THE FAT WE EAT.

INTRODUCTIONHumans and the Biological CellA human being starts its life from the biological cell, the basic unit of life. His good health also depends on the efficiency of the biological cell. The biological cell and its organelles are generally composed of nucleic acids, proteins, bio-chemicals and a fluid membrane surrounded by a skin2, 82. The cell thrives on the molecule ATP, the currency of energy. ATP is an electrical charge that is used to synthesize molecules, drive molecular vehicles and to transmit signals2 page 345. These electrical charges have to flow through ‘conductors’ which should be securely insulated to avoid dissipation of electrical charges and distortion or wrong termination of a signal.

ATP is produced from glucose and its precursors. The molecular vehicles are proteins and their derivatives. The proteins and their derivatives travel in a fluid membrane, which has a viscosity of about 100 times that of water 2 pg.

336. This implies that there is an oily substance in the fluid membrane. The skin consists of a bilayer of fatty acids which close on themselves without any edges and no exposed carboxyl heads or hydrocarbon chains. The bilayer of fatty acids is a self-sealing compartment with no holes2 page 30.

Activities including transduction and transmission of signals linking biological cells are carried out through channels, synapses and axons enclosed within bilayer of fatty acids. The conducting medium is provided by the hydrophilic carboxyl heads of the bilayer of fatty acids embedded in the fluid membrane. The insulation around the conducting medium is provided by the hydrophobic hydrocarbon chains of the bilayer of fatty acids, which defines the inside and outside of the biological cell, channels, synapses and axons 2 page 30.

The lubricated fluid membrane enclosed within the bilayer of fatty acids ensures that: -

Bio-chemical and bio-physical activities of the whole cell are effectively carried out; Nutrients, ATP and charged ions do not leak out of the cell and are efficiently utilized; Unwanted microorganisms or foreign matter do not enter the cell to cause mutations etc.; Signals are meaningfully transduced, properly transmitted and terminated correctly.

Contradictions in the Biology of Fats and Fatty AcidsAn analysis of the biology of fats in the human body shows a number of conflicting and incongruous concepts. The research studies on fat synthesis, consumption and absorption in the recent sixty years and the theories seem to raise a number of questions. An examination of the role of fat in mammals living in their natural environment tends to disconnect with a few basic concepts on fat metabolism in humans.

The literature claims that the most important feature of the cell is the hydrophilic carboxyl head and the hydrophobic hydro carbon chain i.e. the bilayer of fatty acids. Yet a considerable number of writers tend to use the term fluid membrane indiscriminately for the fluid hydrophilic inside and the rigid hydrophobic hydrocarbon chains. This tendency has led to a number of conflicting roles and assignments for the fatty acids in the life of the cell and the related organs. Recent scientific studies, since the late 1960s, have started addressing the contradictions. Table 1 spells out a few of the contradictions.

TABLE 1: - CONTRADICTIONS IN THE BIOLOGY OF FATS AND FATTY ACIDSNo. TOPIC CONFLICTING CONCEPTS AND PERCEPTIONS COMMENT

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1. Fatty Acids and The Production Energy Molecule ATP

2 On page 605 “The utilization of fatty acids as fuel requires three stages of processing . . . fatty acids are broken down . . . . . . . . into acetyl CoA which is then processed in the citric acid cycle.”2 On page 601 “Fatty acids are fuel molecules.”2 On page 467, Acetyl CoA is the fuel for the citric acid cycle. . . . . . In the mitochondria matrix, pyruvate is oxidatively decaboxylated by the pyruvate complex to form acetyl CoA” 81 Fat - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: -Fats also serve as energy stores for the body . . . . . . . . . . . . They are broken down in the body to release glycerol and free fatty acids. The glycerol can be converted to glucose by the liver and thus used as a source of energy.

2 page 607 Muscle relies on fatty acids as a long term source of energy. Medium chain fatty acids, which do not require carnitine to enter the mitochondria, are oxidized normally . . . . . . . to produce ATP.

2 page 617Acetyl CoA from acetic acid is the molecule used to synthesize in vivo fatty acids in mammals.4 page 553The question of pyruvic acid as a precursor of acetaldehyde seems to be rather an academic point.2 page 617 Animals cannot convert fatty acids into glucose; the molecule use to generate ATP.2 page 845 Malonyl CoA, the precursor for fatty acid synthesis, inhibits fatty acid degradation2 page 610 “The oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids presents some difficulties, yet many of such fatty acids are available in the diet. In fact, only two additional enzymes are required – an isomerase and a reductase – are required to degrade a wide range of unsaturated fatty acids.”2 page626 In starvation, the level of free fatty acids rises. Insulin inhibits hydrolysis of fatty acids, hence prevents the production of energy molecules from fatty acids.

If acetyl CoA is produced through pyruvate and used to generate the energy molecule ATP, and the same acetyl CoA is also used for the synthesis of fatty acids, then the efficiency of the biological processes becomes compromised. Why should the cell spend so much energy, effort and time to produce fatty acids and then break them down? Why should the cell oxidize very long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids to prostaglandins instead of making energy out of such fatty acids? The concept on the use of fatty acids as a precursor for energy molecules does not tally with the reality of the “obese”. The theory of fatty acids being converted into energy molecules, while the same fatty acids are required to keep the cell alive can only be an academic exercise.Wikipedia’s statement on fat implies that fatty acids are not used as a source of energy. Medium chain fatty acids cannot be converted into glucose, since they are produced as intermediaries during the in vivo production of saturated palmitic acid. Similarly, any ingested medium chain saturated fatty acids would be used for generating saturated palmitic acid 4 page 556.

TABLE 1: - CONTRADICTIONS IN THE BIOLOGY OF FATS AND FATTY ACIDSNo. TOPIC CONFLICTING CONCEPTS AND PERCEPTIONS COMMENT2. Essential fatty

acids and Prostaglandins

2 Page.627Mammals cannot synthesize polyunsaturated fatty acids.

4 Linolenic acid produced C22 hexaethenoid and linoleic acid produced

Mammals initially accept fatty acids which it cannot itself synthesize, but over the years such fatty acids

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2 On page 601 Fatty acid derivatives serve as hormones and intracellular messengers.4 Research studies on animals (since 1930s by a number of schools of Hilditch, Hammond, Burr, Smedley-Maclean, Rieckehoff, Widmer, Klenk, Thomasson, Reinus, etc.), using poly unsaturated fatty acids which cannot be produced in vivo, showed that (a) Only linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids cured the symptoms of fat deficiency. All other poly unsaturated fatty acids did not cure such symptoms. Hence, the three poly unsaturated fatty acids were classified as “essential” fatty acids, because they must be supplied in the diet. (b) Ingested linoleic and linolenic generated many other very long chain poly unsaturated fatty acid such as ricinoleic, euricic, chaulmoogric, lignoceric, lumequic, behenic. (c) All the poly unsaturated fatty acids provided signs of “growth” but seemed not to have taken part in fat metabolism. They were mainly deposited in the adipose tissues.

tetraethenoid acid C20 i.e. arachidonic acid. 2 Page.627Arachidonic acid can be oxidized to prostaglandin, a 20- carbon fatty acid containing a 5-carbon ring. 36 The concept that prostaglandins or other eicosanoids derived from fatty acids may play a role in the development of cancer is not a new one. . . . . The study of involvement of prostaglandins in the pathogenesis and progression of cancer is currently a lively field of research. The evidence weighs heavily in favour of such a role in many types of cancer. 32 42 Examination of over 700 red cell lipid analyses of children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder have revealed characteristic patterns as elevation of VLCFAs (erucic, lignoceric, lumequic, behenic, adrenic, pentacosanoic).81 The FDA has listed many known or suspected risks of omega-3, a polyunsaturated fatty acid. The FDA says omega-3 has no proven benefits and has recommended that total dietary intake of omega-3 fatty acids should be limited.

gradually damage the health of those who ingest them.Prostaglandin molecules, derivative of fatty acids have been referred to by different names such as signal molecules, hormones, proteins, autoclines, paraclines, etc. making it confusing to understand and appreciate the actual role(s) they play in the body. 2 Page.628 Simply put, prostaglandin molecules are linoleic acids elongated into very long chain poly unsaturated arachidonic acids which are oxidized fatty acids with hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail. Prostaglandins damage the activities of the cells in at least two ways e.g. (a) they disturb the movement of other molecules within the fluid membrane2 Page.332; (b) they break a hydrogen bond within the bilayer of fatty acids2 Page.333 thereby impairing the impedance of the bilayer, causing signals to fail to terminate properly. Many research studies have identified prostaglandins and VLCFAs produced from the “essential” fatty acids as the source of many different varieties of diseases, ailments and impaired organs 30, 31,32,33,34.37. These comments indicate that polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are not produced in vivo, can harm the body. Synthesized and ingested fatty acids serve at least two important roles i.e. (a) bilayer of fatty acids and (b) lubricant inside the fluid membrane.

TABLE 1: - CONTRADICTIONS IN THE BIOLOGY OF FATS AND FATTY ACIDSNo. TOPIC CONFLICTING CONCEPTS AND PERCEPTIONS COMMENT3. Fatty Acids,

Cholesterol and Bilayer of Lipids (fatty Acids)

56Many lipid processes depend on the fluidity of the membrane lipids. The fluidity of a lipid bilayer depends on both its composition

2 page 30 The hydrophobic interior of the bilayer serves as barrier between two aqueous solutions. The presence of saturated fatty acyl residues favours

A good barrier between two aqueous solutions should be rigid in order to prevent spillage; flexibility of the barrier enables movement of the

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and temperature. 2 page 722Cholesterol modulates the animal cell membrane.

81, 2 page 728. Low Density Lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol has a highly hydrophobic core consisting of polyunsaturated fatty acid known as linoleate.

2 page 336 The magnitude of the observed diffusion coefficient of the viscosity of the (fluid) membrane is about 100 times more than that of water, rather like that of olive oil. 2 page 729 The released un-esterified cholesterol can be re-esterified with palmitoleic and oleic acids for storage inside the cell.

the rigid state. 2 On page 601 Fatty acids are building blocks.

2 page 728 High serum levels of cholesterol cause disease and death by contributing to the formation of atherosclerotic plaques in arteries throughout the body. The excess cholesterol is present in the form of LDL particle, so called “bad cholesterol”.2 On page 601 “Many proteins are modified by the covalent attachment of fatty acids, which target them to membrane locations.”82All cells have a 'skin', called the plasma membrane, protecting it from the outside environment. The cell membrane regulates the movement of water, nutrients and wastes into and out of the cell.

aqueous solutions. Hence, the bilayer of fatty acids should be flexible and rigid. There seems to be a lack of clarity and consistency in the literature about the separate roles of the fluid membrane and the bilayer of fatty acids as the boundary barrier of the cell and the cells external environment.

The high viscosity of the fluid membrane and the fact that an ester of palmitoleic and oleic acids is stored inside the cell indicates that there is a lubricant supporting the transport of nucleic acids, proteins and other bio-chemicals inside the cell. When fatty acids become covalently attached to a protein then the bilayer becomes impaired.Cholesterol is naturally produced by the cell. The various comments on how cholesterol is used show the important roles cholesterol undertakes in the activities of the cell. The comments also show how the cell produces more cholesterol to seal the holes created by polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are used in the bilayer of fatty acids.

FATTY ACIDS AND THE CELLFatty Acids 2, 3, 4,

Annex 1 illustrates the common fatty acids. A molecule of fat consists of three fatty acid molecules and an alcohol molecule, normally glycerol. Each natural fat is unique. The uniqueness of each natural fat depends on the composition of the fatty acids. The type and quantity of the constituent fatty acids determine the chemical makeup of the natural fat. A fatty acid has a carboxylic acid [-COOH] head and a hydrocarbon tail known as a chain, which is either saturated or unsaturated. The number of carbon atoms in the chain is used to classify fatty acids into short chain for 2-6 carbon atoms, medium chain for 8-12 carbon atoms, long chain for 14-18 carbon atoms and very long chain for 20-24 carbon atoms.

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Fatty acids with only single-bond between the carbon molecules are called saturated, and referred to as pure, because the carbon atoms are completely occupied with as many hydrogen atoms as they can carry. Fatty acids which do not have the full complement of hydrogen atoms and have double bonds in the carbon chain are known as unsaturated. Fatty acids with only one double-bond are called mono-unsaturated while those with more than one double-bond are called poly-unsaturated.

In an unsaturated fatty acid, the two hydrogen atoms that are bound to the double bond can occur in a cis or trans configuration. This describes the orientation of the hydrogen atoms with respect to the carbon double bond. Cis means "on the same side" and trans means "across".

Saturated fatty acids are very stable and do not react with other molecules. Mono-unsaturated fatty acids are reasonably stable and do not easily react with the very active oxygen atom. Poly-unsaturated fatty acids are unstable; the level of stability decreases as the number of double bonds increase. Poly unsaturated fatty acids easily react with other carbon ions and the very active oxygen atom.

In Vivo Production of Fatty AcidsIn mammals including humans, each biological cell starts with acetic acid and finally produces saturated palmitic acid. The production process is in a step by step manner. It uses acetic acid to produce butyric acid, which then produces caproic acid, which also produces caprylic acid. The caprylic acid continues the process and produces capric acid, which produces lauric acid, i.e the short chain saturated acetic acid produces sequentially the five short and medium chain saturated fatty acids as intermediate products. The lauric acid continues the step by step process and produces another intermediate product saturated myristic acid and then palmitic acid as a final product The cell also produces mono unsaturated palmitoleic acid as an intermediate product and finally produces stearic acids and the mono unsaturated oleic acids as final products. Three final fatty acids i.e. saturated palmitic and stearic and mono unsaturated oleic acids are the main fatty acids found in mammals. The cell cannot produce any poly unsaturated fatty acids; such poly unsaturated fatty acids get into the body only through the food we eat. Table 2 gives an idea of the predominant fatty acids found in the cells of mammals. 2, 4 pages 552-563

Acetic acid, a saturated fatty acid, is the basic material used for the natural production of fatty acids and sterols in all living organisms i.e. plants and animals including humans 82. It is produced by bacteria called acetobacter, which is found naturally in soils, water and a number food items. Human societies, for centuries, have allowed acetic acid to be produced naturally in food items through fermentation. Acetic acid is fundamental to all forms of life. 4

The saturated palmitic and stearic acids and the mono-unsaturated oleic acid are the predominant fatty acids found in mammals including humans. These three predominant long chain fatty acids make up at least 90% (often 99.5%) of the total fatty acids found in mammals4. Table 2

Mammals including humans, as part of the reproduction strategy, produce and store the three predominant fatty acids and moderate quantities of the short and medium chain saturated fatty acids, mono unsaturated palmitoleic acid and the saturated myristic acid in the milk of the lactating female mammal4. The lactating female’s milk normally contains practically no poly-unsaturated fatty acids, unless the female mammal has been ingesting large quantities of poly-unsaturated fatty acids. 4,53 Table 3 It is important to note that mammals including humans cannot produce any poly unsaturated fatty acids and saturated fatty acids with 20 or more carbon atoms. Any poly unsaturated fatty acids found in the body must have been ingested as part of the food. 3, 4

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TABLE 2: - DEPOT FATS OF DIFFERENT CLASSES OF MAMMALS4

RODENTS HERBIVORA% weight Rat Rabbit Horse Pig Deer Sheep Camel K'aroo

SATURATED

Butyric

Caproic

Caprylic

Capric

Lauric

Myristic 7 6 5 1 4 3 6 5

Palmitic 24 31 26 28 25 25 29 26

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Stearic 5 5 5 12 35 28 27 14

Arachidic

Behenic

Lignoceric

MONO UNSATURATED

Palmitoleic 6 6 7 3 3 1 3 3

Oleic 49 30 34 48 25 37 26 46Sum : the Fatty Acids without PUFA

91 78 77 95 92 94 91 94

POLY UNSATURATED

Linoleic etc. 5 16 5 6 5 5 2 3

Unsat. C20-22 1 1 2 2 1 3 3SOURCE: - Page 131 of The Chemical Constitution of Natural Fats; by T. P. Hilditch. and P.N. Williams

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TABLE 2 (cont.): - DEPOT FATS OF DIFFERENT CLASSES OF MAMMALS

HERBIVORA OMNIVORA CANIVORA

% weightHippo

Giant Panda E'phant

Sacred Bamboo Human Cat Lion Tiger

SATURATED

Butyric

Caproic

Caprylic

Capric

Lauric

Myristic 2 5 6 3 6 4 5 1

Palmitic 27 26 44 19 25 29 29 22

Stearic 22 7 7 6 6 17 18 25

Arachidic

Behenic

Lignoceric

MONO UNSATURATED

Palmitoleic 2 4 5 4 7 4 2 7

Oleic 45 45 27 54 45 41 40 39Sum Fatty Acids without PUFA

98 87 89 86 89 95 94 94

POLY UNSATURATEDLinoleic etc. 4 12 6 13 8 2 4Unsat. C20-

22 1 3 1 2 3 SOURCE: - Page 131 of The Chemical Constitution of Natural Fats; by T. P. Hilditch. and P.N. Williams

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TABLE 3: -FATTY ACID LEVELS OF MILK OF MAMMALS

% Molar Indian Cow

Indian Sheep

Indian Goat

Indian Camel

Indian Buffalo

Turkish Buffalo

Europe Human

SATURATED Acetic Butyric 10.6 13.5 15.4 10.1 11.5 12.6 1.1Caproic 3.7 0.4 1.1 0.7 - 3.3 0.1Caprylic 1.6 0.5 1.4 2.2 0.1 0.8 0.7Capric 2.8 1 1.5 1.8 0.5 1.7 3.4Lauric 2.9 2.5 2 3.4 1.9 3.5 7.8Myristic 14.3 13.3 9.8 7.8 5.3 12.5 9.6Palmitic 28.4 31.5 31.9 22.5 25.1 26.3 23.4Stearic 6.8 10.1 12.9 16.3 19 11.5 6.3Arachidic 0.7 0.1 1 1.1 1.1 0.9MONO UNSATURATEDPalmitoleic 1.5 2 3 6.5 2.9 3.5 3.3Oleic 23.1 23 16.8 23.1 32 21 33.3

Total Fatty Acids 96.4 97.8 95.9 95.4 99.4 97.8 89.9

POLY UNSATURATEDLinoleic 3.1 0.4 1.2 0.2 1 1.3 7.2Linolenic 0.4

Euricic C20-22 0.5 0.8 3.3 0.6 0.9 2..2

SOURCE: - The Industrial Chemistry of the Fats and Waxes by T. P. Hilditch D.Sc (Lond.) F.R.I.C, F.R.S.

Ingested fat. Since 1941, the basic unchallenged theory for the absorption and utilization of fat in mammals implies that an ingested fat is partitioned into three groups of fatty acids and glycerol before they are metabolised or used by the body. 4

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One group, made up of ingested short and medium chain saturated fatty acids, would be absorbed and fully metabolised by the cells. This is underscored by many experiments since 1938, which have shown that ingested short and medium chain saturated fat acids disappear completely from the body after 36 hours and none is excreted. 4 pg 568. The short and medium chain saturated fatty acids (SMCSFA) are not stored as depot fat. None is deposited anywhere in the body. They cannot be converted into energy. As part the systematic processing of fatty acids, ingested short and medium chain saturated fatty acids are finally converted into saturated palmitic, saturated stearic and mono-unsaturated oleic acids in mammals.

The second group made up of ingested two long chain saturated and one cis-mono unsaturated fatty acids initially get re-assembled with glycerol into fat and deposited at the adipose tissues, when acetyl CoA/malonyl CoA is abundant. 2 page 854. Some of these long chain fatty acids are utilized by the cells for the bilayer of fatty acids and lubrication of the fluid membrane when there is inadequate supply of SMCSFA 2.

The third group made up of ingested long or very longer chain poly unsaturated fatty acids go to and stay at the adipose tissues as fat and are not normally used by the cells or metabolised 4. If there is inadequate supply of the three predominant fatty acids some of the poly unsaturated fatty acids reinforced by cholesterol may be used in the bilayer of fatty acids.2 Ingested trans-unsaturated fatty acids have been shown that they can also be utilized by the cells. Ingested very long chain fatty acids are excreted.4

Lubrication of the Contents of the Cell 2, 52 The fluid membrane is known to have a viscosity of about 100 times that of water, like that of olive oil 2 pg. 336 i.e. about 27.64 mPa·s at the body temperature of 34.7oC. The cell uses mono unsaturated palmitoleic and oleic acids to form an ester with cholesterol, which is then stored inside the cell.2 (page 729). Let us call the ester, which is similar to olive oil, oleic oil.

The molecules within the cell do a lot of movement. The oleic oil as a good lubricant will reduce the shear forces of the layers of liquids/solids moving over one another. The oleic oil would neither react with nor absorb oxygen. Poly unsaturated fatty acids react with or absorb oxygen and would not be suitable. Saturated fatty acids would not be fluid enough at the body temperature. The cell ensures that lubrication of the fluid membrane is undertaken by the right liquid fatty acids i.e. palmitoleic and oleic acids, which are produced in vivo or ingested.

ANALOGY Lubricants in the moving parts of machines behave silently and unobtrusively. Users of machines tend to ignore and forget about the lubricants until problems arise. However, the manufacturers of moving parts of machines place a lot of importance on the properties of the lubricants. Similarly, the oleic oil tends to be ignored because it is silent and unobtrusive.

Bilayer of Fatty Acids 23, 60, 65,66,70,82

The hydrophobic hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids act as an insulator and protective skin surrounding the hydrophilic carboxyl heads (-COOH) lying in a fluid membrane of the cell. The bilayer has been described as a barrier between two aqueous compartments. The quality of the bilayer as an impermeable insulator and a self-sealing compartment with no holes depends on the type of hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids.

There are four different types of hydrocarbon chains i.e. saturated (cylinder shaped), cis-mono unsaturated (wedge shaped), poly unsaturated (twisted shape) and trans-unsaturated (cylinder and twisted shape). A few published descriptions for establishing suitable characteristics of hydrocarbon chains for the bi-layer would be: -

“The hydrocarbon chain is almost invariably UN-BRANCHED i.e. straight in animal fatty acids” 2 page 321

“Lipid bilayers are SELF-SEALING, because a hole in a bilayer is energetically unfavourable” 2 page 327

“Relatively PURE lipids are well suited for insulation” 2 page 329

“Fatty acid chains can exist in an ordered RIGID state or in a relatively disordered, fluid state. . . . . . . . . . . . . The presence of saturated fatty acyl residues favours the rigid state because their straight hydrocarbon chains interact favourably with each other. On the other hand, a cis double bond

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produces a bend in the hydrocarbon chain. This bend interferes with a highly ordered packing of fatty acyl chains.”

“Membrane lipids form a permeability barrier (high impedance – good INSULATION)” 2 page 327

“The double bonds (of unsaturated fatty acids) make it more difficult to PACK THE CHAINS TOGETHER and therefore make the lipid bilayer more difficult to freeze.” 81

The factors for assessing the suitable characteristics of fatty acids for the bilayer would include: -1. Purity 2: - A good permeability barrier can best be achieved with pure fatty acids. Only saturated fatty

acids, with the full complement of hydrogen atoms in the hydrocarbon chain, can be identified as having no blemish, hence pure.

2. Flexibility and Rigidity 5, 82: - In order to avoid molecular drift and to achieve clearly defined boundary the fatty acids must be rigid i.e. solid and flexible at the temperature of the body. The fatty acids that are solid at the body temperature are long chain saturated and trans-unsaturated fatty acids.

3. Good Insulation Properties 1, 62: - The hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails of all fatty acids have insulating properties and would be able to prevent (a) the diffusion of ions; (b) leakage of electrical signals or (c) the drop of voltage across the bilayer. Any fatty acid should be able to serve as an insulator with a low dielectric constant to resist the flow of electrical signals through it. However, long chain saturated fatty acids have marked lower dielectric constants.83

4. Should not React Easily with Oxygen or Water : 2, 59 - The more than two double carbon bonds in poly unsaturated fatty acids can be easily attacked by water and oxygen molecules. Linoleic and linoleic acids are easily elongated to many different very long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids 3.

5. Impermeable to Water and other Molecules 61: - Poly unsaturated fatty acids are susceptible to the ingress of water molecules and microorganisms.

6. Self-Sealing 4, 69, 70 - Saturated fatty acids have straight hydrocarbon chains and can self-seal tightly together.

The six factors are fully satisfied by the saturated fatty acids. The saturated palmitic and stearic acids, two of the predominant fatty acids naturally produced and found in the body of mammals, must therefore be meant for the bi-layer of fatty acids.

The Bilayer of Fatty Acids and Cholesterol. In view of the vital role of the bilayer of fatty acids, when there is a shortage of saturated palmitic and stearic acids, other types of available fatty acids, such as trans and cis unsaturated fatty acids can be used in the self-sealing skin. The wedge or twisted shaped hydrocarbon chains of cis unsaturated double bonds make it difficult for such fatty acids to pack tightly together and become self-sealing, as demanded by the first and sixth factors. These qualities are achieved by the use of cholesterol to straighten the chains, seal the bilayer and make it adequately rigid, flexible and impermeable. The use of cholesterol and poly-unsaturated fatty acids in the bilayer produces LDL cholesterol, the bad cholesterol. The quantum of cholesterol used depends on the level of unsaturation i.e. poly-unsaturated fatty acids require more cholesterol than mono-unsaturated fatty acids.

Figure 1 gives an idea of the structure of cholesterol. Figure 2 is a schematic drawing of cholesterol in mono-unsaturated fatty acids. Figure 3 is a schematic drawing of mono-unsaturated and saturated fatty acids. Figure 4 is space-filling models of saturated, mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated fatty acids. The space-filling models show the challenge in ensuring that a poly-unsaturated fatty acid bilayer is properly sealed with cholesterol.

High concentrations of cholesterol disrupt the integrity of the cell membranes.2 page729. In effect the impedance of the bilayer of fatty acids gets impaired, which is an unfavourable condition for the termination of signals. Impaired bilayer of fatty acids would also a capacitor and a resistor connected in parallel within the bilayer. . It has been noted that the “time constants Τ in biological membranes (bilayer) vary over a wide range, even though the capacitance per unit of the membrane surface area is remarkably constant (about 1µF/cm2) in all membranes examined1 page49.” The dissimilar time constants must be due to differences in the resistances of the different types of hydrocarbon chains in the bilayer.1 page50.

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Figure 1 The Structure of CHOLESTEROLCholesterol is represented by a formula in (A), by a schematic drawing in (B), and as a space-filling model in (C).

Figure 2 Schematic Drawing of Cholesterol in Mono-unsaturated Fatty Acids

Figure 3 Schematic Drawing of Mono-Unsaturated and Saturated Fatty Acids Bilayer

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Figure 4 Space-Filling Models of Saturated, Mono-Unsaturated and Poly-Unsaturated Fatty Acids

ANALOGY Insulators surrounding heating systems and electrical cables, systems and equipment and pipes carrying fluids behave silently and unobtrusively. Users of electricity and fluids normally ignore and forget about the insulators and pipes until problems arise. However, the manufacturers place a lot of importance on the Insulators and pipes by ensuring that they can withstand all foreseeable hazards. Similarly, the saturated fatty acids tend to be ignored because they are silent and unobtrusive.

HUMANS AND EDIBLE FATThe biological cell needs fatty acids as implied above. Humans and animals tend to eat and digest food that helps them to produce the type of fatty acids the cell and the body need. What are the suitable fatty acids for the cells of humans and consequently the suitable food to produce such fatty acids? This can best be answered by considering the fat and fatty acids in the cells and bodies of animals, with similar biological characteristics as humans, but mammals do not eat fat as we know it. Herbivores eat food that contains very little or no fat, yet they have considerable quantities of fat or fatty acids in their body and in the milk of the lactating female. Their body must have produced the fat that it must have. The effective performance of each cell requires these specific fatty acids and cholesterol as discussed above

The fat in the body of an herbivore, fully fed on grass, is made up of mainly long chain fatty acids i.e. about 5% saturated myristic acid, about 30% saturated palmitic acid, about 5% monounsaturated palmitoleic acid, about 20% saturated stearic acid and about 40% monounsaturated oleic acid, see Table 2. There are no short and medium chain saturated fatty acids. There are very little or no poly unsaturated fatty acids. The fat in the milk of

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the lactating female herbivore is made up of about 15% of five different short and medium chain saturated fatty acids and about 85% of the five fatty acids normally found in the body. There are very little or no poly-unsaturated fatty acids see Table 3. 4

The body fat and the lactating milk fat of herbivores are produced by the cells from acetic acid4. The acetic acid is generated during the fermentation of the grass in the first stomach of the herbivore. As discussed above, the short chain saturated acetic acid is used by the cells to sequentially produce five short and medium chain saturated fatty acids (i.e. butyric, caproic, caprylic, capric and lauric acids), long chain saturated myristic acid and monounsaturated palmitoleic acid until the three other long chain fatty acids (i.e. saturated palmitic, saturated stearic, and monounsaturated oleic acids) are produced. No other fatty acids, including all poly unsaturated fatty acids, are produced.

Mammals, that do not have two stomachs, need to ingest the requisite fat or fermented food as part of the diet to enable the cells to make and use the suitable fatty acids. Direct ingestion of fatty acids including acetic acid can be harmful; hence, fat with the right fatty acids need to be ingested as part of the food or water.

Edible Fats and Fatty AcidsPlants do not take in, consume or “eat” fat as we know it. Actually, if you feed a plant with fat it is likely to die. Yet the living parts of plants have fat or fatty acids. The cells of the plant also use the short chain saturated acetic acid to produce their requirement of fat or fatty acids. The living parts of the plant contain mainly saturated palmitic acid and monounsaturated oleic acid. The dead parts of the plant do not contain fat or fatty acids.4

The seed of the plant also contains fat at least around the living part, the eye. The largest family of seeds, the grain with soft covering e.g. beans, rice, maize, soya bean, sunflower, cotton seed, rape/flax seed and wheat, etc., tend to have a variety of long chain saturated, unsaturated fatty acids and poly-unsaturated fatty acids around the eye. A few seeds with very hard shell covering tend to have mainly short and medium chain saturated fatty acids as part of the meat. Seeds with juicy fruit covering tend to have mainly saturated palmitic, saturated stearic and monounsaturated oleic acids in the juicy fruit part and sometimes the seed. 4

Mammals, in their natural environment, tend to feed on fruits, grass/leaves and seeds with hard covering, which have very low levels of poly-unsaturated fatty acids. During the process of feeding, the mammals carry the hard covering or fruit seeds from one point to another creating the conditions for propagation. Most mammals tend to avoid seed grains, especially those with high levels of alkaloids and poly-unsaturated fatty acids.

Humans societies that eat grains with high levels of alkaloids and poly-unsaturated fatty acids would normally ferment the grain21, 22. The fermentation eliminates the harmful alkaloids and poly-unsaturated fatty acids while it introduces acetic acid one of the basic molecules for survival. Most plants for various reasons including survival and propagation strategies have poly unsaturated fatty acids and alkaloids for protection against predators. The initiation of germination causes a catabolic action in the seed grain by converting the poly unsaturated fatty acids and alkaloids into energy, thanks to isomerise and reductase, for germination 67. The process of fermentation destroys the poly unsaturated fatty acids and alkaloids, while producing saturated acetic acid.

Currently, humans eat three types of fat. Each of the three types of fat is uniquely identified by the predominance of certain fatty acids. When we eat fat, the body separates the fat into three main fatty acids and glycerol. The body can convert glycerol to glucose, which is used to generate energy. Animals including humans cannot convert fatty acids into glucose; thus the fatty acids cannot be converted into energy. The body uses each of the three different fats in a specific manner, due to the types of fatty acids.

Type 1 Fats Type 1 fats have high levels of short and medium chain saturated fatty acids i.e. not less than 15% and no or very little poly unsaturated fatty acids i.e. less than 2%. The short and medium chain saturated fatty acids (SMCSFA) are acetic, butyric, caproic, caprylic, capric and lauric acids. Sources of such fats are organic butter, breast milk, coconut oil, palm kennel oil and fermented foods, e.g. fermented grains (ahey, pito, ‘corn

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dough’, soya sauce, etc.), fermented fruits (cider, wine, etc.), fermented tubers and tree parts (gari, konkonte, palm wine, bitters, etc.) fermented fish and meat (kobi, momoni,etc.), etc.

The SMCSFA of this group when ingested go directly to the cells. Their presence in breast milk is a major reason why breast milk protects the baby against diseases. These fatty acids, when eaten are converted into the three predominant fatty acids by the cells to support their activities. Cohort and population studies and laboratory experiments have shown that persons who eat fats containing high levels of such short and medium chain saturated fatty acids (SMCSFA) exhibit good health. A number of web sites have published on the many findings of the health benefits of these fatty acids73, 156 e.g. www.westonaprice.org and www.price-pottenger.org.

The SMCSFA are not found in the fat tissues; hence they do not contribute to body fat. Type 1 fats and their derivatives are being used in many ways in the health sector and as food supplements for premature babies and the immunologically impaired. Emeritus Professor Jon J. Kabara of the Department of Chemistry and Pharmacology at Michigan State University and his team, after extensive research work proved the antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal and antiprotozoal properties of the saturated short and medium chain fatty acids found in lactating mother’s milk fat. Many other lipid scientists have confirmed the results of Professor Kabara 76

Type 2 Fats Type 2 fats have very high levels of saturated palmitic, saturated stearic and monounsaturated oleic acids i.e. about a total of 90% and no or very little poly unsaturated fatty acids i.e. less than 10%. Sources of such fats are organic butter, fresh milk, palm oil, shea butter, olive oil, organic animal fat, etc. These three fatty acids are produced and used by the cells for the two main roles of fatty acids in the body i.e. the bilayer of fatty acids and lubrication of the fluid membrane. The Type 2 fats have been identified as promoting and maintaining good health while preventing diseases.

Type 3 Fats Type 3 fats are uniquely identified by high levels of long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids, cis or trans i.e. 20% or more. Examples are soybean oil, corn oil, cotton seed oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, canola oil (rape seed oil), flax seed oil, ground nut oil, palm olein, margarine, shortening etc.

The long chain poly-unsaturated (LCPU) fatty acids cannot be produced naturally by mammals including humans. They get into the body only through the food we eat. At the Fifty-Fifth Scientific Meeting of the Nutrition Society of the United Kingdom held on 15 October 1949 on the theme Triglyceride Fats In Human Nutrition, Dr T. P. Hilditch gave a lecture on ‘The Chemical Constitution of Natural Fats’. He pointed out: -

“It is not yet certain how far an animal can utilize fatty acids other than those which it can itself synthesize (e.g. palmitic, stearic, oleic, palmitoleic). It has not yet been adequately demonstrated whether other acids (e.g. erucic acid of rape oils, elaeostearic acid of tung oil) are also compatible with animal metabolism, although it is well recognized that such oils may be initially accepted without apparent metabolic disturbance.”

It is now clear that mammals initially accept fatty acids other than those which it can itself synthesize, but over the years such fatty acids, which the cell cannot synthesize, gradually damage the health of those who ingest them.

The LCPU fatty acids are unstable and some of the cis-unsaturated fatty acid molecules turn into trans-unsaturated fatty acids during processing. These LCPU fatty acids, when eaten as processed unsaturated vegetable oils or as part of unfermented grains, are stored in the fat tissues 4 making us grow fat. In the absence of saturated palmitic, saturated stearic and monounsaturated oleic acids, the LCPU fatty acids reinforced with cholesterol may be used in the cell wall or enter a cell. Such long chain poly-unsaturated fatty acids easily get elongated 4 by the carbonium ions released during glycolysis to produce arachidonic acid and other very long chain poly-unsaturated fatty acids. Arachidonic acid is oxidized by the oxygen molecules, meant for energy production, to create prostaglandins while generating cell damaging free radicals 2.

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TABLE 4 COMPARISON OFSATURATED, MONOUNSATURATED AND POLYUNSATURATED FATS

Saturated Fats Mono-Unsaturated Fats with <10% of PUFA

Fats with > 20% of Poly Unsaturated and Trans Fatty Acids

Definition

Saturated fats have 50+% of fatty acids as saturated and <10% of Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acids.

More than 50% of mono unsaturated fatty acids and less than 10% as poly unsaturated.

Unsaturated vegetable with more than 20% as poly unsaturated.

Production

Saturated fats are produced at low temperatures (around 100oC); do not contain trans fatty acids; stable and do not go rancid easily.

Can be processed at low temperatures (around 100oC).

Unsaturated vegetable fats are not stable and go rancid easily; unless processed at very high temperatures (about 200oC), thereby generating trans fatty acids.

Edible Considered as suitable for food.

Virgin olive oil considered as suitable for food.

Goes rancid easily and not recommended for food

Form: Solid at temperatures below 25oC

Liquid at room temperature. Liquid at room temperature.

Effect on cholesterol:

Saturated fats raise HDL cholesterol and lowers LDL cholesterol levels.

Raise HDL cholesterol and lowers LDL cholesterol levels

Processed unsaturated vegetable fats raise LDL cholesterol and lowers HDL cholesterol levels.

Derived from:

Lactating mammal’s milk, animal fat and tropical fruits, beans and nuts.

The fruit of the oliveSeed grains.

Health

Mammals including humans naturally produce eight saturated fatty acids in the body i.e. butyric, caproic, caprylic, capric, lauric, myristic, palmitic and stearic acids. The saturated short and medium chain saturated fatty acids are known to be anti-microbial.

Mammals including humans naturally produce two cis mono unsaturated fatty acids i.e. palmitoleic and oleic acids.

Poly unsaturated fatty acids are not produced by mammals. Ingested poly unsaturated fatty acids can become elongated to form many different kinds of very long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids, one of which (arachidonic acid) reacts with oxygen to become prostaglandin while generating free radicals. The prostaglandins, trans-poly unsaturated fatty acids are associated with almost all the diseases and.

Commonly found in:

Milk butter, coconut oil, palm kernel oil, organic lard, palm oil, shea butter, cocoa butter.

Olive oil Corn oil, Sunflower oil, soybean oil, canola oil (rape seed oil), cotton seed oil, flax seed oil, margarine, shortening, ground nut oil, etc.

FAT AND HEALTHThe cell, as the fundamental structural and functional unit of the body, is the basis of good or bad health. The functional activities are carried out by the organelles using proteins and their derivatives powered by the energy

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provided by glucose and its precursors i.e. carbohydrates, alcohol/glycerol and sugars. The movement of the proteins in the fluid membrane is supported by the lubrication provided by the ester of mono unsaturated oleic acid. The bilayers of saturated palmitic and stearic acids serve to prevent the leakage of the contents of the cell and allow proper termination of electrical signals while acting also as “security” barrier against intrusion by unwelcome foreign bodies. The health of the cell depends on the quality of both fatty acids in the bilayer and inside the cell. Improper or impaired fatty acids affect and influence the performance of the cells in various ways.

Type 1 Fats. The saturated short and medium chain fatty acids found in type 1 fats are nontoxic. In view of the research findings, the American FDA has approved a number of drugs which use derivatives of type 1 oils for medical purposes e.g. Lauricidin, from lauric acid, is used for the treatment of genital herpes, hepatitis C and HIV; Intravenous infusions based on SMCSFA for premature babies and the immunologically impaired; Caprylidene 96, from caprylic acid, a medical food approved in March 2009 by FDA for the treatment of Alzheimer disease.

There are a number postulates on how these short and medium chain saturated fatty acids carry out the destruction of the microorganisms 72 e.g.

Fluidizing the lipids and phospholipids in the envelope of the virus thereby causing the disintegration of the microbial membrane;

Interference with signal transduction/toxin formation; Virucidal effect on enveloped RNA and DNA viruses. interference with virus assembly and viral maturation

Each of the four explanations makes sense; but what happens to the fatty acids after it has destroyed the microorganism? Experiments by many researchers have shown that these SMCSFAs varnish from the body 36 hours after ingestion. We know that acetic acid produce step by step each of the five short and medium chain fatty acids until palmitic acid results. The other two fatty acids are then produced. These three predominant fatty acids are used to refurbish the cell. Such sequential production process will welcome the ingestion of preformed SMCSFAs. The question is therefore answered by: -

Any of the short and medium chain saturated fatty acids when ingested can be used to produce the three predominant fatty acids. The cell would use the saturated palmitic and stearic acids thus produced to refurbish a microorganism impaired bilayer of fatty acids thereby destroying any microorganism that has attacked the cell.The cell would also insert fresh “oleic oil” into the cell, thereby improving the dynamics of the fluid membrane. Finally all microorganisms and any inappropriate fatty acids would be destroyed. The cell having been refurbished resumes its normal activities in support of any medical regime and ensures good health. It is worth to note that apo proteins, cell targeting proteins, have the ability to solubilize a hydrophobic lipid. Apo proteins carry SMCSFAs to damaged fatty acids for replacement. 2 page 727

These short and medium chain saturated fatty acids inactivate many viruses, bacteria, fungi, yeast etc., which have infected the bi-layer of fatty acids of the cell. They also are known to block the production of prostaglandins. Annex 2 gives a list of microorganisms inactivated by short and medium chain saturated fatty acids and some of the health benefits.

Type 2 Fats. The saturated palmitic and stearic and mono unsaturated oleic acids found in type 2 fats are also known to be nontoxic. The bilayer of fatty acids and the lubricant inside the cell have been identified as made up of the fatty acids in type 2 fats. Type 2 fats have been found to promote good health. 4, 5, 73, 87, 88, 89

Type 3 Fats. The quality of the bilayer of fatty acids can be impaired due to the presence of high levels of trans-unsaturated fatty acids, poly unsaturated fatty acids reinforced with large quantities of cholesterol and/or very long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandins and relatives eicosanoids, i.e. oxidized arachidonic acid, are short lived, yet they disturb the normal activities of the cell in which they are synthesized and adjoining cells.

Prostaglandins impair and lower the impedance of the bilayer of fatty acids, while blocking the movement of the molecules inside cell. 2, 29, 38, 39

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The low impedance creates a sort of “bilayer capacitor” i.e. two conductors (carboxyl heads) sandwich a low impedance insulator (impaired bilayer). Any electrical signal or impulse will then charge the “bilayer capacitor”. The charged “bilayer capacitor” will be discharged through the bilayer. The charging and discharging of the bilayer by electrical signals gradually singes the bilayer to form a gluey mass of poly unsaturated fatty acids and cholesterol, a chaotic tangle of neuro-filaments. 1, 20

Impaired the bilayer of fatty acids can cause cross talk and prevents signals to terminate properly. Further, impaired bilayer makes it easy for foreign matter and microorganisms to enter the cell. The foreign matter and microorganisms especially bacteria and viruses would damage the cell in various ways including causing mutation and metabolic disorder. 2, 31, 36, 46

The harm that can be caused by poly unsaturated fatty acids (both Trans- and Cis-) include: - Blockage of arteries is due to the accumulation of ox LDL cholesterol, which consists of poly unsaturated

linoleic acid and cholesterol. The arteries in various parts of the body can get blocked to cause ailments such as hypertension, heart diseases, erectile dysfunction, cataract, etc. Veins do not get blocked. 2, 14, 78.

Impairment of the bilayer of fatty acids by very high levels of cholesterol and poly unsaturated acids creates conditions that allow the entry of cells by microorganisms such as fungi, yeast, bacterial, virus, etc. resulting in the mal-functioning of cells and associated organs including mutation and metabolic disorder e.g. diabetes, asthma, cancers, skin diseases, whites, colds (flu), etc. 19, 23, 81

Inflammation and/or contraction of the fine muscles and disturbance of the lubrication of fluid membrane by prostaglandins causing tumours, cramps and pain such as headache/migraine, menstrual pains, inelastic uterus/vagina, muscle pull, labour complications, haemorrhoids, glaucoma, cancers, etc. 2, 29, 32, 35,

36, 37

Impaired bilayer of fatty acids (myelin) due to poor insulation caused by high levels of very long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids would result in either failure in transmission/termination or improper transduction of signals creating tumours, dementia and neural disorders, e.g. cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, autism, epilepsy, inadequate functioning of the senses, etc. 1, 2, 16, 31, 48, 75, 89

THE FALLACY OF SATURATED FAT/CHOLESTEROL HYPOTHESIS AND THE CHARADE OF TRANS FATAs at the beginning of the twentieth century, the consumption of processed unsaturated vegetable fats in the world was for all practical purposes zero. 8, 10. There were practically no complaints about obesity or cardiovascular diseases. Autism and diabetes were rare or not known. The word prostaglandin did not exist, just as prostate enlargement was rare.38 In Ghana or the people who lived here are known to have been eating oil from the palm tree for more than four thousand years 24 and would not use processed unsaturated vegetable fats for food until after the 1940s.

By the end of the twentieth century, the consumption of processed unsaturated vegetable fats in the world had risen to more than two thirds of the total consumed edible oils. Since the consumption of processed unsaturated vegetable fats started increasing, the non-communicable diseases have also been increasing linearly with a time lag of about 10 years or less. It is reckoned that by 2009, the United States of America had about 80 million people with cardiovascular diseases and about 795,000 people suffer new or recurrent strokes each year. By the age of 50, most American men start to worry about prostate enlargement. Autism in the United States of America (USA) increased in paediatric prevalence by 556 per cent between 1991 and 1997. Processed unsaturated vegetable fats are the main oil consumed in the United States of America. The WHO 2008-2013 Action Plan for the Global Strategy for the Prevention and Control of Non-communicable Diseases states among other issues that “Today, non-communicable diseases (NCDs), mainly cardiovascular diseases, cancers, chronic respiratory diseases and diabetes represent a leading threat to human health and development. These four diseases are the world’s biggest killers, causing an estimated 35 million deaths each year - 60% of all deaths globally - with 80% in low- and middle-income countries.”

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How and why did the world get into such dramatic health crisis? The WHO has accused industrially processed fatty, salty and sugary foods. The global use of industrially processed unsaturated vegetable oils is more the result of historical convenience and politically backed aggressive trade tactics.

How Unsaturated Vegetable Oils Became Edible 8 During the 1870 Franco-German war, the French Government offered a prize for the production of a satisfactory butter substitute for use by the French army. A French chemist Hippolyte Mège-Mouriés developed a butter-like substance from animal fat, oleomargarine. Mège-Mouriés patented his concept and in 1871 he sold the patent to the Dutch company Jurgens, which became part of Unilever. From 1877 up to the start of the 20th century, the United States of America (USA) restricted the sale of margarine in America, through taxes, expensive licenses and colour bans. In Canada, margarine was banned from 1886 until 1948. Until the 1960s, it was illegal to sell margarine in Australia, where butter is one of their major agricultural products.

Before the beginning of the 20th century, as a follow up to the prize offered by the French Government, various attempts were made to produce suitable edible fats from many different fatty materials, including unsaturated vegetable fats.

Raw unsaturated vegetable fats are highly unstable chemically. They easily react with oxygen or water. Food prepared with unsaturated vegetable fats become rancid in a very short period. Before 1911, all societies in the world did not use unsaturated vegetable fats for food.

In the 1890s, Nobel laureate Paul Sabatier formulated the chemistry of hydrogenation, which was adopted to modify some of the properties of unsaturated vegetable fats artificially to make them more stable, thereby increasing their shelf life. Wilhelm Normann patented the technology of the hydrogenation of unsaturated vegetable fats and sold it in 1909 to Procter & Gamble. In 1911, Procter & Gamble began marketing the first hydrogenated fat, labelled CRISCO, produced from cottonseed oil, very cheap oil. When Crisco became available in the market, the government of USA relaxed the restrictions on importing margarine into the USA.

Before and during the first half of the First World War, unsaturated vegetable fats such as cotton seed oil, soya bean oil, sunflower oil, linseed oil, sesame oil, corn/maize oil, safflower oil, etc., known as drying fats, were used mainly for paints, varnish, lubricants, insulation of electrical cables etc3 and rape seed oil was used as a lubricant.

During the development of steam engines, machinists found rapeseed oil to be better than other lubricants. The World Wars created a high demand for rapeseed oil as a lubricant for the rapidly increasing number of steam engines in naval and merchant ships. During World War II, European and Asian sources of rapeseed oil to the Canadian and American markets were blocked resulting in a severe shortage of rapeseed oil lubricants. Canada expanded its rapeseed production to meet the new demand of rapeseed oil for lubricants.

After World War II, with the advances in science and technology, derivatives of petro chemicals with acceptable properties and consistent specifications became cheaper than unsaturated vegetable oils. By the 1950s the petrochemical industry had, for all practical purposes, replaced the unsaturated vegetable fats in most of their traditional roles, such as lubrication, paints, electrical cable insulators, linoleum, lighting, canvas covering, etc. resulting in the imminent collapse of the unsaturated vegetable fats, especially rape seed oil, industry in USA and Canada. New markets had to be found to avoid an economic crisis in the unsaturated vegetable fats business. Hence, refined, bleached and deodorized (RBD) unsaturated vegetable fats were created.

The financial and marketing successes achieved by Procter and Gamble in the hydrogenation of unsaturated vegetable fats excited entrepreneurs in the unsaturated vegetable fats industry. Processed unsaturated vegetable fat is far cheaper than tropical saturated fats, olive oil, milk butter and animal fat. The marketing of processed unsaturated vegetable fat was promoted using very aggressive tactics and extensive political support. 10, 12

The Genesis of the Cholesterol-Saturated Fat Hypothesis 10, 44, 64

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In the early 1950s, concern was raised by scientists and medical personnel about high increases of certain “new” metabolic health problems, especially heart diseases. Pathological and other studies, including the Framingham Heart Study (1961), found that atherosclerotic plaque was made up of fat and cholesterol. There was no clear identification of the fatty acid composition of the fat. The new “edible” processed unsaturated vegetable fats and animal fats were considered as the possible source of the health problems. During that period, research publications claimed that ingestion of saturated fat increased and ingestion of processed unsaturated vegetable fat lowered cholesterol levels in the body. Logically ingestion of saturated fat was accused of the high cholesterol found in the atherosclerotic plaque. However, the medical personnel were very careful. They suggested that both processed unsaturated vegetable fat (unsaturated) and animal fat (saturated) are to blame. Their advice was “minimise the amount of fat in the diet”.

In the 1930s a number scientists, including Burr and Burr (1930)/Nunn and Smedley-Maclean (1938) postulated that certain long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic and linolenic, which are not synthesised by animals, promoted growth (fat) in rats and cured fat deficiency disease. Other scientists, including Smedley-Maclean and Hume (1940)/Rieckerhoff, Holman and Burr (1949)/Reinius and Turpeinen (1954)/Klenk and Kremer (1960) endorsed the postulate, but cautioned that the two fatty acids stayed mainly at the adipose tissues and were not metabolised by the cells. They pointed out that the two long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids do get elongated to form very long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids. The two long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids i.e. linoleic and linolenic, became known as essential fatty acids.

In 1961, the Framingham Heart Study “confirmed” the link between raised cholesterol levels and fat and heart diseases. 64 The processed unsaturated vegetable fat industry, supported by the USA establishment, claimed that since the two long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids were essential then atherosclerotic plaque has to be caused by saturated fatty acids. The American press quickly pronounced saturated fat as the cause of heart diseases. The idea was branded as “Cholesterol-Saturated Fat Hypothesis”. Processed unsaturated vegetable fats were then advertised as both cheaper and healthier than the traditional saturated fats i.e. butter, tropical fats and animal fat.

The Cholesterol-Saturated Fat Hypothesis was used by the media, educational institutions and health/nutrition professionals to denigrate saturated fats, especially tropical saturated fats. The press, including Reader’s Digest and many institutions in US of A such as the American Heart Association and the Food and Drug Administration were mobilized by the processed unsaturated vegetable fat industry in a well organised vile campaign against saturated fats, especially tropical saturated fats. The American “Center for Science in the Public Interest” (CSPI) campaigned against the use of tropical saturated fats by fast food outlets and any food industry.

The Demise of the Cholesterol-Saturated Fat Hypothesis A number of internationally reputed lipid scientist and medical experts condemned the hypothesis, ab initio. They claimed that the hypothesis was scientifically untenable as (a) it is counter to the results of population and animal studies and (b) the histories of the diets of the world’s social groups did not support it. 73, 74

By 1988, various “establishment” institutions had been ostracizing any scientist that disputed the Cholesterol-Saturated Fat Hypothesis. Some of the scientists were labelled “whistle blowers” and lost their research funds; others were quietly eased out of their jobs. A number of experts formed The International Network of Cholesterol Skeptics (THINCS). They published literature reviews and research studies meant to debunk the Cholesterol-Saturated Fat Hypothesis. 93, 94

After 1972, with technological advances in microscopes and imaging techniques, it was realised that the animal cell had a bi-layer of fatty acids. Further studies identified that when the bi-layer of fatty acids has unsaturated fatty acids, then it has to be fortified with cholesterol. By 1988, pathological and many other studies, including the Framingham Heart Study, had identified atheroma or atherosclerotic plaque to be made up of ox-LDL cholesterol which consists of cholesterol and poly unsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid. Subsequently, it was decided that LDL cholesterol is the bad cholesterol and the HDL cholesterol is the good cholesterol. Various studies have shown

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that ingested saturated fats balances total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and LDL cholesterol; and ingested processed unsaturated vegetable fats raises LDL cholesterol and lowers HDL cholesterol. 71

The Denigration of Saturated Fat These new scientific findings indicated that the real cause of heart diseases was the presence of high amounts of long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids in the body due to the ingestion of industrially processed unsaturated vegetable fats. In order to pre-empt any financial and economic damage to that industry, the US Senate was lobbied to pass a seemingly innocuous law, “Amendment to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act on edible fats” in 1988, against the protestations of independent lipid scientists and very experienced and knowledgeable medical experts. The law, for all practical purposes, banned the traditional edible saturated fats from all food items in the American market. The concept of that law, which was adopted by the WHO, became a guide for the use of edible fat in the world.

The global confectionery industries were coaxed, with considerable arm twisting, to adopt processed unsaturated vegetable fats for their products. The consumption of these of industrially processed unsaturated vegetable fats increased rapidly to become the global fats for the food industry and homes. The non-communicable diseases also increased rapidly to become the current near epidemic in countries such as Ghana and real epidemic in the North Americas and parts of Europe.

The Arrival of Trans-Fat and Related Charade. The global epidemic of the non-communicable diseases ‘persuaded’ the WHO to act. The acceptance by the scientists that the atherosclerotic plaque had its roots in the long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids, which had been classified as essential for the body, created a dilemma. The experts considered the dilemma and suggested that processed unsaturated vegetable fats which happened to be the source of long chain poly unsaturated fatty acids also contained trans-fatty acids (TFA). Hence, trans-fatty acids had to take the blame. 26, 27

Codex Alimentarius defines trans- fatty acids (TFAs) as the geometrical isomers of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids having non-conjugated carbon-carbon double bonds in the trans-configuration. This restricts the type of trans-fatty acids in question to poly unsaturated fatty acids. Since we do not and cannot eat directly fatty acids; there is the need to know the type of fats that would contain a TFA. Some of the national and international official documents tend to be silent about the type of edible fats that would contain trans-poly unsaturated fatty acids. 25 Often the term trans-fat is used to refer to fats supposed to contain trans-fatty acids, and the literature tends to equate trans-fat to saturated fat.

The 57th World Health Assembly held on May 22, 2004 recommended inter alia, that “populations and individuals should limit energy intake from total fats and shift fat consumption away from saturated fats to unsaturated fats and towards the elimination of trans-fatty acids”.

As defined by Codex Alimentarius the trans-fatty acids in question are poly unsaturated fatty acids, which would not normally occur in saturated fats. Trans-fatty acids are found mainly in processed unsaturated vegetable fats. Hence, shifting fat consumption away from saturated fats to unsaturated fats would rather go against the intention to eliminate trans-fatty acids from the diet. Further, limiting fat intake can create certain physiological problems, since fatty acids are important molecules for the survival of the cells. 2 The importance of fat in the diet is illustrated by many incidents in history, including the life story of Saint Hilarion who died in 371 AD. 95

Saint Jerome’s account of the life and diet of Saint Hilarion illustrates the importance of oil in the diet. Saint Hilarion was born in 291 AD at Thabata in the South of Gaza. He died in 371 AD in Cyprus when he was 80 years old. At the age of fifteen he joined the Hermitage of St Anthony for two months and left with some monks. Later, he established a monastery and lived on a strict diet. After age 31, Saint Hilarion lived on a diet of six ounces of barley bread and boiled vegetables without oil. At the age of 35, he suffered from signs of malnutrition, his eyesight grew poor, his body shriveled and he developed dry mange and scabs, so he modify his diet with the

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addition of oil. Between the ages of 35-63, he lived on six ounces of barley bread and boiled vegetables with oil. Between ages of 63-80, he lived on six ounces of water, boiled vegetables with oil and a broth made from flour. 95

The WHO’s recommendation is misleading, confusing and scientifically flawed. However, a number of counties have taken steps towards eliminating trans-fatty acids from their food. 8

The U.S. of America passed a law requesting that the level of trans-fat should be shown on the label after January 1, 2006, similar to the level of saturated fats and poly-unsaturated fats. The major question is tropical saturated fats and processed unsaturated vegetable fats are easily identified; but what is trans-fat? Questions are now being asked about the genuineness of labels.

In 2004, the European Food Safety Authority produced a scientific opinion on trans-fatty acids for the European Union. On Thursday 25th September 2008, the European Parliament proposed a ban on artificial trans-fatty acids throughout the EU.

In Britain, a number of organizations including the Food Standards Agency (FSA) and the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) have made suggestions and recommendations on how to address the trans- fatty acids issue. So far voluntary measures to reduce trans- fatty acids have been the official direction in Britain.

Denmark was the first country to introduce laws strictly regulating the use of trans- fatty acids as food, in March 2003. This effectively banned processed unsaturated vegetable oils for human consumption. It is estimated that the Danish government's efforts to decrease trans-fatty acid intake is related to a 50% decrease in deaths from ischemic heart disease.

Since April 2008, Switzerland followed Denmark's trans- fatty acids ban. Iceland has imposed total ban on trans- fatty acids. India has given administrative instructions to their food industries to use saturated fats; China has started using tropical fats for their food industry.

The American establishment has instructed their industry to avoid tropical saturated fats. Measures have been put in place to produce new types of “edible” fats e.g. algalin, which they reckon will contain no trans-fatty acids. Canada has made attempts to produce genetically modified “CANOLA” intended to resemble olive oil and coconut oil.12

Dr Steen Stender of Denmark believes strongly that people don't read labels, and when they do read them, they will not necessarily understand these labels. He went on “Instead of warning consumers about trans-fatty acids and telling them what it is, we've simply removed it” He, in fact, has much stronger words for countries like the United States of America and Canada: "As they say in North America: 'You can put poison in food, if you label it properly.' Here in Denmark, we remove the poison and people don't have to know anything about trans-fatty acids." 25

CONCLUSION The WHO has recommended the elimination of trans-fatty acids from food. Many countries have complied with the recommendation of the WHO. Yet the non-communicable diseases and ailments keep on rising globally. It means the root cause of the non-communicable diseases has not been fully addressed.

The above analysis shows that fat or its precursor, acetic acid, is important in our daily diet. It also shows that Type 3 fats, the main oil now consumed in the country, may be the root cause of the non-communicable diseases, since they have high levels of trans- and cis- poly unsaturated fatty acids.

The ingestion of types 1 and 2 fats, according to the analysis, should strengthen the bilayer of fatty acids of the cells, the organelles, synapses and axons. These fats will also ensure that the right lubricating oil is inside the cell. Consequently, the ingestion of such fats should prevent the non-communicable diseases and promote healthy ageing. Such fats should also play a major role in the management of a large number of the current non-communicable diseases and ailments.

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Types 1 and 2 fats should also promote the healthy growth of babies and children and facilitate the good health of pregnant women and lactating mothers while preventing congenital diseases and reducing considerably the many health problems associated with parturition.

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Company3. The Industrial Chemistry of the Fats and Waxes: T.P. Hilditch D.Sc(Lond.) F.R.I.C, F.R.S. 4. The Chemical Constitution of Natural Fats; by T. P. Hilditch. and P.N. Williams 5. Know your fats; by Mary G. Enig, Ph.D.6. Health Oils from the Tree of Life by Jon J. Kabara, Ph.D.7. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (2008, November 13). Liquid or Solid? Charged Nanoparticles In

Lipid Membrane Decide. ScienceDaily. Retrieved August 30, 2010, from file:///F:/Liquid%20Or%20Solid%20Charged%20Nanoparticles%20In%20Lipid%20Membrane%20Decide.htm

8. Wikipedia (Internet): -Trans Fat.9. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies on a request from the Commission

related to the presence of trans-fatty acids in foods and the effect on human health of the consumption of trans-fatty acids. – request No EFSA-Q-2003-022 (adopted on 8 July 2004)

10. The Skinny on Fats by Mary Enig and Sally Fallon (Internet)11. WHO releases on Diet (internet)12. AHA Conference Proceedings Circulation. 2007; 115:2231 – 2246; Understanding the Complexity of Trans

Fatty Acid Reduction in the American Diet; American Heart Association Trans Fat Conference 2006: Report of the Trans Fat Conference Planning Group* Robert H. Eckel, MD, FAHA, Immediate Past President of the AHA; Susan Borra, RD, Co-Chair; Alice H. Lichtenstein, DSc, FAHA, Co-Chair; Shirley Y. Yin-Piazza, MS, MB

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By Kaku Kyiamah+233-(0)208138025/(0)243152053; feanza1995@yahoo.ca

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