. Genus-specific antibodies gave the highest absorbance values in ELISAs with extracts from infected plant tissues. MAbs from this group all recognized heat-stable epitopes on antigens expressed along the length of the extracellular matrix of the hyphae and surface of the conidia. Antibodies from this group were all IgG1 antibodies.

MEYER, W. and W. GAMS (2003). "Delimitation of Umbelopsis (Mucorales, Umbelopsidaceae fam. nov.) based on ITS sequence and RFLP data." Mycol. Res. 107: 339-350. In a continuation of studies started by de Ruiter et al. (1993),

all known species of the Mortierella isabellina-group (Micromucor/Umbelopsis clade of O’Donnell et al. 2001) and a few other Mucorales and species of Mortierella were investigated by RFLP (including ITS1, 5.8S, ITS2 and the 5k end of the large subunit rDNA gene) and ITS1 sequence analyses. This monophyletic group is unrelated to Mortierella and is only distantly related to the core group of the Mucoraceae. M. longicollis falls outside the Umbelopsis clade. Molecular data resolved two subclades within the M. isabellina-group; however, they are not correlated with any differences in sporangial wall and shape, spore pigmentation and shape, or sporangiophore branching. Therefore we subsume all taxa in one genus, Umbelopsis. The new family Umbelopsidaceae and the new combinations U. isabellina, U. ramanniana, and U. autotrophica are proposed.

Miadlikowska, J., F. o. Lutzoni, et al. (2003). "New approach to an old problem: Incorporating signal from gap-rich regions of ITS and rDNA large subunit into phylogenetic analyses to resolve the Peltigera canina species complex." Mycologia, 95(6): 1181-1203.

33 putative Peltigera taxa. Seventeen of the 25 taxa from the P. canina complex are well established

The Peltigera canina species complex consists of foliose lichenized bitunicate ascohymenial discomycetes forming section Peltigera within the genus Peltigera (Lecanoromycetes, lichen-forming Ascomycetes). To test the circumscription of highly polymorphic species and to resolve relationships among

putative members of the P. canina complex, part of the nuclear ribosomal DNA large subunit (LSU rDNA) and the entire internal-transcribed spacer (ITS rDNA) were sequenced for 84 individuals representing

and widely accepted. The remaining eight taxa have been proposed recently but are undescribed. A

hypervariable region in ITS1 (ITS1-HR, sites 111–237 in our alignment) showed remarkable variation in length, especially in the P. canina complex, ranging from 8 to 126 bp, and contained several microsatellites. We describe here an alignment-free method to code such large gap-rich hypervariable regions for phylogenetic analyses. Variation among ITS1-

HR sequences greatly contributed to species delimitation and species identification and can be a major asset to future population studies for specific species within section Peltigera. Sequences of ITS1-HR alone were sufficient to identify all existing species of Peltigera from the P. canina species complex and related sections Retifoveatae and Horizontales included in this study. However, only when INAASE (for short ambiguously aligned regions) and ITS1-HR coded characters

were added to the combined analysis of nonambiguous LSU and ITS sites was it possible to reach the level of phylogenetic resolution and support necessary to disentangle the P. canina complex. We report here complete concordance between phylogenetically based and morphologically based species delimitation

for 15 of the 17 species from the P. canina complex (P. canina, P. cinnamomea, P. degenii, P. evansiana, P. frigida, P. kristinssonii, P. laciniata, P. lambinonii, P. lepidophora, P. membranacea, P. monticola, P. ponojensis, P. praetextata, P. rufescens and P. ulcerata). Four of the eight newly proposed but undescribed taxa most likely represent new species (P. ‘‘fuscopraetextata’’, P. ‘‘neocanina’’, P. ‘‘neorufescens’’ and P. ‘‘scotteri’’) within the P. canina complex. We found that morphologically and chemically distinct P. didactyla s. str. and P. didactyla var. extenuata form two non-sister monophyletic entities, therefore the latter taxon should be recognized at the species level

MIBEY, R. K. and J. O. KOKWARO (1998). "Meliola icacinacearum and M. kerichoensis, spp. nov. from Kenya." Mycol. Res.

(P. extenuata). The North American and European populations of the morphologically uniform P. degenii

might represent two sibling species because they were found to be genetically distinct and monophyletic.

Two major monophyletic groups within the P. canina complex (CICADE 5 CInnamomea 1 CAnina 1 DEgenii group and PORUDI 5 POnojensis 1 RUfescens 1 DIdactyla group) seem to be correlated with different humidity preferences. Although some authors previously have suggested interspecies recombination within the P. canina complex, we did not find statistically significant evidence for this phenomenon based on LSU and ITS sequences.

102: 1418-1420.

Michael Foos, K. (1997). "Pilobolus and lungworm disease affecting elk in Yellowstone National Park." Mycological Research

Meliola icacinacearum and M. kerichoensis spp. nov. are described and illustrated from Apodytes dimidiata and Croton alienus, respectively. C. alienus is a new host record for Meliola.

101(12): 1535-1536. Dictyocaulus viviparus and Pilobolus coexist in individual elk of the

Yellowstone National Park's northern herd. It is suggested that Pilobolus transfers infective larvae to forage grasses, so spreading the lungworm disease.

MICHELOT, D. and L. M. MELENDEZ-HOWELL (2003). "Amanita muscaria: chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology." Mycol. Res. 107: 131-136.

MIERSCH, J., M. TSCHIMEDBALSHIR, et al. (2001). "Heavy metals and thiol compounds in Mucor racemosus and Articulospora tetracladia." Mycol. Res.

The fly agaric is a remarkable mushroom in many respects; these are its bearing, history, chemical components and the poisoning that it provokes when consumed. The ‘pantherina’ poisoning syndrome is characterized by central nervous system dysfunction. The main species responsible are Amanita muscaria and A. pantherina (Amanitaceae) ; however, some other species of the genus have been suspected for similar actions. Ibotenic acid and muscimol are the active components, and probably, some other substances detected in the latter species participate in the psychotropic effects. The use of the mushroom started in ancient times and is connected with mysticism. Current knowledge on the chemistry, toxicology, and biology relating to this mushroom is reviewed, together with distinctive features concerning this unique species.

105: 883-889.

MIHAIL, J. D. and J. N. BRUHN (2005). "Foraging behaviour of Armillaria rhizomorph systems." Mycol. Res.

The influence of Cd(II), Cu(II) and Zn(II) on growth and thiol production in an aquatic hyphomycete (Articulospora tetracladia) and a zygomycete (Mucor racemosus) were studied. Growth of a strain of M. racemosus, isolated from effluents contaminated by heavy metals, was not inhibited by Cd concentrations of up to 100 µm. M. racemosus was more sensitive to Cu and Zn. The production of SH-containing compounds by M. racemosus was positively correlated with Cd concentration in the nutrient medium. By contrast, glutathione concentration in the mycelium was negatively correlated with Cd concentration. Addition of Zn or Cu to the medium had no significant effect on mycelial levels of thiol compounds or glutathione. One strain of A. tetracladia, isolated from a clean stream (At-BB), significantly increased the production of thiol compounds and of glutathione in the presence of Cd; the other strain from a Cu enriched stream (At-CS) showed no significant response. Addition of Zn or Cu did not significantly change levels of thiols or glutathione, with one exception : glutathione levels in At-CS were negatively correlated with external Cu levels. Declining glutathione levels in M. racemosus exposed to Cd was coupled with the appearance of several phytochelatins. No such compounds

were found in A. tetracladia.

109(11): 1195-1207. The foraging behaviour of Armillaria rhizomorph systems is

poorly understood owing to their cryptic position within the soil. We investigated foraging in a homogeneous environment (i.e. agar), finding that rhizomorph systems of the more parasitic species, A. mellea, A.

ostoyae, and A. tabescens, lacked melanin and the approximately cylindrical cord-like form observed in the field. In contrast, rhizomorph systems of the more saprotrophic species, A. calvescens, A. gallica, and A. sinapina, developed radially resembling those in the field. For the three saprotrophic Armillaria species, the number of rhizomorph tips, total rhizomorph length and total rhizomorph surface area were significantly positively correlated with increasing rhizomorph system diameter and elapsed time in two developmental tests. However, the fractal dimension (D), used as a measure of foraging intensity, was temporally invariable, suggesting that one component of foraging behaviour is innate. In a heterogeneous environment (i.e. sand) and in the absence of a potential nutrient source, we observed that rhizomorph systems of A. gallica most often developed asymmetrically. While rhizomorph foraging was unresponsive to the lateral placement of an uncolonised stem segment, we were able to demonstrate directional growth toward an uncolonised Quercus velutina stem segment placed above or below the colonised source stem segment. When neighboring rhizomorph systems were conspecific genets of A. gallica, we observed that the growth of one rhizomorph system was directed toward zones unoccupied by its neighbour. However, the foraging intensity of the neighbouring genets, as measured by fractal dimension (D), was unaffected by the proximity of a neighbour. When neighbouring rhizomorph systems represented different species (A. gallica and A. mellea), A. gallica rhizomorph systems produced more total length and more foraging tips but concentrated their rhizomorph production away from the neighbouring A. mellea genet. In contrast, A. mellea rhizomorph systems produced significantly more foraging tips per unit length, both overall and in the zone of confrontation with the neighbouring A. gallica genet. Our observations are consistent with field observations of territoriality among Armillaria genets, and provide evidence that rhizomorph systems of more parasitic Armillaria spp. are able to compete effectively with the larger rhizomorph systems of more saprotrophic Armillaria species.

MIHAIL, J. D., J. N. BRUHN, et al. (2002). "The effects of moisture and oxygen availability on rhizomorph generation by Armillaria tabescens in comparison with A. gallica and A. mellea." Mycol. Res. 106: 697-704. Compared with other Armillaria species, natural melanized

rhizomorphs of A. tabescens are rarely observed. Growing in autoclaved Vitis stem segments, A. tabescens isolates from the Ozark Mountains in the central USA formed fully melanized rhizomorphs, thinner and shorter than those observed for other Armillaria species under field conditions, and only under conditions of both high oxygen availability, ≥2 µg cm-2 min-1 and moisture near saturation. Conducive conditions were used to compare the rhizomorph generation capacities of A. tabescens, A. gallica, and A. mellea, which have overlapping host and geographic ranges in central North America. While the rhizomorphs of A. tabescens were significantly

shorter than those of the other two species, A. gallica and A. tabescens produced similar numbers of rhizomorph initials. Finally, we demonstrated the ability of melanized A. tabescens rhizomorphs to span woody food bases and thereby establish viable infections by penetration of intact bark of Vitis stem segments. We hypothesize that A. tabescens rhizomorphs form under conditions of periodic saturation which promote rapid water movement through naturally occurring lacunae in the soil. Thus, the role of A. tabescens rhizomorphs in the spread of the fungus should be re-evaluated.

MIKKELSEN, L., N. ROULUND, et al. (2001). "The perennial ryegrass endophyte Neotyphodium lolii genetically transformed with the green fluorescent protein gene (gfp) and visualization in the host plant." Mycol. Res. 105: 644-650. The green fluorescent protein gene was inserted into isolates

of the endophyte Neotyphodium lolii from perennial ryegrass Lolium perenne using the method with polyethylene glycol treatment of protoplasts. The transformation rate was 3.2x10-6 of the original number of protoplasts 5 weeks after the transformation. Freshly isolated mycelium from the host plant was used in the transformation experiments, since difficulties of infecting the host plant with older isolates were observed. Isolates were identified using the universal primed (UP) PCR fingerprinting method.

The transformed mycelium readily expressed the green fluorescent protein gene. Fluorescence was observed in the cytoplasm of the mycelium cells in pure culture, both before infection and after re-isolation from the host plant. The fluorescent hyphae were easily detected in the host plant. No disturbing autofluorescence from the host plant leaf sheaths or from the wild type isolate was observed. The importance of mitotic stability is discussed, based on the transformed phenotype and southern hybridization pattern, since the Neotyphodium lolii transformants lost 1--2 copies of the integrated gene after re-isolation from the host plant without losing

MIKOSCH, T. S. P., A. S. M. SONNENBERG, et al. (2002). "Isolation, characterisation and expression patterns of a RAD51 ortholog from Pleurotus ostreatus." Mycol. Res.

their GFP phenotype. This is the first report on transformation of a Neotyphodium sp. with a gfp gene. In the future, the green fluorescent protein may serve as a tool for studying gene expression and protein localization in the endophyte/host plant interaction using heterologous fusion proteins.

106: 682-687. Using degenerated primers for conserved regions of RecA

homologs we have isolated a gene from Pleurotus ostreatus that shows characteristic features of RAD51 homologs. The encoded amino acid sequence of P. ostreatus RAD51 (PoRAD51) shows greatest sequence similarities with RAD51 from Coprinus cinereus (89% identity). Furthermore the genomic organisation of PoRAD51 is almost identical to

that of RAD51 from C. cinereus. Northern analysis shows that the expression of PoRAD51 is found in vegetative mycelium, and fruit body tissue, and that it is expressed at elevated levels in lamellae/basidia and following DNA damage. A sporulation deficient mutant strain of P. ostreatus (ATTC 58937) showed expression patterns of the RAD51 gene that are similar those of the normal sporulating strain.

MILLER, A. N. and S. M. HUHNDORF (2003). "A natural classification of Lasiosphaeria based on nuclear LSU rDNA sequences." Mycol. Res. 108: 26-34. The current circumscription of Lasiosphaeria includes taxa with

a wide variety of ascomatal walls, ascomatal wall vestitures, and ascospore morphologies and a broad range of putative anamorphs. Despite the complexity of morphological characters in the genus, species within Lasiosphaeria can be arranged into four groups based on ascospore morphology. Taxa which possessed ascospores in each of the four groups were used in phylogenetic analyses of partial nuclear large subunit (LSU) rDNA sequences to test the monophyly of the genus and determine relationships among its species. Lasiosphaeria was found to be highly polyphyletic in that species segregated into seven well-supported monophyletic clades dispersed among several orders. Three new genera, Echinosphaeria, Hilberina, and Immersiella, are erected for three of these clades while the genus Lasiosphaeris is reintroduced for a fourth clade. These data support Ruzenia as a previously established genus and the transfer of Lasiosphaeria raciborskii to Chaetosphaeria. The circumscription of Lasiosphaeria has been considerably narrowed to better reflect a natural classification. These taxonomic changes are additionally supported by a combination of morphological characters which are discussed in

Miller, A. N. and S. M. Huhndorf (2004). "Using phylogenetic species recognition to delimit species boundaries within Lasiosphaeria." Mycologia,

relation to the phylogenetic trees.

96(5): 1106-1127. The genus Lasiosphaeria recently has been circumscribed

more narrowly to include five morphospecies united by tomentose ascomata containing

yellow centrum pigments. Species boundaries have not been established and phylogenetic relationships have not been clearly defined for these morphospecies.

To delimit species boundaries and determine phylogenetic relationships among species, maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian analyses

were conducted on sequence data from four nuclear genes, the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, 28S large subunit (LSU) rDNA, btubulin and ribosomal polymerase II subunit 2 (RPB2). Representatives of L. glabrata, L. ovina, L. rugulosa and L. sorbina resolved as four highly

supported monophyletic groups in almost all analyses and are recognized as well-defined species employing principles of genealogical concordance. These species delimitations are corroborated further by morphology. Representatives of L. lanuginosa were polyphyletic in almost all analyses. Although molecular analyses revealed that this morphospecies comprises several phylogenetic species, formal taxonomic recognition of these lineages is premature, so L. lanuginosa currently is treated as a morphological species complex. Complete species descriptions, including teleomorph, anamorph and culture characteristics, are given for L. glabrata, L. ovina, L. sorbina and the L. lanuginosa species complex along with detailed discussions of significant morphological characters used in recognizing species. These species are compared to five additional morphospecies that also may belong in the genus.

MILLER, J. D., S. MACKENZIE, et al. (2002). "Needles of white spruce inoculated with rugulosin-producing endophytes contain rugulosin reducing spruce budworm growth rate." Mycol. Res. 106: 471-749. Conifer needles, like many grasses, are infected by systemic

fungal endophytes. Following suggestions made in the early 1980s that (1) conifer needle endophytes may produce anti-insectan compounds, and (2) population dynamics of the eastern spruce budworm in New Brunswick could not be completely explained based on existing knowledge, we discovered that a low percentage of needle endophytes made a range of known and new metabolites toxic to this insect. Here, we report that wound inoculations of toxigenic endophytes of seedlings from a breeding population of white spruce were successful across a range of genotypes. The needles colonized by a rugulosin-producing endophyte were found to contain rugulosin in concentrations that are effective in vitro at retarding the growth of spruce budworm larvae. Larvae presented with endophyte infected needles containing rugulosin do not gain as much weight as those eating uncolonized needles. This represents the first positive evidence that the kind of mutualism between toxigenic endophytes and grasses affecting insect herbivory also may occur in white spruce.

Miller, O. K. and H. H. Miller (1988). Gasteromycetes: Morphological and Development Features with Keys to the Order, Families, and Genera, Mad River Press, Inc. Miller, S. L., M. C. Aime, et al. (2002). "Russulaceae of the Pakaraima Mountains of Guyana. I. New species of pleurotoid Lactarius." Mycologia, 94(3): 545-553.

L. brunellus and L. multiceps, from the Pakaraima Mountains of Guyana. A third species, L. igapoensis, is synonymized with L. panuoides.

Morphological and habitat descriptions, illustrations and taxonomic discussions are presented for two newly described species of pleurotoid Lactarius,

MILLER, S. L. and B. BUYCK (2002). "Molecular phylogeny of the genus Russula in Europe with a comparison of modern infrageneric classifications." Mycol. Res. 106: 259-276. Species in the large mushroom genus Russula are important

ecologically as ectomycorrhizal fungi and economically as comestibles. Most infrageneric classification schemes of this genus have originated in Europe, but because of nomenclatural history and an evolving suite of characters these systems remain largely incongruent. Using ribosomal DNA sequences for 87 species representing all infrageneric taxa described from Europe, the phylogenetic position and relationships among these species were examined. Cladistic analysis of the ITS1, 5.8S, and ITS2 regions showed a cluster of five to six small to large clades basal in the topology and one large apical clade arising from the deeper nodes, none of which has been previously recognized in toto at the subgeneric level. Two of these groups, the

MILNER, R. J., J. A. STAPLES, et al. (1998). "Occurrence of Metarhizium anisopliae in nests and feeding sites of Australian termites." Mycol. Res.

Compactae and Pallidosporinae, which have been previously recognized as subsections of section Compacta, did not appear to be closely related. Bootstrap support and Bremer decay values indicated that collapse of the tree into monophyly at the deeper nodes would result in two large groups which are consistent with the classical subgeneric concept of the Eurussulae and a narrowed Compactae. The topology confirmed some previously described infrageneric taxa at the section level including the Tenellae and Heterophyllae and at the subsection level including the Cupreinae, Laricinae, Lilaceinae, Integroidinae, Violaceinae, Sphagnophilinae, Viridantinae, Emeticinae, Subvelatae, Pallidosporinae, and portions of the Polychromae and Sardoninae. The molecular analysis also indicated many interesting new combinations or relationships not previously conceived. Mapping of characters such as spore print colour, taste, and presence of acid resistant incrustations, which have been used to define infrageneric taxa in Russula, onto the phylogeny identified interesting patterns consistent with hypotheses regarding plesiomorphic and apomorphic characters. However, because of potential loss or reversal of character states, this analysis did not support their unequivocal use in infrageneric classification.

102: 216-220. A total of 479 samples of nests or feeding sites of 38 species of

Australian termite were plated onto a medium selective for isolation of Metarhizium spp. Sixty-seven samples were positive for Metarhizium spp. and a total of 97 isolates of M. anisopliae were obtained. Very few isolates were obtained directly from infected termites. Most isolates were obtained from nest-mound material from eastern Australia. Termite-associated material from the two common mound-building species of termite, Nasutitermes exitiosus and Coptotermes lacteus, provided 75 of the isolates. Similar material from 26 species of termites revealed no

Metarhizium. A detailed study of two sites found that some of the Metarhizium isolates found in nest-mound material, including also some M. flavoviride and M. album, were of morphological types also present in adjacent soil. The DNA of isolates from mounds and the adjacent soil were compared using RAPDs and sequence analysis of the ITS region of the nuclear rDNA and the same types were found from both sources. The possible role of the fungus in termite ecology is discussed and it is thought most likely that Metarhizium is only opportunistically a pathogen of termites. Thus, isolates obtained from termite nest material are probably there because of the incorporation of soil into termite nests.

Mims, C. W. and E. A. Richardson (2003). "Ultrastructure of the zoosporangia of Albugo ipomoeae-panduratae as revealed by conventional chemical fixation and high pressure freezing followed by freeze substitution." Mycologia, 95(1): 1-10. Both conventional chemical fixation and high pressure

freezing followed by freeze substitution (HPF/FS) were used to prepare zoosporangia of the

cleavage vesicles involved in zoospore formation. Although HPF/FS did result in the rupture of some vacuoles and the extraction of lipid bodies, these problems did not interfere with our study. Overall zoosporangium morphology was similar to that reported previously for A. candida. Each zoosporangium was multinucleate and contained numerous mitochondria, lipid bodies, a variety of large and small vacoules/vesicles, and conspicuous arrays consisting of parallel strands of rough endoplasmic reticulum. Golgi cisternae and a pair of basal bodies were closely associated with each nucleus.

MIMS, C. W., T. C. SEWALL, et al. (2000). "Ultrastructure of conidiogenesis and mature conidia in the plant pathogenic Entomosporium mespili." Mycol. Res.

oomycete Albugo ipomoeae-panduratae inside infected host leaves for study with transmission electron microscopy. Both fixations gave good preservation of

ultrastructural details and data from the two sample types were highly complementary. However, HPF/FS gave better overall specimen contrast and superior

preservation of microtubules, basal bodies and curved vacuoles closely associated with basal bodies. The basal body-associated vacuoles appear to represent

104: 453-462. Acervuli of E. mespili developed subcuticularly on both

surfaces of infected Photinia leaves. Acervuli developed as single or aggregated, con¯uent structures. Conidium initials arose from hyphae which developed between the cuticle and epidermis. As conidia developed the cuticle was displaced and eventually ruptured. Development of the first conidium from a conidiogenous cell was holoblastic. Subsequent conidia developed in an enteroblastic, annellidic fashion. Three to four conidia

arose from a single conidiogenous cell. A mature conidium consisted of four to six cells including an apical cell and a basal cell which developed first.

These were separated by a septum with a plugged pore. A similar septum separated the basal cell from the conidiogenous cell. A long, slender, enucleate appendage then arose from the tip of the apical cell. During this time the basal cell gave rise to two to four small lateral cells, separated by septa from the basal cell. An appendage then developed from each lateral cell. Each cell of a mature conidium contained a single nucleus and a complement of cytoplasmic organelles and inclusions, many of which were more prominent in freeze substituted conidia than in chemically fixed conidia. The conidium wall labelled for chitin using wheat germ agglutin-gold conjugate. Its outer surface was coated with fibrillar material.

Minglian, Z., M. Minghe, et al. (2004). "Characterization of a neutral serine protease and its full-length cDNA from the nematode-trapping fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora." Mycologia, 96(1): 16-22. A neutral serine protease (designated Aoz1) was purified to

homogeneity from a strain of Arthrobotrys oligospora, obtained from soil in Yunnan Province. The purified protein showed a molecular mass of approximately 38 000 Dalton, pI 4.9 and displayed optimal activity at 45 C and pH 6–8. The protein could hydrolyze gelatin, casein and the chromogenic substrate azocoll, and it could immobilize nematodes in vitro (Panagrellus redivivus L. [Goodey]). The level of activity in culture medium was found to increase with increasing gelatin concentration. Scanning electron micrographs demonstrated dramatic structural changes in nematode cuticle treated with

MIRABOLFATHY, M., D. E. L. COOKE, et al. (2001). "Phytophthora pistaciae sp. nov. and P. melonis: the principal causes of pistachio gummosis in Iran." Mycol.

the purified protease. A partial peptide sequence obtained by N-terminal sequence analysis was used to design degenerate primers for the isolation of a cDNA gene encoding the mature protease. Analysis of the cDNA and corresponding genomic sequence revealed 97% identity with PII, a gene previously described from A. oligospora, and we conclude that this gene is likely a PII ortholog.

Res. 105: 1166-1175. Two non-papillate species of Phytophthora are the principal

cause of pistachio gummosis in Iran. Their previous description as P. megasperma and P. drechsleri was re-examined in the light of RFLPs and sequence comparisons of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of rDNA. Both taxa were more closely related to a clade comprising P. sojae, P. cajani, P. vignae, P. melonis and P. sinensis than to the unrelated P. megasperma s. str. or P. drechsleri. The P. megasperma-like isolates from pistachio differed from all the above taxa in morphology, ITS sequence and AFLP patterns, and are described as a new species, P. pistaciae. The

P. drechsleri-like isolates from pistachio had identical ITS sequences to those of P. melonis, P. sinensis and P. drechsleri-like isolates from cucurbits in Iran and the AFLP profiles of P. melonis, P. sinensis and the P. drechsleri-like isolates from pistachio were virtually identical. This and other published isozyme and mtDNA evidence suggests these taxa should be considered conspecific and all subsumed within P. melonis with a revised host range and geographical distribution. The relationships of P. melonis and P. pistaciae with other members belonging to the same ITS clade are considered.

MISRA, S., A. K. SRIVASTAVA, et al. (1999). "Further additions to Stenella from India and Nepal." Mycol. Res. 103: 268-270. Three new species of Stenella, S. cassiicola, S. eugeniicola and

S. rhododendricola, occurring on Cassia ®stula, Eugenia heyniana and

Misra, S., N. Srivastava, et al. (1997). "New species of Stenella from India." Mycological Research

Rhododendron campanulatum, respectively, are described and illustrated.

101(3): 278-280. Three new species of Stenella, S. heterophragmae, S. lantanae and S.

buteae occurring on Heterophragma sp., Lantana indica and Butea parviflora, respectively, have been described and illustrated.

MISRA, S., N. SRIVASTAVA, et al. (1997). "New species of Stenella from India." Mycol. Res. 101: 278-280. Three new species of Stenella, S. heterophragmae, S.

lantanae and S. buteae occurring on Heterophragma sp., Lantana indica and Butea

Mitchell, A. J., K. A. Hutchison, et al. (1997). "A monoclonal antibody that recognizes a carbohydrate epitope on N-linked glycoproteins restricted to a subset of chitin-rich fungi." Mycological Research

parviØora, respectively, have been described and illustrated.

101(1): 73-79. Previous studies with a monoclonal antibody (designated UB7) raised

against isolated haustorial complexes formed by the pea powdery mildew fungus Erysiphe pisi showed that it recognized an abundant glycoprotein found in cell walls and plasma membranes of haustoria and the surface mycelium. In this paper, Western blotting and phase-partitioning in the detergent Triton X-114 have been used to show that the plasma membrane antigens recognized by UB7 comprise a 62 kDa integral glycoprotein and a set of integral membrane glycoproteins of lower molecular weight. A 59 kDa glycoprotein recognized by UB7 has been extracted from the fungus using aqueous buffer, and the evidence suggests that this represents the cell wall form of the antigen. Binding of UB7 is abolished by pre-treatment of glycoproteins with peptide-N-glycosidase, but is retained after endo-F treatment. This suggests that the epitope to which UB7 binds is the innermost N-acetylglucosamine residue

of N-linked carbohydrate side chains of glycoproteins, possibly substituted with one or more sugars. When tested for cross-reactivity with other fungi, UB7 bound to some, but not all, of those examined, and recognized different sets of glycoproteins compared with those detected in E. pisi. However, UB7 did not bind to any higher plants nor to any animal glycoproteins tested. This antibody thus identi®es a carbohydrate epitope restricted to glycoproteins in a subset of the fungi.

MITCHELL, A. J., K. A. HUTCHISON, et al. (1997). "A monoclonal antibody that recognizes a carbohydrate epitope on N-linked glycoproteins restricted to a subset of chitin-rich fungi." Mycol. Res. 101: 73-79. Previous studies with a monoclonal antibody (designated

UB7) raised against isolated haustorial complexes formed by the pea powdery mildew fungus Erysiphe pisi showed that it recognized an abundant glycoprotein found in cell walls and plasma membranes of haustoria and the surface mycelium. In this paper, Western blotting and phase-partitioning in the detergent Triton X-114 have been used to show that the plasma membrane antigens recognized by UB7 comprise a 62 kDa integral glycoprotein and a set of integral membrane glycoproteins of lower molecular weight. A 59 kDa glycoprotein recognized by UB7 has been extracted from the fungus using aqueous buffer, and the evidence suggests that this represents the cell wall form of the antigen. Binding of UB7 is abolished by pre-treatment of glycoproteins with peptide-N-glycosidase, but is retained after endo-F treatment. This suggests that the epitope to which UB7 binds is the innermost N-acetylglucosamine residue of N-linked carbohydrate side chains of glycoproteins, possibly substituted with one or more sugars. When tested for cross-reactivity with other fungi, UB7 bound to some, but not all, of those examined, and recognized different sets of glycoproteins compared with those detected in E. pisi. However, UB7 did not bind to any higher plants nor to any animal glycoproteins tested. This antibody thus identifies a carbohydrate epitope restricted to

MITCHELL, H. J., K. A. KOVAC, et al. (2002). "Characterisation of Phytophthora nicotianae zoospore and cyst membrane proteins." Mycol. Res.

glycoproteins in a subset of the fungi.

106(10): 1211–1223. Motile zoospores of species of oomycetes encyst rapidly to

form walled cysts that germinate and infect host plants. Differences in the protein composition of the plasma membrane and endomembranes of zoospores and cysts of the oomycete Phytophthora nicotianae have been explored by comparing patterns of polypeptides in one- and two-dimensional gels of microsomal fractions. Against a backdrop of common components, this comparison revealed that at least 53

proteins were specific to, or occurred preferentially in, the microsomal fraction of one spore type or the other. In addition, proteins common to zoospore and

cyst plasma membranes were further investigated by immunocytochemical labelling with a panel of 10 monoclonal antibodies raised against P. nicotianae spore components. The results of immunolocalisation studies and immunoblotting showed that the antibodies reacted with four different sets of membrane proteins, and were grouped accordingly. Group 1 antibodies bound preferentially to the bladder of the water expulsion vacuole or a region of the cell surface associated with it. Group 2 antibodies reacted with a protein of high relative molecular weight (>200 kDa) found in zoospores and cyst plasma membranes and in the cleavage membranes of sporangia. Group 3 antibodies reacted with a set of proteins occurring in the plasma membrane of zoospores and cysts, in the peripheral cisternae, in the spongiome membranes of the water expulsion vacuole, in the cleavage membranes of sporangia, and in the plasma membrane and apical vesicle membranes in hyphae and germinating cysts. Group 4 antibodies bound to a set of proteins present in the zoospore and cyst plasma membrane, in sporangial cleavage membranes and in the spongiome but not present in the peripheral cisternae, hyphae or germinating cysts. The results document the presence of proteins that are common to the plasma membrane of all stages of the asexual life cycle of P. nicotianae, of proteins that occur in the plasma membrane of the asexual spores but not of hyphae, and of proteins that occur in the membranes of either zoospores or cysts. The results also indicate that zoospore and cyst plasma membrane proteins may be present in specific subsets of other

membranes within the zoospores. MOHR, F., S. EKMAN, et al. (2004). "Evolution and taxonomy of the marine Collemopsidium species (lichenized Ascomycota) in north-west Europe." Mycol. Res. 108: 515-532. The taxonomy of the marine species of Collemopsidium in

northwest Europe was investigated using morphological and molecular evidence. 210 specimens were collected from the west coasts of Norway and Ireland, and morphological and ecological variables recorded. ITS1 rDNA sequences were obtained from 24 specimens. A phylogenetic analysis, resulting in a single optimal tree, was performed under the unweighted least squares optimality criterion based on maximum

likelihood distances obtained from unaligned sequences. Principal components analysis (PCA) was performed on morphological variables of the sequenced specimens, and classification was carried out by maximizing agreement between the phylogenetic tree and the PCA. Thallus immersion, and perithecial immersion and size, were the most important characters for discriminating between taxa. Apart from substratum, niche separation between taxa was small but statistically significant as shown by a redundancy analysis (RDA). Variance partitioning indicated that genetic variation is vastly more important than ecology for explaining phenotypic variation. Five species of marine Collemopsidium are recognized,

including two new combinations: C. foveolatum (syn. Arthopyrenia foveolata) and C. ostrearum (syn.

Lecanactis ostrearum) combs. nov. Molina, M. C., P. T. DePriest, et al. (2005). "Genetic variation in the widespread lichenicolous fungus Marchandiomyces corallinus." Mycologia, 97(2): 454-463.

a variety of lichens. Theoretically either of these characteristics, a wide geographic range or generalized host ecology, could provide opportunities for genetic

has taken place recently as a result of geographic isolation, not host switching. MOLINA, M. d. C. and A. CRESPO (2000). "Comparison of development of axenic cultures of five species of lichen-forming fungi." Mycol. Res.

The lichenicolous basidiomycete Marchandiomyces corallinus is widely distributed in North America and Europe, where it commonly is found on

differentiation within this species. To determine how genetic variation is partitioned in M. corallinus, 12 fungal isolates were obtained from locations in North

America and Europe; at two locations, in Washington County, Maine, and on the Isle of Mull in Scotland, fungi also were isolated from different lichen hosts. Vegetative mycelial compatibility tests were used to determine compatibility groupings from among the isolates; in addition, several PCR amplification products (RAPD, nuITS rDNA) were obtained for each isolate. A number of distinct compatibility groups were recognizable based on geography, not host ecology. In addition compatible isolates always were restricted to either North America or Europe. However RAPD markers indicated that compatible isolates are not always genetically identical. The presence of sequence heterozygosity at specific positions indicated that the isolates are heterokaryotic and a number of distinct haplotypes could be identified based on ITS variation at three separate locations. This type of genetic variation in these fungi suggests that sexual recombination is possible and that genetic differentiation

104: 595-602. Although several new techniques for isolating and culturing

lichens have been reported in recent years, there is little information available concerning the variability in development of species from different taxonomic groups. A comparison of the early stages of the germination and growth of Xanthoria parietina (Teloschistaceae), Parmelia saxatilis (Parmeliaceae), Physconia distorta and two Diplotomma species (Physciaceae) was performed on two different media: one inorganic, and the other containing 4% glucose (LBM; Lilly-Barnett medium). Different germination and development rates, and isolation success rate (single- and multispore cultures) are reported. The new combination Diplotomma rivasmartinezii (Barreno & A. Crespo) Barreno & A. Crespo is made.

Moller, A. (1901). Phycomyceten und Ascomyceten; Untersuchungen aus

Brasilien. Botanische Mittheilungen aus den Tropen. A. F. W. Schimper, Jena. Verlag Von Gustav Fischer 1901. Heft 9.: 319. Momany, M., E. A. Richardson, et al. (2002). "Mapping Woronin body position in Aspergillus nidulans." Mycologia, 94(2): 260-266. The positions of all Woronin bodies in five germlings of

Aspergillus nidulans prepared by plunge freezing and freeze substitution were determined by

Moncalvo, J.-M., T. J. Baroni, et al. (2004). "Rhodocybe paurii, a new species from the Indian Himalaya." Mycologia,

transmission electron microscopy. As expected, Woronin bodies were found near septa. High numbers of morphologically identical organelles were also found in apical regions. To verify that these organelles were authentic Woronin bodies, we used antibodies raised against the Neurospora crassa Woronin body matrix protein Hex1. Anti-Hex1 antibodies labeled Woronin bodies at septa and in apical regions of A. nidulans. In germlings that had not yet formed septa, at least fifty percent of Woronin bodies were found within 2.5 mm of the tip. In germ tubes that had formed septa, the total number of Woronin bodies remained the same, but only twenty percent were near the tip. Our results clearly establish that Woronin bodies are found in apical regions of Aspergillus germ tubes and suggest that Woronin bodies are transported from the apex to the more basal regions of the cell immediately before or during septation.

96(4): 859-865. A new species of Entolomataceae, Rhodocybe paurii, is

described from Garhwal in the western Indian Himalaya. This species grows on wood in dense clusters and belongs to section Claudopodes Singer ex Baroni because of its pleurotoid habit and lack of hymenial pseudocystidia. It is distinguished from the other pleurotoid species in that section by its layered caespitose habit, a brown spore deposit and a tomentose pileus surface composed of a welldeveloped layer of hyaline, erect, filamentous hyphae. Phylogenetic analysis using nucleotide sequence data from the nuclear large ribosomal subunit gene indicates a close relationship between R. paurii and the type species of the genus, Rhodocybe caelata. This analysis also suggests a possible paraphyly of the genus Rhodocybe and supports monophyly of Entoloma sensu lato.

MONDS, R. D., M. G. CROMEY, et al. (2005). "Fusarium graminearum, F. cortaderiae and F. pseudograminearum in New Zealand: molecular phylogenetic analysis, mycotoxin chemotypes and co-existence of species."

Mycol. Res. 109: 410-420. Fusarium graminearum and F. pseudograminearum are

important plant pathogens in New Zealand and around the world. Headblight and crown rot diseases of cereals caused by these species are responsible for large economic losses due to reduction in seed quality and contamination of grain with tricothecene mycotoxins. In the current study

we have used two different molecular phylogenetic approaches, AFLPs and gene genealogies, to gain insight into the evolutionary relationships between F. graminearum, and F. pseudograminearum in New Zealand. The worldwide genetic diversity of F. graminearum clade is represented by at least eight biogeographically distinct species (previously designated as lineages

of F. graminearum). Our analysis demonstrated that this clade is represented by F. graminearum (=F. graminearum Lineage 7) and F. cortaderiae (=F. graminearum Lineage 8) in New Zealand. Through our analysis we also confirm the presence of F. pseudograminearum in New Zealand as a first record for this organism. Information on species is necessary for preventing the inadvertent intercontinental introduction of genetically unique foreign pathogens associated with world trade. The ability to place species information into a worldwide context enabled postulation that the New Zealand representatives of F. graminearum clade originated from at least two regions, and probably on at least two hosts. Correlation of species descriptions with biogeographical and host information revealed evidence for co-localisation

of F. graminearum clade species with potential for genetic outcrossing in the field. Mycotoxin analysis showed F. graminearum (=lineage 7) isolates produce either nivalenol (NIV) or deoxnivalenol (DON). In contrast, F. cortaderiae isolates produced only NIV. These findings support earlier observations that mycotoxin production in the F. graminearum clade is not species specific, but suggest maintenance of chemotype diversity through speciation may have been restricted to a subset of species.

MONEY, N. P. (1998). "Why oomycetes have not stopped being fungi." Mycol. Res. 102: 767-768. MONEY, N. P. (1999). "On the origin and functions of hyphal walls and turgor pressure." Mycol. Res. 103: 1360. MONEY, N. P. and J. P. RAVISHANKAR (2005). "Biomechanics of stipe elongation in the basidiomycete Coprinopsis cinerea." Mycol. Res. 109(5): 627-634. Stipe elongation in fruit bodies of Coprinopsis cinerea (syn.

Coprinus cinereus) was examined from a biomechanical perspective. Two strains were studied: the self-compatible Amut Bmut homokaryon that produces normal fruit bodies with relatively short stipes, and mutant B1918 that produces abnormally elongated stipes. Measurements of the pressure exerted by developing mushrooms were made using strain gauges, and these data were compared with measurements of the pressures exerted by vegetative hyphae of the same strains. The experiments demonstrate that AmutBmut hyphae elongating within stipe tissue push with the same pressure (approx. 0.5 atmosphere) as vegetative hyphae growing through their food sources. In purely

biomechanical terms, the fruit body may therefore be viewed as a relatively uncomplicated sum of its parts. Analysis of the mutant strain B1918 demonstrated that hyperelongation of the stipe is not associated with any difference in the pressure exerted by the fruit body. The fault in the mechanism of stipe extension in B1918 may be reflected in the increased fluidity of the cell wall of vegetative hyphae of this strain, but further work is necessary to resolve this.

Monschau, N., K.-P. Stahmann, et al. (1997). "In vitro synthesis of b-(1-3)-glucan with a membrane fraction of Botrytis cinerea." Mycological Research 101(1): 97-101. Botrytis cinerea is known as a b-(1-3)(1-6)-d-glucan-overproducer with an

exceptionally high degree of b-(1-6)-branches in the glucan. To localize and characterize the glucan synthase, the incorporation of ["%C]glucose, activated by uridyl diphosphate and incubated with mycelial extracts, into ethanol-precipitable material was studied. Whereas crude extracts were found to produce a- and bglucans, a pure b-(1-3)-d-glucan was formed by the membrane fraction. This was monitored by the complete cleavage into glucose with a purified b-(1-3)-glucanase and by the detection of laminaribiose, a b-(1-3)-linked dimer of glucose, in incomplete digestions. Degradation products with b-(1-6)-linkages, e.g. gentiobiose, which is found after degradation of the native polymer, were not detectable. b-(1-3)-glucan synthase activity was optimal at 22 °C and pH 7.2 with a Km of 0.8 mm and a Vmax of 0.24 mU mg-" protein. GTP (Ka=4.2 lm), cellobiose, BSA and EGTA enhanced the reaction whereas UDP (Ki=0.45 mm) and Ca2+ inhibited it.

MONTIEL, D., M. J. DICKINSON, et al. (2003). "Genetic differentiation of the Aspergillus section Flavi complex using AFLP fingerprints." Mycol. Res. 107: 1427-1434. Twenty-four isolates of Aspergillus sojae, A. parasiticus, A.

oryzae and A. flavus, including a number that have the capacity to produce aflatoxin, have been compared using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). Based on analysis of 12 different primer combinations, 500 potentially polymorphic fragments have been identified. Analysis of the AFLP data consistently and clearly separates the A. sojae/A. parasiticus isolates from the A. oryzae/A. flavus isolates. Furthermore, there are markers that can be used to distinguish the A. sojae isolates from those of A. parasiticus, which form the basis for species-specific markers. However, whilst there were many polymorphisms between isolates within the A. oryzae/A. flavus subgroup, no markers could be identified that distinguish between the two species. Sequencing of the ribosomal DNA ITS (internal transcribed spacers) from selected isolates also separated the A. sojae/A. parasiticus subgroup from the A. oryzae/A. flavus subgroup, but was unable to distinguish between the A. sojae and A. parasiticus isolates. Some ITS variation was found

between isolates within the A. oryzae/A. flavus subgroup, but did not correlate with the species classification, indicating that it is difficult to use molecular data to separate the two species. In addition, sequencing of ribosomal ITS regions and AFLP analysis suggested that some species annotations in public culture collections may be inaccurate.

Montoya, A., O. Herna´ndez-Totomoch, et al. (2003). "Traditional knowledge about mushrooms in a Nahua community in the state of Tlaxcala, Me´xico." Mycologia, 95(5): 793-806.

MOODY, S. A., K. K. NEWSHAM, et al. (1999). "Variation in the responses of litter and phylloplane fungi to UV-B radiation (290--315 nm)." Mycol. Res.

This paper describes the traditional mycological knowledge of the Nahua of San Isidro Buensuceso, on the slopes of La Malinche Volcano National Park, in the state of Tlaxcala, Me´xico. The results described in this paper were obtained through interviews with villagers selected at random; a freelisting technique was used to determine the cultural significance of the mushrooms of the region. A total of 48 species, which had 65 Na´huatl names and 40 in Spanish, were identified. Although San Isidro villagers consider mushrooms to be a natural resource mainly used for food, they also use them for medicine, insecticides and trade. This paper presents traditional information on the morphology, ecology, fenology and consistency of the mushrooms found around San Isidro. It proposes that, from a cultural perspective, Gomphus flocossus, Ramaria spp. and Boletus spp. are the most important species of the region.

103: 1469-1477. The development of 12 litter and seven phylloplane fungal

species was examined from spore germination to colony sporulation across a series of environmentally relevant UV-B doses. For the litter fungi all aspects of fungal development and morphology studied were affected. On the basis of the responses of mycelial extension rate and spore germination to increasing UV-B, the 12 litter fungi were divided into two groups. Group A (Aspergillus fumigatus, Penicillium hordei, P. janczewskii, P. spinulosum and P. purpurogenum) were sensitive to UV-B, with the predicted effects of a 15% ozone depletion resulting in 22--44% reductions in spore germination. Mycelial extension rate on the agar surface was similarly affected, with reductions ranging from 15 to 25%. In contrast group B (Mucor hiemalis, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Leptosphaeria coniothyrium, Trichoderma viride, Ulocladium consortiale, the Verticillium state of Nectria inventa and Marasmius androsaceus) were relatively insensitive to UV-B, with significant, but small, reductions in mycelial extension rate (<5%) and spore germination (0--22%). Spore production in response to UV-B in the litter species was very variable, reductions ranging from 5% to complete inhibition. Only P. hordei showed a significant increase in spore production in response to UV-B dose. In

contrast, in all seven phylloplane species, spore germination was unaffected by increasing dose. Mycelial extension rate was slightly (2--12%), but significantly, inhibited by UV-B for the four phylloplane fungi tested. The contrasting responses of phylloplane and litter fungi to UV-B are discussed along with the implications for resource capture by competing fungal species and the possible effects of UV-B on decomposition processes.

Moon, C. D., C. O. Miles, et al. (2002). "The evolutionary origins of three new Neotyphodium endophyte species from grasses indigenous to the Southern Hemisphere1." Mycologia, 94(4): 694-711. Members of the genus Neotyphodium are asexual,

seedborne, protective fungal endophytes of cool season grasses that have likely evolved either directly from sexual Epichloe¨ species, or by the interspecific hybridization of distinct lineages of Epichloe and Neotyphodium. We investigated the evolutionary

origins of Neotyphodium endophytes from several grasses that are indigenous to the Southern Hemisphere using a multiple-gene phylogenetic approach. Intron regions of the genes encoding b-tubulin (tub2), translation elongation factor 1-a (tef1) and actin (act1) were amplified by polymerase chain reaction and sequenced. Phylogenetic analyses of these sequences, aligned with homologous sequences from Epichloe¨ spp., revealed the evolutionary origins of the Southern Hemisphere endophytes, where one lineage of apparently non-hybrid origin, and three lineages of unique interspecific hybrid origin were identified. On the basis of morphology, host range and evolutionary history, we propose three new species of Neotyphodium. Neotyphodium aotearoae was isolated from Echinopogon ovatus populations from New Zealand and Australia, and comprised a unique, apparently non-hybrid lineage within the Epichloe¨ species phylogeny. In contrast, an interspecific hybrid lineage was identified from two Australian Ec. ovatus populations, whose ancestry apparently involved lineages closely related to extant E. festucae and an E.

typhina genotype similar to that of isolates from Poa pratensis. Endophytes infecting South African Melica racemosa and M. decumbens (dronkgras) appeared tobe hybrids of E. festucae and N. aotearoae or close relatives. The names N. australiense and N. melicicola are proposed for these two hybrid lineages, respectively. The origin of N. tembladerae, an established endophyte species from South American Poa and Festuca spp., was also investigated. Neotyphodium tembladerae appeared to be of hybrid origin, involving E. festucae and an E. typhina genotype similar to that of isolates from Poa nemoralis. The results of this study highlight the widespread occurrence of interspecific hybrid Neotyphodium lineages on a global scale, and the extent of endophyte gene-flow between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

MOORE, D. (1998). "Mushrooms upright, sideways and inside-out." Mycol. Res. 102: 641-657.

Moore, D. L. and S. L. Stephenson (2003). "Microhabitat distribution of protostelids in a Tropical Wet Forest in Costa Rica." Mycologia,

Morphogenesis is not simply a matter of playing out a predefined genetic programme. Expression of developmentally important genes is epigenetic and place- and time-dependent relying on previously-formed tissue structures. Most differentiated hyphal cells require reinforcement of their differentiation ` instructions '. This reinforcement is part of the context (chemical, electrical and structural}mechanical environment) within which they normally develop. Key words at each stage of development in fungi are : competence, induction and change. Fungal morphogenesis is compartmentalized into a collection of ` sub-routines ' which are distinct

genetically and physiologically. Flexibility in expression of developmental sub-routines illustrates that tolerance of imprecision is an important attribute of fungal morphogenesis.

Moore, D. (2002). Fungal Morphogenesis. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. -: 469. Fungal Morphogenesis brings together in one book, for the first time, the

full scope of fungal developmental biology. The book provided a coherent account of the subject and puts forward ideas that can provide the basis of future research. The treatment also releases morphogenesis from the confines of mycology, showing how and why this eukaryotic kingdom deserves to be in the mainstream of developmental research. Throughout, the author blends together physiological, biochemical, structural and molecular descriptions within an evolutionary framework, combining the older literature with the most recent. Sufficient information is provided about fungal biology to give the reader a rounded view of the mycological context with in which fungal morphogenesis is played out, without obscuring the broader biological significance. Jargon is avoided, technical terms demystified and readers with knowledge of basic biology should not need to bring any other knowledge with them, nor need to refer elsewhere, in order to appreciate fungal morphogenesis. Written by one of the few people with the necessary breadth of research expertise to deal authoritatively with the wide range of topics, this book will appeal to developmental and cell biologists, microbiologists, and geneticists.

95(2): 11-18. A microhabitat study of protostelids was carried out in a

Tropical Wet Forest at the La Selva Biological Station in Costa Rica. Nine species were

recorded from sterile wheat straws placed out and then re-collected over a period of six weeks from two different litter microhabitats in an area of primary forest. All nine species were present on straws placed in the aerial litter microhabitat, but only six species were present on straws placed in the

forest floor litter microhabitat. Total colonies, percent of straws colonized, and mean number of species per straw increased significantly over time. One species (Schizoplasmodiopsis pseudoendospora) typical of temperate litter was the overwhelming dominant on the forest floor litter, while Echinostelium bisporum, a species rare in temperate litter microhabitats, was the single most abundant species in the aerial litter microhabitat. Both of these species had significantly increased frequencies over time. Two species abundant in temperate aerial litter microhabitats and one species abundant in temperate forest floor litter were rare at La Selva. Our data conform to those obtained in an earlier study carried out in tropical forests in the mountains of Puerto Rico and provide additional support towards developing a model of microhabitat

distribution of protostelids in terrestrial ecosystems. Moore, J. and M. E. Bushell (1997). "The effect of morphology and oxygen uptake on penicillin production by Aspergillus nidulans in submerged culture." Mycological Research 101(10): 1237-1241.

MORALES, P. and C. F. THURSTON (2003). "Efficient isolation of genes differentially expressed on cellulose by suppression subtractive hybridization in Agaricus bisporus." Mycol. Res.

Penicillin was not detected in Aspergillus nidulans liquid cultures with pelleted morphology (pellets 1-5 mm diam.) but production was observed in cultures with homogeneous filamentous morphologies. Adenylate Energy Charge (AEC) and Oxygen Uptake Rates (OUR) were measured in cultures exhibiting the two morphologies and it was shown that the values of both parameters were lowest in pelleted cultures and highest in cultures with a filamentous morphology. In addition, a third morphological form, ` micropellets ' with intermediate properties between the other two types was encountered. We propose that oxygen limitation brought about by the mass transfer restrictions of pelleted growth inhibits penicillin production.

107: 401-407. The production of cellulases on minimal medium in the edible

mushroom Agaricus bisporus is regulated by the carbon source: induced by cellulose and repressed by glucose. In order to isolate cellulose-growth specific sequences, a cDNA library from A. bisporus using suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) was constructed. Northern blot analysis indicated that a high level of enrichment was achieved; 183 clones were isolated. A preliminary screen with cellulosespecific

genes of A. bisporus (cel1, cel2, cel3 and cel4) using Southern hybridization resulted in 28 clones to be cel3, and 5 clones were cel2. The remaining 144 clones were sequenced. Partial sequences of the following genes were found: a β-glucosidase homologue of the blvk gene of Kluyveromyces marxianus; a cellulase homologue of an endoglucanase (avicellase III) of Aspergillus aculeatus, four different xylanases homologue of the xyn genes of different fungi, and one hexose transporter

homologue to the hxtA gene of Aspergillus parasiticus. The apparent full-length of two hydrophobins homologue to the abh3 gene of A. bisporus and one histone homologue to the h2a gene of Aspergillus niger were also found. The remaining sequences did not have homology to any known genes.

MOREAU, P.-A., G. GARCIA, et al. (2003). "Lentinellus herbarum, a rediscovered unclamped species." Mycol. Res. 107: 757-762.

Moreno, G., A. Altes, et al. (1997). "Notes on type materials of Tulostoma. Some species with mixed holotypes." Mycological Research

The fungus first described as Lentinus flabelliformis var. herbarum has been found fruiting on dead Epilobium angustifolium stalks at La Chaise-Dieu (France), the first record since its original diagnosis. The basidiospore characters, trama and hymenium structure indicate the species belongs Lentinellus sect. Omphalodei (Hericiales), but the absence of clamps is a remarkable character, new for this genus. The new combination L. herbarum comb. nov. (syn. Lentinus flabelliformis var. herbarum) is made and a neotype designated. A key to the eight European taxa of sect. Omphalodei is included.

101(8): 957-965.

MORENO, G., J. DIEZ, et al. (2000). "Picoa lefebvrei and Tirmania nivea, two rare hypogeous fungi from Spain." Mycol. Res.

A study of the macroscopic and microscopic characters of type material of Tulostoma leiosporum, T. exitum, T. operculatum and T. puncticulosum showed their heterogeneity. An attempt was made to resolve the taxonomic problems involved in the selection of lectotypes, and new synonymies are proposed. SEM photographs of spore ornamentation are provided.

104: 378-381.

MORENO-ARROYO, B., J. GOMEZ, et al. (1999). "Gymnomyces dominguezii sp. nov. from Spain." Mycol. Res.

Picoa lefebvrei and Tirmania nivea are reported for the second and first time from Spain and Europe, respectively. They are illustrated and compared with material and descriptions of the related P. juniperi, T. pinoyi and P. lefebvrei is compared with material from Israel. The collection of T. nivea was originally recorded as T. pinoyi, which should, therefore, be removed from the European Catalogue of hypogeous fungi.

103: 215-218.

MORETTI, M., A. ARNOLDI, et al. (2003). "Characterization of field-isolates and derived DMI-resistant strains of Cercospora beticola." Mycol. Res.

Gymnomyces dominguezii, a gasteroid fungus belonging to the Russulales, is described and illustrated as a new species. Its main taxonomic characters are discussed and compared with other species in the genus and those in Martellia and Zelleromyces.

107: 1178-1188.

Cercospora beticola strains with laboratory induced resistance to tetraconazole were compared with their parental WT sensitive strains to evaluate the effects of resistance on fitness and assess whether any change in the sterol biosynthetic pathway was associated to the reduced fungicide sensitivity. In vitro growth rate on agar media and pathogenicity were found to be negatively affected by resistance. The main functional sterols in C. beticola WT strains under investigation

were ergosterol, brassicasterol and ergosta-7,22-dienol. Resistant strains showed the same qualitative sterol composition, ruling it out as, per se, a cause for resistance. On the basis of the sterols detected both in sensitive and resistant strains, a possible biosynthetic pathway to the three functional sterols is proposed. Tetraconazole treatment caused, in all sensitive strains, the immediate accumulation of 14α-methylated sterols, which, for inhibitor concentrations up to EC50 values, were, in order of abundance, 14α-methylergosta-8,24(28)-dien-3β,6α-diol, eburicol and obtusifoliol. However the data do not support a critical role of the 14-methyl-3,6-diol derivative in the growth arrest of C. beticola. As main difference between sensitive and resistant strains, the formers were found to accumulate higher amounts of 14α-methylated sterols. Although the data do not allow to establish a specific mechanism for resistance, some molecular mechanisms such as target site alterations and sterol biosynthetic pathway can be ruled out as a possible cause for reduced sensitivity.

MORGAN, A., L. BODDY, et al. (1998). "Evaluation of artificial neural networks for fungal identification, employing morphometric data from spores of Pestalotiopsis species." Mycol. Res. 102: 975-984.

MORICCA, S. and A. RAGAZZI (1998). "Use of RFLP and SSCP analysis to differentiate the pine rusts Cronartium flaccidum and Peridermium pini." Mycol.

The relative abilities of the multilayer perceptron, radial basis function, asymmetric radial basis function and learning vector quantization artificial neural networks (ANNs) and two non-neural methods to identify fungal spores were compared. ANNs were trained on morphometric data from spores of Pestalotiopsis spp. and a few species in the related Truncatella and Monochaetia. The optimized neural and statistical classifiers had similar identification success on an unseen data set - between 76.0 and 78.8% of a 16-species group and between 63.0 and 67.7% of a 19-species group. The relative merits of each classifier are discussed, as is the potential of ANNs in mycology.

Res. 102: 666-670. Two rapid, independent molecular assays have been

developed for discriminating between the closely related rusts of hard pines, Cronartium flaccidum and Peridermium pini. A portion of the ITS region and a portion of the IGS region from the ribosomal RNA operon of the two organisms were amplified with the PCR. Amplifications were made

using DNA extracted from aeciospores collected from unopened aecia, taking a small number of spores as a source of template DNA. Amplified fragments were subjected to RFLP or to SSCP analysis. Digests of the amplified products from the IGS1 region were electrophoresed on polyacrylamide gel

and stained with ethidium bromide. Hinf I digestion of these fragments created polymorphic restriction profiles which allowed differentiation of the autoecious P. pini from the heteroecious C. flaccidum. Similar-sized DNA fragments representing the ITS2 region of the two rusts were denatured, subjected to electrophoresis as single strands on polyacrylamide gel under non-denaturing conditions and ` silver stained '. The different mobility displayed by these short fragments revealed sequence polymorphism in the examined portion of the ITS region. This technique therefore represents an accurate and sensitive method for detection of base changes in given sequences of genomic DNA. A high level of homology was found between the two biotroph organisms in the loci screened. Results obtained in this trial indicate that PCR-RFLP and PCR-SSCP can be used as simple, speedy taxonomic tools for elucidating relationships among related organisms.

MORICCA, S. and A. RAGAZZI (2001). "Establishment of single-genotype axenic cultures from the haploid stage of the pine blister rust Cronartium flaccidum." Mycol. Res. 105: 1527-1532. The haplophase of the pine blister rust Cronartium flaccidum

was used to grow mycelial clones axenically from single genotypes. Single telia were suspended over the media in order to obtain a direct cast of uninucleate basidiospores, providing nurse cultures from a mass basidiospore inoculum. Nurse culture and medium composition were crucial factors in successful germination and establishment of single-spore colonies. Significant differences in percentage germination between treatments and controls suggested that an extracellular matrix secreted by high density seeded basidiospores could be involved in the germination of single propagules. Proteins present in this matrix could exert a surface contact stimulus triggering germination of newly seeded basidiospores. Preproduction of extracellular enzymes in the medium could also initiate early substrate catabolism and thus create a favourable environment to support subsequent colony establishment. Growth was good on various media, and excellent on HG1Y+BSA medium. Primary mother colonies were divided into several smaller ones, re-grown axenically, then macerated. Aliquots of the resulting mycelial fragments were dispensed with a micropipette into fresh agar media. Clones derived from each pure culture were in general morphologically similar in texture, margin, compactness, and surface topography. These genetically pure lines grew at a faster rate and rapidly produced a considerable amount of mycelium. The significance of culturing rust fungi from single genotypes is discussed in relation to potential applications and new directions of research.

MORICCA, S., A. RAGAZZI, et al. (2000). "In vitro growth of the aspen rust Melampsora larici-tremulae." Mycol. Res. 104: 1250-1257.

After about one month, cultures seemed adapted to utilising exogenous nutrients for sustained growth and their development rate increased substantially. As a result of selection under unusual growing conditions, fast-growing genetic variants were also observed in the nutrient agar. Growth on all the three test media, containing different organic and inorganic constituents, suggested that nutritional requirements were non-specific. The importance of axenic cultures in the study of the nutritional requirements of aspen rust and the potential of these investigations to elucidate some physiological and genetic aspects of the host-parasite relationship are

MORIN, L., A. F. GIANOTTI, et al. (2000). "Trichothecene production and pathogenicity of Fusarium tumidum, a candidate bioherbicide for gorse and broom in New Zealand." Mycol. Res.

Axenic cultures of the aspen rust Melampsora larici-tremulae were established for the first time by seeding aeciospores artificially produced on larch onto three chemically defined media. Cultures were maintained for 9 months and evaluated for their appearance, growth rates and sporulation ability. Two types of colonies were observed. One, white and fluffy tending to felty, did not sporulate in culture. The other, white-orange with a more compact aerial mycelium, sporulated profusely producing various spore like bodies and other unusual structures. An initial lag phase, with reduced growth, characterised primary rust cultures in the first 4--5 weeks.

discussed.

104: 993-999. The relationship between trichothecene production and

pathogenicity was investigated for 29 isolates of Fusarium tumidum, a potential bioherbicide for gorse (Ulex europaeus) and broom (Cytisus scoparius) in New Zealand. All isolates originally derived from broom produced high levels of T-2 tetraol derivatives when grown on ground maize kernels and pearl barley grains, compared with isolates from gorse. Low amounts of scirpentriol derivatives were also produced by both groups of isolates. No nivalenol and deoxynivalenol derivatives were detected in any of the culture extracts. A subset of isolates cultured on gorse and broom tissue

produced only small amounts of T-2 tetraol derivatives relative to the amounts produced in grain cultures. Overall, isolates from broom were more aggressive towards both hosts than isolates from gorse, but the pathogenicity of isolates was not correlated with their capacity to produce large amounts of T-2 tetraol derivatives in culture. Two isolates from gorse were highly aggressive towards both weeds. These isolates offer prospects for the development of a safe bioherbicide that could target two major weeds in New Zealand, as trichothecenes were not detected from them at the higher concentrations.

MORRIS, P. F., M. S. CONNOLLY, et al. (2000). "Genetic diversity of Alternaria alternata isolated from tomato in California assessed using RAPDs." Mycol. Res. 104: 286-292.

MORTON, C. O., P. R. HIRSCH, et al. (1007). "Cloning of and genetic variation in protease VCP1 from the nematophagous fungus Pochonia chlamydosporia." Mycol. Res.

Black mould lesions were caused by Alternaria alternata in 76% of 228 tomato fruit with characteristic sunken black lesions collected from fields of processing tomatoes in California. Analysis of 29 RAPD primers revealed a high level of genetic diversity among the 69 isolates tested. Two major phenetic groups (Group 1 with 55 isolates and Group 2 with 14) were identified independently by PCA and by UPGMA of Jaccard similarity coefficients. Only 34 of 137 RAPD markers were monomorphic for all isolates and the genetic similarity between the two groups was 50%. Co-infection of black mould lesions by genetically distinct strains of A. alternata occurred in two of 10 isolates tested. There was no evidence for geographic clustering of isolates with high levels of genetic similarity, suggesting that isolates are widely dispersed across California. Only one isolate was identified which also caused stem canker disease on a susceptible tomato cv., suggesting that these strains play a minor role in causing black mould on processing tomatoes in California. This isolate and two other known stem canker isolates were clustered together with 11 other isolates in Group 2. Group 2-specific bands were also identified in a survey of seven additional isolates known to produce host-specific toxins.

107: 38-46.

The fungus Pochonia chlamydosporia is a biocontrol agent with commercial potential for root knot and cyst nematodes. It produces an alkaline serine protease, VCP1, during infection of nematode eggs. The gene encoding VCP1 was sequenced and the sequences of cDNAs from six isolates from different nematode hosts were compared. The gene encoding VCP1 was similar to PR1 from Metarhizium anisopliae with similar regulatory elements. Comparison of translated cDNA sequences revealed two amino acid polymorphisms at positions 65 and 99, indicating a difference between isolates from cyst and root nematodes. The positions and nature of the polymorphisms indicated that the two forms of VCP1 might have different properties and this was tested with five chromogenic polypeptide substrates. Enzyme assays revealed the two forms differed in their abilities to utilise Succ-Ala-Ala-Pro-Phe-pNa and Succ-Ala-Val-Pro-PhepNa, suggesting different amino acid affinities at the S3 binding region. This indicates host related genetic variation in VCP1 between isolates of P. chlamydosporia isolated from different nematode hosts, which might contribute to host preference. Such differences may be important in future exploitation of P. chlamydosporia as a nematode biocontrol agent.

MORTON, C. O., T. H. MAUCHLINE, et al. (2003). "PCR-based DNA fingerprinting indicates host-related genetic variation in the nematophagous fungus Pochonia chlamydosporia." Mycol. Res. 107: 198-205.

Morton, J. B., J. D. Bever, et al. (1997). "Taxonomy of Acaulospora gerdemannii and Glomus leptotichum, synanamorphs of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus in Glomales." Mycological Research

The mitosporic fungus Pochonia chlamydosporia is a potential biocontrol agent for cyst (Heterodera spp. and Globodera spp.) and root knot (Meloidogyne spp.) nematodes, which are important agricultural plant pests. 54 isolates from diverse geographical regions and several nematode hosts were used in this study. Genetic variation was examined using enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC) primed PCR and sequences from the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) rRNA region. ERIC PCR yielded 35 scorable binary characters from all the fungi tested and cluster analysis of the data showed that isolates from cyst nematodes were more genetically variable than those from root knot nematodes. The ITS regions were highly conserved, the only significant difference being an extra thymidine in isolates from Meloidogyne spp. Assays with nematode eggs indicated that isolates differ in their ability to infect different nematode genera. The results indicate host related variation in P. chlamydosporia. This finding has significant implications for the application of P. chlamydosporia as a biocontrol agent.

101(5): 625-631.

Mostert, L., P. W. Crous, et al. (2003). "Togninia (Calosphaeriales) is confirmed as teleomorph of Phaeoacremonium by means of morphology, sexual compatibility and DNA phylogeny." Mycologia,

Comparison of type specimens of A. gerdemannii and A. appendicula revealed the spores to be identical in organization and subcellular structure, indicating they are conspecific. The Glomus morph of A. appendicula was not assigned a name in the protologue, but 11 living cultures started from or producing spores of A. gerdemannii also generated Glomus-like spores of identical morphology to those in type specimens of Glomus leptotichum. These spores were indistinguishable from those in type specimens of G. fecundisporum, indicating they are conspecific. Both species were described in the same paper, so the name G. leptotichum is given priority because type specimens are in better condition and specimens from a reference culture have been identified by an author of both prologues. Absence of a teleomorph and confirmation of dimorphism from single and multiple-spore inoculations of host plants in culture provide the basis for designating A. gerdemannii and G. leptotichum as synanamorphs of one vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus.

Moser, M. (1978). Keys to Agarics and Boleti (Polyporales, Boletales, Agaricales, Russulales), Rogers Phillips: 534.

95(4): 646-659.

Petri disease, or black goo, is a serious disease of vines in most areas where grapevines are cultivated. The predominant associated fungus is Phaeomoniella chlamydospora (Chaetothyriales). Several species of Phaeoacremonium (Pm.) also are associated, of which Pm. aleophilum is the most common. Although no teleomorph is known for Phaeoacremonium, the genus Togninia previously has been linked to phaeoacremonium-like anamorphs. To investigate the possible anamorph-teleomorph connection of Phaeoacremonium to Togninia, anamorphs of Togninia minima, T. fraxinopennsylvanica and T. novae-zealandiae morphologically were compared with Pm. aleophilum and some representative cultures were mated in all combinations. Although no interspecies mating proved fertile, matings between isolates of Pm. aleophilum produced a Togninia teleomorph within 3–4 weeks. Certain field isolates of Pm. aleophilum commonly produced the teleomorph, demonstrating that both mating types can occur in the same vine and thus also explaining the genetic diversity

observed for this fungus in some vineyards. To elucidate the phylogenetic relationships among these taxa, isolates were subjected to sequence analysis of

the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacers (ITS1, ITS2) and the 5.8S rRNA gene, as well as portions of the translation elongation factor 1 alpha (EF 1α) gene. The generic placement of teleomorphs within Togninia (Calosphaeriales) further was con- firmed via phylogenetic analyses of 18S small subunit (SSU) DNA. From these sequences, morphological and mating data, we conclude that T. minima is the teleomorph of Pm. aleophilum, and that it has a biallelic heterothallic mating system. An epitype and mating type tester strains also are designated for T. minima.

Moyersoen, B. and R. E. Beever (2004). "Abundance and characteristics of Pisolithus ectomycorrhizas in New Zealand geothermal areas." Mycologia, 96(6): 1225-1232. Pisolithus is restricted in New Zealand to geothermal areas

where it associates with Kunzea ericoides var. microflora (prostrate kanuka) and occasionally Leptospermum scoparium. Here we describe for the first time the ectomycorrhizal morphotypes of three New Zealand Pisolithus species and report the frequency and abundance of these morphotypes against other mycorrhizal fungi associated with these hosts in New Zealand geothermal areas. The three Pisolithus species form typical ectomycorrhizal associations with Kunzea ericoides var. microflora, and one also was observed forming typical ectomycorrhizal associations with Leptospermum scoparium. Although the morphotypes from the three Pisolithus species share many morphological and anatomical characteristics, they vary with regard to the abundance of rhizomorphs. The common occurrence of Pisolithus fruiting bodies at the geothermal sites was matched by frequent and abundant Pisolithus ectomycorrhizas. Pisolithus ectomycorrhizas were frequent (100% of soil cores) and

abundant (between 55 and 88% of ectomycorrhizal tips) associates of prostrate kanuka in hot (50 C at 8 cm depth), highly acidic and N depleted soils. The levels of arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization of prostrate kanuka were lower than on K. ericoides and L. scoparium on cooler soils. The stressful conditions where prostrate kanuka dominates probably favor Pisolithus over the mycorrhizal fungi occurring in cooler geothermal areas. Questions about how several genetically similar Pisolithus species co-occur on prostrate kanuka in geothermal areas without mutual competitive exclusion are discussed.

MSWAKA, A. Y. and N. MAGAN (1998). "Wood degradation, and cellulase and ligninase production, by Trametes and other wood-inhabiting basidiomycetes from indigenous forests of Zimbabwe." Mycol. Res. 102: 1399-1404. Nine species of Trametes and five other wood inhabiting

basidiomycetes, were collected from the indigenous forests of Zimbabwe and analysed for cellulases, ligninases, extracellular phenolases and wood degrading ability for the first time. Cellulase enzyme activities varied widely among the species. After 15 d growth exo-glucanase activity had increased in the majority of species whilst filter paper activity showed the opposite trend, being greatly reduced in all species on day 15 compared to day 10. Endo-glucanase activity was relatively uniform at both sampling times. The fungi were more active against water soluble cellulose derivatives than filter paper cellulase. In all the fungi tested, cellulose activity on filter paper was significantly less than endo- and exo-glucanase activities. The highest cellulase activity was expressed by Cerrena meyenii (683 U mg-1) Phaeotrametes decipiens, Trametes modesta, and T. pocas also expressed relatively high cellulase activity on all types of cellulose tested. All Trametes species tested positive for extracellular phenol oxidases whilst Fomotopsis spragueii and Irpex stereoides tested negative. All but one of the Trametes species in the study were able to degrade two different lignin preparations in tests for lignin degradation. T. menziesii was unable to degrade both lignin preparations although it had tested positive for production of extracellular oxidase. The species in this study degraded hardwood to a greater extent than softwood. Eight of them caused more than 80% dry weight loss of wood blocks during 70 d incubation. Those fungi that expressed high cellulase activity also caused high weight loss on wood.

MSWAKA, A. Y. and N. MAGAN (1999). "Temperature and water potential relations of tropical Trametes and other wood-decay fungi from the indigenous forests of Zimbabwe." Mycol. Res. ALLEN Y. MSWAKA

Three isolates each, of nine different Trametes and five other wood inhabiting basidiomycetes, were collected from the indigenous forests of Zimbabwe, and the impact of temperature (20--60 °C), osmotic and matric potential (--0.5 to --8.0 MPa), and their interactions on in vitro

NARESH MAGAN: 1309-1317.

growth compared. Generally, there was no significant difference between growth of isolates of the same species in relation to temperature. Temperature relationships of the species studied correlated well with their geographic distributions. Species occurring in hot, dry regions tolerated a wide temperature range, with some showing unusually high thermotolerance (55°, T. socotrana, T. cingulata and T. cervina). There were significant intra-strain differences for individual species in relation to solute potential on glycerol-modified media. Generally, growth of all species was better on glycerol- and KCl-modified osmotic media than on a matrically-modified medium (PEG 8000) at 25, 30 and 37°. The limits for growth on the osmotic media were significantly wider than matric medium, being --4.5 to --5.0 and --2.5 to --4.5 MPa, respectively. An Irpex sp. grew at

Mucciarelli, M., S. Scannerini, et al. (2002). "An ascomycetous endophyte isolated from Mentha piperita L.: biological features and molecular studies." Mycologia,

lower water potentials than all other species, with good growth at --7.0 MPa. This study suggests that the capacity of these fungi for effective growth over a range of temperatures, osmotic and matric potentials contributes to their rapid wood decay capacities in tropical climates.

94(1): 28-39.

MULLER, M. M. and A.-M. HALLAKSELA (1998). "Diversity of Norway spruce needle endophytes in various mixed and pure Norway spruce stands." Mycol.

A hyaline sterile fungus forming epiphyllous mycelial nets was isolated from meristem cultures of Mentha piperita. Histological studies indicated that the culture isolate is able to colonize stems and leaves with no damage to the host plant. In vitrogrown peppermint plants displayed enhanced vegetative growth when infected by the fungus, with mycelium extending from green tissues to growing rootlets. The production of very thin hyphae growing away from host meristems and the asymptomatic nature of the symbiosis were commonly observed in cultures, where the isolate never sporulated. No attribution to a precise morphospecies was therefore possible and the fungal culture was named sterile mycelium PGP-HSF. Through comparison of the 18 S rDNA sequence of the epibiont to those available in

literature and in GenBank we were able to determine that the mutualist of peppermint is a member of the Pyrenomycetes, belonging to the subclass Sordariomycetidae.

Res. 102: 1183-1189. Norway spruce needles were sampled from two series of

stand areas located in southern Finland. Both series consisted of five sampling areas in mature managed stands and one in a mature virgin stand. The proportion of spruce varied from 8 to 100% of the basal tree area and the major other species were pubescent birch and Scots pine. From each sampling area (some of which consisted of several sites) 40

mature spruces were randomly chosen and healthy looking needles of the third age class were sampled from heights of 5-8 m and incubated on water agar for isolation of endophytic fungi.

The majority of isolates were identified by their combined fatty acid and sterol profiles (FAST-profiles) as Lophodermium piceae. Tiarasporella parca was less common and Rhizosphaera kalkhoffii, Sclerophoma pythiophila, Lirula macrospora and Thysanophora penicillioides occurred occasionally. For calculations of fungal diversity all isolates were classified by their FAST-profiles into 81 groups (=operational chemotaxonomic units) according to a defined upper variation limit, i.e. an upper FAST-profile mismatch limit.

MULLER, M. M. and A.-M. HALLAKSELA (2000). "Fungal diversity in Norway spruce: a case study." Mycol. Res.

The highest percentage of endophytically infected needles was found in pure spruce stands and dense virgin stands. Location of the stand, its proportion of spruce and total basal area of trees (i.e. tree density) explained 82% of the variation of the overall infection rate. The effect of location was probably a consequence of differences in air quality between the various sampling areas.

The endophyte diversity, expressed as the number of FAST-groups per 40 spruces of each sampling area, correlated positively and statistically signi®cantly with the percentage of needles infected or with the proportion of spruce in the stand. The highest endophytic diversity, expressed as FAST-groups per tree, was found in pure spruce and mixed virgin stands.

104: 1139-1145.

The majority of microbes living on forest trees are still unnamed and our knowledge of their species richness is vague. This paper describes the fungal diversity of the above ground parts of a 61 year old Norway spruce tree lacking visible signs of damage or disease. The problem involved with identification of the fungi to named species was circumvented by classifying them into operational chemotaxonomic units (OCTUs) by using their combined fatty acid and sterol profiles (FAST-profiles). The variation of these units was chosen to correspond to a within-species-variation determined for several morphologically defined taxonomic species occurring on Norway spruce. Ninety-nine OCTUs were identified from 666 fungal isolates obtained. Bacteria were found only occasionally from the inner bark samples (three isolates) and from needles (five isolates). Models describing the accumulation of OCTUs against the number of samples taken were used for extrapolation of the total number of fungal OCTUs in the above ground parts of the tree. Our results suggest that an undamaged, apparently healthy Norway spruce, harbours in its above ground parts nearly two hundred fungal species. The majority were estimated to be needle epiphytes. At the large forest area scale, the species richness may be one order of magnitude higher.

Muller, M. M. and A. M. Hallaksela (1998). "A chemotaxonomical method based on FAST-profiles for the determination of phenotypic diversity of spruce needle endophytic fungi." Mycological Research 102(10): 1190-1197.

MULLER, M. M. and J. HANTULA (1998). "Diversity of Tiarosporella parca in Finland, Norway and Switzerland." Mycol. Res.

Assessment of diversity (including both species richness and intraspecific variation) within a habitat may often be difficult when morphological criteria are used for identification and classification of isolates. Here we describe how combined fatty acid and sterol profiles (FAST-profiles) can be used for classification of fungal isolates into FAST-groups (i.e. operational chemotaxonomic units) according to a defined upper variation limit. Data analysis includes a two stage statistical approach. First, the isolates are grouped into taxonomic species using a discriminant model based on well identified `model' isolates. These species groups together with one group that includes isolates which could not be identified with the discriminant model are further divided into operational chemotaxonomic units using a FAST-profile mismatch threshold. This method is demonstrated with Norway spruce needle endophytes. The model isolates were obtained from fallen spruce needles and identified by morphological criteria. Five species fruited on the needles : Lophodermium piceae, Rhizosphaera kalkhoffii, Lirula macrospora, Tiarosporella parca, and Thysanophora penicillioides. Additionally, mycelia of Sclerophoma pythiophila were frequently noted. These model isolates were separated by their FAST-profiles by applying a multivariate discriminant model into six distinct non-overlapping clusters corresponding to their species. This model was used for identification of 1740 isolates obtained from surface sterilized Norway spruce needles. As an example, isolates identified as T. parca were further divided into FAST-groups by applying a FAST-profile mismatch threshold value. This threshold value was the average within-species mismatch-value obtained for isolates identified by morphological criteria. This method allows a division of any batch of fungi cultivable in vitro into operational chemotaxonomic units according to a defined upper variation limit.

102: 1163-1168. Isolates of Tiarosporella parca from needles of Picea abies

growing in Lapland, southern Finland, southern Norway and Switzerland were compared with each other by using their combined fatty acid and sterol profiles (FAST) and randomly amplified microsatellite (RAMS) markers.

Nineteen fatty acids and four sterols were recorded, nine of which appeared only at low amounts (<1% of the total amount of extractives). In a discriminant analysis of their FAST-profiles the isolates could be separated into three non-overlapping groups: (i) Lappish and southern Norwegian, (ii) Southern Finnish and (iii) Swiss isolates. The Swiss isolates form the most distinct group with 11 out of 23 extractives significantly different from those of the other geographical populations.

In RAMS analysis two out of five primers tested with ten isolates resulted in polymorphic banding patterns. Using these two primers 26 variable markers in eight size areas were observed which allowed separation of the 39 isolates investigated into 35 different haplotypes. Thus, only four pairs of identical isolates were observed. Determination of the genetic diversity among the isolates revealed that 59% of variation was due to variance within populations, 27% was due to variance between populations within geographical regions and 13% was due to variation between regions.

Muller, M. M. and A. Uotila (1997). "The diversity of Gremmeniella abietina var. abietina FAST- pro files." Mycological Research

Hence, both methods show a differentiation of the European T. parca population according to geographical origin.

101(5): 557-564.

MULLER, W. H., J. A. STALPERS, et al. (2000). "The taxonomic position of Asterodon, Asterostroma and Coltricia inferred from the septal pore cap ultrastructure." Mycol. Res.

Eighty-eight isolates of Gremmeniella abietina var. abietina belonging to the Asian, European and North American races were cultivated on agar plates and their fatty acids and sterols were extracted and analysed. Fourteen fatty acids and seven sterols were detected by gas chromatography. Multivariate discriminant analysis revealed distinct differences between the contents of fatty acids and sterols (FAST-profiles) of the three races ; the most distinct was the Asian race. Additionally, the presence of two ecologically different types in Finland, the large tree and small tree type (LTT and STT, respectively) was confirmed on the basis of their significantly different FAST-profiles. The FAST-profiles of European STT more closely resemble the American race than the European LTT. The diversity of North American isolates of the European race, which were supposedly initially introduced from Europe in the 1960s, were considerably higher than the diversity of the European LTT or STT isolates.

104: 1485-1491. The ultrastructure of the septal pore cap (SPC) of Asterodon,

Asterostroma and Coltricia were examined to establish the taxonomic position of these genera. Asterostroma has dolipores with perforate SPCs and is classified in the Lachnocladiaceae. In contrast, Asterodon and Coltricia have dolipores with imperforate SPCs and belong to the Hymenochaetaceae. Other selected species of genera belonging to the Hymenochaetaceae like Hydnochaete, Coltriciella, Inonotus, Onnia, and Cyclomyces also contained imperforate SPCs. Coltriciella, Inonotus and Cyclomyces moreover presented a lamella of endoplasmic reticulum above the imperforate SPC after chemical fixation. Such a lamella could rarely be observed in Coltricia only after high-pressure freezing and freeze substitution. Cryofixed fungal cells of Cyclomyces and Coltricia showed differences in the architecture of the matrix of the SPC. Coltricia showed a

more layered matrix structure than the SPC of Cyclomyces. In addition, transmission- and scanning electron microscopy revealed an indent in the centre of the imperforate SPC of Cyclomyces, indicating a reduced thickness, and resulting into a tented profile in crosssections.

MUNAUT, F., N. HAMAIDE, et al. (2002). "Genomic and pathogenic diversity in Colletotrichum gloeosporioides from wild native Mexican Stylosanthes spp., and taxonomic implications." Mycol. Res. 106: 579-593.

A phylogenetic study was performed using the ITS1 sequences from 32 representative Mexican isolates selected in the four RAPD clusters, from the two Australian and the two African used as references, from 13 C. gloeosporioides from various hosts and origins available in the EMBL databank and from three phylogenetically related species of Colletotrichum. Two clusters (S and VHO) were generated. Cluster S contained the 30 isolates clustered in RAPD I and II, and the type A and B isolates from Stylosanthes selected in EMBL. Cluster VHO contained the two isolates belonging to RAPD clusters III and IV as well as the remaining Colletotrichum spp. and C. gloeosporioides isolates from various hosts and origins selected in EMBL.

On the basis of results obtained from the molecular and pathogenic experiments in the present study, of morphological and molecular data from previous work, as well as from other authors, a taxonomic infraspecific differentiation was proposed, as C. gloeosporioides f. stylosanthis f. sp. stylosanthis and f. sp. guianensis.

MUNNOZ, G., P. HINRICHSEN, et al. (2002). "Genetic characterisation of Botrytis cinerea populations in Chile." Mycol. Res.

RAPD amplifications of 119 Mexican Colletotrichum gloeosporioides isolates from wild native Stylosanthes plants, of two Australian (internal reference isolates of type A and type B) and of two African (previously demonstrated as different from the A and B types) allowed the generation of four polymorphic clusters. The RAPD cluster I contained the Australian type A and 103 Mexican isolates from other species than S. guianensis. The cluster II contained the Australian type B isolate and 14 Mexican isolates from S. guianensis. The clusters III and IV contained one African and one Mexican isolate each.

Severe type A lesions were observed on several Stylosanthes species, including S. guianensis, after inoculation with the 26 Mexican isolates selected in RAPD cluster I. The four Mexican isolates selected in RAPD cluster II induced extensive type B lesions only on S. guianensis genotypes. The virulence spectra of the isolates was not linked to variations in their ITS1 region sequence. A wide range of anthracnose lesions was induced by the Mexican isolates in

interactions with the various Stylosanthes genotypes.

106: 594-601. This work aimed to evaluate the genetic diversity of Botrytis

cinerea in Chile and to determine whether the two genetically different

groups transposa and vacuma, described in France, are present in the country. Isolates collected in Chile from grapes, tomato, kiwifruit and blueberry were analysed using molecular markers. We developed a PCR test to identify the two groups of B. cinerea, transposa (with the transposable elements Boty and Flipper) and vacuma (with neither). As described in France, both kind of isolates were found to be present and sympatric in Chile. Isolates containing the transposable element Boty alone (boty isolates) were also detected. The frequencies of transposa, boty and vacuma isolates were significantly different on kiwifruit compared to grapes, tomato and blueberry. RAPD analysis revealed a high degree of genetic diversity, with no widespread clonal lineages. Dendrograms, analysis of molecular variance and Fst values revealed the existence of genetic differentiation in our sample between isolates from the different host plants. PCR-RFLP markers also showed that isolates sampled from grapes and tomato were genetically differentiated. Additional sampling is required to confirm these findings.

MURO, M. A. D., S. ELLIOTT, et al. (2005). "Molecular characterisation of Beauveria bassiana isolates obtained from overwintering sites of Sunn Pests (Eurygaster and Aelia species)." Mycol. Res. 109: 294-306.

isolates from E. integriceps, perhaps suggesting the overwintering populations were infected by generalist native isolates rather than by host-specific ones that might be more suitable for biocontrol purposes.

Murrill, W. A. (1973). Tropical Polypores. Bibliotheca Mycologica

110 isolates of Beauveria (104 B. bassiana, 5 Beauveria spp., 1 B. brongniartii) were obtained from Sunn Pests (Eurygaster and Aelia species), litter, and other insect samples at overwintering sites in seven countries in the Middle East and West Asia. DNA was extracted from these isolates, and four techniques were used to characterize and to investigate genetic diversity at the molecular level : ITS-RFLP, ITS sequencing, ISSR-PCR, and AFLP. The ITS-RFLP and ITS sequences did not detect significant genetic variation among the isolates. However, both ISSR-PCR and AFLP analyses gave indications of intraspecific groupings correlated with geographical origin and relative genetic diversity among some isolates, but no obvious association with Sunn Pest hosts. There was no obvious genotypic grouping of B. bassiana

, Verlag Von J. Cramer. Band 40: 113. MURTAGH, G. J., P. S. DYER, et al. (2002). "Molecular and physiological diversity in the bipolar lichen-forming fungus Xanthoria elegans." Mycol. Res. 106: 1277-1286. Genetic and physiological diversity was assessed in isolates of

the lichen-forming fungus Xanthoria elegans originating from a range of geographic localities and climatic regimes including polar and temperate regions. In vitro cultures were established and isolates examined by

production of multi-locus RAPD markers and by sequence comparison of the ITS region of the rDNA tandem repeat unit. Both molecular techniques revealed significant variability. Phylogenetic analysis of RAPD profiles (226 markers) clustered isolates from particular locations together and Mantel’s test showed a correlation between genetic divergence and extent of geographic separation. Phylogenies basedonITSsequence divergence were not well supported and did not correlate with the geographic origin of samples, suggesting a single locus approach to be less informative than RAPD data in a study of this nature. Physiological investigations also revealed significant variability between isolates with different geographic origins. Temperature had a significant effect on relative growth rate (RGR) such that X. elegans originating from sites with lower mean annual temperatures had significantly higher RGRs at all test temperatures between 2 ° and 18 °C. Enhanced metabolic activity might be an adaptation for growth in colder climates. The results demonstrate high genetic diversity within this morphologically variable species in response to geographic and environmental factors, and are discussed in relation to data obtained for non-lichenised fungal species and the possibility of cryptic speciation.

MUTHUMEENAKSHI, S., A. E. BROWN, et al. (1998). "Genetic comparison of the aggressive weed mould strains of Trichoderma harzianum from mushroom compost in North America and the British Isles." Mycol. Res. 102: 385-390.

MUTHUMEENAKSHI, S., A. L. GOLDSTEIN, et al. (2001). "Molecular studies on intraspecific diversity and phylogenetic position of Coniothyrium minitans." Mycol.

Genetic characterization of 15 aggressive weed mould strains that were identi®ed morphologically as Trichoderma harzianum (sensu Rifai) from mushroom compost in commercial units in North America (designated T. harzianum group 4) was undertaken using various molecular techniques. RFLP analysis of rDNA revealed homogeneity among these strains ; a low level of polymorphism was detected in mitochondrial DNA. RAPD analysis also indicated a very high degree of homogeneity among the T. harzianum group 4 strains. Nucleotide sequence determination of the rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) 1 revealed five base pair differences between T. harzianum groups 4 and 2. Comparison of molecular data on T. harzianum group 4 with that of T. harzianum group 2,

which caused green mould epidemics in the mushroom industries of the British Isles, indicated that T. harzianum group 4 is not the same as group 2.

Res. 105: 1065-1074. Simple sequence repeat (SSR)--PCR ampli®cation using a

microsatellite primer (GACA)% and ribosomal RNA gene sequencing were used to examine the intraspecific diversity in the mycoparasite Coniothyrium minitans based on 48 strains, representing eight colony types, from 17 countries world-wide. Coniothyrium cerealis, C. fuckelii and

C. sporulosum were used for interspecific comparison. The SSR--PCR technique revealed a relatively low level of polymorphism within C. minitans but did allow some differentiation between strains. While there was no relationship between SSR--PCR profiles and colony type, there was some limited correlation between these profiles and country of origin. Sequences of the ITS 1 and ITS 2 regions and the 5.8S gene of rRNA genes were identical in all twenty-four strains of C. minitans examined irrespective of colony type and origin. These results indicate that C. minitans is genetically not very variable despite phenotypic differences. ITS and 5.8S rRNA gene sequence analyses showed that C. minitans had similarities of 94% with C. fuckelii and C. sporulosum (which were identical to each other) and only 64% with C. cerealis. Database searches failed to show any similarity with the ITS 1 sequence for C. minitans although the 5±8S rRNA gene and ITS 2 sequences revealed an 87% similarity with Aporospora terricola. The ITS sequence including the 5.8S rRNA gene sequence of Coniothyrium cerealis showed 91% similarity to Phaeosphaeria microscopica. Phylogenetic analyses using database information suggest that C. minitans, C. sporulosum, C. fuckelii and A. terricola cluster in one clade, grouping with Helminthosporium species and ` Leptosphaeria ' bicolor. Coniothyrium cerealis grouped with Ampelomyces quisqualis and formed a major cluster with members of the Phaeosphaeriacae and Phaeosphaeria microscopica.

MWENJE, E., B. D. WINGFIELD, et al. (2003). "Molecular characterisation of Armillaria species from Zimbabwe." Mycol. Res. 107: 291-296.

MYBURG, H., M. GRYZENHOUT, et al. (2002). "Cryphonectria canker on

Armillaria species are amongst the most important pathogens of trees and have a world-wide distribution. In recent years, the taxonomy of Northern Hemisphere Armillaria spp. has been extensively treated, but those occurring in Africa are poorly known. Previously, isolates of Armillaria from Zimbabwe have been grouped based on morphology and biochemical tests. In this study, six isolates representing the three previously characterized groups of Armillaria spp. occurring in Zimbabwe were analysed using DNA-based techniques. Three distinct clusters emerged from both PCR–RFLP and analysis of sequence data for the IGS-1 rRNA operon. The three groups corresponded to those previously identified based on morphology and biochemical tests. Differences in IGS-1 sequences strongly suggest that the Zimbabwean groups represent three distinct taxa. Isolates belonging to Group I, previously assumed to be to A. heimii, were similar to those identified as A. fuscipes from South Africa and La Reunion. Group II isolates resided in a clade apart from all other isolates and appear to represent A. heimii. The remaining isolates residing in Group III clustered with isolates from Zambia and Cameroon. These are different from A. heimii and A. fuscipes and apparently represent an undescribed taxon.

Tibouchina in South Africa." Mycol. Res. 106: 1299-1306. Cryphonectria cubensis is an important canker pathogen of

plantation Eucalyptus spp. in tropical and sub-tropical areas of the world, including South Africa. It is best known on Eucalyptus spp., but it also occurs on Syzygium aromaticum (clove). In 1998, C. cubensis was found to cause cankers on the non-myrtaceous hosts Tibouchina urvilleana and T. lepidota in Colombia. In this study, we report on a similar canker disease that has recently been found in South Africa on T. granulosa,

Myburg, H., M. Gryzenhout, et al. (2004). "Phylogenetic relationships of Cryphonectria and Endothia species, based on DNA sequence data and morphology." Mycologia,

commonly grown as an ornamental tree. The identity of the pathogen was determined through morphological comparisons and phylogenetic analyses of ITS and b-tubulin gene sequences. The pathogenicity of the fungus was also tested on T. granulosa and E. grandis. Morphological as well as DNA sequence comparisons showed that the fungus on T. granulosa is the same as C. cubensis occurring on Eucalyptus spp. in South Africa. Pathogenicity tests on T. granulosa and E. grandis clones showed that the fungus from T. granulosa is able to cause cankers on both hosts.

96(5): 990-1001.

these and related genera. Comparisons were based on sequence variation found in the ITS region of the ribosomal RNA operon and two regions of the β-tubulin gene. In addition, the morphology of these species was examined. The phylogenetic data indicated that Endothia and Cryphonectria reside in two distinct phylogenetic clades. Cryphonectria parasitica, C. macrospora, C. nitschkei, C. eucalypti and C. radicalis represented the Cryphonectria clade. Endothia gyrosa and E. singularis were included in the Endothia clade. An isolate representing E. viridistroma grouped outside the Endothia clade and separately from other groups. Other clades outside the one encompassing Cryphonectria were those represented by the C. cubensis isolates and fungi isolated from Elaeocarpus dentatus originating from New Zealand. These clades could be distinguished from Endothia and Cryphonectria, based on anamorph morphology, stromatal structure and ascospore septation. Cryphonectria and Endothia, therefore, appear to be paraphyletic and taxonomic relationships for these fungi need to be

The fungal genera Endothia and Cryphonectria include some of the most important pathogens of forest trees. Despite available new technology, no comprehensive comparative study based on DNA sequence data and morphology has been done on the available isolates representing these two genera.

The main objectives of this study were to assess the phylogenetic relationships among species of Cryphonectria and Endothia, for which cultures are available, and to establish a taxonomic framework based on DNA sequence and morphological data, which will aid future studies and identification of species in

revised. NAGAHASHI, G. and J. David D. DOUDS (2000). "Partial separation of root exudate components and their effects upon the growth of germinated spores of AM fungi." Mycol. Res. 104: 1453-1464. Aseptic root exudates were collected from the liquid culture of

roots of two host (Daucus carota and Lycopersicum esculentum) and one non-host plant (Beta vulgaris) of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. Exudate was also collected from maize (Zea mays FRB6) seedlings which were grown hydroponically under aseptic conditions. Exudate fractions of host roots stimulated hyphal branching behind any actively growing hyphal tip of three AM fungi tested (Gigaspora gigantea, G. rosea, and Glomus intraradices). Fractionation patterns obtained from C18 Sepak cartridges loaded with carrot root exudates isolated from roots grown under various phosphorus regimes, TLC analyses, and solubility properties of fractionated components, indicated a range of hydrophilic to hydrophobic hyphal

NAGAHASHI, G. and D. D. D. jr (2003). "Action spectrum for the induction of hyphal branches of an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus: exposure sites versus branching sites." Mycol. Res.

branching stimulators. The 50/70% methanol fraction from a C18 cartridge induced hyphal branching patterns of G. gigantea that were dose dependent and were identical to those observed when germinated G. gigantea spores were grown with host roots in dual culture. Exudate fractions from B. vulgaris inhibited hyphal tip growth, but inhibited hyphal tips formed recovery branches which would allow continued fungal growth. These recovery hyphae were also formed when germinated G. gigantea spores were grown in dual culture with sugar beet roots. The recovery branches induced by non-host roots and the prolific branching induced by host

roots have ecological implications.

107: 1075-1082. The first action spectrum for a photo-induced response of an

arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus is reported. At low light intensity, the responsive wavelengths for light-induced hyphal branching of the primary germ tube of Gigaspora gigantea were determined to be in the blue to UV-A range. The action spectrum showed the greatest stimulation of branching occurred around 390 nm although a shoulder was observed between 360–370 nm. A second major peak of light-induced branching occurred at 430 nm. The exposure of specific areas of the germ tube to high intensity blue light for a short period led to several interesting observations. By exposing 2 mm segments (0–2, 2–4, 4–6, etc.) or 3 mm segments away from the tip, it was determined that photoinduction of hyphal branches could occur anywhere along the axis of a growing germ tube except in the apical 2 mm. When 3 mm segments were exposed at greater distances from the tip (6–9, 9–12, and up to 33–36 mm), branches

frequently formed in areas not directly exposed to light. The branches were usually in clusters which were spaced approximately 3 or 6 mm apart. Since light scattering could be ruled out, these results indicated that the exposure sites and sites of hyphal branching did not necessarily coincide and suggested the probable involvement of a second messenger during this blue light-induced event.

NAGAHASHI, G. and D. D. D. jr (2004). "Isolated root caps, border cells, and mucilage from host roots stimulate hyphal branching of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus, Gigaspora gigantea." Mycol. Res. 108: 1079-1088. Unlike previous reports that have shown that water soluble

and volatile compounds from roots or root exudates play an important role in precolonization events during arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus-host root interactions (Becard & Piche 1989, Giovannetti et al. 1993), the results shown here deal with particulate and viscous fractions isolated from host roots. Root caps and a slow sedimenting particulate fraction (SSPF) were rapidly isolated and separated from Ri T-DNA transformed carrot roots (D. carota) grown in liquid culture. In addition, border cells (BC) and mucilage were isolated from aseptically grown corn seedlings (Zea mays). Root caps, SSPF (composed mainly of small root cap fragments and some BCs), BCs, and mucilage all had an associated AM fungus hyphal branching stimulator. Root caps stored for 5 d

Nagahashi, G. and D. D. D. Jr. (2004). "Synergism between blue light and root exudate compounds and evidence for a second messenger in the hyphal branching response of Gigaspora gigantea." Mycologia,

at 4 °C appeared to either synthesize or slowly release the branching stimulator. Also, isolated root caps from roots grown in the absence of P contained more branch stimulating activity than those isolated from roots grown in the presence of P. Although the branching stimulation activity in particulate fractions was low compared to that of the exudate, the particulate fractions can stick to the root surface at considerable distances from the root tip. This may be significant during the infection and colonization of host roots at sites far removed from the primary location of exudation.

96(5): 948-954. Light and chemical components of the host root exudate can

induce hyphal growth and branching of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Compounds that induce the same morphogenetic or biochemical response as light are referred to as photomimetic compounds (PCs). This is the first report of a synergistic response by Gigaspora gigantea, an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus, to blue light and naturally occurring photomimetic compounds isolated from the exudate of host roots. The blue light treatment and exposure to photomimetic compounds were effective whether applied sequentially or simultaneously. The number of hyphal branches induced by blue light and photomimetic compounds together was greater than the sum of the branches generated by each separate

treatment, and the synergism was greatest at the higher levels or orders of branches. The fact that blue light and PCs, individually, triggered the same hyphal branching response and when given together, they produced a synergistic response, indicated the activation of a second messenger in the induced-branching process. Delaying the application of PCs, after the initial light exposure, showed the

Nagao, H., S.-i. Udagawa, et al. (2003). "The genus Thecotheus (Pezizales) in Australia: T. urinamans sp. nov. from urea-treated jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest." Mycologia,

second messenger was stable up to 3 h.

95(4): 688-693. The genus Thecotheus is reported in Australia for the first time.

A new species, Thecotheus urinamans is described and illustrated and included in a key to all known species of the genus. Critical macro-and micromorphological comparisons are presented to distinguish the new species from several closely related species, particularly the widespread fungus Thecotheus crustaceus. Thecotheus urinamans was growing on rotting, moist, plant litter from an experimental plot treated with urea (ammonia) in the indigenous jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest of Western Australia.

NAKAMURA, H., K.-i. IKEDA, et al. (2004). "A comparative study of the violet root rot fungi, Helicobasidium brebissonii and H. mompa, from Japan." Mycol. Res. 108: 641-648.

Nakase, T. (2004). Yeasts. Thai Fungal Diversity

A violet root rot fungus recently found in Japan was identified as Helicobasidium brebissonii. The fungus was compared with another violet root rot fungus, H. mompa, which is distributed throughout Japan, in terms of morphological characteristics of the basidiospores and the conidial state, sequences of rDNA ITS regions, and pathogenicity on carrot, sweet potato and apple rootstock. The two species were clearly discriminated by these features and the taxonomic status of both species is discussed.

, BIOTEC, Thailand: 87-94.

Narisawa, K. and T. Hashiba (1998). "Development of resting spores on plants inoculated with a dikaryotic resting spore of Plasmodiophora brassicae." Mycological Research

Although yeasts are one of the least studied groups of fungi in Thailand, some 110 species have been recorded, with 26 new species describec from a variety of substrata in nature habitats, while two species have been isolated from the blood of human patients. ........

102(8): 949-952. A dikaryotic resting spore or two monokaryotic resting spores of

Plasmodiophora brassicae were inoculated onto 1-d-old seedlings of Brassica campestris. The relative DNA content of a nucleus in a dikaryotic resting spore corresponded with that of a haploid nucleus in a

monokaryotic resting spore. Plasmodia and zoosporangia were observed within the galls in some root cortical cells approximately 2 mo after inoculation. Resting spores were also formed within the galls in some cortical cells, and root hair infection was observed. The frequency of resting spore formation in B. campestris seedlings inoculated with a dikaryotic resting spore or two monokaryotic resting spores was 26.2 and 3.6%, respectively. The results indicate that the life-cycle of P. brassicae was completed on plants infected with a dikaryotic resting spore or by two monokaryotic resting spores.

NECHWATAL, J., A. WIELGOSS, et al. (2005). "Pythium phragmitis sp. nov., a new species close to P. arrhenomanes as a pathogen of common reed (Phragmites australis)." Mycol. Res. 109(12): 1337-1346.

distinct species. ITS 1 and 2 of 15 isolates of the taxon consistently differed from P. arrhenomanes by 13 positions. Sequence analyses of the cox II gene confirmed the new species’ phylogenetic position. This paper gives a formal description of the taxon as P. phragmitis sp. nov., providing information on morphology, ecology and pathogenicity in comparison to related species. As indicated by the close association to Phragmites australis, the high aggressiveness towards reed leaves and seedlings, and the abundance in the investigated stands, Pythium phragmitis might act as a reed pathogen of considerable importance, in particular under flooding situations.

Nelder, M. P., J. W. McCreadie, et al. (2005). "Laboratory investigations of trichomycete prevalence, abundance and fecundity in a Smittium-simuliid model." Mycologia,

During a study on the occurrence and pathogenicity of oomycetes in the reed-belt (Phragmites australis) of Lake Constance (Germany), a new Pythium resembling the important cereal pathogen species complex P. arrhenomanes/P. graminicola was consistently isolated from necrotic mature reed leaves and reed rhizosphere samples. The new species proved to be significantly more aggressive towards reed leaves and seedlings in vitro than related species. It is characterised by filamentous, inflated sporangia and plerotic oospores with usually more than one antheridium. ITS and cox II sequence data indicate this new species shares a common ancestor with P. arrhenomanes, but the sequence differences are clearly consistent with a divergence of the two taxa and with P. phragmitis being a

97(2): 338-345. Smittium, the most speciose genus of the ‘‘gut fungi’’

(Zygomycota: Trichomycetes), is found attached to the hindgut cuticle of larval aquatic Diptera. Smittium spp. colonize several host families (e.g., Smittium culisetae in Chironomidae, Culicidae and Simuliidae), but some species appear to be specific to a single host family (e.g., Smittium morbosum Sweeney in Culicidae). The specificity of Smittium spp. within a host family has been difficult to resolve. This research presents evidence

that certain Smittium spp. differentially colonize particular species of black fly (Diptera: Simuliidae) hosts as measured by differences in prevalence, abundance and fecundity. Reasons for this differential occurrence and fecundity in hosts are unclear but might include fungal responses to variations in host morphology, physiology, distribution or behavior. Variable fitness of Smittium spp., within a suite of available hosts, could be a factor in the diversity of this fungal group.

NEUNER-PLATTNER, I., T. GRABHER, et al. (1999). "A comparison of immunological assays for the identification of Tuber spp. and other edible ectomycorrhizal fungi." Mycol. Res. 103: 403-412.

Most antisera reacted strongly with homologous antigens from ascomata or mycelia and mycorrhizal root-tips. Their specificity allowed differentiation between Tuber spp. and other ectomycorrhizal fungi. Differentiation among Tuber spp. was possible by Western blot but not by ELISA or Dot-blot assay. The results suggested that specificity of the antisera was confined to genus level. In two cases specificity was increased by absorption with cross-reactive antigens.

NEWCOMBE, G. (2003). "Native Venturia inopina sp. nov., specific to Populus trichocarpa and its hybrids." Mycol. Res.

The objective of the study was to develop methods for the specific and rapid identification of Tuber spp. to aid ecological and taxonomical investigations of Tuber spp. and ectomycorrhizal fungi in general. Antisera raised against Tuber melanosporum, T. magnatum, Boletus edulis and Tricholoma matsutake and monoclonal antibodies produced against T. melanosporum were used to develop various immunological assays such as ELISA, Dot-blot and Western blot. A simple squash Dot-blot was used to visualize mycorrhizal infection of inoculated host plants grown in tube cultures and experimental truffie' res.

Eleven monoclonal antibodies were produced against T. melanosporum. Two were directed against proteinaceous material, the others probably against various carbohydrate determinants. Unfortunately they could not be used for differentially recognizing T. melanosporum as they all cross-reacted at least with extracts of four other ectomycorrhizal fungi.

107: 108-116. Venturia populina, first described on European Populus nigra,

has been thought to be the only species of Venturia in Europe and North America to cause leaf and shoot blight of balsam poplars and cottonwoods in Populus sects. Tacamahaca and Aigeiros. The species of Venturia occurring on introduced P. nigra and native P. trichocarpa in the Pacific northwest were examined. Venturia populina was consistently found on P. nigra (i.e. the widespread P. nigra cv. ‘ italica ’) in the region, but V. inopina sp. nov. was present on native P. trichocarpa and its hybrids. There were neither examples of V. populina on P. trichocarpa and its hybrids nor of V. inopina on P. nigra cv. ‘ italica ’ (27 collections from 16

sites in Oregon, Washington, and Vancouver Island were made during 1995–2002). In an inoculation study, host-range separation was confirmed in that V. inopina caused sporulating leaf lesions on P. trichocarpa and its hybrids, but only non-sporulating lesions on P. nigra cv. ‘ italica ’. These two species of Venturia can readily be distinguished by conidial septation; V. populina is primarily 2-septate, whereas V. inopina is primarily 1-septate. Growth rates on PDA at 15 °C, and ITS sequences (2.3% divergence) were also distinct in isolates of these congeners. Conidial shape was of more value in discriminant analysis than conidial length. Venturia inopina is homothallic, given the sexual fertility of cultures of single ascospores that were overwintered under ambient conditions. Its geographic range appears to be restricted even within the Pacific northwest, leaving open the possibility that still other undescribed, native species of Venturia occur elsewhere in North America on sects. Tacamahaca and Aigeiros.

NEWCOMBE, G. (2003). "Puccinia tanaceti: specialist or generalist ?." Mycol. Res. 107: 797-802. Rust is reported for the first time in North America on tansy

(Tanacetum vulgare), a widespread and invasive Eurasian plant that was introduced into North America in the 17th century. Morphologically, the rust fungus corresponds exactly to Gaumann’s description of Puccinia tanaceti, and to European specimens of P. tanaceti on T. vulgare. An inoculation study confirmed the narrow host specialization of P. tanaceti that Gaumann described, in that T. vulgare was successfully

NEWCOMBE, G., B. STIRLING, et al. (2000). "Melampsora Xcolumbiana, a natural hybrid of M. medusae .and M. occidentalis." Mycol. Res.

inoculated whereas four other species of the tribe Anthemidae of the Asteraceae were entirely resistant, i.e. Leucanthemum maximum (Shasta daisy), L. vulgare (ox-eye daisy), Artemisia absinthium (wormwood), and A. tridentata (sagebrush). This confirmation of a specialized P. tanaceti invalidates P. tanaceti s. lat. The latter complex has resulted from synonymies, and compilation of host records of rust fungi resembling P. tanaceti on at least 105 species representing 19 genera from six tribes of the Asteraceae from both New and Old Worlds.

104: 261-274. Hybrids of Melampsora medusae and M. occidentalis are

herein described as M. Xcolumbiana. This hybrid taxon is characterized by isolates that generally exhibit morphological intermediacy in uredinial and telial traits, and mixed virulence/avirulence on Populus trichocarpa and P. deltoides, the natural hosts of M. occidentalis and M. medusae, respectively. Hybrids frequently contain ribosomal ITS sequences from both Melampsora species, but discordant isolates were also found, like M. medusae in having a urediniospore equatorial smooth spot, and like M. occidentalis in spine density, and intermediate in urediniospore length.

Isolates with hybrid urediniospore morphology but homozygous for ITS sequences from M. medusae or M. occidentalis were also found, suggesting that

the primary F1 hybrids have produced F2 and/or backcross progeny. In a 1997 survey of the leaf rust population on hybrid poplar in the Pacific Northwest, this `new population ' of Melampsora Xcolumbiana was the only taxon found. Specimens from nearly a century ago indicate that an older hybrid population is of wide distribution in North America. This ` older population ' of Melampsora Xcolumbiana was found on specimens of all species of Populus in sections Aigeiros and Tacamahaca, and on many of their hybrids, in areas outside the type localities of M. occidentalis and M. medusae. These three Melampsora taxa, M. medusae, M. occidentalis, and M. Xcolumbiana, are the only ones that occur naturally on sections Aigeiros and Tacamahaca of Populus in North America.

Nicholas, D. D. (1973). Wood Deterioration and Its Prevention by Preservative Treatments. Syracuse Wood Science Series, 5, Syracuse University Press. 1: 1-373. NICOLETTI, G., E. DOMALEWSKA, et al. (1999). "Fungitoxicity of oxine and copper oxinate: activity spectrum, development of resistance and synergy." Mycol. Res. 103: 1073-1084.

NICOLETTI, G., E. DOMALEWSKA, et al. (1999). "Fungitoxicity of oxine and copper oxinate: effects of pH, metals and chelating agents on activity." Mycol.

The antifungal activity of oxine and copper oxinate was investigated using standardized methods to compare efficacy, discriminate activity patterns, elucidate mechanisms of action and establish attributes of relevance to field use. Both agents were shown to be active against a broad range of physiologically diverse fungi. Species of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Rhizopus, Candida, Rhodotorula and Saccharomyces were significantly more resistant than Pythium, Phytophthora, Sclerotina and Trametes, the difference being greater for oxine than for copper oxinate and in Sabouraud than in Czapek--Dox media. Copper oxinate was generally more active and more broadly and rapidly fungicidal than oxine. Both are fungicidal at low concentrations against significant plant pathogens and relatively active against important spoilage and mycotoxin producing moulds. The MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration) and MFC (minimum fungicidal concentration) for both agents were dependent on method and medium. Neither agent produced changes in morphology, asexual reproduction or differentiation. Oxine and copper oxinate were resistant to inactivation by organic materials, interacted synergistically in vitro and did not elicit resistance on long term exposure. Differences in

activity pattern suggest independent modes of action. Oxine is worthy of revisitation as a useful agricultural fungicide and preservative.

Res. 103: 1085-1097. Oxine and copper oxinate have a long history of use as

fungicides. Ability to chelate and lipophilicity have been regarded as essential to the action of oxine. The most widely held hypothesis on the mechanism of action of oxine holds that oxine is only active when it can form saturated chelates with metals in the medium which enter the cell and dissociate to liberate a toxic halfchelate. Metals, chelating molecules and pH were investigated for their effect on the fungitoxicity of oxine and copper oxinate. Oxine fungitoxicity increased with increase in medium pH, inhibitory activity corresponding most closely with the concentration of the neutral species. Chelation of oxine with metals in the medium was found not to be a requirement for oxine fungitoxicity. Potentiation of the action of oxine by metals is explained by the formation of more fungitoxic and soluble metal oxinates and antagonism by the formation of less soluble or less active metal oxinates. Chelating amino acids, nucleic acid bases and EDTA did not antagonize oxine fungitoxicity. Antagonism by riboflavin and folic acid suggests interaction of oxine with specific cellular functions in fungi. The fungitoxicity of copper oxinate was generally not affected by metals, chelating molecules or changes in medium pH. It is proposed that the data support the inherent fungitoxicity of oxine, the role of metal oxinates as co-toxicants and independent mechanisms of action for oxine and copper oxinate.

Niekerk, J. M. v., P. W. Crous, et al. (2004). "DNA phylogeny, morphology and pathogenicity of Botryosphaeria species on grapevines." Mycologia, 96(4): 781-798.

wood streaking and bunch rot. In this study the 11 Botryosphaeria spp. associated with grapevines growing in various parts of the world, but primarily in South Africa, are distinguished based on morphology, DNA sequences (ITS-1, 5.8S, ITS-2 and EF1-α) and pathological data. Botryosphaeria australis, B. lutea, B. obtusa, B. parva, B. rhodina and a Diplodia sp. are confirmed from grapevines in South Africa, while Diplodia porosum, Fusicoccum viticlavatum and F. vitifusiforme are described as new. Although isolates of B. dothidea and B. stevensii are confirmed from grapevines in Portugal, neither of these species occurred in South Africa, nor were any isolates of B. ribis confirmed from grapevines. All grapevine isolates from Portugal, formerly presumed to be B. ribis, are identified as B. parva based on their EF1-α sequence data. From artificial inoculations on grapevine shoots, we conclude that B. australis, B. parva, B. ribis and B. stevensii are more virulent than the other species studied. The Diplodia sp. collected from grapevine canes is morphologically similar but phylogenetically distinct from D. sarmentorum. Diplodia sarmentorum is confirmed as anamorph of Otthia spiraeae,the type species of the genus

Several species of Botryosphaeria are known to occur on grapevines, causing a wide range of disorders including bud mortality, dieback, brown

Otthia (Botryosphaeriaceae). A culture identified as O. spiraeae clustered within Botryosphaeria and thus is regarded as probable synonym. These findings confirm earlier suggestions that the generic concept of Botryosphaeria should be expanded to include genera with septate ascospores and Diplodia anamorphs.

NIEKERK, J. M. V., J. Z. E. GROENEWALD, et al. (2004). "Systematic reappraisal of Coniella and Pilidiella, with specific reference to species occurring on Eucalyptus and Vitis in South Africa." Mycol. Res. 108: 283-303. The genus Pilidiella, including its teleomorphs in Schizoparme,

has a cosmopolitan distribution and is associated with disease symptoms on many plants. In the past, conidial pigmentation has been used as a character to separate Pilidiella (hyaline to pale brown conidia) from Coniella (dark brown conidia). In recent years, however, the two genera have been regarded as synonymous, the older name Coniella having priority. To address the generic question, sequences of the

NIELSEN, C., M. G. MILGROOM, et al. (2005). "Genetic diversity in the gypsy moth fungal pathogen Entomophaga maimaiga from founder populations in North America and source populations in Asia." Mycol. Res.

internal transcribed spacer region (ITS1, ITS2), 5.8S gene, large subunit (LSU) and elongation factor 1-a gene (EF 1-a) were analysed to compare the type species of Pilidiella and Coniella. All three gene regions supported the separation of Coniella from Pilidiella, with the majority of taxa residing in Pilidiella. Pilidiella is characterised by having species with hyaline to pale brown conidia (avg. length:width>1.5), in contrast to the dark brown conidia of Coniella (avg. length:widthf1.5). Pilidiella diplodiella, which is a pathogen associated with white rot of grapevines, was shown to be an older name for C. petrakii. To delineate species in the P. diplodiella species complex, isolates were also compared based on histone (H3) gene sequences. Analyses derived from these sequence data separated P. diplodiella from a newly described species, P. diplodiopsis. The new species P. eucalyptorum sp. nov. is proposed for isolates formerly treated as C. fragariae and associated with leaf spots of Eucalyptus spp. This species clustered basal to Pilidiella, and may represent yet a third genus within this complex. Pilidiella destruens sp. nov. is newly described as anamorph of Schizoparme destruens, which is associated with twig dieback of Eucalyptus spp. in Hawaii. A key based on morphological characteristics is provided to separate the taxa treated in this study.

109(8): 941-950. Entomophaga maimaiga is a naturally occurring fungal

pathogen specific to larvae of the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar. E. maimaiga is thought to be native to Asia where its epizootics can suppress gypsy moth outbreaks. However, in the USA this beneficial fungal pathogen was not observed until 1989, although an isolate of E. maimaiga from Tokyo was released in Massachusetts to control gypsy moths as early as in 1910–1911, and another isolate from Ishikawa Prefecture in

Japan was later released in 1985 and 1986 in New York and Virginia. Our objectives were to: (1) test the hypothesis that E. maimaiga populations in the USA have reduced genetic variability due to founder effects compared to the putative ancestral populations in Asia; (2) track the origin of the North American populations of this fungus; and (3) assess whether genetic differences among E. maimaiga isolates are correlated to morphological differences. We compared genetic diversity among 30 E. maimaiga isolates originating from seven states in the USA, five prefectures in Japan, one province of China and one region of far eastern Russia by AFLPs. Among 14 USA isolates, only ten polymorphic AFLP loci were found, whereas 56 polymorphic loci were found among 16 Asian isolates ; 29 loci were polymorphic among 12 isolates from Japan alone. Average gene diversity (h_) for the polymorphic loci was 0.223+0.005 for Asia (including Japan), 0.131+0.006 for Japan only, and 0.041+0.004 for the USA. Thus, native populations from Asia were more diverse than the USA populations. These results are consistent with the expectation of a population founded from a source population by a small number of individuals. Distance and parsimony analyses of AFLP data showed that the isolates from the USA formed one distinct clade that was most closely related to Japanese isolates collected outside the Tokyo area. No morphological variation of E. maimaiga from different geographical locations was detected.

NIELSEN, K. B., R. KJOLLER, et al. (2004). "Colonisation and molecular diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the aquatic plants Littorella uniflora and Lobelia dortmanna in southern Sweden." Mycol. Res. 108: 616-625. The colonisation intensity and composition of the mycorrhizal

community in the aquatic plants Lobelia dortmanna and Littorella uniflora were studied. The mycorrhizal fungi were characterised by fungal specific nested PCR and sequencing using the 5'-end of the LSU rDNA as target. For this, primers for the clade of Acaulospora, the clade including Glomus mosseae and G. intraradices and the clade containing G. etunicatum and G. claroideum were used.

The nested PCR products were screened for different sequence types using single stranded conformation polymorphism (SSCP) and representatives for each type were sequenced. A phylogenetic analysis of the sequences showed two phylotypes of Acaulospora, one phylotype within the clade of G. etunicatum/G. claroideum and five within the G. mosseae/ G. intraradices clade. The colonisation intensity was comparable to that seen in typical grassland vegetation. The neutral lipid fatty acid 16:1ϖ5 was seen to be indicative of mycorrhizal colonisation with concentrations up to 35 nmol mg-1 root DW, which indicates that the fungi are active.

NIKOLCHEVA, L. G., T. BOURQUE, et al. (2005). "Fungal diversity during initial stages of leaf decomposition in a stream." Mycol. Res. 109: 246-253.

Maple, linden and oak leaves were immersed in a stream for 1–21 d. Cumulative mass loss, ergosterol content, and species richness of released aquatic hyphomycete conidia increased with time. Numbers and richness of attached conidia were highest on days 1 and 2. Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis revealed up to seven fungal phylotypes on the leaves before their immersion in the stream and after one day of stream exposure. After 5 d of immersion the contribution of these terrestrial fungi decreased and that of aquatic hyphomycetes increased. The dominant phylotypes belonged to Anguillispora filiformis, Articulospora tetracladia and Flagellospora curvula, which also dominated the community of released spores. The molecular diversity was highest on day 2 and 3 on all substrates.

Nilsson, R. H. and N. Hallenberg (2003). "Phylogeny of the Hypochnicium punctulatum complex as inferred from ITS sequence data." Mycologia,

This may be due to a few species of terrestrial fungi, later outcompeted by aquatic hyphomycetes, and to many different conidia of aquatic hyphomycetes, some of which may germinate but are unable to establish themselves and reproduce.

95(1): 54-60.

NILSSON, R. H., N. HALLENBERG, et al. (2003). "Phylogeography of Hyphoderma setigerum (Basidiomycota) in the Northern Hemisphere." Mycol.

Parsimony analysis based on ITS sequence data was carried out to investigate the Hypochnicium punctulatum complex (Basidiomycota). The study gives full support to earlier, crossing test-based species delimitations. Altogether, 18 specimens were sequenced and their spore sizes plotted together with measurements from the corresponding type specimens. Spore sizes were found to cluster readily into four groups, all of which were supported by the phylogenetic analysis. However, in the case of H. punctulatum and H. albostramineum, the morphological delimitation is unsatisfactory and a zone of potential spore size overlap is shown to exist. The new combination Hypochnicium cremicolor is proposed for a species previously known as a small-spored taxon in the H. punctulatum complex, and H. caucasicum is shown to be a younger synonym to H. wakefieldiae. A key to the species is provided.

Res. 107: 645-652. Previous studies of morphological variation in the

homobasidiomycete Hyphoderma setigerum have lead to suspicions of a species complex. This study explores variation in DNA sequences from the nuclear ribosomal ITS region of 45 specimens from America, Asia, and Europe in a phylogeographic context. Based on molecular analysis, morphological studies, and crossing tests, nine preliminary taxa are shown to exist inside the species complex, and the two previously described segregate species H. subsetigerum and H. nudicephalum are confirmed. The molecular analysis shows evidence of allopatric differentiation over

intercontinental distances. Only one of the nine well-supported clades has a geographic distribution spanning more than one continent, probably indicating the importance of vicariance in the evolution of this species complex. The basionym of H. setigerum, Thelephora setigera, is neotypified to fix the application of that name.

Nirenberg, H. I., U. Feiler, et al. (2002). "Description of Colletotrichum lupini comb. nov. in modern terms." Mycologia, 94(2): 307-320. Gloeosporium lupini Bondar is transferred to Colletotrichum.

The fungus is characterized morphologically and illustrated. The two varieties, Colletotrichum

NISCHWITZ, C., G. NEWCOMBE, et al. (2005). "Host specialization of the mycoparasite Eudarluca caricis and its evolutionary relationship to Ampelomyces." Mycol. Res.

lupini (Bondar) Nirenberg, Feiler & Hagedorn, comb. nov. var. lupini and Colletotrichum lupini var. setosum Nirenberg, Feiler & Hagedorn var. nov. are described. They are compared with additional Colletotrichum species reported from lupins and other hosts by morphological and physiological methods as well as by RAPD-PCR and DNA-sequencing.

109: 421-428. Eudarluca caricis is assumed to be a nonspecific

mycoparasite of rust fungi. The evidence for its mycoparasitism has rested on constant association with uredinia. In this study, stable isotopes provided additional evidence of mycoparasitism, as E. caricis was enriched with 15N relative to its associated rust fungus, as were parasites and mycoparasites generally with respect to their hosts. Host specificity was directly tested in inoculations in the greenhouse. Isolates of E. caricis from Puccinia on two Eurasian grasses (i.e. Holcus lanatus and Phalaris arundinacaea) did not infect Melampsora on Populus that, in contrast, was successfully infected by a poplar isolate of E. caricis. An isolate from M. medusae on P. deltoides infected a significantly greater percentage of uredinia of M. medusae on P. deltoides than uredinia of M. occidentalis on P. trichocarpa. The host specificity of the three isolates was reflected in

Noble, R., T. R. Fermor, et al. (2003). "Primordia initiation of mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) strains on axenic casing materials." Mycologia,

their divergence in a phylogenetic analysis based on ITS sequences. Interestingly, the analysis revealed that mycoparasites of rust and powdery mildew fungi have evolved from a common ancestor.

95(4): 620-629. The mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) has a requirement for a

‘‘casing layer’’ that has specific physical, chemical and microbiological properties which stimulate and promote the initiation of primordia. Some of these primordia then may develop further into sporophores, involving differentiation of tissue. Wild and commercial strains of A. bisporus were cultured in axenic and nonaxenic microcosms, using a rye grain substrate

covered by a range of organic and inorganic casing materials. In axenic culture, A. bisporus (commercial strain A15) was capable of producing primordia and mature sporophores on charcoal (wood and activated), anthracite coal, lignite and zeolite, but not on bark, coir, peat, rockwool, silica or vermiculite. Of six strains tested, only the developmental variant mutant, B430, produced

NORMAN, J. R. and J. E. HOOKER (2000). "Sporulation of Phytophthora fragariae shows greater stimulation by exudates of non-mycorrhizal than by mycorrhizal strawberry roots." Mycol. Res.

rudimentary primordia on axenic peat-based casing material. However, none of these rudimentary primordia developed differentiated tissues or beyond 4 mm diameter, either on axenic casing material in the microcosms or in larger-scale culture. In larger-scale, nonaxenic culture, strain B430 produced severely malformed but mature sporophores in similar numbers to those of other strains. Typically, 3–6% of primordia developed into mature sporophores, but significant differences in this proportion, as well as in the numbers of primordia produced, were recorded between 12 A. bisporus strains.

104: 1069-1073. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) show significant potential

for biocontrol of Phytophthora spp., but there is little evidence for the mechanisms involved in the process. This study establishes that microorganism free exudates from roots colonised by AMF result in significantly less sporulation of P. fragariae than those from uncolonised plants. Experiments in vitro showed that after 48 h in the presence of exudates from strawberry roots colonised by Glomus etunicatum and G. monosporum, sporulation of P. fragariae was reduced by ca 67% and 64% relative to sporulation in the presence of uncolonised roots. After 72 h sporulation was reduced by 83% and 89% respectively. These data were then confirmed in an in vivo system in which Phytophthora fragariae was inoculated into the mycorrhizosphere of either uncolonised strawberry plants or those colonised by G. etunicatum. A similar trend was observed, with a 69% reduction in sporulation of P. fragariae after 72 h in the mycorrhizosphere of colonised plants relative to sporulation in the mycorrhizosphere of uncolonised plants.

NORVELL, L. L. (1998). "Observations on development, morphology and biology in Phaeocollybia." Mycol. Res. 102: 615-630. Investigation of Phaeocollybia in British Columbia, Washington,

Oregon and California has led to a better understanding of the characters and biology of the genus as a whole. Generically significant characters -- pseudorhizas, pellicular veil, tibiiform diverticula, and sarcodimitic tissues -- are examined in depth with four variations of branched and unbranched pseudorhizal patterns outlined. Basidiome development is traced from subterranean initiation to fully mature emergent basidiomes. Hypotheses on the ontogeny of Phaeocollybia basidiomes and biological associations

are developed based on extensive observations of primordia and numerous field excavations. Comparisons between rhizomorphs and the thread-like pseudorhizal extensions of certain species are made and the term

` rhizomorphic pseudorhiza ' is introduced. Possible biological strategies are explored and evidence for consideration of Phaeocollybia as a mycorrhizal genus is presented.

Nouhra, E. R., L. S. Dominguez, et al. (2005). "Morphological, molecular and ecological aspects of the South American hypogeous fungus Alpova austroalnicola sp. nov." Mycologia, 97(3): 598–604.

Related genera included in the analyses were Boletus edulis, Rhizopogon spp., Suillus luteus and Truncocolumella citrina. Additional observations of animal diggings around the sites and microscopic examination of fecal pellets of the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus novemcinctus) indicate A. austroalnicola is consumed and its spores dispersed by animals.

NSOLOMO, V. R., H. SOLHEIM, et al. (2000). "In vitro effects of oxygen stress on fungi growing in wood of Ocotea usambarensis." Mycol. Res.

Field studies in Argentina’s Yunga District revealed Alpova austroalnicola sp. nov., a hypogeous fungus associated with Alnus acuminata ssp. acuminata. Morphological and molecular studies based on amplification and sequencing of the nuclear LSU rDNA gene showed its unique identity within Alpova.

104: 1480-1484. Among 46 species of fungi isolated from decaying Ocotea

wood, growth differed in response to oxygen stress during a 24 d trial. All fungi grew for one week but during the following 17 d, six different growth responses emerged. In 12 species daily growth rates were initially stimulated, then totally inhibited ; in 4 high growth rates were maintained over the 24 d period ; in 5 growth rates were similar under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions and then stopped under the latter ; in 5 growth rates in both treatments were similar during the whole trial period ; in 16 growth was retarded before inhibition, and in 4 growth was retarded without being inhibited. Growth of 91% of the fungi able to produce ligninolytic enzymes was significantly inhibited or retarded in the absence of oxygen. The behaviour of the fungi under oxygen stress conditions is discussed regarding their roles in the colonization and decay of stems of standing Ocotea trees. It is concluded that in standing trees, oxygen stress may exert selective pressure during successive colonisation, and that tolerance to oxygen stress favours Phellinus species and Loweporus inflexibilis in becoming the main climax decay species in Ocotea trees.

NSOLOMO, V. R. and K. VENN (2000). "Capacity of fungi to colonise wood of the East African camphor tree, Ocotea usambarensis." Mycol. Res. 104: 1468-1472.

The capacities of 24 decay fungi, isolated from living trees and decayed timber of the East African camphor tree, to colonise sapwood and heartwood of living trees was tested. Eight species colonised sapwood, and five colonised heartwood and were viable 12 months after inoculation. It was noteworthy that eight important decay species of the East African camphor timber, including Phellinus senex, which is the dominant heartrot species, failed to invade tissues of living trees. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to the water content and pH of infected and non-infected tissues as well as some parameters of growth of

NSOLOMO, V. R., K. VENN, et al. (2000). "The ability of some fungi to cause decay in the East African camphor tree, Ocotea usambarensis." Mycol. Res.

colonised trees.

104: 1473-1479.

Nuytinck, J., A. Verbeken, et al. (2004). "Characterization of Lactarius tesquorum ectomycorrhizae on Cistus sp. and molecular phylogeny of related European Lactarius taxa." Mycologia,

Of 47 fungi collected from decaying Ocotea wood, 36 exhibited phenoloxidase activity against gallic acid, 40 exhibited it against tannic acid, 33 possessed laccase and 6 possessed tyrosinase. Thus their capacity to produce ligninolytic enzymes indicated that a high proportion of these fungi could cause white rot in Ocotea wood. It was shown that all 21 fungi tested were capable of causing significant weight loss in Ocotea wood blocks in vitro. Basidiomycetes exhibited the greater capacity to cause decay when compared to non-basidiomycetes. The rank order of species in terms of proportional weight reduction in the wood blocks over four months was: Trametes versicolor (28 %), Ganoderma australe (16 %), Phellinus sp. 2 (15 %), Phellinus senex (10 %), Stereum ostreum (10 %),

Loweporus inflexibilis (9 %), Stereum hirsutum (8 %), P. gilvus (7 %), and Schizophyllum commune (2 %). The most aggressive nonbasidiomycetes, however, were comparable to S. commune, and these were: Cylindrodendrum album (3 %), Cylindrocarpon destructans (2 %), Daldinia concentrica (2%) and Nodulisporium sp. (2 %).

96(2): 272-282. Lactarius is one of the larger genera of ectomycorrhizal

Basidiomycota, with about 400 species recognized worldwide. The ectomycorrhizae formed by Lactarius tesquorum on Cistus sp., one of the most common and ecologically relevant shrubs in the semi-arid regions in the Mediterranean basin, are described here in terms of morphological, anatomical and molecular features. An ITS rDNA sequence- based phylogenetic analysis was performed on the related European Lactarius taxa (L. mairei, L. pubescens, L. scoticus, L. spinosulus, L. torminosulus and L. torminosus) currently classified together with L. tesquorum in the subgenus Piperites section Piperites. Piperites s.s. could be divided into

two main clusters; L. mairei and especially L. spinosulus were related less closely to the other taxa. This study is part of a broader effort to extend our knowledge of the distribution, phylogeny and ectomycorrhizal biology of Lactarius species in selected ecosystems.

NYASSE, S., L. GRIVET, et al. (1999). "Diversity of Phytophthora megakarya in Central and West Africa revealed by isozyme and RAPD markers." Mycol. Res. 103: 1225-1234. Phytophthora megakarya is an important pathogen of cocoa

in Africa. We used isozyme and RAPD markers to estimate the genetic diversity and structuring among 161 isolates, from the known distribution area of the fungus which corresponds to the cocoa belt in Ghana, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon and Sao Tome. Thirty six and 44 multilocus patterns were identified with isozymes and RAPDs, respectively. Patterns were separated into two highly differentiated genetic groups with both types of markers, one located in Central Africa and the other in West Africa. This distribution coincides with two major biogeographical domains which may refiect an ancient evolution of P. megakarya in this part of Africa. The genotypic diversity was lower in West Africa as compared to Central Africa. Inside Central Africa, isolates from Gabon and Sao Tome were highly differentiated based on RAPDs. Four intermediate marker patterns corresponding to isolates sampled near the border between Nigeria and Cameroon were putatively derived from genetic exchanges between the two major groups. The mating type determination permitted to confirm the high prevalence of A1 over A2. Although clonal multiplication seems to be the rule, indices of other reproduction means have been detected.

NYBERG, A. and I.-L. PERSSON (2002). "Habitat differences of coprophilous fungi on moose dung." Mycol. Res. 106: 1360-1366. This study aimed to test whether fungal community on moose

(Alces alces) dung is affected by habitat. We used dung of homogenous origin, composition, and age. Dung was placed in three different habitats in north-eastern Sweden, and was checked again after 35–36 d. Of the 26 species of fungi found, 12 were new to the region, 17 had never been observed on moose dung, and two were not previously described. We found a significant difference in species composition between

O’MAHONY, R. J., A. T. H. BURNS, et al. (2002). "Isotropic growth of spores and salt tolerance in Aspergillus nidulans." Mycol. Res.

the habitats, with a low number of species in the spruce forest and about a threefold increase in the pine forest and the open mire. Species diversity was negatively associated with degree of insect attack. This suggests that insects feeding either on the dung or the fungi (spores, mycelia) may be an important factor explaining the observed pattern. In order to test this hypothesis we need to run experiments excluding insects.

106: 1480-1486.

We report an investigation into the relationship between Aspergillus nidulans mutations sltA1 and agaA50, conferring salt sensitivity and arginase deficiency, respectively, and the ability of spores to swell and commence germination. Spores from both mutant strains exhibited uncontrolled swelling at pH 5.5 in the presence of arginine as the nitrogen source. The controlled swelling of spores from a salt tolerant strain under these conditions was disrupted by the Na+/H+ exchange inhibitor amiloride. Swelling in the presence of amiloride was associated with an elevation in the concentration of arginine within the spores of each strain tested. The possible consequences of alterations in the arginine economy of the spore for colony establishment in osmotically challenged habitats are discussed.

ODA, T., C. TANAKA, et al. (2004). "Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of the widely distributed Amanita species, A. muscaria and A. pantherina." Mycol. Res. 108: 885-896.

Odum, E. P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology

The molecular phylogeny and biogeography of two widely distributed Amanita species, A. muscaria and A. pantherina, were studied based on specimens from diverse localities. Analyses of both a partial sequence of the ITS region of nuclear DNA and a partial sequence of the b-tubulin gene were able to resolve specimens of each species. Analyses revealed a greater divergence of the b-tubulin region than the ITS region. Based on molecular phylogeny of the combination of the ITS and β-tubulin regions, A. muscaria could be separated into at least three groups (Eurasian, Eurasian subalpine, and North American), and A. pantherina could be separated into at least two groups (North American and Eurasian). We hypothesize that the speciation of A. muscaria occurred in Eurasia with subsequent migration to North America via land bridges. However, it is impossible to determine whether A. pantherina moved from Eurasia to North America or vice versa. For both A. muscaria and A. pantherina, the intracontinental relationships of both Eurasia and North America were closer than the relationships between eastern Asia and eastern North America.

, W.S. saunders company. OHGA, S., M. SMITH, et al. (1999). "Transcriptional regulation of laccase and cellulase genes in the mycelium of Agaricus bisporus during fruit body development on a solid substrate." Mycol. Res. 103: 1557-1560. The cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus was grown and

fruited in wheat straw compost. RNA was extracted from samples of mycelium growing in compost during colonization and fruit body development. Laccase gene (combined lcc1 and lcc2) expression and cel3 gene (cellobiohydrolase) expression were determined by Northern blot analysis and by competitive RT-PCR. The level of laccase transcripts was highest in colonized compost (prior to the onset of fruiting), declined

during the period of fruit body enlargement and increased again after harvesting and during the second flush of fruit body production. No transcripts of the cel3 gene were detectable in colonized or pre-fruiting cultures, but the level became detectable and rose to a maximum at the veil-break stage of fruiting, declined after harvesting and rose again during the second flush. Gene expression for laccase and cellobiohydrolase correlated with the known changes of laccase and cellulase enzyme activities during the fruiting life cycle.

OKABE, I. and N. MATSUMOTO (2003). "Phylogenetic relationship of Sclerotium rolfsii (teleomorph Athelia rolfsii) and S. delphinii based on ITS sequences." Mycol. Res. 107: 164-168. The phylogenetic relationships of the stem rot pathogens

Sclerotium rolfsii and S. delphinii were examined, based on their rDNA ITS sequences. The ITS regions were cloned and sequenced to identify three distinct ITS types: r-1, r-2, and r-3. Two different ITS types exist within S. rolfsii and S. delphinii strains. Japanese strains and one strain of S. rolfsii from the USA contain types r-1 and r-2, whereas another strain from the USA and one from Chile have only one ITS type, r-2. S. delphinii strains have types r-1 and r-3. We discuss the implications of the common presence of ITS type r-1 for the taxonomy and evolution of this species complex.

Okey, E. N., E. J. Duncan, et al. (1997). "Zoospore germination and growth of Phytophthora palmivora in stem extracts as criteria for assessing cacao resistance to canker." Mycological Research 101(6): 983-686.

OKUBARA, P. A., B. K. TIBBOT, et al. (2003). "Partial retrotransposon-like DNA sequence in the genomic clone of Aspergillus flavus, pAF28." Mycol. Res.

Zoospore germination and in vitro growth of Phytophthora palmivora were studied in extracts obtained from healthy, wounded and inoculated cacao stem tissues. Extracts from wounded and inoculated stem tissues of IMC 67 (canker resistant genotype) significantly inhibited (P<0.05) zoospore germination and the growth of P. palmivora compared to healthy tissues and the controls. There was no significant difference in the percentage zoospore germination or the growth of the pathogen in the extracts obtained from P 18, SCA 6 and TSH 1076 (susceptible genotypes) and those of the controls, while extracts from ICS 1 and TSH 1188 (moderately resistant genotypes) gave intermediate effects. Also, germ-tube lengths were significantly shorter in IMC 67 extracts than in the controls, moderate in ICS 1 and TSH 1188 extracts and longest in P 18, SCA 6 and TSH 1076 extracts. Tests for antifungal compounds in extracts indicated the presence of phenols. The variation in inhibitory effects of cacao stem extracts on zoospore germination and in vitro growth of P. palmivora can be used as a criterion for selecting cacao genotypes resistant to canker.

107: 841-846.

A genomic clone of the aflatoxin-producing fungus Aspergillus flavus, designated pAF28, has been used as a probe for Southern blot fingerprinting of fungal strains. A large number of A. flavus strains isolated from corn fields and tree-nut orchards can be distinguished because the DNA fingerprint patterns are highly polymorphic. We have completed the sequencing of a 6355 bp insert in pAF28. The sequence features motifs and open reading frames characteristic of transposable elements of the gypsy class. We have named this new element AfRTL-1, for A. flavus retrotransposon-like DNA.

OLEJNIK, I. M., M. INGROUILLE, et al. (1999). "Numerical taxonomy of the sooty moulds Leptoxyphium, Caldariomyces and Aithaloderma based on micromorphology and physiology." Mycol. Res. 103: 333-346.

comprising mainly Aithaloderma specimens is most clearly resolved. Another group comprises a mixture of Caldariomyces and Leptoxyphium specimens. The third group comprised mainly Leptoxyphium specimens with some Aithaloderma specimens. Physiological characters provide no evidence for the separate recognition of Caldariomyces and Leptoxyphium.

OLSSON, P. A. and A. JOHANSEN (2000). "Lipid and fatty acid composition of hyphae and spores of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi at different growth stages." Mycol. Res.

A numerical taxonomic analysis of 272 specimens and strains of Leptoxyphium, Caldariomyces and Aithaloderma was undertaken. Analysis was carried out on two data sets : characters from the form of the hyphal cells, shape of conidiomata and the presence of ascospores were coded and 34 binary variables encoded for all strains ; 29 living cultures of Leptoxyphium and Caldariomyces were characterized for colony morphology, micromorphology and physiological characters encoded as 168 binary variables. Cluster analysis, principal components analysis and discriminant analysis was carried out. Three main groups are identified. A group

104: 429-434. The lipid and fatty acid compositions of Glomus intraradices

and G. claroideum mycelia, extracted from quartz sand in a compartmentalized growth system, were analysed. The fungi were grown in association with Cucumis sativus and Trifolium subterraneum, respectively. For both fungi, the fatty acids 16:1x5 and 16:0 dominated in the neutral lipid fraction, and 18:1x7 made up a significant part of the phospholipids. The fatty acids were used as estimators of the amount of neutral lipids and phospholipids of AM fungi as well as to calculate the biomass of different parts of their mycelium. The phospholipid content was higher in hyphae than in spores, whereas the opposite was observed for neutral lipids. In 3-mo-old G. intraradices mycelium, spores accounted for 90% of the external biomass, and calculations indicated that about 20% of the spore biomass consisted of neutral lipids. In both fungi the fatty acid

compositions of hyphae and spores were similar regardless of the age of the mycelium. Using the signature fatty acid 16:1x5 to calculate the distribution of AM biomass for a 2-mo-old mycelium of G. claroideum, we

found that the fungal biomass was equally distributed between the external mycelium and the internal mycelium in the host root.

OLSSON, P. A., B. MUNZENBERGER, et al. (2000). "Molecular and anatomical evidence for a three-way association between Pinus sylvestris and the ectomycorrhizal fungi Suillus bovinus and Gomphidius roseus." Mycol. Res. 104: 1372-1378.

Oltra, M., G. Moreno, et al. (1997). "A rare Didymium from Spain." Mycological

Many intimate associations between different species of ectomycorrhizal fungi are inferred on the basis of the consistent cooccurrence of their fruit bodies. Suillus bovinus and Gomphidius roseus, where the latter never occurs without the former, is one example. This association was examined with PCR identification and light microscopy. S. bovinus and G. roseus were unambiguously separated on the basis of RFLPs of the PCR-amplified ITS region of ribosomal DNA. Tuberculate mycorrhizas of Pinus sylvestris sampled under fruit bodies of G. roseus and S. bovinus were investigated and the majority were identified as mixed associations involving both G. roseus and S. bovinus. Tuberculate mycorrhizas, which macroscopically resemble the ones of Suillus species, contained typical chlamydospores of G. roseus and they had haustoria where G. roseus hyphae penetrated the cortical root cells. Pine seedlings collected near the fruit bodies of the two species were mainly colonised by S. bovinus. Mycelial rhizomorphs collected under the fruit bodies of G. roseus were identified as S. bovinus, while both fungal species were present at the base of G. roseus fruit bodies. The significance of these observations and the possibility that G. roseus acts as a parasite are discussed.

Research 101(12): 1508-1510.

OMERO, C., J. INBAR, et al. (1999). "G protein activators and cAMP promote mycoparasitic behaviour in Trichoderma harzianum." Mycol. Res.

Didymium subreticulosporum, a rare species from Valencia, is described and illustrated by SEM and LM photographs, and compared to related species.

103: 1637-1642. The mycoparasite Trichoderma harzianum, a biocontrol agent,

forms coils and other mycoparasitic structures upon contact with host fungi. A biomimetic system consisting of nylon fibres was used to test the involvement of signal transduction pathways in the induction of coils. Two activators of G protein-mediated signal transduction induced coiling of hyphae around nylon fibres. The peptide toxin mastoparan increased coiling more than two-fold in comparison with controls. The activator

fluoroaluminate (A1F4 -) had a similar effect, whereas aluminium ions alone were ineffective. cAMP increased coiling about three-fold. Although the two G

protein activators, mastoparan and fluoroaluminate, have very different modes of action, they share the Ga subunit as a target. We also found that two T. harzianum isolates differ in their extent of coiling around nylon fibres in the absence of effectors. The results reported here demonstrate that the biomimetic system can be used to study the biochemistry of coil induction, and will be a valuable assay to aid in the genetic manipulation of this pathway. It is proposed that a signal for mycoparasitic behaviour from the host cell surface is transduced by heterotrimeric G protein(s) and mediated by cAMP.

O'NEIL, J. D., M. BUGNO, et al. (2002). "Cloning of a novel gene encoding a C2H2 zinc finger protein that alleviates sensitivity to abiotic stresses in Aspergillus nidulans." Mycol. Res. 106: 491-498. We report the cloning and sequencing of a DNA fragment

encoding a putative C2H2 zinc finger protein from Aspergillus nidulans. The gene was isolated by complementation cloning of a salt sensitive phenotype of the A. nidulans sltA1 mutant. A 3.8 kb PstI fragment that restored wild type salt tolerance contained one large open reading frame of 2202 bp. The predicted protein (StzA) from this reading frame comprises 698 amino acids and has three Zinc fingers along with a putative transcriptional activation domain rich in acidic amino acids. The corresponding sequence from a sltA1 mutant contains a premature STOP codon resulting in loss of the putative transcriptional activator in the C-terminal region. The Zinc fingers show conserved motifs with a number of transcription factors including CreA from

A. nidulans and the human Wilm's tumour susceptibility protein WT-1. Orson K. Miller, J. (2003). "The Gomphidiaceae revisited: a worldwide perspective." Mycologia, 95(1): 176-183. Recent studies in the Gomphidiaceae have clearly delimited

two genera, Gomphidius and Chroogomphus, both of which are mycorrhizal associates

only with the Pinaceae. Ecological studies show Chroogomphus as a mycorrhizal associate of Pinus (Pinoideae), while Gomphidius is associated with the other three gymnosperm subfamilies Piceoideae, Lariceideae, and Abietoideae. The genus Brauniellula, which is based upon the secotioid habit and the presence

of orthotropic, statismosporic basidia, falls within Chroogomphus in a clade with ballistosporic species. Brauniellula is, therefore, placed in synonymy with Chroogomphus. Molecular and morphological studies of new material from Nepal, Russia, Korea, and the United States have delimited two new species in each

genus. The morphologically identical Chroogomphus rutilus clades are separate,

one European and one North American. The relationship of the two genera in the Gomphidiaceae, with their mycorrhizal associates, is related to similar host relationships within other genera in the Suilloid Clade.

Orson K. Miller, J., M. C. Aime, et al. (2002). "Two new species of Gomphidius from the Western United States and Eastern Siberia." Mycologia, 94(6): 1044-1050.

Orson K. Miller, J., R.-L. Brace, et al. (2005). "A new subspecies of Mycenastrum corium from Colorado." Mycologia,

Study of the genus Gomphidius from recent material from Asia and North America has been carried out using traditional taxonomy combined with molecular systematics. Two new species of Gomphidius (G. borealis and G. pseudoflavipes) are described, one from Eastern Siberia and a second from rarely collected habitats in the Western United States. One taxon has the longest spores reported for the genus and the second species appears to be associated with a Siberian larch.

97(2): 530-533. During field work in Colorado an unusual form of Mycenastrum

corium with a deep rusty red to reddish orange gleba was found. The species exists

Ortiz-Garca, S., D. S. Gernandt, et al. (2003). "Phylogenetics of Lophodermium from pine." Mycologia,

worldwide and lacks a previous description of the gleba at maturity other than olive brown, brown to purple brown. A subspecies is proposed for this unusual

population found in an area where normal populations with the typical glebal color are found.

95(5): 846–859.

the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of nuclear ribosomal DNA were used to infer phylogenetic relationships within Lophodermium. Twenty-nine sequences

Lophodermium comprises ascomycetous fungi that are both needle-cast pathogens and asymptomatic endophytes on a diversity of plant hosts. It is

distinguished from other genera in the family Rhytismataceae by its filiform ascospores and ascocarps that open by a longitudinal slit. Nucleotide sequences of

from approximately 11 species of Lophodermium were analyzed together with eight sequences from isolates thought to represent six other genera of Rhytismataceae: Elytroderma, Lirula, Meloderma,Terriera, Tryblidiopsis and Colpoma. Two putative Meloderma desmazieresii isolates occurred within the Lo-phodermium clade but separate from one another, one grouped with L. indianum and the other with L. nitens. An isolate of Elytroderma deformans also occurred within the Lophodermium clade but on a solitary branch. The occurrence of these genera within the Lophodermium clade might be due to problems

in generic concepts in Rhytismataceae, such as emphasis on spore morphology to delimit genera, to dif- ficulty of isolating Rhytismataceae needle pathogens from material that also is colonized by Lophodermium or to a combination of both factors. We also evaluated the congruence of host distribution and several morphological characters on the ITS phylogeny. Lophodermium species from pine hosts formed a monophyletic sister group to Lophodermium species from

more distant hosts from the southern hemisphere, but not to L. piceae from Picea. The ITS topology indicated that Lophodermium does not show strict cospeciation with pines at deeper branches, although several closely related isolates have closely related hosts. Pathogenic species occupy derived positions in

Orton, P. D. (1986). Pluteaceae: Pleuteus & Volvariella. British Fungus Flora 4

the pine clade, suggesting that pathogenicity has evolved from endophytism. A new combination is proposed, Terriera minor (Tehon) P.R. Johnst.

. P. D. Orton. Edinburgh, Royal Botanical Garden (RBG). 4: 1-98. OSAKI, H., K. NOMURA, et al. (2004). "Characterization of double-stranded RNA elements in the violet root rot fungus Helicobasidium mompa." Mycol. Res. 108: 635-640.

Osmundson, T. W., C. L. Cripps, et al. (2005). "Morphological and molecular systematics of Rocky Mountain alpine Laccaria." Mycologia,

Double-stranded (ds) RNA of various types was detected by electrophoresis in 23 of 25 isolates of Helicobasidium mompa. These dsRNAs varied in size from ca. 2 kbp to more than 10 kbp. dsRNAs from an isolate V1 had two distinct nucleotide sequences for putative RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RDRP). Their complete sequences revealed that V1 dsRNA1 was 2247 bp in length, with a single ORF that encoded a 706-amino acid residue polypeptide with a predicted molecular mass of 82.6 kDa, and that V1 dsRNA3 was 1776 bp in length, with a single ORF that encoded a 538-amino acid residue polypeptide with a predicted molecular mass of 62.6 kDa. RDRP-conserved motifs were identified in both predicted amino acid sequences. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that V1 dsRNA1 was most closely related to Fusarium poae virus 1, while V1 dsRNA3 was most closely related to Helicobasidium mompa 70 virus. These results indicate coinfection of isolate V1 by two distinct partitiviruses.

97(5): 949–972. The alpine zone is comprised of habitats at elevations above

treeline, and macromycetes play important ecological roles as decomposers and mycorrhizal symbionts here as elsewhere. Laccaria is an important group of ectomycorrhizal basidiomycetes widely used in experimental and applied research. A systematic study of alpine Laccaria species using morphological, cultural and molecular (ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer) data revealed five taxa in the Rocky Mountain

alpine zone: L. laccata var. pallidifolia, L. nobilis (the first published report for arctic-alpine habitats), L. pumila, L. montana and L. pseudomontana (a newly described taxon similar to L. montana with more ellipsoidal, finely echinulate basidiospores). All occur in the southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado; however, only L. pumila and L. montana were found on the Beartooth Plateau in the northern Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming. All are associated with dwarf and shrub Salix species, with L. laccata var. pallidifolia also associated with Dryas octopetala and Betula glandulosa. Maximum-parsimony phylogenetic analysis of rDNAITS sequences for 27 Laccaria accessions supports the morphological species delineations.

Osono, T. (2005). "Colonization and succession of fungi during decomposition of Swida controversa leaf litter." Mycologia, 97(3): 589–597.

fungi from leaves on subsequent decomposition and fungal succession. Fifteen species were isolated frequently from decomposing leaves with surface- disinfection and washing methods. These fungi were divided into early and late colonizers according to their occurrence during decomposition. The 1.5 y decomposition process was divided into three stages characterized by different dominant organic chemical constituents. A clear relationship was demonstrated between chemical changes and fungal succession. Total hyphal length and frequencies of some early colonizers were reduced in initially sterilized leaves at 3 wk, but this had no significant effect on loss of litter mass or chemical changes during the first 3 wk or on the subsequent decomposition and fungal succession.

Osono, T., Y. Fukasawa, et al. (2003). "Roles of diverse fungi in larch needle-litter decomposition." Mycologia,

Decomposition processes of Swida controversa leaves were investigated in initially sterilized (fungi- excluded) and nonsterilized freshly fallen leaves to

examine the relationship between chemical changes and fungal succession during decomposition and the effect of exclusion of previously established phyllosphere

95(5): 820-826. Functional biodiversity of fungi in larch (Larix leptolepis) forests

needle-litter decomposition was examined by a pure-culture test. Weight loss of larch-needle litter, utilization pattern of lignocellulose and chemical composition of remaining litter were investigated and compared for 31 isolates in 27 species of basidiomycetes and ascomycetes. Weight loss (% original weight) of litter ranged from 22.0% to 14.2%. Mean weight loss of litter caused by the basidiomycetes was not significantly different from that caused by the ascomycetes. Basidiomycetes caused loss of lignin and carbohydrates in variable proportions, while ascomycetes exclusively attacked carbohydrates without delignification. The content of lignin and nitrogen in remaining litter was not significantly correlated when both basidiomycetes and

ascomycetes were included. However, the correlation coefficient was significant when the relationship was examined separately for basidiomycetes, indicating

that the degree of selective delignification determined the final nitrogen content in litter. Possible effects of fungal colonization on needle-litter decomposition

in larch forests are discussed. Osono, T. and H. Takeda (2002). "Comparison of litter decomposing ability among diverse fungi in a cool temperate deciduous forest in Japan." Mycologia, 94(3): 421-427. The litter decomposing ability of 79 fungal isolates (41 genera,

60 species) was assessed with the pure culture decomposition test. The isolates were collected qualitatively in a cool temperate deciduous forest in Japan during a 21-mo period. Loss of original weight of sterilized litter ranged from 0.1% to 57.6%. Six isolates in the Basidiomycota caused high weight losses ranging from 15.1% to 57.6%. Fourteen isolates in Xylaria and Geniculosporium (the Xylariaceae and its anamorph) also caused high weight losses ranging from 4.0% to 14.4%. Other isolates in the Ascomycota and associated anamorphs and in the Zygomycota caused low weight losses on mean. Six fungi in the Basidiomycota, and all in the Xylariaceae showed a bleaching activity of the litter and caused lignin and carbohydrate decomposition. Mean lignin/weight loss ratios (L/W) and lignin/carbohydrate loss ratios (L/C), were 0.9 and 0.7 for the Basidiomycota and 0.7 and 0.4 for the Xylariaceae, respectively. Significant differences were found in L/W and L/C between the two groups when the result of Xylaria sp. that showed marked delignification was excluded. These differences in lignin and carbohydrate utilization patterns are discussed in relation to the structural and the chemical properties of the decomposed litter and to the implications for organic chemical changes during litter decomposition processes.

OTA, Y., M. INTINI, et al. (2000). "Genetic characterization of heterothallic and non-heterothallic Armillaria mellea sensu stricto." Mycol. Res. 104: 1046-1054. The genetic variation of Armillaria mellea sensu stricto was

studied within and among non-heterothallic populations from Japan and Africa, and heterothallic populations from Europe and North America, using somatic incompatibility tests and RAPD analysis. Nonheterothallic isolates from Japan and Africa were divided into four somatic compatibility (SI) groups (A, B, C and D). SI group A contained half of all Japanese isolates and all African isolates. SI groups B and C each contained four Japanese isolates and D contained one isolate. All European and North American isolates were clearly separated from each other by somatic incompatibility

tests. From the RAPD analysis, three distinct groups were separated (non-heterothallic, European and North American groups). The non-heterothallic group was divided into three subgroups (Ia, Ib and Ic).

Subgroup Ia and Ib corresponded to SI groups A and B, however, Ic contained SI groups C and D. Subgroup Ia, in which 12 of 14 isolates had the same haplotype, showed a little variation. Non-heterothallic populations were less variable than heterothallic populations. The distribution of the isolates belonging to each SI group overlapped within Japan.

Otieno, W., A. P. Sierra, et al. (2003). "Characterization of Armillaria isolates from tea (Camellia sinensis) in Kenya." Mycologia, 95(1): 160-175.

OTT, A., P. T. N. SPENCER-PHILLIPS, et al. (2003). "Topology: a novel method to describe branching patterns in Peronospora viciae colonies." Mycol. Res.

Camellia sinensis) in Kenya. The main species presently described in this country are A. mellea and A. heimii. A survey covering fourteen districts of Kenya was carried out and forty-seven isolates of Armillaria collected. Cultural morphology, rhizomorph characteristics, somatic incompatibility and features

of basidiomata were used to characterize the isolates, together with molecular analysis based on randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), inter-simple sequence

repeat (ISSR), restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and the intergenic spacer (IGS) regions and sequence of the IGS region. It can be concluded that two Armillaria species were present and they were different from A. mellea. The first group was morphologically similar to A. heimii but this was contradicted by the molecular data, suggesting that A. heimii could be a complex of several species. The second group was different from the first and morphological and molecular data strongly suggest that it could be a new Armillaria species.

107: 1123-1131. Topology provides a novel means to describe branching

patterns and has not been applied to fungal colonies previously. For any branched structure, various topologies are possible, and these lie between two extremes, a herringbone pattern (main axis with primary laterals) and a dichotomous pattern (highly branched system). We applied topological methods to colonies of Peronospora viciae 48 h after inoculation of Pisum sativum leaves. The methods are based on two simulations, one developed for channel networks such as found in river systems and another for biological systems. Although not a true herringbone form, the Peronospora viciae colonies have a strong herringbone element within their growth pattern. All 25 colonies analysed fell into the random distribution according to the confidence limits calculated from simulations for biological systems. These confidence limits, however, represent the percentile distribution of all simulated networks, and only those structures with a perfect herringbone or dichotomous topology fall outside the range. The tendency of P. viciae colonies towards herringbone growth is reflected

by the topological indices for altitude and external pathlength (a(obs)/E(a) and pe(obs)/E( pe), where a=altitude, pe=external pathlength, obs=observed for the P. viciae colonies and E=expected values for random growth), and the slope of the regression analysis for a(obs) and pe(obs). We consider this trend as significant because it was consistent for all but one of the colonies, and implies that growth can be envisaged as an intermediate between random and herringbone topology. It is proposed that initial herringbone growth may reflect a strategy that is aimed at overcoming host resistance, achieving rapid colonisation of infected tissue and maximising the potential for nutrient acquisition. This topology would also increase the likelihood of finding a compatible mating type for reproduction between heterothallic isolates.

OUTOVA, S. P., A. F. RAYBOULD, et al. (2002). "Specialised population of Claviceps purpurea from salt marsh Spartina species." Mycol. Res. 106: 210-214. The Claviceps purpurea population colonising British Spartina

salt marsh stands is characterised by unusually long cylindrical conidia (average 9.5-12 µm) and sclerotia floating on the water surface. RAPD, AFLP and rDNA comparison defined these isolates as the third genetically distinct homogenous population (G3) of C. purpurea. The same morphological and genetical markers were found also in S. alterniflora isolates from Spartina from the USA. All G3 isolates belonged to a chemotype producing ergocristine and ergocryptine. In phylogenetic trees based on rDNA and AFLP, a G1 population from fields and meadows appeared as the sister clade to the one formed by G3 (Spartina) and G2 (wet and shady habitats), both with floating sclerotia and elongated conidia. British stands of S. anglica were

Overholts, L. O. and C. H. Kauffman (1932). (Agaricales), Agaricaceae (pars), Agariceae (pars); Hypodendrum & Cortinarius. North American Flora

probably colonised by isolates introduced from America, rather than by isolates from species of neighbouring biotopes.

. L. O. Overholts and C. H. Kauffman. New York, The New York Botanical Garden. Vol. 10 (part 5): 348 pages. OVERY, D. P., T. O. LARSEN, et al. (2005). "Andrastin A and barceloneic acid metabolites, protein farnesyl transferase inhibitors from Penicillium albocoremium: chemotaxonomic significance and pathological implications." Mycol. Res. 109(11): 1243-1249. A survey of Penicillium albocoremium was undertaken to

identify potential taxonomic metabolite markers. One major and four minor metabolites were consistently produced by the 19 strains surveyed on three different media. Following purification and spectral studies, the metabolites were identified as the known protein farnesyl transferase inhibitors andrastin A (1) and barceloneic acid A (2) along with barceloneic

acid B (3), barceloneic lactone (4), and methyl barceloneate (5). These compounds are significant taxonomic markers for P. albocoremium; moreover this is the first report of a methyl ester of a barceloneic acid being produced as a secondary metabolite. Tissue extracts created following pathogenicity trials involving P. albocoremium and Allium cepa confirmed the production of these five metabolites in planta. Barceloneic acid B was found to be biologically active against a P388 murine leukemia cell line.

Oxenham, S. K., K. P. Svoboda, et al. (2005). "Altered growth and polyamine catabolism following exposure of the chocolate spot pathogen Botrytis fabae to the essential oil of Ocimum basilicum." Mycologia, 97(3): 576–579.

AdoMetDC activity in B. fabae, although again polyamine concentrations were not altered significantly. However activities of the polyamine catabolic enzymes diamine oxidase (DAO) and polyamine oxidase (PAO) were increased significantly in B. fabae grown in the presence of the essential oil of the two chemotypes. It is suggested that the elevated activities of DAO and PAO may be responsible, in part, for the antifungal effects of the basil oil, possibly via the generation of hydrogen peroxide and the subsequent triggering of programmed cell death.

PAAVANEN-HUHTALA, S., J. HYVONEN, et al. (1999). "RAPD-PCR, isozyme, rDNA RFLP and rDNA sequence analyses in identification of Finnish Fusarium oxysporum isolates." Mycol. Res.

Biomass of the fungal pathogen Botrytis fabae in liquid culture amended with two chemotypes of the essential oil of basil, Ocimum basilicum, was reduced significantly at concentrations of 50 ppm or less. The methyl chavicol chemotype oil increased the activity of the polyamine biosynthetic enzyme S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase (AdoMetDC), but polyamine concentrations were not significantly altered. In contrast, the linalol chemotype oil decreased

103: 625-634. Twenty-seven Fusarium oxysporum isolates were studied by

RAPD-PCR and isozyme analyses. Thirteen isolates were from barley and the rest from different hosts, most of which were dicotyledonous plants. All isolates could be distinguished from each other by RAPD-PCR analysis, and clustered into seven groups in NJ and parsimony consensus trees. Isozyme analysis detected polymorphism in five of the six enzymes and the isolates could be divided into 26 different electrophoretic groups. Five groups were supported by high branch support and bootstrap values in the approximate support tree of combined RAPD-PCR and isozyme data. These five groups were found also in NJ and parsimony consensus trees. The matrices from RAPD-PCR and isozyme data proved to be incongruent, but they did not totally disprove each other. Some correlation was found between geographical origin and phylogenetic relationships of isolates collected from barley. Representatives of the main clades of phylogenetic trees, were further studied by rDNA RFLP and rDNA

sequence analyses, together with isolates of other Fusarium species. Isolates of F. oxysporum and F. avenaceum formed distinct groups in the phylogenetic analyses, except for two isolates of F. oxysporum which were grouped with isolates of F. redolens.

PAAVOLAINEN, L., J. HANTULA, et al. (2000). "Pyrenopeziza betulicola and an anamorphic fungus occurring in leaf spots of birch." Mycol. Res. 104: 611-617.

Padgett, D. E. and J. T. W. Johnson (2004). "Zoosporangial discharge in a Protoachlya hypogyna (Saprolegniaceae) isolate from southeastern North Carolina." Mycologia,

We isolated ascospores and conidia of fungi associated with leaf spots common in birch leaves, and prepared mycelial cultures from them. The taxonomic positions of the fungi were determined by analysing morphological characteristics with photomicroscopy. The relationship between the teleomorph and anamorph was tested using random amplified microsatellite fingerprints, in which the variation was not explained by the origin of isolates (e.g. ascospores or conidia). This suggested that the ascospores and conidia would have been produced by the same biological species. In pathogenicity tests birch leaves inoculated with mycelia derived from

ascospores developed spots showing that the fungus could be the cause of the leaf spots. The anamorph was isolated from the developing spots. Based on these results and on review of the literature we concluded that the causative agent of the leaf spot disease of birch in Finland is Pyrenopeziza betulicola, the anamorph of which belongs to Cylindrosporium.

96(2): 205-207.

PADMAVATHI, J., K. U. DEVI, et al. (2003). "Telomere fingerprinting for assessing chromosome number, isolate typing and recombination in the entomopathogen Beauveria bassiana." Mycol. Res.

Inadequate attention to zoosporangial discharge has led to confusion in watermold taxonomic literature. This problem is discussed in light of a specimen

of Protoachlya hypogyna that manifests discharge characteristic of three watermold genera, and recommendations are made to reduce future inaccuracies.

107: 572-580. Beauveria bassiana is a popular biocontrol agent used as

‘green’ pesticide in crop insect pest management. Chromosome number has been variously reported as five, six, seven and eight in this species. The range of chromosome number and the minimum chromosome number in this economically important fungus were assessed through telomere fingerprint analysis of a sample of 17 isolates from different and similar hosts and distant and same geographic origin. Genomic

DNA digested with EcoRI, which has no cutting site in the telomere repeat sequence arrays was probed with a radioisotope-labelled (5k-TTAGGG-

3')8 oligonucleotide. The probe-hybridised regions appeared as discrete bands – each representing a telomere. The number of bands in each lane was counted and halved to arrive at the chromosome number of that isolate. The chromosome number varied from 5 to 10 in the different isolates. The telomere probe hybridised bands were also scored for presence or absence in a 0–1 matrix and a dendrogram based on similarities between the isolates was constructed using the NTSYS-pc ver. 2.02i software. The isolates showed very little similarity ; the overall similarity was 14%. Only two isolates which were of diverse host and geographic origin showed 100% similarity. Isolates from the same epizootic that showed 43% similarity in their telomere fingerprints had 96% similarity in their RAPD (Random amplified polymorphic DNA) fingerprints with 10 primers. The genetic distances computed from any one DNA fingerprinting method thus do not reflect the true genetic similarities of the isolates. The frequency distribution pattern of the pair-wise similarities computed from telomere fingerprints hinted at the occurrence of recombination in this fungus. Telomere fingerprinting proved very useful in typing isolates since each of them was found to have a unique fingerprint. Isolates with the same chromosome number neither showed a distinct morphology or virulence character nor a close similarity in telomere or RAPD fingerprints to merit their subgrouping into a taxonomically relevant or practically useful unit.

Page Lindsey, J. and R. L. Gilbertson (1975). "Wood-inhabiting Homobasidiomycetes on saguaro in Arizona." MYCOTAXON 2(1): 83-103. PAGNOCCA, F. C., M. B. Jr, et al. (2001). "RAPD analysis of the sexual state and sterile mycelium of the fungus cultivated by the leaf-cutting ant Acromyrmex hispidus fallax." Mycol. Res. 105: 173-176. That the symbiotic fungus of leaf-cutting ants only occasionally

produces the sexual phase makes their identification confusing. This has occurred so rarely, either in laboratory nests, or in unbalanced field nests, that the possibility of contamination of the fungal garden by other fungi cannot be disregarded. In this paper we describe the formation of several basidiomata in a healthy and freeliving nest of the leaf-cutting ant Acromyrmex hispidus fallax, the cultivation in vitro of the sterile mycelia (isolated from the fungal garden) with their typical infiated tips, and the similarity of both forms confirmed by RAPD analysis of their genomic DNA. The

PALANI, P. V. and D. LALITHAKUMARI (1999). "Resistance of Venturia inaequalis to the sterol biosynthesisinhibiting fungicide, penconazole [1-(2-(2,4-dichlorophenyl) pentyl)-1H-1,2,4-triazole]." Mycol. Res.

fungus was identified as Leucoagaricus gongylophorus.

103: 1157-1164. The likelihood of development of penconazole resistance in

Venturia inaequalis was demonstrated using chemical mutagenesis of a

wild isolate of the pathogen not previously exposed to penconazole. Mutant strains displayed a high degree of resistance which was stable. There was significant variation in the rate of total lipid and ergosterol biosyntheses between the resistant and sensitive strains. Low uptake of penconazole due to energy-dependent efflux was found to be the mechanism underlying penconazole resistance in the mutant strains, which also exhibited negatively correlated cross-resistance to mancozeb.

PALICE, Z. k., I. SCHMITT, et al. (2005). "Molecular data confirm that Omphalina foliacea is a lichen-forming basidiomycete." Mycol. Res. 109: 447-451. We examined the phylogenetic position of Omphalina foliacea

and its putative closest relative, the lichen-forming basidiomycete Lichenomphalia lobata. Both species are restricted to specific habitats in the high andine regions of tropical America. We generated nuclear ITS and LSU rDNA sequences of two collections of each species and analysed the data together with sequences of omphalinoid basidiomycetes retrieved from GenBank using a Bayesian and a maximum parsimony approach. Our analyses show that both, O. foliacea and L. lobata are lichenized basidiomycetes. L. lobata is related to other species of the genus Lichenomphalia, whereas O. foliacea is not closely related to other Omphalina or Lichenomphalia species, but probably belongs in the hymenochaetoid clade. The analysis of a nuclear LSU data set of a broader sampling of hymenochaetoid basidiomycetes supported the placement of O. foliacea in this clade, but did not reveal any close relative.

PANABIEARES, F., M. PONCHET, et al. (1997). "Characterization of border species among Pythiaceae: several Pythium isolates produce elicitins, typical proteins from Phytophthora spp." Mycol. Res. 101: 1459-1468.

Pythium. Panabieres, F., M. Ponchet, et al. (1997). "Characterization of border species among Pythiaceae: several Pythium isolates produce elicitins, typical proteins from Phytophthora spp." Mycological Research

Elicitins, holoproteins which act as inducers of hypersensitivity on tobacco, were considered as a characteristic of Phytophthora. They are also produced, along with glycosylated isoforms, by three species belonging to the related genus Pythium, Py. vexans, Py. oedochilum and Py. marsipium, while other Pythium species do not possess such proteins. Various elicitin-like sequences were determined, bringing novel features to the elicitin family, such as an histidine residue and C-terminal extensions on the deduced peptide sequences. As the unique elicitin content of these species supports a distinct location among Pythiaceae, we suggest the separation of vexans, Py. oedochilum and Py. marsipium from Pythium and consider them as linking species between Phytophthora and

101(12): 1459-1468. Elicitins, holoproteins which act as inducers of hypersensitivity on tobacco,

were considered as a characteristic of Phytophthora. They are also

produced, along with glycosylated isoforms, by three species belonging to the related genus Pythium, Py. vexans, Py. oedochilum and Py. marsipium, while other Pythium species do not possess such proteins. Various elicitin-like sequences were determined, bringing novel features to the elicitin family, such as an histidine residue and C-terminal extensions on the deduced peptide sequences. As the unique elicitin content of these species supports a distinct location among Pythiaceae, we suggest the separation of vexans, Py. oedochilum and Py. marsipium from Pythium and consider them as linking species between Phytophthora and Pythium.

PANDEY, A. K., M. S. REDDY, et al. (2003). "ITS-RFLP and ITS sequence analysis of a foliar endophytic Phyllosticta from different tropical trees." Mycol. Res. 107: 439-444.

Pang, K.-L., M. A. Abdel-Wahab, et al. (2002). "Jahnulales (Dothideomycetes, Ascomycota): a new order of lignicolous freshwater ascomycetes." Mycological

Different isolates of a foliar endophytic species of Phyllosticta were isolated from different tropical tree species in India to examine genetic variation among the isolates. Internal transcribed spacer-restriction fragment length polymorphism (ITS-RFLP) analysis did not detect any variation among the isolates, suggesting that they all belong to the same species. Sequence data of the ITS region of ribosomal DNA (ITS1 and ITS2, including 5.8S rDNA) supported the identity of the present fungal isolates as P. capitalensis. These results show that P. capitalensis (teleomorph Guignardia endophyllicola?) is an ubiquitous foliar endophyte that can infect tree hosts from different families and habitats.

Research 106(9): 1031-1042.

PANTOU, M. P., O. K. STRUNNIKOVA, et al. (2005). "Molecular and immunochemical phylogeny of Verticillium species." Mycol. Res.

A new order is introduced (Jahnulales) to accommodate ascomycetes with stalked/sessile and dimorphic ascomata, hyphal stalk cells that are ca 40 ~m wide, and ascospores that are unequally 2-celled with' or without various types of appendages or sheaths. The order includes a single family, the Aliquandostipitaceae, and has affinities with the Pleosporales within the Dothideomycetes. Studies on freshwater ascomycetes in Egypt and Thailand yielded one new genus Patescospora, and Jahnula siamensiae sp. nov., and the new combination J. sunyatsenii (syn. Aliquandostipite sunyatsenii) is made based on molecular results.

109(8): 889-902. 21 strains with all typical morphological characteristics of eight

Verticillium species (Phyllachorales) were studied in this work, together with representatives from four Hypocreales species (11 strains), that were previously classified as members of the genus. The PCR products from two nuclear genes, i.e. the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region and RNA polymerase II largest subunit gene (rpb1), together with four mitochondrial genes, i.e.

the small ribosomal rRNA subunit (rns), the two NADH dehydrogenase subunit genes (nad1 and nad3), and the cytochrome oxidase subunit III gene (cox3) were sequenced and analyzed. Similarly, antibodies raised against one strain of each of the species examined (V. nubilum and V. theobromae excluded) were used against the proteins of all other strains. The number and relative area of precipitates formed after crossed electrophoreses served to estimate the degree of immunochemical relatedness. Combined molecular and immunochemical data clarified the phylogenetic relationships of all true Verticillium species and provided a convincing insight into the evolutionary relation of the sect. Nigrescentia with members of the sect. Verticillium and sect. Prostrata that until recently were included in Verticillium.

PAOLETTI, M., K. W. BUCK, et al. (2005). "Cloning and sequence analysis of the MAT-B (MAT-2) genes from the three Dutch elm disease pathogens, Ophiostoma ulmi, O. novo-ulmi, and O. himal-ulmi." Mycol. Res. 109(9): 983-991.

PARDO, A. G., M. HANIF, et al. (2002). "Genetic transformation of ectomycorrhizal fungi mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens." Mycol. Res.

There were two successive pandemics of Dutch Elm Disease (DED) in Europe, parts of Asia and North America in the last century, caused by two ascomycete fungal species, Ophiostoma ulmi and O. novo-ulmi. A third DED species, O. himal-ulmi, was later discovered in the Himalayas. For each of these three species, we now report on the cloning and analysis of a 2.2 kb sequence containing the coding region and 5' and 3' flanking sequences of the mating type B (MAT-B) gene, which is involved in the control of sexual compatibility. The amino acid sequence of the single proteinencoded by the gene for each species contained a conserved DNA-binding motif called the high mobility group (HMG) box which showed significant sequence similarity to corresponding sequences in many ascomycete MAT-2 genes. Phylogenetic trees constructed from the MAT-B (renamed MAT-2) nucleotide and derived amino acid sequences showed distinct clades corresponding to the three Ophiostoma species and a clear separation of the O. novo-ulmi clade into the two subspecies americana and novo-ulmi. The 3' flanking regions have been shown to contain variable numbers of repeated oligonucleotide sequences, the number of which is species-specific and readily distinguished by a simple PCR assay.

106: 132-137. A technique was developed for transforming the

ectomycorrhiza-forming basidiomycetes Suillus bovinus, Hebeloma cylindrosporum, and Paxillus involutus based on Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated T-DNA transfer. The selection marker employed was the Shble gene conferring resistance to phleomycin under control of the Schizophyllum commune GPD promoter and terminator. Transformants from all three investigated species were shown by PCR to

contain the GPDScP-Shble-GPDScT construct, although the fate of the foreign DNA (integrated vs episomal, single-copy vs multi copy) could not be determined. The mycorrhiza formed between S. bovinus Bler transformants and Pinus sylvestris did not reveal any differences from those formed with untransformed Suillus bovinus.

PAREEK, M., L. COLE, et al. (2001). "Variations in structure of aerial and submerged rhizomorphs of Armillaria luteobubalina indicate that they may be organs of absorption." Mycol. Res. 105: 1377-1387. The structure of rhizomorphs of Armillaria luteobubalina grown

on agar and in liquid culture has been compared using light and scanning electron microscopy. They differed in the extent of their peripheral hyphae, amount of surface mucilage, degree of pigmentation, growth rate, and structure of their inner cortex. Otherwise their internal structure was similar. At maturity four distinct radial zones could be recognised : (1) surface layer of peripheral hyphae from which hyphae extended radially ; (2) outer cortex ; (3) inner cortex ; and (4) central medulla. The A. luteobubalina rhizomorph can be interpreted as a relatively strong ` tube ' of

Parenicova, L., J. A. E. Benen, et al. (1997). "Evaluation of RFLP analysis of the classification of selected black aspergilli." Mycological Research

hyphae with a variously developed surface, surrounding a medulla of gas space containing wefts of fluffy fine hyphae. Submerged rhizomorphs grew at much faster rates than aerial rhizomorphs. The central gas-filled cavity most likely facilitates diffusion of oxygen along the rhizomorph, allowing growth through anaerobic environments. There was no evidence for specialised translocatory hyphae such as vessel hyphae. A zone of swollen hyphae interspersed with narrow hyphae developed at the interface between the inner cortex and medulla in submerged rhizomorphs. These were alive and septate and gave the tissue a resemblance to

vascular plant aerenchyma, rather than specialised translocatory tissue. Peripheral hyphae took up and hydrolysed the fluorescent probe carboxy-DFFDA (Oregon Green) and accumulated the hydrolysis product in the vacuoles, suggesting that they are permeable. In contrast penetration of the cortex by the probe was limited. These data support the view that in moist conditions these rhizomorphs can function as organs of absorption and play a role in nutrient uptake.

101(7): 810-814. Twenty-one Aspergillus strains representing different A. awamori, A.

phoenicis and A. foetidus isolates were studied in order to explore the potential of a fast RFLP analysis to identify fungal strains. The patterns were compared with those characteristic for A. niger, A. tubingensis, A. carbonarius, A. japonicus and A. aculeatus represented by A. niger CBS 120.49, A. tubingensis NW 756, A. carbonarius CBS 111.26, A. japonicus CBS 114.51 and A. aculeatus CBS 101.43 and also with those of the type

strains of A. heteromorphus CBS 117.55 and A. ellipticus CBS 707.79. Sma I digested chromosomal DNA revealed characteristic rDNA patterns after ethidium bromide staining which were used in combination with hybridization patterns of Pst I/Sal I double digested chromosomal DNA with well-defined probes. This allowed clear distinction of eight separate species within the Aspergillus sect. Nigri group. The probes used were a 0.9 kb fragment of the 28S rDNA from Agaricus bisporus, an internal fragment of the pkiA gene from A. nidulans, and the pelA gene from A. niger. All the strains examined including those indicated as A. awamori and A. phoenicis were shown to belong either to A. niger, A. tubingensis or a group representing isolates of A. foetidus varieties, amongst which A. foetidus var. acidus CBS 564.65 and A. foetidus var. pallidus CBS 565.65.

PARFITT, D., J. HYNES, et al. (2005). "New PCR assay detects rare tooth fungi in wood where traditional approaches fail." Mycol. Res. 109(11): 1187-1194.

Park, N. S., K. S. Lee, et al. (2005). "Molecular cloning, expression, and characterization of the Cu,Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) gene from the entomopathogenic fungus Cordyceps militaris." Mycologia,

Lu et al. (2002) described a method for identifying Hericium species by PCR, using the primers HT-U1 and HT-L1 which they specifically designed for this purpose. In our hands these primers do not appear to discriminate between tooth fungi and other wood decay species. Therefore PCR primers were designed that discriminated Creolophus cirrhatus from other species (HER2F/HER3R), and which discriminate Hericium alpestre, H. coralloides and H. erinaceus from other wood decay Ascomycota and Basidiomycota but not from each other (HER2F/HER2R). Using the HER2F/HER3R primers together with traditional isolation and direct incubation procedures, the location of C. cirrhatus in Turkey oak logs was mapped. The PCR approach often detected C. cirrhatus in locations where it was suspected to be, based on patterns of staining and decay, but where it was not revealed by isolation onto agar media, emphasising the value of adopting several approaches to unravel fungal community structure in wood.

97(1): 130-138. We describe the molecular characterization of the Cu,Zn

superoxide dismutase (SOD1) gene of Cordyceps militaris, which is one of the entomopathogenic fungi called a vegetable wasp and plant worm. The SOD1 gene of C. militaris spans 922 bp and consisted of three introns and four exons coding for 154 amino acid residues. The deduced amino acid sequence of the C. militaris SOD1 cDNA showed 88% identity to Claviceps purpurea SOD1, 82% to Neurospora crassa SOD1, and 75–64% to SOD1 sequences from other fungi. The C. militaris SOD1 possesses the typical metal binding ligands of six histidines and one aspartic acid common to fungal SOD1s. The cDNA encoding C. militaris SOD1 was expressed as a 17-kDa polypeptide in the baculovirus- infected insect Sf9 cells. The enzyme activity of the purified recombinant C.

militaris SOD1 was approximately 568 U per mg21. Southern blot analysis of the genomic DNA suggested the C. militarisSOD1 was a single gene. Northern and Western blot analysis and enzyme activity assays indicated SOD1 was expressed constitutively. This is the first report of an SOD1 gene from any entomopathogenic fungus.

PARK, R. F., J. J. BURDON, et al. (1999). "Evidence for somatic hybridization in nature in Puccinia recondita f. sp. tritici, the leaf rust pathogen of wheat." Mycol. Res. 103: 715-723.

PARRENT, J. L., M. GARBELOTTO, et al. (2004). "Population genetic structure of the polypore Datronia caperata in fragmented mangrove forests." Mycol. Res.

Puccinia recondita f. sp. tritici pathotype (pt) 64-(6),(7),(10),11 was first detected in Australia in northern New South Wales in 1990. Greenhouse tests of pathogenicity on wheat and triticale genotypes indicated that this pathotype was similar to two closely related pathotypes, but differed from them in at least three pathogenic features indicating that it had not arisen by a simple mutational event. Pathotype 64-(6),(7),(10),11 combined several pathogenic and isozymic features which, prior to its detection, were known only in two different groups of pathotypes, strongly suggesting that it had arisen via somatic hybridisation between isolates from each group. This hypothesis was supported by the RAPD phenotypes of isolates representing pathotypes present in Australia at the time pt 64-(6),(7),(10),11 was first detected. The hybrid pathotype combined virulence for Lr1 with partial virulence for gene Lr13 and was fully virulent in greenhouse adult plant tests on two hybrid wheats heterozygous for these genes. This is the first case where compelling evidence has been obtained for somatic hybridization in Prt and only the second of inter pathotype somatic hybridization in a wheat rust under field conditions.

108: 103-410. Datronia caperata, a basidiomycete fungus, is one of the

dominant polypore species found in neotropical mangrove forest fragments, where it is locally specialized on Laguncularia racemosa. We examined the genetic structure of D. caperata populations from four Panamanian mangrove forests using AFLP markers. Using five primer pair combinations, 145 loci were detected, 98.6% of which were polymorphic. Each of the populations showed a high degree of genetic diversity (Nei’s h ranging from 0.146 to 0.223). Results from minimum spanning trees and Mantel tests showed little evidence for small-scale spatial structure within sites. A significant amount of total genetic variation was partitioned among populations (WST=0.21) separated by 10s to 100s of km, a considerably greater amount than has been detected in other mushroom and wood-decaying fungi sampled at equal or greater geographic distances. These results suggest that despite production of copious basidiospores capable of long distance dispersal, some homobasidiomycete fungi may be

susceptible to genetic isolation due to habitat fragmentation. Parshikov, I. A., J. D. Moody, et al. (2002). "Formation of conjugates from ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin in cultures of Trichoderma viride." Mycologia, 94(1): 1-5.

PASCALE, M., A. VISCONTI, et al. (2002). "Accumulation of fumonisins, beauvericin and fusaproliferin in maize hybrids inoculated under field conditions with Fusarium proliferatum." Mycol. Res.

The formation of conjugates from two antibacterial fluoroquinolone drugs, ciprofloxacin and norfloxacin, was observed in cultures of Trichoderma viride that had been grown in sucrose-peptone broth and extracted 16 d after dosing with the drugs. Both conjugates were purified by high-performance liquid chromatography and found to be optically active. They were identified by mass and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectra as 4-hydroxy-3-oxo-4-vinylcyclopent- 1-enyl ciprofloxacin and 4-hydroxy-3- oxo-4-vinylcyclopent-1-enyl norfloxacin. The transformation of veterinary fluoroquinolones in the presence of fungi may have ecological significance.

106: 1026-1030. The ear rot severity of 15 maize hybrids and the accumulation

of fumonisin B1 (FB1), fumonisin B2 (FB2), beauvericin (BEA) and fusaproliferin (FP) after artificial inoculation in the field with a toxigenic strain of Fusarium proliferatum has been investigated in Poland during the seasons 1996, 1997 and 1999. The year of inoculation proved a significant influence on ear infection degree and mycotoxin accumulation. Inoculated ears contained 11--71% Fusarium-damaged kernels. Mycotoxins were detected in all hybrids at levels of 18--231.9 µg g-1 for FB1, 0.4-26.5 µg g-1 for FB2, 0.2-19.6 µg g-1 for BEA and 0.3-6.4 µg g-1 for FP. Mycotoxin concentrations were higher in Fusarium-damaged kernels (up to 361.5, 41.1, 44.3 and 10.0 µg g-1 for FB1, FB2, BEA and FP, respectively) than in healthy-looking kernels (up to 26.0, 2.3, 1.9, 0.3 µg g-

1 for FB1, FB2, BEA and FP, respectively). All hybrids showed high susceptibility to the fungal infection and high toxin content in kernels during the three years of investigation.

PASHKOULOV, D., I. GIANNETTI, et al. (2002). "Biochemical characterization of polygalacturonases from five different isolates of Botrytis cinerea." Mycol. Res. 106: 821-837. Polygalacturonase (PG) secretion was analysed from five

independent isolates of Botrytis cinerea grown in minimal liquid media enriched with pectin as the only carbon source. To acquire information about the biochemical characteristics of the PGs secreted in vitro, we combined enzyme-activity assays with Western blot analysis and isoelectro-focusing (IEF). All isolates secreted at least four PGs isozymes with a similar electrophoretic patterns, easily distinguishable by western blots. IEF enabled the isoelectric point of the PGs for each isolate to be

determined. Wide variability in isoelectric point was observed between the PGs of each isolate, ranging from above pH 9.0 to below pH 5.0. For one of the isolates, each PG secreted in vitro was further purified by chromatofocusing and analysed for

PASQUALETTI, M., B. MULAS, et al. (1999). "Succession of microfungal communities on Myrtus communis leaf litter in a Sardinian Mediterranean maquis ecosystem." Mycol. Res.

endo/eso-polygalacturonase activity by thin layer chromatography. This combination of analytical techniques and enzyme assays provided a view of the pool of PGs produced by B. cinerea and defined the biochemical features of each isozyme.

103: 724-728.

Pataky, J. K. and M. A. Chandler (2003). "Production of huitlacoche, Ustilago maydis: timing inoculation and controlling pollination." Mycologia,

The succession of microfungal communities on Myrtus communis leaf litter was monitored from Jan. 1993 to Nov. 1994 using the litter bag method. Three main groups of fungal colonizers were identified, whose presence is correlated with the successive decomposition stages of the substrate and with seasonal variations.

95(6): 1261-1270.

has increased recently in producing U. maydis as a specialty mushroom in the United States. Silk-channel

ears consisted of marketable huitlacoche when yields were highest. Quality of huitlacoche was not affected by time of inoculation or pollination treatments, but quality of huitlacoche harvested 12–14 d after inoculation was unacceptable primarily due to lack of teliospores, which affected color and flavor.

Huitlacoche is the name given to young, fleshy, edible galls that form when ears of Zea mays

are infected by Ustilago maydis. Huitlacoche is processed and sold fresh at markets in Mexico. Interest

inoculation methods developed to evaluate common smut resistance in maize can be used to produce

huitlacoche commercially. This research assessed the effects of time of inoculation and preventing pollination on the severity of ear galls and yield of huitlacoche produced by inoculating silks with U. maydis. Yield of huitlacoche and severity of ear galls were closely related, as was evident from highly significant linear or curvilinear regressions. Severity and yield were greatest when ears were inoculated 4–8 d after the mid-silk growth stage. Ear galls were 5–15% more severe and yield of huitlacoche was 18–150% greater on ears that were not pollinated, compared to those that were pollinated. Maximum yield of huitlacoche was 131 g ear21 from unpollinated male-sterile field corn inoculated 6 d after the mid-silk growth stage and 92 g ear21 from detasseled sweet corn inoculated 6 d after mid-silk. About 25% of the total weight of

Patel, U. S., P. A.K., et al. (1997). "Chaetasbolisia indica sp. nov. from India." Mycological Research 101(3): 335-336. Description and illustration of Chaetasbolisia indica sp. nov. collected on

Shorea robusta from India is given. PATEL, U. S., A. K. PANDEY, et al. (1997). "Chaetasbolisia indica sp. nov. from India." Mycol. Res. 101: 335-336. Description and illustration of Chaetasbolisia indica sp. nov.

collected on Shorea robusta from India is given. PATERSON, R. R. M. (2004). "The isoepoxydon dehydrogenase gene of patulin biosynthesis in cultures and secondary metabolites as candidate PCR inhibitors." Mycol. Res. 108: 1431-1437. The European Union (EU) has introduced statutory limits for

patulin in fruit products. Species definitions need to be unambiguous for this capability, especially to determine ‘weak spots’ in food, drink and feed production. Fungi were analysed for the isoepoxydon dehydrogenase (IDH) gene of the patulin metabolic pathway to indicate potential patulin production. In several cases inhibition of PCR product formation was indicated. Dilution as a means of overcoming PCR inhibition and to determine optimal concentrations was assessed and the ramifications for nucleic acid analysis in general are highlighted. The inhibitors may be secondary metabolites. However, inhibition was not involved obviously for Penicillium brevicompactum. The gene was detected frequently from Aspergillus section Clavati and Penicillium subgenus Penicillium species. Some strains within certain species were negative for the gene. Detection of the gene product in Byssochlamys is reported.

PATTINSON, G. S., K. A. HAMMILL, et al. (1999). "Simulated fire reduces the density of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi at the soil surface." Mycol. Res. 103: 491-496.

Paulin-Mahady, A. E., T. C. Harrington, et al. (2002). "Phylogenetic and taxonomic evaluation of Chalara, Chalaropsis, and Thielaviopsis anamorphs associated with Ceratocystis." Mycologia,

In experimental microcosms, three Glomus spp. were subjected to heating to over 200 °C at the soil surface and 70° at 5 cm to determine the effect of fire on survival of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Heating reduced the quantity of propagules surviving at the soil surface and the effect declined with depth. While all propagules are likely to be affected by heat, we argue that the hyphal network is most severely disturbed and probably responsible for declines in density of fungi observed in the field following fire.

94(1): 62-72. Parsimony analysis of sequences of the internal transcribed

spacer region of the nuclear rDNA and partial sequences of the large subunit (LSU) place four anamorphic Chalara species as a monophyletic

grouping within the teleomorph genus Ceratocystis. Chalara ovoidea, Ch. thielavioides, Ch. populi, and Ch. elegans (synanamorph: Thielaviopsis basicola) form aleurioconidia typical of the anamorph genus Thielaviopsis, to which the species are transferred. Three of

these species (T. ovoidea, T. thielavioides, and T. populi) are morphologically similar to each other but are shown to be distinct by rDNA sequences. The anamorphic genera Chalaropsis and Hughesiella are considered synonyms of Thielaviopsis. Thielaviopsis punctulata, which forms aleurioconidia singly, is shown to be the anamorph of Ce. radicicola. The respective anamorphs for Ce. coerulescens, Ce. fagacearum, and Ce. eucalypti, which lack aleurioconidia, are also transferred to the amended genus Thielaviopsis as T. ungeri, T. quercina, and T. eucalypti. Although Ch. australis and Ch. neocaledoniae do not form aleurioconidia, they are placed in Thielaviopsis based on their endoconidial state and clear affinities to Ceratocystis eucalypti. Three apparently asexual Ambrosiella species belong in the Ce. moniliformis clade based on LSU rDNA sequences, but the cultures available are not suitable for detailed morphological study, and these species are not transferred to Thielaviopsis.

Paulitz, T. C., K. Adams, et al. (2003). "Pythium abappressorium—a new species from eastern Washington." Mycologia, 95(1): 80-86. A new species of Pythium isolated from wheat and apple roots

in eastern Washington is described. Pythium abappressorium sp. nov. is characterized

Paulus, B., P. Gadek, et al. (2004). "Phylogenetic and morphological assessment of five new species of Thozetella from an Australian rainforest." Mycologia,

by abundant appressoria. Plerotic oospores and sporangia are formed from the appressoria and remnants of the appressoria remain attached to the base of sporangia at maturity. Smaller appressorial swellings, reminiscent of hyphal swellings, are also formed within the appressoria. Pythium abappressorium is

pathogenic to wheat, causing damping-off and stunting, but is not pathogenic to apples. The fungus can grow in the temperature range 5 to 30 C, with an optimum of 20 C. The sequence of the ITS1 region of the rDNA did not match the sequences from a worldwide collection of over 1200 isolates, including types and neotypes, suggesting that this species has not been previously described.

96(2): 1074-1087. During an investigation of saprobic microfungi in leaf litter from

an Australian rainforest, five new species of Thozetella, namely T. acerosa, T. boonjiensis, T. falcata, T. gigantea and T. queenslandica, were identified and these are described and illustrated here. The morphology of specimens derived from cultures grown under different conditions and from natural substrata was compared. DNA sequence data

of ITS regions within nuclear rDNA confirmed the morphological species concept and indicated that Thozetella species are anamorphs of the ascomycete genus Chaetosphaeria.

PAULUS, B., P. GADEK, et al. (2003). "Estimation of microfungal diversity in tropical rainforest leaf litter using particle filtration: the effects of leaf storage and surface treatment." Mycol. Res. 107: 748-756.

PAULUS, B., N. HALLENBERG, et al. (2000). "A phylogenetic study of the genus Schizopora (Basidiomycota) based on ITS DNA sequences." Mycol. Res.

Fungal species richness and abundance were assessed in leaf litter of the Australian rainforest tree Neolitsea dealbata (Lauraceae) using particle filtration. Results were comparable to the species richness and abundance reported in previous studies of tropical leaf litter microfungi. Eight leaf samples yielded 1365 strains. In an assessment of the effect of surface treatments, 736 strains in 112 morphotaxa were isolated, while 639 strains in 141 morphotaxa were recovered to assess the effect of surface treatment. Isolation rates in airdried leaves stored at room temperature for four weeks declined linearly, while the number of morphotaxa remained essentially constant for the first three weeks. Isolates of common morphotaxa were lost preferentially over those of rarer taxa. Such losses of isolates may be acceptable if only presence/absence data are collected. If frequency data are vital for community analysis, only fresh material should be utilised. Two surface sterilisation treatments were applied to N. dealbata leaves. An ethanol/sodium hypochlorite treatment was considered unsuitable because it significantly reduced the number of morphotaxa derived from the leaf lamina. A sodium hypochlorite treatment reduced the number of detectable propagules in the wash water without changing the number of morphotaxa derived from leaf particles in comparison with those of the control group.

104: 1155-1163. A phylogenetic analysis based on internal transcribed spacer

regions of the nuclear ribosomal RNA region (ITS) sequences has been undertaken for species in the genus Schizopora. Four known species were studied, viz. S. radula, S. paradoxa, S. flavipora, S. nothofagi, and a hitherto undescribed species from Taiwan. Allopatric differentiation was apparent in S. radula, for which several geographically representive samples were available. Among these, ITS sequence data obtained from S. radula isolates from British Columbia and Australasia were identical. All previously recognised Schizopora species were well separated from each other with respect to their ITS sequences. Mating compatibility tests also showed complete reproductive separation between species, but intercompatibility between cultures from the same species, irrespective of geographical origin. Overall, the morphology of basidiomes of S. radula from New Zealand differs only in minor respects from those of European and Argentinean origin, but shows a higher degree of variability than

described for European specimens. PAWLOWSKA, T. E., D. D. D. Jr, et al. (1999). "In vitro propagation and life cycle of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus etunicatum." Mycol. Res. 103: 1549-1556.

PAZOUTOVA, S. (2001). "The phylogeny and evolution of the genus Claviceps." Mycol. Res.

Progress in understanding the biology of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi is hampered by the limited number of species that can be successfully propagated and studied in vitro. We report the establishment of monoxenic cultures of Glomus etunicatum in association with excised Ri T-DNA transformed carrot roots. The fungus can be propagated in vitro using monoxenically formed resting spores and/or colonized root fragments. Modified White's medium buffered with 10 mm MES (pH 6) or MOPSO (pH 6.5) was most optimal for the host root growth as well as for G. etunicatum spore germination and mycorrhiza formation. The number of resting

spores formed in vitro correlated positively with the length of roots occupied by arbuscular mycorrhizal structures, including arbuscules and vesicles. Spores first appeared in dual cultures within two weeks of root inoculation. Sporulation was asynchronous and continued until root senescence. Under applied culture conditions, spores achieved mature appearance within 5--7 d after their initiation. Approximately 6% of monoxenic spores were aborted at different stages of their development. Although G. etunicatum spores formed in vitro exhibited general morphological and anatomical similarity to soil-borne inoculum, they were significantly smaller and had thicker spore walls than their soil-borne counterparts. Caution should, therefore, be exercised in utilizing the in vitro system as a model of growth and development of glomalean fungi in soil.

105: 275-283. Phylogenetic trees of 16 Claviceps species were constructed

based on alignments of 5.8S rDNA and the adjacent ITS1 and ITS2 spacers. Two highly supported clades were found: (1) C. paspali, C. zizaniae, C. grohii, C. sulcata, C. fusiformis, and C. purpurea ; and (2) C. citrina, C. phalaridis, two unidentified Claviceps spp. (isolates PM and SG), C. sorghicola, C. gigantea, C. sorghi, C. africana, C. viridis, and C. pusilla. No relationship was found between the species placement and its morphological markers. The probe from C. purpurea gene cpd1 for dimethylallyl tryptophan synthase, the first enzyme of alkaloid biosynthesis, was hybridized to Pst I digested genomes of the above species under non-stringent conditions. Hybridizing DNA was present in all species of clade 1, although the signal of the C. paspali gene was weaker. In clade 2, only C. africana, C. gigantea, and C. pusilla gave weak positive signals.

Colorimetric detection found small amounts of alkaloids in cultures of Claviceps sp. SG and PM but despite that, no cpd1 hybridizing bands were found.

The occurrence of two major clades of Claviceps and their biogeography suggests, that the genus originates from South America and that the evolution of its species was influenced by comigration with their hosts and with the global climatic changes that influenced spreading of grass subfamilies.

Pazoutova, S., L. Fucikovsky, et al. (1998). "Claviceps citrina sp. nov., a parasite of the halophytic grass Distichlis spicata from Mexico." Mycological Research 102(7): 850-854.

PAZOUTOVA, S., M. KOLARIK, et al. (2004). "Pleomorphic conidiation in Claviceps." Mycol. Res.

The occurrence of an undescribed ergot species, Claviceps citrina, on the halophytic chloridoid grass Distichlis spicata, in the Texcoco region of central Mexico, is reported. RAPD and ITS1 sequences of this fungus were compared with other Claviceps species and the morphological uniqueness of the fungus was reinforced. Its sclerotia do not contain any alkaloids of the ergoline type. Germination of sclerotia occurred immediately after placing them on humid sand. After removal of the capitula, the remaining stipe was able to regenerate the capitulum.

108: 126-135.

PAZOUTOVA, S. and P. TUDZYNSKI (1999). "Claviceps sp. PRL 1980 (ATCC 26245), 59 and Pepty 695/ch-I: their true story." Mycol. Res.

Types of asexual sporulation in 17 Claviceps species and the closely related Corallocytostroma ornicopreoides were revised in relation to the phylogeny of clavicipitaceous fungi. We observed: (1) enteroblastic conidiation from branched phialidic conidiophores typical of the genus (anamorph Sphacelia) in all species including Corallocytostroma; (2) widespread and often sequential formation of terminal holoblastic secondary conidia on tapering hyphae arising from sphacelial

macroconidia; and (3) in addition to sphacelial conidiation, sympodial holoblastic conidiation of the Ephelis-type in cultures of C. zizaniae and in both the culture and sphacelial tissue of C. citrina. Secondary conidiation was not found in C. purpurea, C. citrina and C. sorghicola. During sphacelial fructification, most species produced macroconidia and microconidia. Only macroconidia formed in planta underwent secondary conidiation whereas microconidia did not germinate at all. In C. phalaridis, the formation of holoblastic 2–3 celled appendaged conidia was observed, similar to that of Aciculosporium and Neoclaviceps. In dendrograms based on ITS1-5.8S rDNA-ITS2 sequences, genera and species with appendaged conidia grouped on a highly supported clade with ancestral Corallocytostroma. The clade was placed inside a group of tropical species of Claviceps, without any relationship to Balansiae.

103: 1044-1048. The correct identity of the ergot strains Claviceps fusiformis

PRL 1980 (ATCC 26245), C. fusiformis 129 and 59, and Pepty 695/ch-I, formerly described as Claviceps purpurea, was proven by means of

RAPD, genomic DNA restriction patterns as well as by a literature search about the strain origin.

PEABODY, D. C., R. B. PEABODY, et al. (2003). "Phenotypic plasticity and evolutionary potential in somatic cells of Armillaria gallica." Mycol. Res. 107: 408-412.

Peabody, R. B., D. C. Peabody, et al. (2005). "Haploid vegetative mycelia of Armillaria gallica show among-cell-line variation for growth and phenotypic plasticity." Mycologia,

Somatic cells of Armillaria gallica fruit bodies have been shown to possess different genotypes for molecular-marker and mating-type loci. Here we report experiments on six quantitative traits and demonstrate that somatic cells of fruit bodies possess almost as much genetic variation for growth rate and phenotypic plasticity as do spores, the products of meiosis. Genetically distinct somatic cells therefore have the potential to grow at different rates relative to one another

during primordial fruit body formation. This may confer an advantage on all cell lines within a fruit body, not just those that happen to grow better under a particular set of conditions. To our knowledge, genetic variation for fitness-related traits that make up a single genetic individual has not been reported before.

97(4): 777–787.

Peerapornpisal, Y. (2005). Freshwater Algae in Northern Thailand

Vegetative mycelial cells of Armillaria are expected to have diploid nuclei. Cells from a single mycelium therefore would not be expected to differ from one another for ecologically relevant quantitative traits. We isolated two sets of basidiome cell lines (from spores and stipe cells) and one set of vegetative cell lines (from an attached rhizomorph) from a single contiguous Armillaria gallica mycelium. We isolated a second set of vegetative cell lines from the soil 20 cm from the above basidiome-rhizomorph complex. In all four sets of cell lines in situ DAPI-DNA measurements showed cells are haploid and quantitative- trait analyses of cell lines grown at different water potentials revealed high levels of among-cell-line genetic variation for both growth and phenotypic plasticity. Haploidy and the existence of ecologically relevant genetic variation within vegetative individuals are unexpected and mean that a process similar to evolutionary adaptation could take place within

the soma of a genetic individual. We believe this is a key to understanding how large A. gallica mycelia survive exposure to variation in ecological conditions

during lives that potentially span several tree (host) generations.

, The Biodiversity Research and Training Program (BRT). Peever, T. L., G. Su, et al. (2004). "Molecular systematics of citrus-associated Alternaria species." Mycologia, 96(1): 119-134.

The causal agents of Alternaria brown spot of tangerines and tangerine hybrids, Alternaria leaf spot of rough lemon and Alternaria black rot of citrus historically have been referred to as Alternaria citri or A. alternata. Ten species of Alternaria recently were described among a set of isolates from leaf lesions on rough lemon (Citrus jambhiri) and tangelo (C. paradisi 3 C. reticulata), and none of these isolates was considered representative of A. alternata or A. citri. To test the hypothesis that these newly described morphological species are congruent with phylogenetic species, selected Alternaria brown spot and leaf spot isolates, citrus black rot isolates (postharvest pathogens), isolates associated with healthy citrus tissue and reference species of Alternaria from noncitrus hosts were scored for sequence variation at five genomic regions and used to estimate phylogenies. These data included 432 bp from the 59 end of the mitochondrial ribosomal large subunit (mtLSU), 365 bp from the 59 end of the beta-tubulin gene, 464 bp of an endopolygalacturonase gene (endoPG) and 559 and 571 bp, respectively, of two anonymous genomic regions (OPA1–3 and OPA2–1). The mtLSU and beta-tubulin phylogenies clearly differentiated A. limicola, a large-spored species causing leaf spot of

Mexican lime, from the small-spored isolates associated with citrus but were insufficiently variable to resolve evolutionary relationships among the smallspored isolates from citrus and other hosts. Sequence analysis of translation elongation factor alpha, calmodulin, actin, chitin synthase and 1, 3, 8-trihydroxynaphthalene reductase genes similarly failed to uncover significant variation among the small-spored isolates. Phylogenies estimated independently from endoPG, OPA1–3 and OPA2–1 data were congruent, and analysis of the combined data from these regions revealed nine clades, eight of which contained smallspored, citrus-associated isolates. Lineages inferred from analysis of the combined dataset were in general agreement with described morphospecies, however, three clades contained more than one morphological species and one morphospecies (A. citrimacularis) was polyphyletic. Citrus black rot isolates also were found to be members of more than a single

lineage. The number of morphospecies associated with citrus exceeded that which could be supported under a phylogenetic species concept, and isolates in only five of nine phylogenetic lineages consistently were correlated with a specific host, disease or ecological niche on citrus. We advocate collapsing all small-spored, citrus-associated isolates of Alternaria into a single phylogenetic species, A. alternata.

Pegler, D. N. (1977). A preliminary Agaric Flora of East Africa. Kew Bulletin Additional. East Africa, Crown Copyright. Kew Bulletin Additional Series VI: 615. Pegler, D. N. (1986). Agaric Flora of Srilanka. Kew Bulletin Additional, Crown copyright 1986. Series XII: 519.

PEI, M. H., C. BAYON, et al. (2005). "Phylogenetic relationships in some Melampsora rusts on Salicaceae assessed using rDNA sequence information." Mycol. Res. 109: 401-409.

them only slightly (p distance 0.006), indicating that they may share a common ancestral lineage. M. amygdalinae and M. coleosporioides formed a distict group (bootstrap value 100% for combined ITS and LSU data). M. larici-epitea and M. ribesii-purpurea, both belonging to the M. epitea complex, appeared to be distinct. The molecular data also suggest that the differences in certain characteristics, such as the thickness of teliospore walls and host specificity, may have evolved relatively recently.

PEI, M. H., T. HUNTER, et al. (2003). "Quantitative inoculation of willow rust Melampsora larici-epitea with the mycoparasite Sphaerellopsis filum (teleomorph Eudarluca caricis)." Mycol. Res.

The 5k end of the large subunit (LSU) region and the entire internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA were sequenced from 11 species or special forms of Melampsora on Salix, and three species on Populus. For all the species, except for M. larici-epitea and M. coleosporioides, the sequences in both the examined regions were identical within a species. Within M. larici-epitea, f. sp. larici-epitea typica and f. sp. larici-retusae shared the same sequences which slightly differed from that of f. sp. larici-daphnoides. In the LSU region, M. larici-epitea, M. capraearum and the stem-infecting form on S. viminalis shared the same sequence and the Far-Eastern species M. epiphylla differed from

107: 57-63. The mycoparasite Sphaerellopsis filum (teleomorph Eudarluca

caricis) was applied simultaneously with Melampsora larici-epitea on to willow leaf discs using eight concentrations of conidia. Inoculum densities were quantified and the numbers of uredinia of the rust, pycnidia and conidia of S. filum and rust spores produced per leaf disc were measured 13 d after inoculation (first assessment). Higher S. filum inoculum densities resulted in more rust uredinia being infected, but did not reduce the number of uredinia produced. The ratios of infected rust pustules: S. filum conidia applied were in a range of 0.25–0.31 when less than 20 S. filum spores were inoculated on to a leaf disc (0.95 cm2). Suppressive effects of S. filum on rust spore production were more obvious in the second assessment, carried out 23 d after inoculation. Inoculum densities of S. filum were significantly (P<0.001) correlated with the frequency of uredinia infected (% variance accounted for [VAF]=85.8), the number of S. filum pycnidia (%VAF=81.4), S. filum spores produced (%VAF=72.3) and rust spore production (%VAF=48.6). Rust spore production was significantly (P<0.001) negatively correlated with the frequency of uredinia infected (%VAF=51.1), the number of S. filum pycnidia (%VAF=42.0) and the number of S. filum spores produced (%VAF=40.6). The best correlation was found between the number of pycnidia and the number of S. filum spores produced (%VAF=88.8).

PEI, M. H., D. J. ROYLE, et al. (1999). "Hybridization in larch-alternating Melampsora epitea (M. larici-epitea)." Mycol. Res. 103: 1440-1446. Crossing and selfing experiments were carried out with six field

collections and five isolates belonging to three formae speciales, larici-epitea typica (LET), larici-daphnoides (LD), and larici-retusae (LR), of willow rust, Melampsora epitea. European larch (Larix decidua) was inoculated with basidiospores produced on overwintered telial leaves and the resulting spermagonial lesions on larch needles subsequently paired in vitro. In two crosses between LR and LD involving a total of 439 lesion pairs, only two cultures obtained were identified as hybrids. These two cultures were non-pathogenic to the maternal host Salix burjatica cv. Korso and weakly pathogenic to the paternal host S. daphnoides cv. Meikle. No identifiable hybrids were obtained from 56 lesion pairs between LET and LD. In a cross between LET as receptor and LD as donor, one-third of the lesions formed aecia. In the reciprocal combination, however, less than 1% developed aecia. All F" cultures between LET and LR were weakly pathogenic to the parental hosts S. viminalis cv. Mullatin and S. burjatica cv. Korso. When three of the F1 cultures were used to produce telia, only one developed mature teliospores. Subsequent selfing experiments showed that this culture was predominantly self-sterile, with only 1% of lesions producing aecia. In selfing and crossing two pathotypes within the same f. spp., 20--40% of needles produced aecia and the rate of aecial formation was similar in both directions. The results obtained suggest that M. epitea is heterothallic and the sexual compatibility is controlled by a pair of alleles at a locus. It is concluded that the three f. spp. are genetically different populations and ecologically fit new pathotypes cannot arise easily as a result of hybridization between them. Within a f. sp., however, many pathotypes exist or will occur due to exchange of genes for virulence during the sexual life-cycle.

PEI, M. H. and C. RUIZ (2000). "AFLP evidence of the distinctive patterns of life-cycle in two forms of Melampsora rust on Salix viminalis." Mycol. Res. 104: 937-942. Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) was used to

examine genetic variation in two forms of Melampsora rust on Salix viminalis, the ` stem-infecting form' (SIF) and the f. sp. larici-epitea typica (LET) of M. epitea. A simple two-tube method was used to obtain genomic DNA suitable for AFLP. Eleven SIF and 26 LET isolates from the UK were tested using two primer combinations. Of the 215 AFLP markers scored, 93% were polymorphic. AFLP profiles were distinct between SIF and LET (Nei & Li's similarity coefficients between SIF and LET isolates=22--35%). Within SIF, AFLP patterns were very similar (similarity >98.9%), indicating that SIF is an asexual population and may have a clonal lineage. Within LET, similarities were > 69%. LET isolates collected from a site at Long Ashton in 1991--1993 were closely related and, therefore, may have come

from the same local source. Similarity data from AFLP were in good agreement (Spearman's rank correlation=0.85) with that of RAPD when both SIF and LET isolates were included, but the correlation was less obvious (=0.49) when only LET isolates were included. Identical banding patterns were obtained when AFLP was performed using either a Perkin±Elmer 480 or a Perkin±Elmer 9700 Thermocyclers, each programmed with

a different PCR profile. Pei, M. H., M. J. Whelan, et al. (1997). "Distinction between stem- and leaf-infecting forms of Melampsora rust on Salix viminalis using RAPD markers." Mycological Research 101(1): 7-10.

Peintner, U., E. Horak, et al. (2002). "Phylogeny of Rozites, Cuphocybe and Rapacea inferred from ITS and LSU rDNA sequences." Mycologia,

The RAPD technique was used to distinguish two forms of Melampsora rust on Salix viminalis. Fifteen isolates of the stem-infecting form and 19 of the leaf-infecting form collected from the U.K. were tested with 10 arbitrary primers. All the primers generated polymorphic bands and 46 putative loci were examined. Seven primers gave a total of eight bands specific for the stem-infecting form and four primers produced five bands characteristic of the leaf-infecting form. Cluster analysis using Unweighted Pair-Group Method with Averaging (UPGMA) revealed 62% disagreement between the two forms. The RAPD band patterns of the steminfecting form isolates were almost identical, while those of the leaf-infecting isolates showed up to 29% variation.

94(4): 620-629.

both a membranaceous partial veil in the form of a persistent annulus and a membranaceous universal veil. Cuphocye (4 species) lacks an annulus or cortina,

Phylogenetic relationships of Rozites, Cuphocybe, and Rapacea were assessed using molecular phylogenetic approaches. These three genera are

placed in Cortinariaceae and have been regarded as closely related to Cortinarius. Rozites includes more than 20 species, which are characterized by having

but has pigmented veil fibrils or scales. The monotypic genus Rapacea accommodates a distinct taxon with pale, nearly smooth and thick-walled basidiospores.

We analyzed 56 sequences of the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS1, ITS2, and the intervening 5.8S rRNA gene) for nine species of Rozites, three species of Cuphocybe, 28 species of Cortinarius, Rapacea mariae and Protoglossum luteum. Two species of Hebeloma were used as outgroup. Large subunit

(LSU) rDNA sequences from selected taxa were also analyzed. The results clearly demonstrate that Rozites species are nested within the

clade/Cortinarius, and that Rozites is polyphyletic, suggesting that membranaceous veils have evolved

several times in the genus Cortinarius. Also Rapacea and Cuphocybe are nested within Cortinarius, making the latter genus paraphyletic. Based on phylogenetic studies, Rozites, Cuphocybe and Rapacea are artificial genera and do not re- flect natural relationships.

PEINTNER, U., H. LADURNER, et al. (2003). "Xerocomus cisalpinus sp. nov., and the delimitation of species in the X. chrysenteron complex based on morphology and rDNA-LSU sequences." Mycol. Res. 107: 659-679.

Peintner, U., J.-M. Moncalvo, et al. (2004). "Toward a better understanding of the infrageneric relationships in Cortinarius (Agaricales, Basidiomycota)." Mycologia,

Species delimitation is still controversial in the Xerocomus chrysenteron complex. We have therefore established comprehensible and reliable species concepts based on statistical evaluation of morphological and ecological characters. We examined many collections from different geographical regions and different developmental stages within collections. Quantitative micromorphological characters (basidiospores, pileipellis end cells) were measured in statistically relevant numbers. The same material was used to generate 24 rDNA-LSU sequences, and the results of phylogenetic analyses clearly confirmed our species concepts: spore size and ornamentation, length of the pileipellis end cells and ‘pruinatus-hyphae’ are most valuable characters for the delimitation of species in this complex. Molecular data demonstrated that the X. chrysenteron complex is a monophyletic group. All the examined species (X. chrysenteron, X. cisalpinus, X. pruinatus, X. ripariellus, X. dryophilus, X. fennicus, X. porosporus, and X. rubellus) represent independent lineages. The faintly striate spores, a key character characterising species of section Striatulispori, probably evolved independently. In addition, the ‘pruinatus-hyphae’ have multiple origins, and truncate spore apices are derived at least twice. Xerocomus cisalpinus sp. nov. is characterised by striate spores, the presence of ‘pruinatus-hyphae’ and a pileipellis strongly reminiscent of X. chrysenteron. For reasons of discussion, microscopical data are presented on Boletellus episcopalis for the first time. Xerocomus fennicus (Boletellus) comb. nov. is proposed. We provide descriptions to all included taxa. Our results once more demonstrate that reliably identified and characterised voucher collections are the basic requirement for meaningful phylogenetic studies.

96(5): 1042-1058. Research on the molecular systematics of Cortinarius, a

species-rich mushroom genus with nearly global distribution, is just beginning. The present study explores infrageneric relationships using rDNA ITS and LSU sequence data. One large dataset of 132 rDNA ITS sequences and one combined dataset with 54 rDNA ITS and LSU

sequences were generated. Hebeloma was used as outgroup. Bayesian analyses and maximum-likelihood (ML) analyses were carried out. Bayesian phylogenetic inference performed equally well or better than ML, especially in large datasets. The phylogenetic analysis of the combined dataset with species representing all currently recognized subgenera recovered seven wellsupported clades (Bayesian posterior probabilities BPP . 90%). These major clades are: /Myxacium s.l., /subg. Cortinarius, the /phlegmacioid clade (including the subclades /Phlegmacium and /Delibuti), the /calochroid clade (/Calochroi, /Ochroleuci and /Allutus), the /telamonioid clade (/Telamonia, /Orellani, /Anomali), /Dermocybe s.l. and /Myxotelamonia. Our results show that Cortinarius consists of many lineages, but the relationships among these clades could not be elucidated. On one hand, the low divergence in rDNA sequences can be held responsible for this; on the other hand, taxon sampling is problematic in Cortinarius phylogeny. Because of the incredibly high diversity (;2000 Cortinarius species), our sampling included ,5% of the known species. By choosing type species of subgenera and sections, our sampling is strongly biased toward Northern Hemisphere taxa. More extensive taxon sampling, especially of species from the Southern Hemisphere, is essential to resolve the phylogeny of

this important genus of ectomycorrhizal fungi. PEINTNER, U., M. M. MOSER, et al. (2003). "First records of ectomycorrhizal Cortinarius species (Agaricales, Basidiomycetes) from tropical India and their phylogenetic position based on rDNA ITS sequences." Mycol. Res. 107: 485-494. Three new Cortinarius species, Cortinarius conopileus, C.

keralensis, and C. phlegmophorus spp. nov., are described from Kerala State in southern India. This is the first record of ectomycorrhizal Cortinarius spp. in the tropical part of India. In addition to distinct morphological characters, the comparative analysis of rDNA ITS sequences of the collections from India and morphologically similar species support the recognition of these taxa as new species. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that the three Indian Cortinarius spp. belong to both larger subclades of the genus Cortinarius, clade/cortinarius and clade/telamonia. As supported by morphological and molecular data, C. phlegmophorus belongs to Cortinarius subgen. Myxacium sect. Defibulati. Based on classical morphological characters, both C. keralensis and C. conopileus are representatives of subgen. Telamonia. However, C. conopileus belongs to clade/obtusi, which is a well-supported subclade of clade/cortinarius. Thus, in contrast to classical taxonomy, the clade/obtusi represents an independent evolutionary origin of telamonioid taxa. This result is also reflected by the distinct morphological characters of taxa of clade/obtusi, namely the lamellar trama with ellipsoid inflated hyphae and the presence of cystidia. In contrast, C. keralensis is a typical member of clade/telamonia. Within/telamonia, only relationships of closely related taxa are resolved due to the low genetic divergence found in ITS

sequences. Based on morphological and molecular criteria, C. keralensis is a distinct taxon of sect. Saturnini.

PEINTNER, U., R. PODER, et al. (1998). "The iceman's fungi." Mycol. Res. 102: 1153-1162.

PELAEZ, F., J. COLLADO, et al. (1998). "Endophytic fungi from plants living on gypsum soils as a source of secondary metabolites with antimicrobial activity." Mycol. Res.

Among the numerous items of equipment with the `Iceman', who died more than 5000 years ago on an alpine glacier, were three fungal objects : two different shaped fruitbody pieces of the polypore Piptoporus betulinus, each mounted separately on a leather thong, and, found in his girdle bag, a relatively large quantity of tinder material prepared from the ` true tinder bracket ' Fomes fomentarius. A full description of these items and a chronological report on their identification is given. The question about the possible use of the fungi is discussed on the basis of a comprehensive collection of ethnomycological and pharmacological literature

data.

102: 755-761. Endophytic fungi were isolated from nine plant species growing

on gypsum and saline soils in central Spain. The plants sampled were Arundo donax, Atriplex halimus, Diplotaxis erucoides, Ephedra nebrodensis, Phragmites australis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Scirpus holoschoenus, S. maritimus and Stipa tenacissima. A total of 152 fungal species were recovered from 2880 samples of leaves, stems or twigs, taken from 45 individual plants. Ephedra and Rosmarinus showed the highest diversity of endophytes, whereas both species of Scirpus showed the lowest. The most frequently isolated fungi were Alternaria alternata, Sporormiella intermedia, Rhizoctonia sp., Epicoccum purpurascens, Pleospora herbarum, Cladosporium herbarum, Sporormiella australis and a sterile fungus. A total of 187 strains belonging to 136 species were tested for the production of antimicrobial activities, using a panel of bacteria and yeasts, some of

PELLOUX-PRAYER, A. L., B. PRIEM, et al. (1998). "Kinetic evaluation of conidial germination of Botrytis cinerea by a spectro¯uorometric method." Mycol.

them of clinical relevance. Production of antimicrobial compounds was detected in 45 strains, belonging to 37 species. Large differences were observed among isolates from the same species, with respect to their ability to produce metabolites with antimicrobial activity.

Res. 102: 320-322. A fluorometric-based method for the kinetic measurement of

conidia growth of Botrytis cinerea in liquid culture is described. The method involves an oxido-reduction dye, Alamar blue, as an indicator of growth. The effect of nystatin, a non-specific antifungal agent, was studied

on conidial germination. An excellent correlation was found between the IC50 obtained by the fluorometric method, and by microscopic measurement. The method is rapid and quantitative, and requires only a small amount of chemicals and fungal material. Since the measurements were performed in a 96-well plate, it is possible to test many different parameters in parallel.

Penas, M. M., J. Aranguren, et al. (2004). "Structure of gene coding for the fruit body-specific hydrophobin Fbh1 of the edible basidiomycete Pleurotus ostreatus." Mycologia, 96(1): 75-82. Two fruit body-specific hydrophobins (Fbh1 and POH1) have

been identified in two different strains of the edible basidiomycete Pleurotus ostreatus. Comparison of their nucleotide and amino acid sequences yielded similarity values (59% and 66%, respectively) smaller than those found for alleles of the same hydrophobin gene but higher than those found for different hydrophobin genes in P. ostreatus var. florida (Pen˜as et al 2002). In this paper, we have addressed the question of Fbh1 and POH1 allelism by studying the structure of the gene fbh1 and by a classical genetic analysis to compare it with that of POH1. The structure of both genes is similar, as revealed by the similarity of their promoters and leader peptide sequences and by the conserved position of their introns. Furthermore, the allelism analysis revealed that both genes segregated as alleles when present in the same hybrid. These results suggest an allelic condition for POH1 and fbh1 and stress the importance of the similarity of fbh1/POH1 promoter and leader sequences. Furthermore, we have identified various microsatellite-like regions in this

Pengkray, J. (2006). Fagaceae of Thailand

gene that can be used for strain and species typing in the future.

, Biodiversity Research and Training Program. PENMAN, D., G. BRITTON, et al. (2000). "Chitin as a measure of biomass of Crinipellis perniciosa, causal agent of witches' broom disease of Theobroma cacao." Mycol. Res. 104: 671-675. Crinipellis perniciosa is the cause of witches' broom disease of

cocoa, a serious problem in South America. The aim of the project was to develop a measure of fungal biomass in cocoa tissue infected with C. perniciosa using chitin as a marker. Axenic cultures of primary and secondary mycelium of C. perniciosa were exposed to strong hydrochloric acid to hydrolyse the chitin. The glucosamine so formed was converted to hexamitol by sodium borohydride and the acetylated and derivatized products were separated by gas chromatography and identified by mass spectrophotometry. As a proportion of the mycelial d.w., chitin was found to be 14% in primary phase mycelium and 17% in the secondary phase. An average figure was used to calculate the amount of fungal biomass from estimates of chitin in dried and fresh cocoa broom tissue infected