12 - emotions in organisation an integral perspective.pdf

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256 Int. J. Work Organisation and Emotion, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2008

Copyright 2008 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective

Wendelin Kpers

Department of Management and International Business,

Massey University, Auckland Campus, New Zealand

E-mail: [email protected]

*Corresponding author

Jrgen Weibler

Business Administration, Leadership, and Organisation,University of Hagen, Profilstr. 8 - D-58084 Hagen, Germany

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract: The main purpose of this paper is to outline the state-of-the-artof research on emotion in organisations and to provide perspectives on anintegral orientation and research approach. On the basis of an extendedunderstanding of emotions, reasons for the neglect of emotions and some maininfluences of emotions in organisations and research findings are presented.An integral framework is then proposed, which allows a more comprehensiveunderstanding by covering various interdependent dimensions of emotions inorganisations. Following this, there is a discussion of the theoretical andmethodological implications and future directions for more integral research onemotion in organisations.

Keywords: feelings;emotion; organisation; integral perspectives.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Kpers, W. and Weibler, J.(2008) Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective, Int. J. WorkOrganisation and Emotion, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp.256287.

Biographical notes: Wendelin Kpers works as Senior Lecturer and SeniorResearcher at the Department of Management and International Business,Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand. Before he as been affiliated to theChair of Business Administration, Leadership, and Organisation at theUniversity in Hagen, Germany and the Institute for Leadership andHuman Resource Management at the University of St. Gallen, Switzerland.He received his PHD from the University of Witten/Herdecke, Germany.In his research he focuses on integral leadership and followership, as well asemotional and aesthetic dimensions as well as issues related to knowledge and

learning in organisations.

Jrgen Weibler, PhD, is Full Professor of Business Administration, Leadershipand Organisation at the University of Hagen (FernUniversitt in Hagen),Germany. For many years he was the Research Director of the Institute forLeadership and Human Resource Management at the University of St. Gallen,Switzerland, and was later Professor for Management at the Universityof Constance, Germany, as well a Guest Professor at MGSM, Sydney. He isco-editor of the German Journal of Human Resource Research. Besideshe served as a consultant to numerous organisations. In his research he focuseson leadership, organisational change, and ethics in organisations.


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Emotions in organisation: an integral perspective 257

1 Introduction

Do organisations have real feelings (Albrow, 1997; van Maanen and Kunda, 1989)?How relevant are they, and why have emotional dimensions in organisational theory and

practice been neglected? What are the main findings and can a more integralunderstanding of feelings and emotions be developed? By responding to these questions,this paper interprets organisations as specific emotional life-worlds in the currentcontext.

At present, organisations are being challenged by increased competition andtechnological developments, exponential innovations and the acceleration of variousdiscontinuous change processes, which all affect feelings and relate to emotionaldimensions in organisations. Transformation endeavours involving downsizing,delayering and layoffs create new emotional exigencies and require more effective

actions and flexibility on the part of all members of the organisation. Moreover, anincreasing set of organisational and managerial tasks requires the expression andregulation or management of particular feelings across multiple circumstances.For organisations, it is becoming imperative to promote those emotions that will helpcreate and maintain effective, efficient and productive organisational functioning in asustainable way, as well as regulating and managing problematic emotions. Furthermore,emotions represent valuable resources for generating innovation and added value in anincreasingly competitive market context.

Given this reality and significance, organisational practice and correspondingstudies need to understand the actual influence and potential of emotions. However, incontrast to their apparent importance, for a long time organisation and managementresearch did not consider the vital role of feelings and emotions sufficiently. On thecontrary, for various reasons as outlined in the followingemotional dimensions have

been neglected topics in organisational studies and in economic research in general(Kpers and Weibler, 2005).

Currently, a growing body of literature is investigating the role of emotions incausing, moderating or mediating events and interactions in organisations, as well asemotional outcomes for an assortment of organisational phenomena (e.g., Ashkanasy,2004; Fineman, 2000, 2003). Increasingly, researchers are attempting to integrate insightsfrom divergent perspectives and are using the lens of emotions to re-examine differentaspects of organisational life (Stanley and Burrows, 2001; Barley and Kunda, 1992).Even economists are increasingly recognising the importance of emotion in humaneconomic behaviour (Elster, 1998; Loewenstein, 2000; Thaler, 2000; Bowles andGintis, 2002; Gchter and Fehr, 2001).1

With this broadening of scope, there is a growing recognition of how all-important

emotional factors are in making and sustaining connections between people, communitiesand organisational and management settings. Rather than conceiving the workplaceas merely a cold, rational machine, researchers are taking emotional processes andimpacts as an integral element of organisational life into account (Fineman, 2000;Giardini and Frese, 2004; Schreygg and Sydow, 2001). This renewed interest inresearch shows that understanding organisations in the context of the real world withall the associated constraints, pressing needs and conflicts requires studying the role ofemotions more systematically.

Nevertheless, the issue of researching emotion in organisation studies poses particulardifficulties for methodological and epistemological and for moralpolitical concerns


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258 W. Kpers and J. Weibler

(Fineman, 2005; Sturdy, 2003). The comparative novelty of emotion research combined

with its multidimensional character opens up not only theoretical challenges, but alsotremendous possibilities, including even a reconciliatory potential (Sturdy, 2003, p.83;Burkitt, 1997, p.37). Accordingly, emotion research is not simply concerned with anempirical filling-in of organisation studies, but can contribute to broader theoreticaldevelopments. In view of the deficits and neglect of methodological issues in researchingemotions in organisations, alternative research approaches and multi-dimensional andintegrative ways of looking at emotions are urgently demanded (Sturdy, 2003, p.95).

On the basis of a conceptual overview, the objective of this paper is to contribute toan integral understanding of emotional phenomena in organisations. After outlining anextended understanding of feelings and emotion, we analyse reasons for why researchershave hitherto neglected emotions and summarise some main findings gained in recentresearch on emotions in specific fields. Following this, we then propose an integral

framework that incorporates individual and collective emotional dimensions morecomprehensively. Finally, we discuss some theoretical and methodological implicationsand open perspectives for a more integral emotion research.

1.1 Understanding emotions

Over time, philosophers have pondered on the relation between emotion and humanreason and action (Hatzimoysis, 2003). Recently, the phenomena of emotions have beenexplored by several very different disciplines, including biology, psychoanalysis,cognitive and social psychology, sociology, neuroscience and behavioural science andeconomics. The level of understanding and analysis attained in this research has variedaccording to the perspectives from which emotions are investigated. Accordingly, variousapproaches, theories and concepts investigate different aspects of emotions and emotionaldimensions. The fact that emotions are studied by such a broad range of disciplinesitself indicates that they are multi-faceted and not easily understood. Not being amonolithic phenomenon, emotions are a manifold, complex event, eluding simplescientific comprehension and treatment (Burkitt, 1997, 1999; Ekman and Davidson,1994; Elster, 1999; Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981; Le Doux, 1996).

Basically, feeling and emotion may occur on different levels; they can be bothintra-personal and interactive states and process. Furthermore, emotional experiencescannot be separated from cognitive, symbolising and action-oriented processes. Beingmore than processed information, bio-chemicalneuronal mechanisms or affective

behavioural reactions, they are varied structures and processes of human day-to-dayfunctioning. Because emotions are active ways of organising experience, they not onlyconnect with, but also perpetually constitute their objects, although in different ways

with different persons, and very often in very ambivalent ways (see Section 3.3).Consequently, emotions and emotional experiences themselves are never finishedentities, but are in a continuous process (Barbalet, 1998). This dynamic character ofemotional experience explains why it is so difficult to come up with a definitionof emotions. Instead of essentialising notions, it is more productive to view emotions asdynamic process and communicative events that mediate body, mind, social and culturalrelations. According to Burkitt (1997), emotions can be viewed not simply as thingsor mere expressions of inner processes, but as multi-dimensional complexes ormodes of communication. As such, they are both embodied and socio-cultural, arisingin interpersonal relationships of power and interdependence (Burkitt, 1997, p.37;


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Bendelow and Williams, 1998, p.137). According to this relational approach, emotions

are co-constituted by various factors and relationships that can be understood as anetwork of ongoing processes of meaning, identity formation and sharing, as well asdirecting and energising activity (George and Brief, 1992).

1.2 Embodied and social emotions

One central attribute of emotions is that they are directed towards or engaged withthe world in a moving way. The very word emotion is derived from the Latin,e-movere, e-motum, (e = out, + movere = to move). Thus, e-motion basically meansto move out. This etymological kinaesthetic understanding refers directly to the factthat to experience an emotion is to engage in and bodily enact intentional and expressiverelations with the world. In contrast to moods, as a more passive situated state-of-mind

(Morris, 1989), emotions can be considered to be embodied dynamic dispositions for, andrealisations of, intentions, enacted in various ways of expressions and actions.In addition to body-based personal feelings (Mazis, 1993) encompassing

subjectively felt sensation emotions refer to interactive relations within socialinteractions (Kpers and Weibler, 2005). Thus, emotions are brought into play by theactions of others, and as such they influence and are influenced by interpersonalrelationships and social situations (de Rivera, 1984; Ekman, 1984; Frijda and Mesquita,1994; Waldron, 2000).

1.3 Basic functions of emotions

Functionally, emotions coordinate structure and regulate human perception andunderstanding of events, other people and the world in general (Frijda et al., 2000).They inform us about our social surroundings and concomitant attitudes and expectations,as well as about possible actions. In particular, emotions cause us to direct and adjust ourlevel of attention selectively. That is, they make us more or less likely to pursue specificcourses of action (tendencies) or to engage in specific behaviours. These behaviours andtheir consequences then affect the relationships we have with others, as others will reactaccording to the signals they receive (Frijda and Mesquita, 1994). Therefore, emotionsare not only prime motivators of human action, but also aid, and are media for, personaland social orientations and practices. For example, the expressive characteristics ofemotion in voice, face, gesture and posture serve as an important signalling function incommunicating emotional states to others.

With all its various impacts, emotional processes not only influence thoughts, beliefs,actions and social relations, they cannot be separated from them (Frijda et al., 2000).

Moreover, emotions are products of the way social systems of meaning are created andnegotiated between people (Fineman, 2000, p.2). Furthermore, emotional processes canalso be interpreted as evaluative activities (de Sousa, 1987) or better, as a web ofconstitutive judgements through which things appear in a certain way (Solomon, 2003).This evaluative function helps people find, create and employ appropriate strategies,e.g., of deciding and acting (Solomon, 1980; Solomon and Calhoun, 1984). Through thisevaluative orientation, emotions facilitate inferences about the consequences associatedwith alternative courses of action. Moreover, in addition to automatic effective responses,emotion influences behaviour as a diagnostic feedback system that may be useful for


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sophisticated goal pursuit and learning to behave effectively in complex social and

cultural situations (Baumeister et al., 2007).Given the various functions and qualities of emotions discussed above, researchers

have converged on a definition of emotions as phenomena involving different subsystemsand complex components of functioning (Frijda, 1994; Izard, 1991), grouped as multi-component patterns of appraisals and emotion families (Scherer, 1984, 1994, 2000). Assuch, they are of utmost relevance for human existence, in general, and in anorganisational context, in particular.

2 Neglect and disregard of emotions in organisations

Organisations are sites of joy, satisfaction and pleasure, as they are life-worlds of anger,

dissatisfaction and worry. Members of organisations can be anxious because of workproblems or because of a fear of being made redundant, frustrated by perceived injustice,ashamed of their behaviour or envious of the success of colleagues. But, they can also beexcited by the prospect of a challenging project, content with the outcome of an appraisalinterview or happy due to honest praise of colleagues or managers. Much of ourindividual and social life in organisations is emotional as well, as organisationsare co-constituted and influenced by emotional dimensions. Vibrating as they dowith intense processes of experienced emotions, organisations are a kind of emotionalarena, providing a stage for a broad range of feelings and passions (Ashforth andHumphrey, 1995). Even more, emotions do not just have an impact on social life inorganisations: they co-constitute and are interdependent with the organisational lifeitself, i.e., co-determining and being determined by organisational order and culture(van Maanen and Kunda, 1989).

Given the impact that emotions have on organisational life, why have they beenlargely neglected and ignored in organisational studies until recently? Fineman (1993)argues that scholars and researchers have failed to examine the interaction betweenemotions and organisations for four reasons: First, because researchers wanted toseparate conceptions of people from those of organisations, second, because theywanted to reify organisations, third, because it was seen as important to separate

processes of rationality from those of emotion, and fourth, because they wantedto suppress, deny or minimise emotions (Fineman, 1993, p.180). One of the mainreasons why emotions have been neglected is that they challenge the myth of rationality

prevailing in economic reasoning and acting (Putnam and Mumby, 1993). Emotionsrepresent the other; the opposite side of the rational. This dualistic orientation isdeep-rooted in Western thinking, which has a tendency to conceive of ideas in a

polarised, adversarial fashion. Just as Western thought conceives of dualities betweenculture and nature, mind and body, male and female, objective and subjective, or orderand disorder, public and private (to name but a few), it conceives emotionality asdiametrically opposed to rationality. The two concepts are divorced and thought of as

being yet another pair of binary opposites (Albrow, 1997; Parkin, 1993). Accordingly,irrational emotions are seen as opposed to rational organisations; a dualism that also

prevails in conventional understanding in organisation research and practice. Rationalityhas been (and is still) revered because it involves objectivity and cognition, which aretaken as features of masculinity, in contrast to emotionality, which is characterised bysubjectivity, chaos and bodily drives, all of which are taken as feminine and negative.


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Thus, emotions have been and are still seen as disruptive (Oatley and Johnson-Laird,

1987, p.30) or as a barrier to rational and effective organisation and management(Ashforth and Humphrey, 1995). Owing to a bias towards rationality, many researchinvestigations disregarded concrete emotional processes or approached them asreductionalists. For example, investigating cognitively based cold, rather than hotemotional processes has been predominant in scholarly understandings of workmotivation (Forgas and George, 2001) or organisational behaviour (Brief and Weiss,2002b; Barsade et al., 2003). Consequently, emotions have been consistentlymarginalised or devalued as illegitimate or inappropriate to organisational life(Putman and Mumby, 1993, p.39). Moreover, they have been seen as a threatening orunwanted influence, deflecting objective and rational functioning in the economyand organisations, seen mechanistically as a machine. Max Weber, for example, writingabout the bureaucratic mode of organising as part of modern rationalisation, described

organisation as something that systematically eliminates from official business love,hatred and all personal irrational elements (Weber, 1968, p.973).Correspondingly, emotions have been evaluated as incalculable and irrational

and as unruly, undesirable, hence as something that needs to be contained or controlledand managed in the workplace to reduce unpredictability and ensure rationality andorder (Fulop and Linstead, 1999). Accordingly, feelings and emotions collide withthe underlying paradigms of modern economic theory. Specifically, they conflict withthe idea of man as homo oeconomicus, that is acting merely in accordance with theeconomic principles of rationality and instrumental reason; disregarding homo sentiens(Archer, 2000) and eliding emotional man (Flam, 1990).

Consequently, scientific theorising has ignored for a long time the role ofemotions in organisations as a subject unsuitable for rigorous research (Ashforth andHumphrey, 1995). Following a one-sided cognitive bias and focus on performance,output or efficiency, emotions have not been considered systematically in studies of

business administration.With only a few exceptions (e.g., Schreygg and Sydow, 2001; Kpers and

Weibler, 2005), emotions have not been investigated as a genuine topic in traditionaleconomic business administration thinking and organisational studies. However, tooverlook or underestimate the influences of situated emotions e.g., on work andmotivation is to miss important experiential dimensions of organisational life that arerequired in order to thrive (George and Brief, 1996; Seo et al., 2004; Rafaeli, 2001).

3 Impact and different influences of emotions in organisations

The essential role of feelings and emotions is related to the fact that they in fact inform,shape, and reflect the life of organisations in various ways. Importantly, feelings andemotions influence the way members of organisations perceive, interpret, control andevaluate their own and shared states and actions (Waldron, 1994, 2000). Accordingly,there are various positive and negative influences and effects that emotions exert onrelevant organisational processes as summarised in the example in the Appendix.


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Moreover, emotions affect organisations at all levels and in all spheres, including the

organisations external relations. For example, the degree to which members of anorganisation are free to express or are pressured to suppress their emotions influencesthe quality of the work and life that goes on in the organisation and in all contacts withrelevant customers and stakeholders. Furthermore, dysfunctional emotional reactions aswell as emotional dissonances and conflicts may lead to tremendous limitations of

performances and can cause various direct and indirect shortcomings and costs for theindividual, the group and the entire organisation (Ostell, 1996, p.552). In view of theseimpacts, there is an urgent need to incorporate emotional dimensions into theorising andempirical investigations of organisational realities.

Among other research endeavours, recent insights of neuroscientific research(e.g., Damasio, 1999; Le Doux, 1996) have helped to counteract the long-standing

bias against studying emotions in organisations. In particular, neuroscience and

neuro-economics enhanced the knowledge about the role of embodied and socio-culturalinfluences of emotion in the workplace (Carter, 2005). Likewise, developments in thesociology of emotions (Turner and Stets, 2005) and social science research on emotions(e.g., Williams, 2001) have shown the relevance of emotionality in organisations.Emotions are no longer regarded as a cumbersome by-product of organised activity(Fayol, 1949), but as a resource to be harnessed to the emerging roles of emotions inworking life (Fisher and Ashkanasy, 2000). Consequently, they are increasingly valued asa means of engendering employee commitment and gaining competitive advantage(Barley and Kunda, 1992). Now that the climate for research into emotions and theorganisation has become more favourable, more scholars have taken up the topic,clearing the way for organisational research on emotions, growing into a vital part of thediscipline, generating important insights and findings.

4 Some findings of studies about emotions in organisations

In the following, some of the main findings and research streams concerning the relationbetween emotion and various organisational phenomena are presented and discussed.With historical hindsight, Brief and Weiss (2002a) note that the study of effect in theworkplace became widespread once it emerged as a legitimate area of enquiry in the early1930s. However, soon after its emergence, it narrowed to an almost exclusive focus onstress (Schuler, 1980) or job satisfaction (Weiss and Brief, 2001) and commitment(Locke, 1976). Treating emotion as a dependent variable, researchers focused mainly onthe nuisance role of effect and simple assessments of positive or negative states,and failed to examine the possible substantive roles of discrete emotions (Brief and

Weiss, 2002a). This negligence may also be due to over-reliance on cognitive appraisaland a corresponding oversight of its emotional elements (Fisher, 2000).

Today, distinctive streams of research study the expression, exploitation andmanagement of feelings and emotions (e.g., Martin et al., 2000; Morris and Feldman,1996, 1997; Rafaeli and Sutton, 1990; Schaubroeck and Jones, 2000; van Maanen andKunda, 1989).

One primary focus of research has been the relationship between emotion andperformance in an individual, between people and in groups (Ashkanasy, 2004; Fisherand Noble, 2004; Pekrun and Frese, 1992). Thus, emotions are significant, since theyinfluence the performance of employees on an individual as well as on a collective level


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(Ashkanasy, 2003). Research examining the relationship between workers interest in a

task or skills and the effort they put into it show real-time correlations betweenmomentary performance and emotions while working (Fisher and Noble, 2004).It has been shown, in particular, that effect influences creative performance at work(James et al., 2004). However, those emotions that trigger and support or constrain andimpede performance are highly situation-dependent, requiring deliberate attention anddiscretion. As a consequence, there have been several studies of the relationship betweeneffective disposition and individual and social performance (e.g., Cropanzano et al.,1993; Staw and Barsade, 1993; Staw et al., 1986). Furthermore, various studies have triedto explain the antecedents of momentary effective experiences and their consequences forthe organisation (e.g., Brockner and Higgins, 2001; Elsbach and Barr, 1999; Forgas andGeorge, 2001; George and Brief, 1996; Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996; Weiss et al., 1999).

Emotions also play influential roles in the process of motivation and demotivation

(Wunderer and Kpers, 2003). Furthermore, they are important factors in the sense ofcommitment and organisational citizenship of members of the organisation, in theirconsequent behaviour and in negotiation outcomes (Briner, 1999a, 1999b). In addition,volitional and attributional processes and flow are co-determined by emotions, as is thelevel ofstress and conflict in organisations (Kpers and Weibler, 2005).

One of the most important areas of contemporary research is the relation betweenemotions and organisational change and transformation (Huy, 2002; Kiefer, 2002;Mossholder et al., 2000; Vince and Broussine, 1996). Emotions are an especiallystrong force during change in particular, emotions relating to job insecurity andlayoffs (Brockner et al., 1992), downsizing (Paterson and Hrtel, 2002) and resistance(Bovey and Hede, 2001; Dent and Galloway-Goldberg, 1999; Ford et al., 2002;Piderit, 2000). Employees ambivalence towards management change initiatives is oftenlinked to conflict during change and associated with negative outcomes such as jobdissatisfaction and grievances (Kirkman et al., 2000) or loss of energy (Bruch andGhoshal, 2003). Although change can be perceived as a challenge or an opportunity andmay stimulate positive emotions such as excitement, enthusiasm (Goleman et al., 2002),it is more often experienced as threatening, creating negative feelings such as anger, fear,anxiety, cynicism, resentment and withdrawal (French, 2001).

Other research has examined the relation between emotions and knowledgemanagement (Kpers, 2005a; Spender, 2003) and organisational learning (Tran, 1998;Vince, 2002). Correspondingly, links have been made between positive emotionalstates based on trust and team learning, innovation and creative problem-solving(de Dreu et al., 2001). Furthermore, the role of emotions and emotional climate inemployee creativity and creative performance has been studied (Amabile et al., 2005;Fong, 2006; Higgins et al., 1992; James et al., 2004; Prince, 2003).

4.1 The importance of emotional labour

One of the most studied areas of research concerns emotions as part of working life thatis emotional labour. It can be defined as a form of emotional regulation in whichworkers are expected to display certain emotions as part of their job and to promoteorganisational goals. The effects of emotional displays are on other target people whocan be clients, customers, subordinates or co-workers (Grandey, 2000). Research hasfound that peoples complex, dynamic and interactive work feelings emerge alongsidethoughts as a form of activity while working, rather than being imposed by instrumental


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goals and bureaucratic pseudo-rationality (Hirschhorn, 1988; Hochschild, 1983; Mumby

and Putnam, 1992; Sandelands, 1988). Emergent work feelings give people the power tonegotiate the meaning of various identities (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1993), roles andrelationships, rather than merely conforming to predetermined rules or prescribed norms(Wharton, 1993; Wharton and Erickson, 1993). Taking into account other roles in life andthe psychodynamic context (Carr, 1999; James, 1989; Fineman, 1993; Wharton andErickson, 1993), or informal realms of a division of emotional labour (James, 1993;Hochschild, 1983), furnishes an extension of the concept of work-feelings. However,emotions are appraised and displayed during emotional labour, for example, bydisciplining feeling rules and expression rules, which are often violating life-worldvalues (Alvesson and Willmott, 1996, p.107) and appropriating emotions. As implicitemotional norms,feeling-rulesspecify the range, intensity, duration and object of privateemotion that should be experienced. Being institutionalised in organisationally sanctioned

scripts (Humphrey and Ashforth, 1994) and through neutralising, buffering, prescribingand normalising the felt experience and its expression, emotions are often compelled toconform to the norms of rationality (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1993, p.109).

Such organisational control of emotions can lead to the suppression of feelingsduring interactions, resulting in emotional dissonance, altered relational perceptions,changed communication patterns and various negative and counter-productive effects(Hochschild, 1983; Rafaeli and Sutton, 1987), personal and work-related maladjustmentand physical and psychological dysfunction (King and Emmons, 1990), includingstress, demotivation and burnout. For instance, the often indoctrinating requests byservice companies that call for friendly treatment of customers (conveyed via sloganssuch as the customer is king or service with a smile) can be a questionable wayof dealing with people as a form of symbolic violence (Tracy, 2000; Schweingruber andBerns, 2005).

However, other researches have found that personalised role enactment andemotional interpersonal role-making can contribute to a more satisfying self-expressivesense of personal accomplishment (Zapf et al., 1999, p.396) or performance game ofmutual winners (Wouters, 1989), thus enhancing the work experience as well (Shuler andSypher, 2000). Accordingly, emotional labour is a Janus-faced reality, as it can have both

positive and negative effects or outcomes (Rafaeli and Sutton, 1989; Tolich, 1993; Zapfand Holz, 2006) for both the actor and the target. This means that emotion work is not perse either positive or negative; rather, the display of emotion and sensitivity requirementsare related not only to emotional exhaustion, but also to successful organisational

performance. What appears to be crucial, besides adequate emotion management(Zerbe et al., 2006), are ways to mitigate the negative effects and support the positiveeffects of emotional labour, e.g., positive identification with work (Karabanow, 1999) or

social support (Abraham, 1998). The challenge for emotional work appears to be to catchthe emotional fire without burning it (Kruml and Geddes, 2000).

4.2 Emotional intelligence and links to leadership

Emotional intelligence in relation to the workplace and its effects on individuals, teamsand organisational performance has also been increasingly investigated (e.g., Goleman,1996, 1998; Goleman et al., 2002; Huy, 1999; Weisinger, 1998; Offermann et al., 2004).


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However, the concept of emotional intelligence and its applications for organisation has

also been criticised for being problematically defined and poorly measured and its claimsoverblown (e.g., Fineman, 2006; Landy, 2005; Locke, 2005; Murphy, 2006;Rastetter, 2005). Promising are approaches that investigate the emotional intelligence ofgroups (Druskat and Wolff, 2006) and emotional capability, referring to theorganisational ability to acknowledge, recognise and regulate emotions on both theindividual and collective levels (Gross, 1998; Huy, 1999; Reus and Liu, 2004).

Researchers in the field of leadership and management studies have becomeinterested not only in examining the importance of positive effect for leadership(Ashkanasy and Tse, 2000; Frost, 2003; George, 2000), but also in learning how leadersmanage both their own emotions and those of others (Erickson, 1997; Francis, 1994;Lively, 2000; Mizuno et al., 1994; Thoits, 1996). Leaders who are adept atemotion management (Bolton, 2005) engender power through mobilising and directing

emotions. In other words, they influence emotional expression towards personalisedmanageremployee relationships (Freund, 1998). Conversely, managerial acting andjudging is influenced by emotions in various ways (Park et al., 1986). For example,emotions serve to lubricate or empoison decision-making processes (Maitlis and zelik2004), making even impossible decisions possible by helping to prioritise, ease dilemmasand cueing or interpenetrating mental processes (Fineman, 2000). The link betweencharisma, positive emotions and mood contagion has also been explored (Bono and Ilies,2006). Empirical research has additionally explored how the experience, display andinterpretation of emotion drives or counteracts strategising (Brundin and Melin, 2006).The scope of this paper does not allow us to give details of further findings and themultiplicity of interrelated findings. However, what will be important is to develop aheuristic with which the various findings can be collated. But before we outline the basicideas of a corresponding integral framework, we first need to discuss the ambivalence ofemotions.

4.3 Ambivalence of emotions

A further overarching characteristic of emotions refers to its ambivalence inorganisational settings. As Weiss and Cropanzano (1996) argued, workplace experiencescomprise a succession of work events that can be pleasing and invigorating, or stressfuland frustrating. Because the effect of emotions may be either advantageous ordisadvantageous, their role in the organisation also may be positive or negative(Pratt and Doucet, 2000). Positively, emotions can support a sense of belonging(Collins, 1990) or bring positive benefits, such as learning new interpersonal skills fromexperience. Positive emotions such as joy, pleasure and passion for ones work drive

individuals to action in ways that enhance their own self-worth while also benefitingorganisational goals (Palmer and Hardy, 2000). Moreover, the social sharing of positiveeffect generates various benefits (Barsade et al., 2003, p.19), e.g., mutual understandingand identity (Bosma and Kunnen, 2001) or cooperative behaviours of organisationalmembers (Isen and Baron, 1991).

On the other hand, emotions also carry the stereotype of causing people to behave infoolish, illogical and sometimes destructive ways. Negative affectivity (Watson andClark, 1984) or emotional dissonances (Abraham, 1998) display the encumbering sides ofemotions. Emotional problems affect the mental and physical health of employees,leading to distress and burnout (King and Emmons, 1990; Maslach and Leiter, 1997).


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In more extreme situations, negative emotional states can lead to oppositional practices

(Collinson, 1994) and organisational retaliatory or anti-citizenship behaviours.These dysfunctional, antisocial (Folger and Cropanzano, 1998; Giacalone andGreenberg, 1997), and recalcitrant behaviours include sabotage, absenteeism,disobedience and decreased productivity (Ackroyd and Thompson, 1999; Robinson andBennett, 1995, 1997). The decreased performance, climate of distrust, stifled innovationand reduced creativity render the organisation passive and debilitated, undermining the

best intentions and change initiatives, as well as incurring significant costs (Ostell, 1996).Furthermore, emotions can also be manipulated to serve vested interests or to

maintain power relations, and in doing so may maintain stifling or unhelpful ideologies(Cameron, 2000). In other words, emotions can be powerful agents of social control(Lewis, 1993; Scheff, 1990, 1997) and coercion in (micro-)political action withinomnipresent organisational micro-hierarchies (Clark, 1997). As a kind of productive

power, emotions and their management can thus become a key micro-politicalinstrument, used either to energise or de-energise (Downing, 1997). Negativeeffectivity (Watson and Clark, 1984) and dysfunctional emotional expressions and

behaviours can result in poor work performance and disturbed relations with colleagues.Additionally, emotions do not always lead to unidirectional effects. For example,disproportionately displayed pride about an achievement might elicit enviousness in othercolleagues (e.g., Lazarus and Cohen-Charash, 2004), or too much joy may actuallydistract people and hinder task completion (Parrot and Spackman, 2000). Contrary to thecommon belief that negative emotions tend to pull people apart, they can also draw themcloser together. For example, both group cohesion and respect increase when a groupfaces major dilemmas (Thompson et al., 1998). These ambivalences, and the variousresearch findings referred to above, indicate that recognising and dealing with thecomplex emotional processes present in organisations requires a more integratedunderstanding of emotions. Such integral orientation needs to frame the richness of singlefindings of conceptually disparate research and theoretically consolidate them for furtheradvancing emotion research in organisation and leadership studies.

5 Integral understanding of emotions and emotional dimensions

Methodologically, researchers have taken different conceptual approaches. For example,some have focused on a more individual-oriented psychodynamic exploration ofemotions at work (e.g., French and Vince, 1999; Hirschhorn, 1988; Hoggett, 1992;Kets de Vries and Miller, 1985; Obholzer and Roberts, 1994; Trist and Murray, 1990),while others have taken a more interpersonal and context-oriented position, often

based on a social-constructionist standpoint (e.g., Averill, 1980; Fineman, 1993, 2000;Harr, 1986; Hochschild, 1983). The first approach stresses the influence of unconsciousdynamics in emotional experience of the emotional self (Lupton, 1998), while the lattersees emotions as derivatives of social scripts, signs and scenarios; that is asintersubjective, a product of the way systems of meaning are created and negotiated

between people (Fineman, 2000, p.2). This influential approach takes emotions, peopleand organisations as social mediations and socially mediated (Hearn, 1993, p.148).Both individual-based and interpersonal orientations contribute to organisational

behaviour and processes, and hence both are important for understanding the emotionaldimensions in organisations and for specific fields and results of applied research.


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Although most organisation emotion research to date has focused at individual or group

level, approaches considering the organisational level are emerging, such as effectiveorganisational socialisation (Gibson, 1995) or emotional climate (zelik et al., 2001;Barbalet, 1995).

Levels of analysis in emotion research, therefore, vary according to the perspective onwhich emotions are investigated, either at individual, group, community or organisationallevels (Waldron, 2000). However, what is needed is to integrate different levels(Ashkanasy, 2003; Weiss, 2003) and constituencies of feelings and emotions into anintegral framework. The following outlines this kind of comprehensive conceptualisationof how emotions operate in organisations. An integral orientation helps to prevent fallinginto the pitfalls of reductive approaches, but covering the various complex fieldsof emotional dimensions in organisations. As any single perspective on emotions is likelyto be partial, limited and, perhaps, distorted, what is needed is a multi-paradigm and

multi-level analysis, and thus integral research. Correspondingly, the integral frameworkwe follow and put forward (Wilber, 1999, 2000a, 2000b) accommodates equally thesubjective, intersubjective and objective dimensions of emotions. By applying thisintegral framework, researchers develop multi-sided accounts that both depict diversityand complexity, as well as facilitating a more reflexive exploration of pluralism andambiguity and an inclusive understanding (Brocklesby, 1997; Lewis and Kelemen, 2002)of emotions in organisations. Based on the aforementioned holistic interpretation ofemotions, the integral framework differentiates and relates the interior and exteriordimensions of emotions as well as their individual and collective spheres and does thiswithin intentional, behavioural, cultural and systemic domains. A framework of this kindmakes it possible to assess and interpret the various aspects of emotions and theirinterplay within an organisation. With these dimensions, the integral framework positsfour quadrants representing four different perspectives:

1 interior agency, or self and consciousness: the I

2 exterior agency, or behaviour as enactment: the My, and individual It

3 interior communal, or culture: the We

4 exterior communal, or system: the Our, and collective It.

While the first quadrant (I) is concerned with the intra-personal realm that is a personsinternal reality of feelings, the second quadrant (II) is concerned with how peoplesfeelings are objectified in their action and performance. The third quadrant (III) dealswith internal group or collective emotional issues in relation within a shared communityand organisational culture; and the fourth quadrant (IV) covers the external collectiveaspects of emotions as a part of a systemic-structural realm. The interior quadrantslead to a subjective identity, but the exterior quadrants point to an objective identity pole.Figure 1 shows the multi-dimensional integral framework of individual feelings andcollective emotions in organisations.


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Figure 1 Multi-dimensional integral framework of individual feelings and collective

emotions in organisations (see online version for colours)

6 Specifics of the four quadrants

The first consciousness quadrant refers to individual internal aspects of feelings,encompassing subjectively felt sensation, emotional unconsciousness (Barsade et al.,

2003, p.26; Kihlstrom et al., 2000) and implicit knowing and memory, as well aspre-social levels of emotions (e.g., Hinshelwood and Skogstad, 2000; Gabriel andGriffits, 2002; Sievers, 2003). Furthermore, personal feelings as a personal resourceneed to be related to other inner faculties of the individual, such as cognition, intentions,volition, etc., and their interplay. The intra-personal or internal emotional reality oforganisational members implies an authentic relation to their own feelings. This meansthat they must develop the ability to be aware, acknowledging and sincere about fullrange of their own feelings and those of others without fear of reprisal. To do so,members need to project a sense of honesty, fairness, justice and respect for themselvesas well for those with whom they are dealing. Those who are insecure about their ownemotional capacity and identity will create organisational settings that tend to depriveothers of theirs. Therefore, all members consistently need to balance their emotional

needs and health with the needs of the organisation. Some researchers in the field oforganisation studies (Abraham, 1998) have shown that there is a significant correlationbetween emotional maturity, self-esteem and personal effectiveness.

The second behaviour quadrantrelates to the external matter/body and brain-relatedbase as well as to the enactment and expression of feelings. The dimensions involvedhere concern, in particular, emotional competencies (Goleman, 1998; Salovey andMayer, 1990) and expressed and manifested feelings in the nexus to external knowledge,

behavioural action, gestures and performance. Organisational members who are skilled inemotion competencies also recognise the impact of the timing, pacing and sequencing ofvarious actions, while they are also aware of different emotional styles, and are adaptable,


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lively and flexible. A corresponding emotion-management keeps emotional relations

and ways of expressing them open and prevents a gradual bottling-up of negativefeelings, which can hamper organisational functioning if it is unchecked. Also, adeliberate emotionally competent role modelling, teaching and coaching and consistentwalking their talk through the personal example of a leader can send a powerfulmessage to the other members of an organisation. As this sphere is related to the

behavioural realm, the emotional labour discussed above and the link to individualperformance marks another important field of application here.

In the third culture-quadrant, inter-subjective emotions relate to the varioussocio-cultural dimensions of shared emotions arising from the organisations culture,history, stories, unwritten beliefs and rules, values and worldviews. Here, emotions are

part of an inter-personal community that is constituted, developed, expressed andevaluated at a collective level within the culture of an organisation (Pizer and

Hrtel, 2005). In this inter-subjective quadrant, emotions represent a medium of socialcommunication (Wentworth and Ryan, 1994) in organisations, including, e.g., collectivenegotiation and joint decision processes and corresponding practices. Accordingly,emotions are here a product of a dynamic attributive relationship among members andwithin groups of an organisation. For example, solidarity related to power and statusinteraction is a form of emotional energy that is derived from (resonant) socialinteraction among group members (Collins, 1990; Hess and Kirouac, 2000; Kelly andBarsade, 2001), creating collective trust and enthusiasm or, if deficient, distrust anddepression. The ripple effect of emotional contagion and its influence on group behaviour(Barsade, 2002) also plays an important role in this realm.

Finally, the fourth inter-objective system quadrant links emotions to externaldimensions and organisational conditions and artefacts. This is the world of the Its, thatis of resources, tools, information and communication technologies, organisational designand workflow procedures, but also of institutional conditions such as formal policies andnorms, in particular feeling rules that affect emotional dimensions and behaviour.Furthermore, this sphere covers additional external constraints and influences as well asstrategic plans, financial processes and compensation programs. Moreover, coveringquantities and qualities of outputs, productivity and efficiency, this realm is wherethinking about the link between emotions and organisation as a performance system isimportant. With all these aspects, this sphere refers as well to an emotional atmosphere orclimate (Tran, 1998; zelik et al., 2001) as determined by structural or functional orderand systemic mechanisms.

An integral approach explores the embeddedness of these various spheres within andbetween one another and the degree to which the levels mutually influence each other.As each level and sphere influences and constrains the others, they need to be considered

in their interdependencies and interrelations. This orientation allows an understanding ofhow emotions translate and impact across levels. Figure 2 provides an overview of thedifferent spheres and their interplay.

Furthermore, all four quadrants show growth, development or evolution. That is, theyall show some stages or levels of development, not as rigid rungs on a ladder butunfolding as fluid and flowing waves. Thus, the quadrant model can be extendeddynamically by a series of different developmental stages or levels and lines ofdevelopment (Kegan, 1982, 1994; Wilber, 2000c) of organisational members andorganisations within an integral cycle (Edwards, 2005).2


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Figure 2 Integral emotional dimensions and its inter-relationships (see online version for colours)

On the basis of the outlined integral understanding, it will be important to consider theemotional relatedness (Vince, 1996; French and Vince, 1999). This relatedness can beunderstood as the emotional process of experiences, behaviours, social and systemicdimensions that exist within and between members of organisations. With thisinterrelational capacity, an emotional dimension on all of the outlined spheres maysupport, mediate or intervene and conflict all relations in organisations. Following therelational interpretation of emotions mentioned above (Burkitt, 1997), integral emotionaldimensions could be understood as a network of ongoing processes within an emotionalecology (Frost et al., 2000). In such ecology, more emotion-sensitive connections areenabled or disabled and hence facilitate or retard compassionate practices (Frost et al.,2000, pp.26, 35) and integration. Correspondingly, specific practical implications can bederived (Kpers and Weibler, 2005) for each of these spheres within this integralframework. These implications which are beyond the scope of this paper concernvarious approaches such as selective tasks, interventions and measurements fororganisational and managerial practices. In particular, they serve to contribute mitigatingemotional problems by reducing encumbering and inculpatory factors while enhancing

positive emotions by creating supportive conditions and facilitating processes.

7 Theoretical and methodological implications and research perspectives

Although emotion has grown more popular as a topic of study, there are a number ofissues that remain to be investigated. That is, there are many unanswered empiricalquestions and issues on emotion in organisation research awaiting investigation,as well as different avenues of research to be delineated and pursued. As adifferentiated reminder of the life-worlds multi-faceted wholeness and tremendousmulti-dimensionality, a further integral investigation of feelings emotions is likely toserve as a helpful antidote to biased approaches and one-sided investigations. As it


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is in its infant stage, the proposed framework provides the bedrock for more rigorous

theory-building, further analysis and empirical testing of organisational emotion research.Methodologically, it will be challenging to investigate and integrate various

perspectives, i.e., the first, second and third persons (singular and plural forms)in relation to emotions in organisational affairs. These three perspectives, each withtheir inherent methodologies or modes of enquiry, help to inform the way researchseeks out different approaches for understanding the complex emotional dimensions inorganisations.

A first person perspective would be related to subjective awareness and the meaningof personal experience and action as spheres of influence via self-reporting techniques or

biographic ethnomethodologies and phenomenological enquiries about what peopleperceive and understand for themselves and personally express. Experience SamplingMethodology (Hektner et al., 2007; Scollon et al., 2003) may be useful as a method to

gin a more precise view of how emotion influences organisational everyday life.This approved methodology (it is applied, for example, in happiness studies,Csikszentmihalyi and Hunter, 2003) allows closer tracking of the antecedents andconsequences of feelings. By sampling experience the moment it occurs, this methodcombines the validity of naturalistic behavioural observation with the non-intrusivenature of self-reporting and the precision of scaled questionnaire measures. For thesecond person stance, interpersonal perspectives seek insight and understandingthrough qualitative interpretive approaches (Fineman, 2005), including, e.g., dialogue anddirect empathic communication. Corresponding interview techniques, such as depth ornarrative interviewing or participant observation, serve to disclose multiple voices formaking sense of emotion (Parkinson and Manstead, 1993). For an innovative qualitativeapproach to access and interpret social emotion, narrative techniques such as storytellingand metaphor analysis are becoming established as valuable complements to moreconventional research approaches (Ashkanasy and Tse, 2000; Meyerson, 2000). Finally,the third person level may use empirical observation and methods of behavioural orsystemic sciences to investigate quantitative data with rigor, e.g., to explain emotionalclimate via advancedclimate questionnaire variables (Brown and Brooks, 2002).

Bringing these perspectives together highlights the different possibilities that exist forinvestigating how they might interrelate for a better understanding of emotions inorganisations on multiple levels. Specifically, the integral research approach suggests thatit would be beneficial to conduct emotion research on the outlined four interrelatedquadrants and their interdependent effects. By examining all four dimensions in anintegrated fashion, research attains a more integral comprehension of the causes,developments and effects of emotions in organisations, including ways for evaluating anddealing with them. Integrally, research may then further explore ways in which diversely

situated individuals and groups and systems in various inter-relational arrangementsand organisational settings constitute, experience, influence and process feelings andemotions. Further research is needed, for example into how negative consequences ofemotion can be minimised, while authentic emotional expressions such as nurturing andsupportiveness can be enhanced across levels. This topic is linked to the questionof how to develop positive emotional personal experiences, intersubjective processes andinter-objective capabilities, conditions or climates supporting knowledge sharing,learning, but also (emotional) well-being (Diener and Lucas, 2000; Kpers, 2005b).

As far as content is concerned, it would also be worthwhile to investigate what effectpower and (micro- and socio-)political tensions and practices have on the connections


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between inner feelings and their external enactment at both individual and collective

levels (Poder, 2004). Research could also examine how the interaction betweenindividual and organisational priorities affects the character and development of theemotions present in the organisation. One essential research avenue could be the role oforganisational communication (Eisenberg and Goodall, 2003) for improving processes ofcoordinating and integrating emotions within and between the above-mentionedspheres. Another field to which the outlined approach could be applied is improvisation(Crossan, 1998; Eisenberg and Goodall, 2003; Mirvis, 1998; Moorman and Miner, 1998).Improvising as an emotion-based creative way for organisations and their members can

be linked to all the aforementioned spheres and its interrelations seems highly relevant toenhance emotional flexibility, vigour and performances on individual as well ascollective levels.

All in all, the more comprehensive approach of proposed integral framework

permits a systematical investigation and critical analysis of multiple perspectives,while at the same time recognising the unique contributions of various approaches andfields to explaining complex phenomena of emotions in organisations. Using differentlevels and inclusive orientation, the integral framework serves as a kind of map forconceptualising and theorising, but also for empirically investigating and analysingemotional phenomena and data more adequately. Considering the multi-variousdimensions of emotions, corresponding factors and processes may be conceptualised as adependent or independent variables, respectively, as mediating or moderating variables.Likewise, emotion may be investigated as a characteristic or outcome at the interior orexterior individual or collective group levels, or at the structuralorganisation levels ofanalysis.

Basically, the development of further integral investigations and theory is alwaysunfinished business in that theory-building research is an ongoing process, where newfocuses are continually sought out, tested and combined with other integral theorycomponents to arrive at more comprehensive understanding and explanations, and moreappropriate methodological approaches. Moreover, an integral approach contributesto a multi-paradigm or pluralism strategy that has been proposed in organisation theory(e.g., Evered and Louis, 1981; Gioia and Pitre, 1990; Grimes and Rood, 1995; Schultzand Mary, 1996; Lewis and Kelemen, 2002), leading to not only an interpretative andrigorous, but also a relevant approach towards organisational phenomena in general(Gioia and Pitre, 1990) and emotional dimensions, in particular.

8 Conclusion

This paper has explored the significance of emotions for organisational life and examinedthe way in which they are relevant and influential, as well as why they have beenneglected in organisational research and practice. Various important findings and insightsof studies of emotions have been summarised and an integral framework was proposedfor a more comprehensive understanding of emotions and their interrelations. Seen froman integral perspective, organisations probably become dysfunctional and unhealthywhen they refuse to acknowledge and integrate feelings and emotions adequately.Finally, some theoretical and methodological implications have been outlined. We havehoped to show that the proposed integral framework can contribute to the effectiverevolution and the need for a mature hybrid paradigm (Barsade et al., 2003, p.31),


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