01 - an introduction to the human body

8/8/2019 01 - An Introduction to the Human Body

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Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Chapter 1:

An Introduction to theHuman Body


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Overview

Meaning of anatomy and physiology

Organization of the human body and properties

Regulation of internal environment

Basic vocabulary


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Anatomy and Physiology Defined

T wo branches of science that deal withbodys parts and function

AnatomyT he science of body structures and relationshipsFirst studies by dissection (cutting apart)Imaging techniques

Ph ysiologyT he science of body functions


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Subspecialties of Anatomy and Physiology


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Structure and Function

S tructure and function of the body are closelyrelatedS

tructure of a part of the body allowsperformance of certain functionsExamples:

Bones of the skull provide protection for the brain

T hin air sacs of the lungs permit movement of oxygen


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Levels of Structural Organization

S ix levels of organization


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1CHEMIC AL LEVE L

Atoms ( C, H, O , N, P)

Molecule (DNA )

1 1CHEMIC AL LEVE L


2CE LLULAR L EVE L

Molecule (DNA )

S moot h muscle cell

12

3

1CHEMIC AL LEVE L


2CE LLULAR L EVE L

Molecule (DNA )


S moot h muscle tissue

TISS UE LEVE L

12

3 3

4

1CHEMIC AL LEVE L


2CE LLULAR L EVE L

Molecule (DNA )



S tomac h

Ep ith elialtissue

ORGAN L EVE L

TISS UE LEVE L

S moot h muscletissue layers

12

3

4S erousmembrane

3

4

5

1CHEMIC AL LEVE L


2CE LLULAR L EVE L

Molecule (DNA )



SYS TEM LEVE LEso p h agus

Liver S tomac h

S mall intestineLarge intestine

Digestive system

S tomac h

Ep ith elialtissue

ORGAN L EVE L

TISS UE LEVE L


12

3

4

5

P ancreasGallbladder

S erousmembrane

3

4

5

1CHEMIC AL LEVE L


2CE LLULAR L EVE L

Molecule (DNA )



ORGAN IS MAL L EVE L

SYS TEM LEVE LEso p h agus

Liver S tomac h

P ancreasGallbladder S mall intestineLarge intestine

Digestive system

S tomac h

Ep ith elialtissue

S erousmembraneORGAN L EVE L

TISS UE LEVE L


12

3

4

5

6


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Levels of structural organization

CH EMICAL LEVE LBasic level

Atoms the smallest unit of matter Essential atoms for life include carbon ( C ), hydrogen ( H ),oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), calcium ( C a),and sulfur

Molecules two or more atoms joined together D eoxyribonucleic acid ( D N A )Glucose


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C ELLULA R LEVE LMolecules combine to form cells

Cells are the basic structural and functional units of anorganismMany kinds of cells in the bodyMuscle cells, nerve cells, epithelial cells, etc.


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T ISSU E LEVE LTissues are groups of cells and materialssurrounding them

Four basic types of tissues:EpithelialC onnectiveMuscular

Nervous


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ORG AN LEVE LT issues are joined together to form organs

Organs are structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissuesS pecific functions and recognizable shapes

Examples:H eart, lungs, kidneysS

tomach is made of several tissuesS erous membrane, smooth muscle and epithelial layers for digestion


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SYST EM LEVE LA system consists of related organs with acommon functionOrgan-system level

D igestive system breaks down and absorbs foodIt includes organs such as the mouth, small and largeintestines, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

Eleven systems of the human body


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Table 1.2


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Table 1.2


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Table 1.2


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ORG ANIS M AL LEVE LAn organism or any living individualA ll parts of the body functioning together


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Clinical Connection: Noninvasive

Diagnostic TechniquesU sed to assess aspects of body structure andfunction

Ins p ection of the body to observe any changesPalpation

Gently touching body surfaces with handsAuscultation or

listening to body sounds (stethoscope)

PercussionT apping on the body surface with fingertips and listening toechoes


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Characteristics of Living Human

OrganismBasic Life ProcessesD istinguish living from non-living thingsS ix important life process

MetabolismResponsivenessMovementGrowthD ifferentiationReproduction


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Metabolism and Responsiveness

MetabolismS um of all the chemical process that occur in the body

Catabolism or the breakdown of complex chemicalsubstances into simpler componentsAnabolism or the building up of complex chemicalsubstances from smaller, simpler components

Res p onsivenessBodys ability to detect and respond to changes

D ecrease in body temperatureResponding to soundNerve (electrical signals) and muscle cells (contracting)


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Movement and Growth

MovementMotion of the whole body

Organs, cells, and tiny subcellular structuresLeg muscles move the body from one place to another

Growt hIncrease in body size

D ue to an increase in existing cells, number of cells, or bothIn bone growth materials between cells increase


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Differentiation and Reproduction

DifferentiationD evelopment of a cell from an unspecialized tospecialized state

C ells have specialized structures and functions thatdiffer from precursor cellsS tem cells give rise to cells that undergo differentiation

Re p roductionFormation of new cells (growth, repair, or replacement)Production of a new individual


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Clinical Connection: Autopsy

Postmortem (after death) examination of thebody and internal organsS everal uses:

D etermine the cause of deathIdentify diseases not detected during lifeD etermine the extent of injuries and contribution

to deathH ereditary conditions


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Homeostasis

A condition of equilibrium (balance) in thebodys internal environment

D ynamic conditionNarrow range is compatible with maintaining lifeExample

Blood glucose levels range between 70 and 110 mg of glucose/d L of bloodWhole body contributes to maintain the internalenvironment within normal limits


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Homeostasis and Body Fluids

Maintaining the volume and composition of body fluids are important

B ody fluids are defined as dilute, waterysolutions containing dissolved chemicals inside or outside of the cellIntracellular Fluid ( ICF)

Fluid within cells

Ex tracellular Fluid ( EC F)Fluid outside cellsInterstitial fluid is E C F between cells and tissues


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ECF and Body LocationB lood P lasma

EC F within blood vessels

Lym p hEC F within lymphatic vessels

Cerebros p inal fluid ( CS F)EC F in the brain and spinal cord

S ynovial fluidEC F in joints

Aqueous h umor and vitreous bodyEC F in eyes


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Interstitial Fluid and Body Function

C ellular function depends on the regulation of composition of interstitial fluidBodys internal environmentC omposition of interstitial fluid changes as itmoves

Movement back and forth across capillary walls

provide nutrients (glucose, oxygen, ions) to tissuecells and removes waste (carbon dioxide)


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Control of Homeostasis

H omeostasis is constantly being disruptedPh ysical insults

Intense heat or lack of oxygen

Ch anges in t h e internal environmentD rop in blood glucose due to lack of food

Ph ysiological stressD emands of work or school

Disru p tionsMild and temporary (balance is quickly restored)Intense and Prolonged (poisoning or severe infections)


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Feedback System (insert figure 1.2)

C ycle of eventsBody is monitored andre-monitoredEach monitored variableis termed a controlledcondition

T hree Basiccomponents

Receptor

C ontrol center Effector


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Feedback Systems

Rece p tor Body structure that monitors changes in acontrolled conditionS ends in p ut to the control center

Nerve ending of the skin in response to temperaturechange


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Feedback Systems

Control Center BrainS ets the range of values to be maintainedEvaluates input received from receptors andgenerates out p ut commandNerve impulses, hormones

Brains acts as a control center receiving nerve impulsesfrom skin temperature receptors


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Feedback Systems

Effector Receives output from the control center Produces a response or effect that changes thecontrolled condition

Found in nearly every organ or tissueBody temperature drops the brain sends and impulse tothe skeletal muscles to contract

S hivering to generate heat


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Negative and Positive Feedback systems

Negative Feedback systemsReverses a change in a controlled condition

Regulation of blood pressure (force exerted by blood as

it presses again the walls of the blood vessels)

P ositive Feedback systemsS trengthen or reinforce a change in one of thebodys controlled conditions

Normal child birth


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Negative Feedback: Regulation of BloodPressure (insert figure 1.3)

External or internal stimulusincrease BP

Baroreceptors (pressure sensitivereceptors)

D etect higher BPS end nerve impulses to brain for interpretationResponse sent via nerve impulsesent to heart and blood vessels

BP drops and homeostasis isrestoredD rop in BP negates the originalstimulus


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Positive Feedback Systems: NormalChildbirth

U terine contractions causevagina to openS tretch-sensitive receptors in

cervix send impulse to brainOxytocin is released into thebloodC ontractions enhanced andbaby pushes farther down theuterusC ycle continues to the birth of the baby (no stretching)


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Positive Feedback: Blood Loss

Normal conditions, heart pumps blood under pressure to body cells (oxygen and nutrients)S evere blood loss

Blood pressure dropsC ells receive less oxygen and function lessefficientlyIf blood loss continues

H eart cells become weaker H eart doesnt pumpBP continues to fall


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Homeostatic Imbalances

Normal equilibrium of body processes aredisrupted

Moderate imbalanceD isorder or abnormality of structure and functionD isease specific for an illness with recognizable signsand symptomsS igns are objective changes such as a fever or swelling

S ym p toms are subjective changes such as headacheS evere imbalance

D eath


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Homeostatic Imbalances: Areas of Science

EpidemiologyOccurrence of diseasesT ransmission in a community

PharmacologyEffects and uses of drugsT reatment of disease


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Clinical Connection: Diagnosis of Disease

D istinguishing one disorder or disease fromanother

S igns and symptomsMedical history

C ollecting information about eventPresent illnesses and past medical problems

Physical examinationOrderly evaluation of the body and its functionNoninvasive techniques and other vital signs (pulse)


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Basic Anatomical Terminology

C ommon language referring to bodystructures and their functionsAnatomists use standard anatomical positionand special vocabulary in relating body parts


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Body Positions

D escriptions of the humanbody assume a specificstanceAnatomical p osition

Body uprightS tanding erect facing theobserver H ead and eyes facing forward

Feet are flat on the floor andforwardU pper limbs to the sidesPalms turned forward


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Anatomical position

Body is uprightT erms for a reclining body

P rone p ositionBody is lying face down

S u p ine p ositionBody is lying face up


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Regional Names

S everal major regions identifiedMost principal regions

H eadS kull and face

NeckS upports the head and attaches totrunk

T runkC hest, abdomen, and pelvis

U pper limbsA ttaches to trunk (shoulder, armpit,and arm

Lower limbsA ttaches to trunk (buttock, thigh, leg,ankle, and foot


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Directional Terms

D escribe the position of one body partrelative to another

Group in pairs with opposite meaningAnterior (front) and p osterior (back)

Only make sense when used to describe aposition of one structure relative to another

T he esophagus is posterior to the tracheaKnee is superior to the ankle


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Directional Terms


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Common Directional Terms

Anterior Nearer to the front of the body

Posterior Nearer to the back of the body

S uperior T oward the head

Inferior Away from the head


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Common Directional Terms

ProximalNearer to theattachment of a limb tothe trunk

D istalFarther from theattachment of a limb tothe trunk

LateralFarther from the midline

MedialNearer to the midline


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Planes and Sections

Imaginary flat surfacesthat pass through thebody parts

S agittal p laneA vertical plane that dividesthe body into right and leftsides

Midsagittal p lane dividesbody into equal right and

left sidesP arasagittal p lane dividesbody into unequal right andleft sides


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Planes and Sections

Frontal or coronal p laneD ivides the body or an organ into anterior (front)and posterior (back) portions

Transverse p laneD ivides the body or an organ into superior (upper)and inferior (lower) portionsA lso called cross-sectional or h orizontal p lane


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Planes and Sections


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Planes and Sections

Oblique p lanePasses through the bodyor an organ at an angle

Between transverse andsagittal planeBetween transverse andfrontal plane

S ectionsC ut of the body madealong a plane


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Body Cavities

S paces within the body that help protect,separate, and support internal organs

C ranial cavityTh oracic cavityAbdomino p elvic cavity


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Body Cavities


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Cranial Cavity and Vertebral Canal

C ranial cavityFormed by the cranial bonesProtects the brain

Vertebral canalFormed by bones of vertebralcolumnC ontains the spinal cord

MeningesLayers of protective tissue thatline the cranial cavity andvertebral canal


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Thoracic Cavity

A lso called the chestcavityFormed by

RibsMuscles of the chestS ternum (breastbone)

Vertebral column (thoracicportion)


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Thoracic Cavity

Within the thoraciccavity

Pericardial cavityFluid-filled space thatsurround the heart

Pleural cavityT wo fluid-filled spaces that

that surround each lung


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Thoracic Cavity

MediastinumC entral part of thethoracic cavity

Between lungsExtending from the sternumto the vertebral columnFirst rib to the diaphragm

Dia p h ragmD

ome shaped muscleS eparates the thoraciccavity from theabdominopelvic cavity


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Abdominopelvic Cavity

Extends from the diaphragm to the groinEncircled by the abdominal wall and bonesand muscles of the pelvisD ivided into two portions:

Abdominal cavityS tomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small and largeintestines

P elvic cavityU rinary bladder, internal organs of reproductive system,and portions of the large intestine


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Thoracic and Abdominal Cavity Membranes

VisceraOrgans of the thoracic andabdominal pelvic cavities

S erous membrane is a thinslippery membrane that coversthe visceraParts of the serous membrane:

P arietal layer Lines the wall of the cavities

Visceral layer C overs the viscera within thecavities


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P leuraS erous membrane of the pleural cavities

Visceral pleura clings to surface of lungsParietal pleura lines the chest wall

P ericardiumS erous membrane of the pericardial cavity

Visceral pericardium covers the heartParietal pericardium lines the chest wall

P eritoneumS erous membrane of the abdominal cavityVisceral peritoneum covers the abdominal cavityParietal peritoneum lines the abdominal wall


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Other Cavities

Oral (mouth) cavityT ongue and teeth

Nasal cavity

noseOrbital cavities

eyeball

Middle ear cavitiesS mall bones of the middle ear

S ynovial cavitiesJoints


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Abdominopelvic Regions

Abdominopelvic RegionsU sed to describe the location of abdominal and pelvic organs

Tic-Tac-Toe gridT wo horizontal and two vertical linespartition the cavity

S ubcostal line (top horizontal)inferior to rib cage

T ranstubercular line (bottom horizontal)inferior to top of the hip bone

Midclavicular lines (two vertical lines)midpoints to clavicles and medial tothe nipples


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Nine Abdominopelvic Regions

Right and left hypochondriacEpigastric and H ypogastric (pubic)Right and left lumbar Right and left inguinal (iliac)Right and left inguinal (iliac)U mbilical


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Quadrants

Vertical and horizontal linespass through the umbilicus

Right upper quadrant (R UQ )Left upper quadrant ( LUQ )Right lower quadrant (R LQ )Left lower quadrants ( LLQ )


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Medical Imaging

T echniques and procedures used to createimages of the human body

A llow visualization of structures inside the bodyD iagnosis of anatomical and physiologicaldisordersC onventional radiography (X-rays) have been inuse since the late 1940s


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Radiography (insert figures for each imagein following slides)

X -raysproduce image of interior structuresInexpensive and quickH ollow structures appear black or grayD o not pass easily through densestructure (bone)

A t low dose, useful for soft tissue

(breast)Mammography (breast)Bone densitometry (bone density)


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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

H igh energy magnetic fieldProtons in body fluid align withfield

C olor image on a video

monitor 2D and 3 D blueprintRelatively safe procedure

Not used on patients containingmetal

U sed for differentiatingnormal and abnormal tissuesT umors, brain abnormalities,blood flow


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Computed Tomography

C omputer- Assistedradiography ( CT -S can)

3-D structures

Visualize soft tissue in moredetail than conventionalradiographyT issue intensities showvarying degrees of gray

Whole-body CT scanLung and kidney cancers,coronary artery disease


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Ultrasound Scanning

U ltrasound S canningH igh frequency sound waves

S onogram

Noninvasive, painless, no dyesPregnancy (fetus)


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Radionuclide Scanning

Radionuclide S canningRadioactive substance(radionuclide) given intravenously

Gamma rays detected by cameraRadionuclide image displays onvideo monitor C olor intensity represents uptake

S ingle-photo-emission computerized

tomography ( S PE CT )S pecialized technique used for brain, heart, lungs, and liver


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Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Positron (positively chargedparticles) emitting substanceinjected into the body

C ollision between positrons andnegatively charged electron inbody tissuesGamma rays producedC omputer constructed a PE T

scan image in color U sed to study physiology of body structures (metabolism)


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Endoscopy

EndoscopeLighted instrument with lensImage projected onto a monitor

C olonoscopyInterior of colon

LaparoscopyOrgans in abdominopelvic cavity

ArthroscopyInterior of joint (knee)


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End of Chapter 1

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01 - an introduction to the human body

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