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ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (ESIA) FOR ZANZIBAR MUNICIPAL COUNCIL`S PROPOSED ZANZIBAR URBAN SERVICES PROJECT (ZUSP) PHYSICAL CULTURAL RESOURCES (CULTURAL HERITAGE IMPACT) ASSESSMENT REPORT

BY DR. CHARLES BERNARD SAANANE

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgement

Executive Summary

List of Acronyms

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background Information

1.2 Proposed Activities

1.3 Structure of the Report

2.0 Project Descriptions

2.1 Description of the Local Environment

2.2 Description of Baseline Conditions

2.3 Description of Socio-economic Aspects

2.4 Description of Biophysical Aspects

2.5 Description of Cultural Aspects

3.0 Materials and Methods

4.0 Identification, Prediction and Assessment of Potential Impacts

5.0 Analysis of Stated Impacts as they Relate to Human Health

6.0 Consideration of Alternatives and Mitigation Measures Incuding Commitment to Mitigation

7.0 Environmental Management Plan, Monitoring and Auditing Program

8.0 The Manner Public Consultation in Respect to the Undertaking was Implemented

9.0 Additional Necessary Information to Assess the Proposed Activity

10.0 Conclusions and Recommendations

References

Appendices

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Acknowledgement

This work was facilitated by several officials at diverse capacities. I extend sincere gartitude to the following officials: Mr. Warithi Sultan as well as Salum Mvita (Zanizbar Stone Town Conservation and Development Authority); Mr. Abdallah Khamis (Department of Archives, Museums and Antiquities); Mr. Zuberi Hamza (Department of Environment); Mr. Mzee Khamis Juma (Division of Zanzibar Urban and Sanitation); and Dr. Nariman Jiddawi (Institute of Marine Science, University of Dar es Salaam).

Executive Summary

This Heritage Impact Assessment report forms part of an Envionmental and Social Impact Assessment carried out as part of the Zanzibar Urban Services Project (ZUSP). This specialist study was deemed necessary for the various components of the proposed ZUSP, these components being the upgrade and installation of storm water drainage channels, waste management infrastructure upgrade repair as well as the installation of street lighting in the Stone Town area. This specialist study compliments other works in prepartion for the Zanzibar Urban Services Project construction phase to be implemented in January 2011.

Zanzibar city includes areas beyond Stone Town that are both under the jurisdiction of the local government authority, namely Zanzibar Municipal Council (ZMC). Thus, Zanzibar city can be divided into two areas, namely, the Stone Town area and the greater urban area. The Stone Town area has monuments, buildings and most likely buried cultural resources as well as moveable cultural resources (archaeological artefacts). The latter could be inland and under water (in the Indian Ocean). The area alongside Stone Town is expected to contain buried movable cultural heritage resources (such as archaeological artefacts). The munipality has a population of around 206,913 as indicated by the 2002 population census, covering almost 1,600 hectares, with Stone Town covering about 95 hectares of this area. Thus, it has a marked population increase from 157,634 inhabitants as established in the 1988 census.

The proposed project will cover the Ng`ambo area, which includes Stone Town and large parts of Zanzibar City. Existing road storm water drainage systems can be seen in certain areas but are, in general, in a state of disrepair and filled with waste. In certain areas, such as Saateni, non-biodegradable solid waste is evident, while infrastructure is in close proximity to the storm water drainage systems and existing construction works for improving road culverts are common place. In Saateni, such works are present in the drainage (water) channel and above the old bridge.

It is critical that all storm water drainage channels are directed towards the ocean throughout the study area. Currently, throughout the Ng`ambo area there are certain storm water outfalls that end shortly before the ocean shore, for example, at Mbuyuni. This is a major problem in that the storm water and waste streams can’t be adequatly managed if they are being dispelled prior to entering waste collection traps or being dispelled above ground.

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The Stone Town area has monuments, buildings, buried cultural resources and moveable cultural resources (such archaeological artefacts). The latter could be inland and under water (in the Indian Ocean). The area contiguous to Stone Town is envisaged to have buried movable cultural heritage resources (archaeological artefacts). The Ng`ambo area, which forms part of the proposed project area, is densely populated with houses. Some settlements in Ng`ambo, such as at Mwanakwerekwe, include squatter settlements with a lot of inhabitants.

There are swampy areas in the proposed project area that are within people`s settlement areas. Such areas become flooded and cause havoc when it rains as a result of there being no proper drainage systems. This is evident in the areas of Sebuleni, Kidongo Chekundu, Mnazi Mmoja (play grounds are incorporated in the buffer zone to Stone Town Heritage Site) and several other such areas in both the southern and northern zones within the project area. Also, several streams or rivers traverse the envisaged project area and currently, most ineffectively drain storm water.

The study area has a very high population density with many houses built in water catchment areas – flood areas when it rains. Majority of residents use pit latrines and because the area regularly floods, such latrines overflow and mix with storm water. As a result, there is significant soil and groundwater pollution which is a significant cause for concern. Associated health hazards for the overall population include:

• Disease; • Contaminated water and food supplies; • General impact on society from a dirty environment.

Such a situation leads to incidences of water borne diseases such as dysentry and cholera. In some cases, with the presence of still water pools, certain disease vectors like mosquitoes breed in large numbers and increase the incidence of malaria. In Zanzibar, malaria accounts for 40% of all outpatients, 33% of all admissions, and 28% of hospital deaths for children under the age of 15. Malaria remains the largest health threat in Zanzibar, although diarrhea remains a health concern for children, with almost half of the children suffering from it, not being given any additional fluids or taken to a medical facility.

In terms of heritage, the project area includes graves, monuments, light houses and various archaeological artefacts. For example, close to the Upepo River, archaeological objects (ceramics) in form of pottery remains belonging to Triangular Incized Ware (TIW) were recovered. These findings denote to the Early Phase of East African Iron Working, almost 3,000 years ago. In Kiembe Samaki, archaeological remains belonging to TIW were accidentally recovered. In addition, there were previously estates (for cloves, coconuts and cloves) in such places as Mpendae, Sebuleni and Mwanakwerekwe. People lived and worked on these estates and as such there is a large possibility for the survival of archaeological objects. In Kilimani there are ruins and the first Anglican church to be built in Zanzibar. In Maruhubi, there are ruins for the sultanate and are protected by law.

The installation of new or upgrade to existing street lighting in Stone Town should be take into consideration the conserved style of houses in Stone Town. This can be achieved by using such designs as installing street lights along the walls of house. Any design needs to be properly worked in order to protect the fabric and integrity of the cultural property, i.e. the houses in Stone Town.

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The project may have impacts that are perceived to be negative, such as the possibility of unearthing cultural resources or archaeological objects as a result of the constrcution activities. These archaeological objects may be destoryed, trampled while excavating trenches for the storm water drains or dumped elsewhere. Some may even be destroyed completely. As long as people used the harbour and other landing sites along the sea shore, there will always be a rich source of under water archaeological resources. The discharge of effluent at the proposed outfall sewer position along the coastline, could result in the destruction of these existing archaeological objects.

As a result of the denstiy of the project area, it can assumed that there has already been some destruction or loss of archaeological materials. Even in the Stone Town area, a recent harbour facelift did not include a cultural impact assessments. In addition, previous housing development projects also did not involve a cultural heritage impact assessment.

Without proper mitigation measures being implemented both before and during construction works, such finite unrewable culural heritage resources may be lost. Loss would mean denial and/or loss of history of the area and country as a whole. The Stone Town area was a satelite area and is currently a UNESCO World Heritage Site with museums, monumnets and various other culturally significant sites and buildings. Additional recovery of archaeological objects and their eventual proper interpretations would add value to such already protected, preserved and conserved cultural heritage resources.

There could be a possibility of creating positive impacts by controlling flooding and creating happiness for people residing in the project area. Such a measure would create a long-term positive impact. The project would also create employment to people, some on permanent basis, while others will be employed temporarily.

Negative impacts may be viewed a low in built up areas as a result of the archaeological materials having already benn destroyed and/or lost. The few remaining materials would be impacted by secondary and/or short-term negative impacts. Once lost, archaeological materials can be classified as irreversible or non-rewable/non-replaced/non-recovered. If human remains are uncovered in previously unidentified burial grounds by construction activities, operations need to cease immediately and the relevant authorities contacted.

The desired project should encourage the involvement of local archaeologists in order for them to recover or salvage any archaeological materials that may be exposed during construction works. In addition, the aim of cultural awareness creation and education regarding the environment and cultural resources should be encouraged.

In conclusion, the negative impacts of the project are far outweighed by the positive impacts. However, various mitigation measures, such as the involvement of archaeologists to recover any archaeological or cultural material that may be unearthed during construction, need to be implemented.

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List of Acronyms

ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessment

GDP Gross Domestic Product

SoER State of Enviroment Report

TIW Triangular Incized Ware

ToR Terms of Reference

USA$ United States of America Dollars

ZIPA Zanzibar Investment Promotion Agency

ZMC Zanzibar Municipal Council

ZUSP Zanzibar Urban Services Project

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1.0 Introduction 1.1 Background Information This document contains the report on the results of a Heritage Impact Assessment (HIA) study which was done for the Zanzibar Urban Services Project (ZUSP). This specialist study was deemed necessary for the various components of the proposed ZUSP, these components being the upgrade and installation of storm water drainage channels, waste management infrastructure upgrade repair as well as the installation of street lighting in the Stone Town area. This specialist study compliments other works in prepartion for the Zanzibar Urban Services Project construction phase to be implemented in January 2011. Zanzibar town is situated on Unguja Island which, together with Pemba Isle and over 50 islets such as Tumbatu, Changuu, Kibandiko, Chapwani, Bawe, Chumbe, Mnemba, Lathan, make up Zanzibar. Zanzibar together with mainland Tanzania form the United Republic of Tanzania. According to 2002 population census, Zanzibar has a population of less than one million people (984,351 people). Population growth rate between 1988 and 2002 was recorded to be 3.1 percent. Unguja Island measures 86 kilometres long and 39 kilometres at its widest point covering a total area of 1,666 square kilometres, while Pemba is 60 kilometres long and 22.25 kilomtres wide covering a total area of 988 square kilometres. Zanzibar is situated approximately 40 kilometres off the mainland of East Africa, Unguja being only 30 kilometers at its shortest point from Mainland Tanzania. Furthermore, the two islands are 50 kilometres apart and are separated by the Pemba channel. Zanzibar city includes areas beyond Stone Town that are both under the jurisdiction of the local government authority, namely Zanzibar Municipal Council (ZMC). Thus, Zanzibar city can be divided into two areas, namely, the Stone Town area and the greater urban area. The Stone Town area has monuments, buildings and most likely buried cultural resources as well as moveable cultural resources (archaeological artefacts). The latter could be inland and under water (in the Indian Ocean). The area alongside Stone Town is expected to contain buried movable cultural heritage resources (such as archaeological artefacts). The munipality has a population of around 206,913 as indicated by the 2002 population census, covering almost 1,600 hectares, with Stone Town covering about 95 hectares of this area. Thus, it has a marked population increase from 157,634 inhabitants as established in the 1988 census. (Zanzibar Investment Policy, n.d.). 1.2 Proposed Activity, Its Purposes and Rationale This Heritage Impact Assessment report forms part of an Envionmental and Social Impact Assessment carried out as part of the Zanzibar Urban Services Project (ZUSP). This specialist study was deemed necessary for the various components of the proposed ZUSP, these components being the upgrade and installation of storm water drainage channels, waste management infrastructure upgrade repair as well as the installation of street lighting in the Stone Town area. This specialist study compliments other works in prepartion for the Zanzibar Urban Services Project construction phase to be implemented in January 2011.

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The desire to provide rapid expansion of social services across Zanzibar town was recognized by Zanzibar Municipl Council (ZMC) such that the Zanzibar Urban Services Project (ZUSP) team was established to achieve these sustainablegoals. In due regard, ZUSP propose to undertake this municipal upgrade project that will involve the development of selected urban infrastructure and the enhancement of street lighting in Stone Town. In due regard, an ESIA is mandatory in terms of Zanzibar Enviromental Policy of 1992 and the Environmental Management for Sustainable Development Act of 1992 so as to evaluate potential impacts of the proposed project and thus, recommend mitigation measures to reduce or prevent negative impacts as well as enhance positive impacts. The Terms of Reference (ToR) for ESIA have been completed and approved by the Department of Environment in November 2009. This is the Second Phase of ESIA, the Impact Assessment Phase, and is aimed at facilitating proper project initiation, implementation and eventual commissioning including monitoring measures. 1.3 Structure of the Report This report composed of eleven Sections. Section One gives an Introduction that includes the following Sub-Sections: Background Information; Proposed Activity, Its Purposes and Rationale; and Structure of the Report. Section Two deals with Particular Descriptions on the following key areas: Description of the Local Environment; Baseline Conditions; Description of Socio-economic Aspects; Description of Biophysical Aspects; Description of Cultural Aspects. Section Three is about Materials and Methods, while Section Three presents Identification, Prediction and Assessment of Potential Impacts. Section Five provides Analysis of Stated Impacts as they Relate to Human Health and Section Six presents Consideration of Alternatives and Mitigation Measures Incuding Commitment to Mitigation. Section Seven is about Environmental Management Plan, Monitoring and Auditing Program, while Section Eight is about The Manner Public Consultation in Respect to the Undertaking was Implemented. Section Nine gives Additional Necessary Information to Assess the Proposed Activity and Section Ten provides presents Conclusions and Recommendations.

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2.0 Particular Descriptions

2.1 Description of Baseline Conditions Figure 1 shows the study area located in Zanzibar town between Stone Town area to the west, Daraja Bovu Road in the east, Zanzibar International Airport to the south and Mtoni River Road to the north. In due regard, the location includes the following areas: Stone Town, Kisiwandui, Darajani, Vikokotoni, Mtendeni, Kidongo Chekundu, Mabuluu, Maisara-Suleiman, Kilimani, Malindi, Batini, Michenzani, Mwanakwerekwe and Amaani (Figure 1). Other areas include flood areas; solid waste collection points; existing and under construction sewerline; proposed sewer line; existing and under construction storm water drains; storm water drains to be constructed in future; and an interceptor sewer to be constructed in future.

2.3 Description of Cultural Aspects As a World Heritage Site, Stone Town contains buildings of architectural and cultural importance; these include a chapel and fort constructed by the Portugese in the sixteenth century, as well as infrastructure such as the harbour developed by Arab and Indian merchants.

The project area includes monuments, light houses (used in ancient times) and moveable cultural objects (archaeological artefacts) which may be buried either inland or under water. Of particular interest are:

Recent discoveries of pottery remains belonging to Triangular Incized Ware (TIW), and dating to the Early Phase of East African Working, almost 3000 years ago, recovered close to Upepo River and at Kiembe Samaki (Abdallah Khamis, pers. comm., 28th January, 2010); Clove and coconut estates at Mpendae, Sebuleni and Mwanakwerekwe (ibid.); Ruins and the first Anglican church built in Zanzibar at Kilimani; and Ruins for the sultanate at Maruhubi under legal protection.

Archaeological evidence revealed that the islands may have been settled by stone age people, notably, during the Late Stone Age, as far back as 30,000 years ago. Further settlements by indigenous people, arscetained by archaeological remains, have been recorded at various sites that include the remains of humans, animals, ceramics and several other archaeological artifacts. Further archaeological discoveries, such as early iron workings, revealed several traditions and cultures such as the Swahili Culture. As a result, it is known that Zanzibar was settled by indigenous people from an early time. Oral traditions and socio-political history offer further accounts of Zanzibar`s growth as an ancient town. A notable period for such development was between A.D. 1500 to 1850. Stone Town grew on the western tip of the triangular peninsula. This peninsula was partially separated from the main island by a creek running in a north easterly direction and the only point of contact to the main island was situated to the south. It is further argued that the choice for such a site and its subsequent growth into one of important urban settlements of the area was determined partly by its natural harbour that offered incoming vessels protection during monsoon seasons.

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Monsoons typically occur during the period of November to February and the winds associated with these monsoons brought traders from Arabia, Persia and India. In constrast to this, winds during the period of June to September brought vessels from further south and returned other vessels to their home ports in the north as well as the east of the Indian Ocean. Such settlements and movements facilitated maritime trade, trade in the mainland and further to the hinterland. In addition, settlements facilitated establishment of plantations for crops such as coconuts as well as cloves and other spices. Plantations were established away from the urban settlements and as a result a pattern of movement/interaction between the then Zanzibar urban area and its immediate surrounding area became prodominant. Currently, Zanzibar is politically part of the African mainland, but its Islamic heritage and tradition continue to link the island to one time sultanates and harbour-towns that lined the western Indian Ocean such as Kilwa (southeastern Tanzania), Mombasa (Kenya), Malindi (Kenya), Lamu (Kenya) and Mogadishu (Somalia), as well as to ancient trading ports of the Arabian Peninsula and the Persian Gulf. In due regard, Zanzibar developed an urban tradition that still stands today. Thus, with development of ancient Zanzibar into a big urban settlement that was involved with ancient international maritime trade as well as across the mainland at several points, infrastructure that included buildings and monuments ensued. Most structures that exist and have been rehabilitated are under continued protection and conservation. In due regard, after major rehabilitation works in order to restore the integrity and fabrique of the cultural heritage resources in Stone Town, the Zanzibar Stone Town Conservation and Heritage Development Authority was established. Further to such developments, Stone Town is a World Heritage City inscribed under the United Nations, Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO’s) World Heritage List (for selected monuments see Figures 2, 3a and3b). Stone Town is one of the biggest Cultural Tourism centres in Africa. 3.0 Materials and Methods

The Heritgae Impact Assessment involved the following data collection methods:

• Key informant interviews; • Surveys throughout the study area; • Observations (non-participant observations); and • Documentation (photographs and inscriptions).

Key informant interviews involved unstructured questions to officials from the following establishments:

• Institute of Marine Science of the University of Dar es Salaam; • Zanzibar Stone Town Conservation and Development Authority; • Division of Water and Waste Management; • Department of Department of Archives, Museums and Antiquities; and • Department of Environment.

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Surveying covered the entire study area in order to understand the existing situation with regard to storm water and waste water management infrastructure. Observations were made a certain key points throughout the study area that facilitated this impact assessment.

4.0 Identification, Prediction and Assessment of Potential Impacts

The proposed project will have certain positive and negative impacts and the purpose of the ESIA is to enhance the postive impacts and minise or remove the negative impacts. It is generally assumed that impacts caused by linear developments, such as stormwater channels on heritage sites, may be less severe than impacts which occur as a result of more drastic kinds of development such as mining, town establihment or dam building operations where major affects on the environment, including heritage resources, are brought about.

The significance of heritage resources is usually determined according to criteria such as the following: the scientific, research, esthetical, educational, ideological, tourism, etc value of heritage resources. Other criteria which may apply are the repeatability (scarcity); condition (dilapidated, restored, altered, disturbed) and inherent cultural, historical, industrial, economic and contextual value that each and every heritage resource possesses.

The level of significance of each heritage resource will determine what mitigation measures have to be applied before this heritage resource may be affected by the proposed project. The nature and extent of the mitigation measures will again determine the process that has to be followed with the authority when such sites are found.

Some of the heritage resources in the study area including those that have not been detected may be impacted (affected, altered, damaged) by the proposed project. The number of heritage resources which may be affected by the project can be decreased if a walk-through study of the stormwater alignments is undertaken before construction commences.

The project may have impacts that are perceived to be negative, such as the possibility of unearthing cultural resources or archaeological objects as a result of the constrcution activities. These archaeological objects may be destoryed, trampled while excavating trenches for the storm water drains or dumped elsewhere. Some may even be destroyed completely. As long as people used the harbour and other landing sites along the sea shore, there will always be a rich source of under water archaeological resources. The discharge of effluent at the proposed outfall sewer position along the coastline, could result in the destruction of these existing archaeological objects.

As a result of the denstiy of the project area, it can assumed that there has already been some destruction or loss of archaeological materials. Even in the Stone Town area, a recent harbour facelift did not include a cultural impact assessments. In addition, previous housing development projects also did not involve a cultural heritage impact assessment.

In terms of heritage, the project area includes graves, monuments, light houses and various archaeological artefacts. For example, close to the Upepo River, archaeological objects (ceramics) in form of pottery remains belonging to Triangular Incized Ware (TIW) were recovered. These findings denote to the Early Phase of East African Iron Working, almost 3,000 years ago. In Kiembe Samaki, archaeological remains belonging to TIW were accidentally

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recovered. In addition, there were previously estates (for cloves, coconuts and cloves) in such places as Mpendae, Sebuleni and Mwanakwerekwe. People lived and worked on these estates and as such there is a large possibility for the survival of archaeological objects. In Kilimani there are ruins and the first Anglican church to be built in Zanzibar. In Maruhubi, there are ruins for the sultanate and are protected by law.

Without proper mitigation measures being implemented both before and during construction works, such finite unrewable culural heritage resources may be lost. Loss would mean denial and/or loss of history of the area and country as a whole. The Stone Town area was a satelite area and is currently a UNESCO World Heritage Site with museums, monumnets and various other culturally significant sites and buildings. Additional recovery of archaeological objects and their eventual proper interpretations would add value to such already protected, preserved and conserved cultural heritage resources.

There could be a possibility of creating positive impacts by controlling flooding and creating happiness for people residing in the project area. Such a measure would create a long-term positive impact. The project would also create employment to people, some on permanent basis, while others will be employed temporarily.

Negative impacts may be viewed a low in built up areas as a result of the archaeological materials having already benn destroyed and/or lost. The few remaining materials would be impacted by secondary and/or short-term negative impacts. Once lost, archaeological materials can be classified as irreversible or non-rewable/non-replaced/non-recovered. If human remains are uncovered in previously unidentified burial grounds by construction activities, operations need to cease immediately and the relevant authorities contacted.

The desired project should encourage the involvement of local archaeologists in order for them to recover or salvage any archaeological materials that may be exposed during construction works. In addition, the aim of cultural awareness creation and education regarding the environment and cultural resources should be encouraged.

In conclusion, the negative impacts of the project are far outweighed by the positive impacts. However, various mitigation measures, such as the involvement of archaeologists to recover any archaeological or cultural material that may be unearthed during construction, need to be implemented.

5.0 Consideration of Alternatives and Mitigation Measures Including Commitment to Mitigation

Different mitigation measures have to be followed for the various types of heritage resources that may be affected by the proposed project. Mitigation measures for various types and ranges of heritage resources are usually conducted by specialists qualified in various disciplines.

If archaeological objects are exposed during construction, experts fom Department of Archives, Museums and Antiquities should be notified immediately. Such experts may undertake assessments and determine the steps that need to be taken in order to ensure the preservation of

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the archaeological object. Should the extent of archaeological material being uncovered be substantial, a realignment of infrastructure for that particular area should be looked into. The newly assessed alignment should involve test excavations before undertaking any construction works. Alternatively, if the archaeological material being unearthed is minimal, a salvage recovery plan should be implemented and all artifacts safely removed or adhered to, following on from which construction works can continue.

Other best practices should include to commission experts from the Department of Archives, Museums and Antiquities to walk the designated path/route so as too undertake test excavations at several spots. This will involve them carrying out transects along the proposed project alignment.

In other instances, during the construction phase, experts (archaeologists) from the Department of Archives, Museums and Antiquities could undertake monitoring of construction works so as to salvage any archaeological materials that may be exposed.

Graveyards can also be exhumed and relocated. The exhumation of human remains and the relocation of graveyards are regulated by various laws, regulations and administrative procedures. This task is undertaken by forensic archaeologists or by reputed undertakers who are acquainted with all the administrative procedures and relevant legislation that have to be adhered to whenever human remains are exhumed and relocated. Permission for the exhumation and relocation of human remains have to be obtained from the descendants of the deceased (if known), the various authorities and the local police.

In conclusion, the negative impacts of the project are far outweighed by the positive impacts. However, various mitigation measures, such as the involvement of archaeologists to recover any archaeological or cultural material that may be unearthed during construction, need to be implemented. There should be a good linkage between construction workers, ZMC and finally, custodians of cultural objects, the Department of Archives, Museums and Antiquities.

6.0 Environmental Management Plan, Monitoring and Auditing Program Experts should undertake test excavations along the route alignment and end points/outfalls. The experts should follow a transect, testing samples at abritrary 50m intervals.. Excaavated soil should be sieved in a screen wire mesh of 0.5 millimetres diameter, and all recovered cultural objects cleaned, identified and catalogued. Find spots should be fully documented, with GPS coordinates indicated, and objects should be properly curated after interpretations. The size of find spot and quantinty of archaeological material excavated will determine if construction activities should proceed, or if re-alignment options need to be explored. If uncertain, further expert opinions should be sought for immediately. , The construction team should work closely alongside the Department of Archives, Museums and Antiquities, who will be responsible for all archaeological assessment during the

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construction phase. Archaeologists should be informed of any achaeological findings before construction work begins. : Archaeological equipment required will include the following:

• Trowells; • Global positioning system; • Sieves; • Sand fill containers; • Storage bags for artifacts; • documentation equipment such as camera..

Topographic maps and aerial photographs would be required in order to assist in reconnaissance works and to indicate find spots of exposed archaeological materials. Also a transit should be taken so as to use if a find spot would need mapping and thus, relocate the route so that further archaeological works could be done properly. An audit should be conducted by the Department of Archives, Museums and Antiquities in collaboration with the Department of Environment. Local authorities should be notified of such finds from grass roots level to the top municipal administration. All such moves would help in executing salvage works, envrionment conservation, cultural heritage protection and pertinent auditing. 7.0 Conclusions and Recommendations The project may have negative impacts like the posibility to uncover cultural resources in form of archaeological objects. Some places would be developed as discharge areas at some places, for example, at Saateni, River Upepo, Maruhubi and other areas as disclosed by an official from the Division of Watse Water and Waste Management. Thus, some archaeological objects may be destroyed, trampled while excavating trenches for the storm water drains or may be dumped elsewhere close or far from their original places. Some may even be destroyed completely beyond recovery. Also as long as people used the harbour and other landing sites along the sea shore, there are under water archaeological resources. Discharging effluents to the planned sites along the sea shore means construction works and thus, destruction of the same. There should be measures to involve people from project start up to end. Such involvement should embrace the following: sensitize, create awareness and educate people about environment and protection of cultural heritage resources. Such a measure should include project participants from various establishments and levels as key players/partners to the project. The Department of Archives, Museums and Antiquities should be given the lead task/role in the name of cultural heritage conservation, while other players in their specailized areas should do the same but as a team. Suh a measure can be helpful at diverse capacities in terms of envisaged ZUSP projects.

As long as there are many houses constructed to cater for inhabitants, whether or not in heavily populated areas, there was some destruction together with loss of archaeological materials. Even in the Stone Town area, a recent harbour facelift that is almost 75% complete never involved cultural impact assessments. Like in housing development works, no Cultural Heritage Impact Assessment was done before such developments.

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The project area includes monuments, light houses (used in ancient times) and archaeological artefacts. For example, close to Upepo River, archaeological objects in form of pottery remains belonging to Triangular Incized Ware (TIW) were once accidentally recovered. They denote to the Early Phase of East African Iron Working, almost 3,000 years before present. Similar archaeological artifacts were recovered at Kiembe Samaki. Also there were estates (for cloves, coconuts and cloves) in old times at such places as Mpendae, Sebuleni and Mwanakwerekwe. Thus, people lived and worked in those areas such that there is a great possibility of recovering archaeological objects. At Kilimani there are ruins and the first Anglican church. At Maruhubi there are ruins for the sultanate. Without proper mitigation measures before construction works, such finite unrewable culural heritage resources may be lost. Loss would mean denial and/or loss of history of the area and country as a whole. Afterall, the Stone Town area was a satelite area and is a World Heritage Site with some museums. Additional recovery of archaeological objects and their eventual proper interpretations would add value to such already protected, preserved and conserved cultural hritage resources. There could be a possibility of creating positive impacts by cotrolling floods and create happy and safe dwelling in the project area. Such measure would create a positive impact for a long-term. The project would create employment to people, some on permanent basis, while other wil be employed temporarily. Also, such envisaged developments would cause negative impacts if cultural resources, especially in big numbers would be destroyed and/or lost by any means. But negative impacts may be minimal in already built environments because they may have already destroyed and/or caused loss of the same. The few remaining materials would cause secondary and/or short-term negative impacts. But the problem is that once lost, they are irreversible or non-rewable/non-replaced/non-recovered. The only worry could be if they recover human remains in possibly once burial grounds that were not designated like by the time people had not started to bury their dead. Discharge of materials could cause some health hazards if unchecked properly. Such construction woks should be healthy friendly, curbing soil and water pollution so that humans should not be affected with water borne diseases. Likewise, discharge to the ocean should not destroy biological organisms, especially at fish landing sites that may cause contamination and thus, lead to diseases caught by fish at such places. The desired project should involve archaeologists so that they can recover or salvage archaeological materials that may be exposed during construction works. Also there should be team work with the aim of undertaking sensitization, awareness creation and education about environment and cultural resources. The project outweighs negative impacts such that there should be great consideration in carrying out the planned works. However, mitigation measures require calling upon archaeologists so as to salvage any archaeological or cultural material that may be recovered. Furthermore, proper

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project execution would limit soil and water pollution such that water borne diseases that are affecting people would be greatly controlled. References Chami, F. (ed) 2009 Zanzibar and the Swahili Coast From c. 30,000 Years Ago. Dar es Salaam: E & D Vision Publishing Siravo, F. 1996 Zanzibar: A Plan for Historic Stone Town: Geneva: The Aga Khan Trust for Culture Lange, Glenn-Marie and N. Jiddawi 2008 ``Marin Conservation: How Economic Valuation of Ecosystem Services Can Help.``Environment: Matters at the World Bank: 10-13. ZRG 2004 State of Environment Report. Zanzibar: Department of Environment ZRG n.d. Zanzibar Investment Policy. Zanzibar. ZRG 1992 National Environmental Policy. Zanzibar: Commission for Lands and Environment.

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APPENDICES Appendix I: Map

FIGURE 1 MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF PROPOSED ZUSP PROJECT

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Appendix II: Photographs

Figure 2 Sign Board for Zanzibar Stone Town World Heritage Site at Mbuyuni

Figures 3a Ancient Buildings in Zanzibar Stone Town