7_surface chemistry.pdf

8/10/2019 7_Surface Chemistry.pdf

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Nhsgrptage0 Xfc cxastceoc gm n sujstneoc nt n surmnoc ae hammcrcet ogeocetrntage tfne ae tfc nh`gaeaed juki as onkkchnhsgrptage, Xfc sujstneoc sg Nhsgrjch as onkkch Nhsgrjntc neh tfc sujstneoc upge wfaof nhsgrptage tnics

pknoc as onkkch nhsgrjcet

Hcsgrptage0 Xfc prgocss gm rclgvaed ne nhsgrjch sujstneoc mrgl n surmnoc ge wfaof at as njsgrjch._grptage0 Tfce nhsgrptage neh njsgrptage tnic pknoc saluktnecgusky

Rfysagsgrptage Ofclasgrptage

>. Ege spcoamao _pcoamao:. Zcvcrsajkc Arrcvcrsajkc?. Aeorcnscs watf aeorcnsc ae surmnoc nrcn Ae orcnscs watf aeorcnsc ae surmnoc nrcn8. Tcni vnehcr wnnks mgrocs jctwcce Ofclaonk jgeh m

njsgrjntc neh nhsgrjcet.3. Kgw fcnt gm nhsgrptage Fadf

(:2 - 82 I@ lgk )

=. Goours nt kgw tclpcrnturc Nt lghcrntc tclpcrnturc4. Hcorcnscs watf aeorcnsc gm X At marst aeorcnscs, tfce hcorcnscs watf X6. Aeorcnscs watf aeorcnsc gm R At aeorcnscs watf aeorcnsc ae R nt kgw R jut as aehcpcehcet

gm R nt fadf prcssurc1. Mgrls luktalgkcouknr knycr Mgrls uealgkcouknr knycr.

grlntage

>

Nhsgrptage asgtfcrl0 Xfc drnpf pkgttch jctwcce x/l neh p nt ogestnet X.

xl :4? I

:88 I

>13 I

RG

Mrcehukaof nhsgrptage asgtfcrl Nhsgrptage asgtfcrl

xl

kgd i (aetcrocpt)

f

j

Kgd RG

kgd

>/ex ip e >l

x >kgd kgdi kgdp

l e

< 5

< +

Tfcee>

< 2 ,lx

< Ogestnet, tfc nhsgrptage as aehcpcehcet gm prcssurc.

Tfcee>

< > ,lx

< ip, a.c.,lx

p, tfc nhsgrptage vnracs harcotky watf prcssurc.

Nhsgrptage mrgl sgkutage pfnscTfce katlus sgkutage as sfnice watf ofnrognk jcoglcs ogkgrkcss.

lx

Cxtcet gm nhsgrptage X

> _.N. Y_gkutc\ neh nksg ge enturc gm nhsgrjntc neh nhsgrjcet

e/>IOlx < kgd

lx

< kgd I +e>

kgdO


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Nppkaontages gm nhsgrptage>. Xg orcntc vnouul.:. Dns lnsis tg nhsgrj pgasgegus dnscs?. Ogetrgkkaed fulahaty (_akaon neh Nk dcks)8. Zclgvaed ogkguraed lnttcr mrgl sgkutages.3. Fctcrgdcecgus ontnkysas (cd. Mc ontnkyst tg lnic EF ?)=. _cpcrntage gm aecrt dnscs.4. Hruds usch tg iakk dcrls jy dcttaed nhsgrjch ge at6. Mrgtf mkgntntage prgocss.1. Nhsgrptage aehaontgrs cd. Nd fnkahcs nhsgrjs cgsae neh mkugrgsae neh davc ofnrnotcrastao ogkgur nt ceh pgaet.>2. Ofrglntgdrnpfao nenkysas.

Ontnkysas 0 Xfc prgocss ae wfaof ontnkyst as usch tg aeorcnsc tfc rntc gm rcnotage.

:IOkG ? LeG :

84? =?? I :IOk + ?G :*Rrglgtcrs nrc sujstneocs tfnt aefneoc tfc notavaty gm n ontnkyst wfakc pgasges hcorcnsc tfc notavaty gm n ontnkyst.

E :(d) + ?F :(d)Mc(s)Lg(s) :EF ?(d)

Fglgdcegus ontnkysas 0 Tfce tfc rcnotnet neh tfc ontnkyst nrc ae tfc snlc pfnsc.:_G :(d) + G :(d) EG(d) :_G ?(d)

O>: F :: G>>(nq) + F : G (k) F _G (k): 8 O=F >: G=(d) + O =F >: G=Fctcrgdcecgus ontnkysas 0 Xfc ontnkytao prgocss ae wfaof tfc rcnotnets neh tfc ontnkyst nrc ae hammcrcet pfnscs.G : + :_G : (d) Rt(s) :_G ?(d)8EF ?(d) + 3G : (d) Rt(s) 8EG(d) + =F : G(d)

+ N J

+ N + J

Rrghuotmrglch

Zcnotaedlgkcoukcs

Hcsgptage gm rcnotaed lgkcoukcs

Nhsgrptage gm rcnotaed lgkcoukcs

Ontnkyst

Ontnkyst surmnoc fnvaedmrcc vnkceoacs

Aetcrlchantc

Nhsgrptage gmrcnotaed lgkcoukcs

N

N

J

J

Nhsgrptage gm rcnotaed lgkcoukcs, mgrlntage gm aetcrlchantc neh hcsgrptage gm prghuots_fnpc sckcotavc ontnkysas 0

Xfc ontnkytao rcnotage tfnt hcpcehs upge tfc pgrc struoturc gm tfc ontnkyst neh tfc sazc gm tfc rcnotnet neh prghuotlgkcoukcs as onkkch sfnpc sckcotavc ontnkysas.Pcgkatcs nrc dggh sfnpcsckcotavc ontnkysts jconusc gm tfcar fgecy oglj struoturc . Xfcy nrc laorgpgrgus. Nkula-egsakaontcs. N zcgkatc ontnkyst P_L 3 ogevcrts nkogfgk tg dnsgkcec.

Cezylcs (jagontnkysts)0

Ea trgdcegus grdneao og lpguehs prghuoch jy kavaed ockks tf nt on tnkysc jagofcl aonkrcnotages ae kavaed grdneasls.


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Cxnlpkcs gm cezylc ontnkysch rcnotages.

>. Aevcrsage gm onec sudnr.

O>: F :: G>>(nq) + F : G(k)Aevcrtnsc O=F >: G=(nq) + O =F >: G=(nq)

_uorgsc Dkuogsc Mruotgsc

:. O =F >: G=(nq)Pylnsc : O : F 3GF(nq) + :OG : (d)

Dkuogsc

?. :(O =F >2G3)e + eF : GHanstnsc eO>: F :: G>>(nq)

_tnrof Lnktgsc

8. O>: F :: G>>(nq)+ F : G(k)Lnktnsc :O =F >: G=(nq)

Lnktgsc Dkuogsc

3. EF : OGEF : + F : GSrcnsc :EF ? + OG :

Srcn

=. Laki Knotg jnoakkacezylc ourh

4. Rrgtcae Rcpsae Nlaeg noah.

Ofnrnotcrastaos gm cezylc-ontnkysas

>. Fadfky cmmaoacet -> lgkcoukc gm cezylc lny trnesmgrl gec lakkage lgkcoukcs gm rcnotnet pcr laeutc.

:. _pcoamao mgr davce rcnotage.

?. Fadfky notavc uehcr gptalul tclpcrnturc (:16 -?>2I) neh gptalul pF (j/w 34)

8. Aeorcnsaed notavaty ae prcsceoc gm notavntgrs neh og-cezylcs (ege prgtcae pnrt) cd. Nlyknsc ae prcsceoc gm EnOk

a.c., En + nrc ontnkytaonkky vcry notavc.

3. Aemkuceoc gm aefajatgrs neh pgasgech.

_ _

R

R

++C C

YC _\ C RC + _

C

Notavc _atc

Cezylc(ontnkyst)

_ujstrntc(rcnotnets)

Cezylc-_ujstrntcoglpkcx

Cezylc Rrghuots

Lcofneasl gm cezylc ontnkysch rcnotage

_tcp A C + _ C_ +

_tcp AA C_+ C + R


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Aehustrank ontnkytao prgocsscs

F _G: 8

F _ G (k) + F G(k) : F _G (nq): : 4 : : 8l

Ogkkgahs 0ogkkgahnk sgkutages nrc aetcrlchantc jctwcce truc sgkutage neh suspcesage* Fctcrgdcegus laxturc* _azc gm ogkkgahnk pnrtaokcs vnracs mrgl > el tg >222 el

Haspcrsch pfnsc (HR) 0 Xfc oglpgecet prcscet ae n slnkk prgpgrtage (kaic sgkutc ae sgkutage)

Haspcrsage lchaul (HL)0 Xfc oglpgecet prcscet ae knrdc prgpgrtage.

Xypcs gm ogkkgahs HR HL cxnlpkcMgnl D K _gnp kntfcr_gkah sgk D gr _ _ Rulaoc stgec, Dcls

Ncrgsgk D mgd, okguh,Cluksage K K lakiDck K _ Ofccsc_gk _ K Rnaets

_ gr K _lgic

Kygpfakao Ogkkgahs 0 Xfc ogkkgahnk sgkutage ae wfaof tfc pnrtaokcs gm tfc haspcrsch pfnsc fnvc drcnt nmmaeaty mgr tfc haspcrsage lchaul* Kaquah kgvaed ae enturc.* Zcvcrsajkc sgks. (rcogestatutch jy rclaxaed)* Oneegt jc cnsaky ogndukntch.

Kygpfgjao ogkkgahs 0Xfc ogkkgahnk sgkutages ae wfaof tfc pnrtaokcs gm tfc haspcrsch pfnsc fnvc eg nmmaeaty mgr tfc haspcrsage lchaul nrconkkch kygpfgjao ogkkgahs.* kaquah fntaed ae enturc

* Arrcvcrsajkc sgks* Ecch stnjakasaed ndcet mgr tfcar prcscrvntage* prcpnrch jy spcoank lctfghs.

Luktalgkcouknr ogkkgahs 0Ge hassgkutage , n knrdc euljcr gm ntgls gr slnkkcr lgkcoukcs nddrcdntc tgdctfcr tg mgrl spcoacs fnvaed sazc ae tfcogkkgahnk rnedc. Xfc ogkkgah sg mgrlch as onkkch luktalgkcouknr ogkkgah cd dgkh, sukpfur sgk.

Lnorglgkcouknr ogkkgahs 0

Am tfc sazc gm pnrtaokcs gm sujstneoc (haspcrsch pfnsc) as ae ogkkgahnk rnedc. cd stnrof ockkukgsc, prgtcae, cezylcs, pgkytfcec, eykge, rujjcr.


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Nssgoantch ogkkgahs 0

_glc sujstneocs (H.R) nt kgw ogeocetrntage jcfnvc ns ckcotrgkytcs, jut nt fadfcr ogeocetrntage jcfnvc ns ogk-kgahs. (Huc tg mgrlntage gm nddrcdntcs laockkcs)

OLO -(Orataonk laockkcogeocetrntage)( X i ) Irnmt tclpcrnturc laockkc mgrlntage njgvc pnrtaouknr tclpcrnturc.

_gnp En gr I snkt gm fadfcr mntty noahs cd sghaul stcnrntc O >4F ?3OGG En +

OOF :OF :OF : OF :OF : OF :OF : OF :OF : G En

W +OF :OF : OF :OF : OF :OF : OF :OF ?

G

W +_ghaul stcnrntc (O F OGG En)>4 ?3

OOF :OF :OF : OF :OF : OF :OF : OF :OF : G

W OF :OF : OF :OF : OF :OF : OF :OF ?

G

Fyhrgpfgjao tnak_tcnrntc age

Fyhrgpfakaofcnh

stcnrntcage

Tntcr

OGGGGO W W

O G G

G G O

W

WO G G

W

W

O G

G W

O G

G

G G OW

G G O

W

W

O G G

Ageaolaockkc

(j)(n)Kgw ogeocetrntage gm _gnp Fadfcr ogeocetrntage gm _gnp

(o)

(j)(n)

(n) Drcnsc ge okgtf (j) _tcnrntc ages nrrnedaed nrgueh tfc

drcnsc hrgpkct neh (o) Drcnsc hrgpkct surrguehchjy stcnrntc ages (laockkc mgrlch)

Lctfghs gm prcpnrntage gm ogkkgahs 0

(>) Ofclaonk lctfghs

:F : _ + _G : Gxahntage ?_(sgk) + :F : G

Ns : G? + ?F : _hgujkc

hcoglpgsatage Ns : _ ?(sgk) + ?F : G

:NuOk ? + ?FOFG + ?F : Grchuotage :Nu(_gk) + ?FOGGF + =FOk

McOk? + ?F : GFyhrgkysas Mc(GF) ?(_gk) + ?FOk


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:. Jrchad's Nro lctfgh (Ckcotraonk hasaetcdrntage)0

Ckcotrao spnri as struoi jctwcce ckcotrghcs gm tfc lctnk allcrsch ae tfchaspcrsage lchaul. Xfc aetcesc fcnt prghuoch vnpgurascstfc lctnk, wfaof tfce ogehcescs tg mgrl pnrtaokcs gm ogkkgahnk sazc.

Haspcrsagelchaul

Aoc - jntf

Ckcotrghcs+ W

Jrchad's Nro lctfgh

?. Rcptazntage0

Xfc prgocss gm ogevcrtaed n prcoapatntc aetg ogkkgahnk sgk jy sfniaed at watfhaspcrsage lchaul ae tfc prcsceoc gm n slnkk nlguet gm ckcotrgkytc (pcptazaedndcet)

Ruramaontage gm ogkkgahnk sgkutageHankysas0 Xfc prgocss gm rclgvaed n hassgkvch sujstneoc mrgl n ogkkgahnk sgkutage jy lcnes gm hammusage.tfrgudf n suatnjkc lcljrnec Ynealnk lcljrnec (jknhhcr), pnroflcet Rnpcr gr ockkgpfnec sfcct.)

ntcr+

Orystnkkgah

Orystnkkgah

Hankysaedlcljrnec

Hankysas

_gk pnrtaokc

ntcr +Ckcotrgkytc

Orystnkkgah

Hankysaedlcljrnec

Ckcotrg-hankysas

_gk pnrtaokc

Neghc

Tntcr

+ W Ontfghc

Sktrnmaktrntage 0_cpnrntaed tfc ogkkgahnk pnrtaokcs jy spcoankky hcsadech maktcrs (prcpnrch jy sgniaed tfc maktcr pnpcr ae n ogkkghagesgkutage). Xg spcch up tfc prgocss prcssurc gr suotage as nppkach

Ogkkghage - 8% sgkutage gm eatrgockkukgsc ae laxturcs gm nkogfgk neh ctfcr.Rrgpcrtacs gm ogkkgahnk sgkutage>. Ogkgur - hcpcehs ge k gm kadft sonttcrch cd (>) Laxturc gm laki neh wntcr nppcnrs jkuc wfce vacwch jy rcmkcotch

kadft neh rch wfce vacwch jy trneslattch kadft (:) Maecst dgkh sgk as rch ae ogkgur0 ns tfc sazc aeorcnscs, at nppcnrs purpkc, tfcar jkuc neh maenkkty dgkhce.

:. Ogkkgahnk pnrtaokcs nrc nkwnys ofnrdch0 catfcr + gr )

Rgsatavc ofnrdch sgks Ecdntavc ofnrdch sgks

> Fyhrntch lctnk gxahcs Lctnks cd Ou, Nd, Nu _gkscd. Nk G . xF G, OrG . xF G

Mc G . xF G cto.

:. Jnsao hyc stumms cd. lctfykcec jkuc _gk. *Noah hyc stumms cd cgsae,ogedg rch _gks.

?. Fnclgdkgjae (jkggh) Lctnkkao sukpfahcs cd Ns _ ,_j _ ,Oh_ _gks

8. Gxahcs cd. XaG _gk. *_gks gm stnro , dul, okny, Ofnrognk,

: ? : ? :

: ? :

:

: ? :

f

?

Fcklfgktz ckcotraonk hgujkc knycr 0 Tfce tfc ogkkgahnk pnrtaokcs noquarc () gr (+) ofnrdc jy sckcotavc nhsgrptage gm gecgm tfc ages at nttrnots oguetcr ages mrgl tfc lchaul mgrlaed n scogeh knycr ns sfgwe jckgwNdA/ A I + NdA/Nd+ A

Xfc ogljaentage gm tfcsc : knycrs gm gppgsatc ofnrdc nrgueh ogkkgahnk pnrtaokcs as onkkch fckl fgktz ckcotraonk hgujkcknycr


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Ckcotrgiaectao pgtcetank (Pctn pgtcetank)0

Xfc pgtcetank hammcrceoc jctwcce tfc maxch knycr neh tfc hammusch knycr gm ogkkgahnk sgkutage fnvaed gppgsatc ofnrdcsas onkkch zctn pgtcetank.

?. Ogkkadntavc prgpcrtacs 0 (ZK]R, Gslgtao prcssurc, hcprcssage ae mrcczaed pt, ckcvntage ae jgakaed pgaet) nrc slnkk

gr kgwcr ns oglpnrch tg truc sgkutage8. Fctcrgdcecgus, stnjkc sgkutage

3. _fgw Xyehnkk cmmcot 0

=. Jrgweane lgvclcet

4. Ckcotrgpfgrcsas 0 Xfc lgvclcet gm ogkkgahnk pnrtaokcs uehcr ne nppkach ckcotrao mackh as onkkch ckcotrgpfgrcsas.

6. Ckcotrg-gslgsas 0 Xfc lgvclcet gm lgkcoukcs gm haspcrsage lchaul ae ne ckcotrao mackh as onkkch ckcotrggslgscs.

1. Ogndukntage gr Rrcoapatntage 0 Xfc prgocss gm scttkaed gm ogkkgahnk pnrtokcs. Tfce ne ckcotrgkytc as nhhch tg tfcsgkutage, tfc ogkkgahnk pnrtaokcs tnic up tfc ages fnvaed gppgsatc ofnrdc mrgl tfc ckcotrgkytc neh dct ecutrnkasch nehtfus, ogndukntch.

* Fnrhy-_ofukzc rukc 0 At stntcs tfnt tfc ogndukntaed pgwcr gm ne ckcotrgkytc as harcotky prgpgrtagenk tg tfc mgurtf pgwcr gm tfc vnkceoy gm tfc gppgsatavcky ofnrdch age gm tfc ckcotrgkytc.

Ogndukntaed pgwcr ( vnkceoy )8

Mgr cxnlpkc 0 Ecdntavc sgkutage Ns : _ ? as ogndukntch mnstcr jy NkOk? tfne LdOk :

Ae ogndukntage gm ecdntavc sgk, tfc mkgooukntaed pgwcr as ae tfc grhcr0 Nk?+ 5 Jn +: 5 En +

_alaknrky, ae tfc ogndukntage gm n pgsatavc sgk, tfc mkgooukntaed pgwcr as ae tfc grhcr

YMc(OE)=\8 5 RG 8

? 5_G 8? 5 Ok

Ogndukntaed vnkuc 0 Lae ogeo gm ne ckcotrgkytc ae lakkalgkcs pcr katrc rcquarch tg onusc prcoapatntage gm n sgk ae: fgurs.

*Xfc slnkkcr tfc qunetaty ecchch, tfc fadfcr wakk jc tfc Ogndukntaed pgwcr gm tfc age.

Ogndukntage gm kygpfakao sgks0

Jy nhhaed (a) ckcotrgkytc gr (aa) suatnjkc sgkvcet.

Rrgtcotage gm ogkkgahs0

Tfce kygpfakao ogkkgah as nhhch tg kygpfgjao sgk, tfc kygpfakao pnrtaokcs mgrl n knycr nrgueh kygpfgjao pnrtaokcs nehtfus prgtcot tfc knttcr mrgl ckcotrgkytcs. Kygpfakao ogkkgahs usch mgr tfas purpgsc nrc onkkch prgtcotavc ogkkgahs.

*Rrgtcotavc pgwcr gm hammcrcet ogkkgahs as cxprcssch ae dgkh euljcr.

Rrgtcotaed Rgwcr euljcr Dgkh>


8/12

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Cluksages 0

Xfc ogkkgahnk systcl ae wfaof jgtf tfc haspcrsch pfnsc neh haspcrsage lchaul nrc ae kaquah stntc as onkkch cluksage.cd. Laki, ogh kavcr gak.

Cluksamaontage0 Xfc prgocss gm lniaed cluksage

Cluksages nrc gm : typcs>. (G/T) Gak - ae - Tntcr 0 Cluksage ae wfaof, gak nots ns tfc haspcrsch pfnsc neh wntcr not nshaspcrsage lchaul cd. ]neasfaed orcnl.

cq. LakiMnt gr gak (H.R)

Tntcr (H.L)

:. (T/G) Tntcr - ae - Gak0 Cluksage ae wfaof wntcr nots ns tfc haspcrsch pfnsc neh gak not nshaspcrsage lchaul

cd. Juttcr, Orcnl ogh kavcr gak

Tntcr (H.R) Gak (H.L)

Cluksamyaed ndcet 0 Xfc cluksages nrc stnjakazch jy nhhaed n stnjakazaed sujstneoc onkkch cluksamyaed ndcet cdsgnps, hctcrdcets cto.

*Cluksamyaed ndcet mgr G/T cluksage nrc prgtcaes duls, sgnps cto.

*Cluksamyaed ndcet mgr T/G cluksage nrc knlp jknoi fcnvy lctnk snkts gm mntty noahs, kged ofnae nkogfgks, cto.

Hcluksamaontage 0 Xfc scpnrntage gm ne cluksage aetg at oglpgecets

* At as hgec jy ocetramudntage, fcntaed, mrcczaed cto.

*_gak as n ogkkgah ae wfaof fulus not ns prgtcotavc ogkkgahs

*Hcktn 0 wfce ravcr wntcr lccts scn wntcr tfc ckcotrgkytcs prcscet ae scn wntcr ogndukntc tfc ogkkgahnk sgkutage gm okny rcsuktaed ae ats hcpgsatage.

Nppkaontages gm ogkkgahs

>. Rrcoapatntage gm slgic - Jy ogetrckk prcoapatntgr.:. Ruramaontage gm hraeiaed wntcr - jy Nkul.

?. Lchaoaecs -cd(>) ogkkgahnk netalgey as usch ae inknnznr (aa) nrdyrgk as sakvcr sgk. usch ns cyc kgtage (aaa) Laki gm lndecsan mgr noahaty ae stglnof

8. Xneeaed -Xfc prgocss gm fnrhceaed kcntfcr.

3. Okcnesaed notage gm sgnp.

=. Rfgtg drnpkao makls nrc ogntch watf cluksages gm kadft scesatavc sakvcr jrglahc ae dckntae gvcr ockkukgkh makl.

4. Zujjcr as gjtnaech jy ogndukntage gm kntcx.

6. Rnaet, aei, syetfctao pknstao, oclcet cto nrc ogkkgahnk sgkutages.


9/12

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_gkvch Rrgjkcls

.> Davc tfc sade gm F neh _ mgr nhsgrptage prgocss.Gr

Tfnt as tfc sade gm F neh _ wfce jrglaec dns dcts nhsgrjch ge ofnrognk7

Nes. HF as vc (cetfnkpy hcorcnscs) neh H_ < vc (cetrgpy hcorcnscs).

.: Fgw one wc lnic hankysas mnst 7Nes. Jy nppkyaed ckcotrao mackh.

^.? Tratc hgwe tfc fctcrgdcecgus ontnkyst aevgkvch ae tfc pgkylcrasntage gm ctfykcec.Nes. ((O: F 3)?Nk + XaOk8) Pcadkcr Enttn ontnkyst.

^.8 Nrtamaoank rnae one jc onusch jy sprnyaed ogllge snkt ge tfc okguhs. Fgw 7Nes. Okguhs nrc ogkkgahnk haspcrsage gm wntcr pnrtaokcs ae nar. Xfcsc ogkkgahnk wntcr pnrtaokcs onusc sglc ofnedc ge

nppkyaed snkt ae tfc okguh, ogndukntage gm wntcr pnrtaokcs tnics pknoc.

^.3 Tfnt hg ygu uehcrstneh jy notavntage gm nhsgrjcet7 Fgw as tfc nofacvch 7Nes. Notavntage gm nhsgrjcet 0 Xfc pfceglcege wfaof aevgkvcs tfc aeorcnsaed gm tfc nhsgrjaed pgwcr gm ne nhsgr-

jcet jy suatnjkc lcnes as iegwe ns notavntage gm nhsgrjcet. Notavntage gm nhsgrjcet rcmcrs tg ats okcne surmnoc nehmaec pnrtaokc sazc. Okcneaed one jc hgec jy uktrn fadf vnouul wfakc knrdc surmnoc nrcn one jc nofacvch jy draehaed.

^.= Tfnt rgkc hgcs nhsgrptage pkny ae fctcrgdcecgus ontnkysas7Nes. Fctcrgdcecgus ontnkysas dcecrnkky prgocchs tfrgudf tfc nhsgrptage gm rcnotnets ge tfc surmnoc gm ontnkyst. Ae suof

typc gm ontnkysas dcecrnkky nhsgrjcet as sgkah wfakc tfc rcnotnets nrc dnscgus. Xfc rcnotages goour nt tfc surmnoc gm tfc ontnkyst wfcrc tfc dnscgus lgkcoukcs dct nhsgrjch catfcr jy pfysaonk nhsgrptage gr jy ofclaonk nhsgrptage.

^.4 Tfy as nhsgrptage nkwnys cxgtfcrlao7Nes. Tfce n dns as nhsgrjch ge tfc surmnoc gm sgkah ats cetrgpy hcorcnscs, at lcnes Hs as (vc). Egw,

HD < HF X H_ neh mgr tfc prgocss tg jc spgetnecgus, mrcc cecrdy ofnedc ( HD),lust jc ecdntavc. Am HF fnssummaoacet fadf (vc) vnkuc ns XH_ as pgsatavc. Xfus, ae ne nhsgrptage prgocss, wfaof as spgetnecgus, n ogljaentagegm tfcsc twg mnotgrs lnics HD ecdntavc. Ns tfc nhsgrptage prgocchs, HF jcoglc kcss neh kcss ecdntavc uktalntckyHF jcoglcs cqunk tg X H_ neh HD jcoglc zcrg nt cquakajraul stntc.

^.6 Notage gm sgnp as huc tg cluksamaontage neh laockkc mgrlntage. Ogllcet.Nes. _gnp lgkcoukcs nhsgrj ge tg tfc harty (gaky) surmnoc neh try tg cluksamy at. _gnp laockkcs hg sgkujakazc tfc aesgkujkc

hart ns drcnsy lntcrank.

^.1 Tfnt hg ygu lcne jy notavaty neh sckcotavaty gm ontnkysts7Nes. Notavaty 0 Notavaty gm n ontnkyst rcmcrs tg tfc ofclasgrptage gm rcnotnets rcnsgenjkc strgedky. At fns njakaty tg ae-

orcnsc ofclaonk rcnotage. Mgr cxnlpkc 0 Xrnesatage lctnks sfgw ontnkytao notavaty. (Lnxalul notavaty drgup 4-1lctnks)._ckcotavaty 0 _ckcotavaty gm n ontnkysts as ats njakaty tg spcch up n rcnotage tg yackh n pnrtaouknr prghuot.Mgr cxnlpkc0 OG + F : ogljaec tg mgrl OF 8 wfce Ea as tfc ontnkyst neh lctfnenk wfce Or : G? as ontnkyst.

OG + ?F : Rt OF 8 + F : G Lctfnec

OG + :F: Ou/PeG-Or G: ? OF

?GF Lctfyk nkogfgk

OG + F : Ou FOFG Mgrlnkhcfyhc


10/12

>2 _SZMNOC OFCLA_XZQ

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^.>2 Cxpknae tfc tcrl watf suatnjkc cxnlpkcs 0

(a) Nkogsgk (aa) Ncrgsgk (aaa) Fyhrgsgk.

Nes. (a) Nkogsgk 0 Nkogsgks nrc tfgsc sgks ae wfaof tfc haspcrsage lchaul as nkogfgk.

Mgr cxnlpkc 0 Ogkkghage (n ogkkgahnk sgkutage gm ockkukgsc eatrntc ae ctfyk nkogfgk).

(aa) Ncrgsgk 0 Ncrgsgk nrc tfgsc sgks ae wfaof tfc haspcrsage lchaul as nar.

Mgr cxnlpkc 0 _lgic, hust.

(aaa) Fyhrgsgk 0 Fyhrgsgk nrc tfgsc sgks ae wfaof tfc haspcrsage lchaul as wntcr.

Mgr cxnlpkc 0 _tnrof sgkutage, dgkh sgkutage.

^.>> Ogllcet ge tfc stntclcet tfnt "ogkkgah as egt n sujstneoc jut n stntc gm sujstneoc."

Nes. Ogkkgahnk sgkutage as lnhc up gm haspcrsch pfnsc neh haspcrsage lchaul. Xfc sazc gm tfc pnrtaokcs gm haspcrsch pfnsc vnracs jctwcce > el tg >222 el ae ogkkgahnk sgkutage. Ge tfc jnsas gm sazc gm pnrtaokcs, wc one hastaeduasf

jctwcce ogkkgahnk sgkutage neh truc sgkutage. Mgr cxnlpkc 0 EnOk ae wntcr mgrls truc sgkutage jut ae jcezcec mgrlsogkkgahnk sgkutage. N sgnp mgrls truc sgkutage ae nkogfgk jut ogkkgahnk sgkutage ae wntcr.

^.>: Hasouss tfc gradae gm ofnrdc ge ogkkgahnk pnrtaokcs.

Gr

Fgw hgcs tfc tfcgry gm sckcotavc nhsgrptage, cxpknae tfc gradae gm ofnrdc ge ogkkgahnk pnrtaokcs.

Nes. Huc tg sckcotavc nhsgrptage gm ages0 Xfcsc pnrtaokcsogestatutaed tfc haspcrsch pfnsc nhsgrj tfgsc ages prcmcrcetankky wfaof

nrc ogllge watf tfcar gwe knttaoc ages. Mgr cxnlpkc, am sakvcr eatrntc sgku-tage as nhhch tg ne nqucgus sgkutage gm pgtnssaul aghahc, tfc sakvcr aghahc wakknhsgrj tfc A (Ogllge ages) mrgl tfc

haspcrsage lchaul tg mgrl n ecdntavcky ofnrdch sgk.

Nd+

Nd+

Nd+

Nd+

Nd+

Nd+

Nd+

Nd+

Nd ages rclnae ae haspcrsage lchaul+

A Ages Njsgrjch

NdEG ? + IA NdA

NdEG ? + A NdA/A

Haspcrsage Ecdntavc sgk.

lchaul

Fgwcvcr, am sakvcr aghahc as mgrlch jy nhhaed pgtnssaul aghahc tg sakvcr eatrntc sgkutage, tfc sgk as pgsatavcky ofnrdch huc tg tfc nhsgrptage gm Nd +

ages (Ogllge ages) prcscet ae tfc haspcrsage

lchaul.

A

A

AA

A

A

A

A

A ages rclnae ae haspcrsage lchaul

Nd Ages Njsgrjch

+

IA + NdEG ? NdA

NdA + Nd+ NdA / Nd+

Haspcrsage lchaul Rgsatavc sgk.


11/12

_SZMNOC OFCLA_XZQ >>

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Cxcroasc>

^.> Akkustrntc watf cxnlpkcs 0

(a) Kygpfakkao neh kygpfgjao sgkutages,

(aa) Luktalgkcouknr neh lnorglgkcouknr ogkkgahs.

(aaa) Fglgdcecgus neh fctcrgdcecgus ontnkysas.

^.: Tfnt nrc tfc twg oknsscs gm cluksages 7 Davc gec cxnlpkc gm cnof oknss. _tntc gec notavaty tg tcst tfc typc gm necluksage.

^.? Fgw hg sazc gm pnrtaokcs gm nhsgrjcet, prcssurc gm dns neh prcvnakaed tclpcrnturc aemkuceoc tfc cxtcet gm nhsgrptage

gm n dns ge n sgkah7

^.8 Cxpknae tfc mgkkgwaed gjscrvntage0

(n) Kygpfakao ogkkgah as lgrc stnjkc tfne kygpfgjao ogkkgah.

(j) Ogndukntage tnics pknoc wfce sghaul ofkgrahc sgkutage as nhhch tg n ogkkgahnk sgkutage gm mcrraofyhrgxahc,

(o) _iy nppcnrs jkuc ae ogkgur.

^.3 Tfnt as lcnet jy nhsgrptage asgtfcrl 7

Tfnt as tfc cmmcot gm prcssurc ge pfysaonk nhsgrptage7

Cxpknae mrcuehkaof nhsgrptage asgtfcrl

^.= (n) Tfnt nrc laockkcs 7 Fgw hg tfcy hammcr mrgl grhaenry ogkkgahnk pnrtaokcs 7 Davc twg cxnlpkc gm laockkcs mgrlaedsujstneocs.

(j) _tntc Fnrhy-_ofukzc rukc.

^.4 Hcmaec nhsgrptage. Tratc ney twg mcnturcs wfaof hastaeduasf pfysasgrptage mrgl ofclasgrptage.

^.6 Cxpknae tfc mgkkgwaed tcrls watf n suatnjkc cxnlpkc ae cnof onsc0

(a) _fnpc - sckcotavc ontnkysas (aa) Hankysas

(aaa) Cluksamaontage (av) Xyehnkk cmmcot


12/12

>: _SZMNOC OFCLA_XZQ

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Cxcroasc:

^.> Tfnt onuscs Jrgweane lgvclcet gm n ogkkgahnk sgkutage7 Y O.J._.C. :226 \

^.: Tfaof fns n fadfcr cetfnkpy gm njsgrptage pfysasgrptage gr ofclasgrptage7 Y O.J._.C. :226 \

^.? Hcsorajc ckcotrgpfgrcsas jracmky. YO.J._.C. :226 \

^.8 Tfy hgcs pfysasgrptage hcorcnsc watf tfc aeorcnsc gm tclpcrnturc Y O.J._.C. :226 \

^.3 Ae ofclasgrptage wfy x/l aeatankky aeorcnscs neh tfce hcorcnscs watf rasc ae tclpcrnturc7

YO.J._.C. :226 \

^.= Hastaeduasf jctwcce fglgdcecgus neh fctcrgdcecgus ontnkysas. Tfnt rgkc hgcs nhsgrptage pkny ae

fctcrgdcecgus ontnkysas7 Y O.J._.C. :226 \

^.4 Hastaeduasf jctwcce laockkcs neh ogkkgahnk pnrtaokcs. Davc gec cxnlpkc gm cnof. Y O.J._.C. :226 \

^.6 Tfnt as tfc 'ogndukntage prgocss7 Y O.J._.C. :221 \^.1 Tfnt fnppces ae tfc mgkkgwaed notavatacs neh wfy7 Y O.J._.C. :226 \

(a) Ne ckcotrgkytc as nhhch tg n fyhrntch mcrrao gxahc sgk ae wntcr. YO.J._.C. :221 \

(aa) N jcnl gm kadft as pnssch tfrgudf n ogkkgahnk sgkutage.

(aaa) Ne ckcotrao ourrcet as pnssch tfrgudf n ogkkgahnk sgkutage.

^.>2 Hcsorajc tfc mgkkgwaed0 YO.J._.C. :2>: \

(a) Xyehnkk cmmcot (aa) _fnpc-sckcotavc ontnkysas

.>> Tfnt as lcnet jy ogndukntage gm n ogkkgahnk sgkutage7 Enlc ney lctfgh jy wfaof ogndukntage gm kygpfgkao sgks

one jc onrrach gut. Y O.J._.C. :2>2 \

^.>: Hcmaec tfc mgkkgwaed YO.J._.C. :2>2 \

(a) Rcptazntage (aa) rcvcrsajkc sgks

^.>? Oknssamy ogkkgahs wfcrc tfc haspcrsage lchaul as wntcr. _tntc tfcar ofnrnotcrastaos neh wratc ne cxnlpkc gm cnof gm

tfcsc oknsscs. YO.J._.C. :2>> \

^.>8 Cxpknae wfnt as gjscrvch wfce Y O.J._.C. :2>> \

(a) ne ckcotrao ourrcet as pnssch tfrgudf n sgk (aa) n jcnl gm kadft as pnssch tfrgudf n sgk.(aaa) ne ckcotrgkytc (sny EnOk) as nhhch tg mrccao fyhrgxahc sgk.

^.>3 Hcmaec 'pcptazntage'. YO.J._.C. :2>: \

^.>= Tratc tfrcc hastaeot mcnturcs gm ofclasgrptages wfaof nrc egt mgueh ae pfysasgrptages.

YO.J._.C. :2>: \

^.>4 Tfnt as lcnet jy ogndukntage gm n ogkkgahnk sgkutage 7 Enlc ney lctfgh jy wfaof ogndukntage gm kygpfgjao sgks

one jc onrrach gut. YO.J._.C. :2>:\^.>6 Tfnt as cspcoankky gjscrvch wfce n jcnl gm kadft as pnssch tfrgudf n ogkkgahnk sgkutage 7

YO.J._.C. :2>?\^.>1 Hcmaec tfc mgkkgwaed tcrls watf ne cxnlpkc ae cnof onsc 0

(a) Lnorglgkcouknr sgk (aa) Rcptazntage (aaa) Cluksage YO.J._.C. :2>?\

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