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Psychology 598 Research Methods

Carolyn R. Fallahi, Ph. D.

Class #1 and 2

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Case Study

The study of one subject. Discuss Freud example.

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Single-Case and Small-N research designs Hermann Ebbinghaus example. Single-case designs.

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The Single case design

A-B-A design A phase = baseline or pretreatment period B phase = the introduction of the independent

variable.

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Single case designs

A-B design, the DV measured repeatedly throughout the pretreatment and treatment phases of the study.

In the A-B-A design, the treatment is withdrawn at the end, and the behavior is measured.

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Single case designs

A-B-BC-B design, B and C refer to 2 therapeutic conditions.

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Single Case Designs

A-B-A-B design. 2 occasions (B to A and then A to B) for

demonstrating the positive effects for the treatment variable.

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Correlational versus Causal Research

Correlational Research: associational research

Not causation Causal – comparative research

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Survey Research

The enumerative survey Purpose: to count (enumerate) a

representative sample and then make inferences about the frequencies of occurrence in the population as a whole.

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The Interview

involves having the researcher ask questions directly of the subjects.

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Interview

Open-ended versus structured interviews Open-ended participants can expand on their

answers, to express feelings, motives, or behavior quite spontaneously.

“Tell me in your own words how you felt when ________?”

critical incident technique.

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Interview

“Think about the last time you saw your mother drink herself under the table. What thoughts were associated with that incident?”

Tell me exactly what you did to deal with this situation?

In contrast to open-ended questions, structure (closed) questions are those with a clear cut response option. For example... There are often many reasons why a child does not do well in school. Motivation can sometimes be an issue. Of the following statements, please indicate which applies to your child.

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Interview

1. tries very very hard 2. Tries somewhat more than the average

student 3. tries about like the average student 4. tries somewhat less than the average

student 5. doesn’t try at all.

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Qualitative research

Qualitative research: using words to describe. For example, how do counselors specializing in substance abuse deal with a defensive patient?

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Quantitative Research / Ethnographic study Quantitative Research: How well, how much,

numbers. Ethnographic study Ethnographic record

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Historical Research

Historical research Biography Phenomenology – research that focuses on

particular issue.

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Historical research / Action Research

We are trying to look at a historical incident and see the effects on people and variables.

Action Research: change conditions within a particular situation. We are not caring about generalizing to other situations.

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Meta-analysis

Look at all studies within a topic and statistically analyze the results across the studies.

Example: Rosenthal study

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Conducting Research

Problem Statement Hypothesis

Operational definition versus constitutive definition

Constitutive definition – is basically a dictionary definition.

You could clarify the hypothesis by example. Operational definition

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Conducting Research

Variables Literature Review Sample/population Instruments Procedure Results Conclusion/Discussion

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Variables

Variable: a noun that stands for a variation within a class of objects For example: gender, motivation Example: reinforcement: 3 types: verbal

praise, money, points on examination. Quantitative Variables: On a continuum,

example weight and height. Categorical variables: DK vary in degree or

amount, but are qualitatively different. For example, gender, religious preference.

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Variables

IV A True study focuses on the question: “How

things are and how they got to be that way?” DV: refers to the status of the effect of

outcome in which the research is interested. Example: Jogging makes you feel better. The IV would be jogging status (jogging or not

jogging) and the DV would be feeling status (feeling better or not feeling better).

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Variables

Extraneous variables or control variables IVs that have not been controlled

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Variables

Another example: new medication … Schizerall … design the study with them and talk about potential extraneous variables.

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Hypotheses

Two types: operational and theoretical

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The Null hypothesis in significance testing The lingo used in an experiment

Ho (null hypothesis) H1 or Ha The two hypotheses must be mutually

exclusive of each other.

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Ethics

Talk about Milgram study and Zimbardo’s study.

ApA Ethics The use of deception Debriefing Consent forms Confidentiality Regulation of research – IRB form – hand out.

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Review of the Literature

References Primary versus secondary sources Search terms Descriptors Professional journals – peer edited

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Sampling

Before we implement a research design, there are a few more issues to discuss.

One huge issue is that of sampling. Population Target population Sample Random sampling – Table of random

numbers

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Different types of random sampling

Systematic selection: here we have sampling units in sequences separated on lists by the interval of selection.

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Stratified random sampling

A separate sample is randomly selected within each homogeneous stratum (or layer) of the population.

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Area Probability Sampling / or cluster random sampling This is a type of stratification sampling

procedure. In this case the population is divided into

selected units that have the same probability of being chosen as the unselected units in a population cluster.

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Two-stage random sampling

Combine cluster random sampling with individual random sampling

For example… select 25 classes / 100 randomly selected.

Then randomly select 4 students out of each class.

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Nonrandom sampling

Convenience sampling Purposive sampling

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Generalizability from a sample

Population generalizability: the degree to which a sample represents the population of interest.

Representative sample When random sampling is not feasible

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Instrumentation

Data Instrumentation: the design of the research

and procedures and conditions under which a design is administered.

Instruments used within the research design Must have validity – measures what they are

suppose to measure Reliability – give the instrument multiple times

– consistent results.

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Buros Mental Measurements Yearbook / Subject completed Instruments

Investigation of a previously researched instrument

Subject completed instruments: Self-checklists (e.g. go into a counseling office

and check of current symptoms) Attitude scales Often given in likert scale design – e.g. 1-5,

1-7.

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Types of tests

Personality Tests MMPI2/MMPIA – true/false format Projective tests, e.g. TAT, Incomplete

sentences blank, Rorschach Achievement Tests

Woodcock Johnson (based on grade level) Aptitude Tests

Measures your ability to perform a task

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Types of Scores

Raw scores Derived scores – derived from a raw score

and used in a more standardized format E.g. IQ tests – take the raw score and convert

numbers to a standardized score based on the average of 100 IQ. Draw normal curve.

Age and grade-level equivalents – child compared to the age/grade level of the typical level of performance, e.g. Woodcock Johnson

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Norm-referenced versus criterion-referenced instruments Norm group – the group used to determine a

derived score. For example … have a depression inventory.

Give the inventory to a norm group of clinically depressed individuals.

Compare the items that clinically depressed patients respond to with that of the subject.

Called a normed-referenced instrument.

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Criterion referenced instrument

There is a specific criterion for each person to achieve. The criterion for mastery or passing is fairly

high. Example … Sylvan learning center …

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Measurement Scales

Nominal scale: Assign a number to different categories. E.g. 1=women; 2=men

Ordinal Scale: data ordered in some way, e.g. rank order students from highest grade to lowest.

Interval scale: same as ordinal, but distances between points are equal, e.g. temperature distances between 0-10; 10-20 is the same.

Ratio scale: an interval scale with a true zero point, e.g. scale measurements like height. Zero=the absence of height.