© simeon keates 2008 usability with project 15/04/09 susanne frennert
TRANSCRIPT
© Simeon Keates 2008
Usability with Project15/04/09Susanne Frennert
© Simeon Keates 2008
Cost-justifying usability
Page 2
© Simeon Keates 2008
The need to cost-justify
Not all companies (and managers) appreciate the benefits of usability They may cite other factors as more important Examples:
• Tight deadlines• Functionality already developed• Limited money/resources
Page 3
© Simeon Keates 2008
Cost-justifying usability
However, these are often “false economies” Examples:
• Deadlines:• Releasing the “wrong” product on time is as bad (or worse) as releasing the
“right” product late• Existing functionality:• Existing functionality should have nothing to fear from usability, if it is the
“right” functionality• Limited resources:• Putting the “right” resource in at the “right” time can make the overall project
more efficient
Page 4
© Simeon Keates 2008
Good usability are good business
Reduced development and software maintenance costs Increased product sales, market share, and revenue Improve customer satisfaction and loyalty Increased site visits and conversion Decrease customer support costs Improve employee productivity Improved brand perception and media coverage
Page 5
© Simeon Keates 2008
Reduced development and Software Maintenance CostsIntegration of usability testing can contribute to decreased development costs by
Basing feature decisions on solid user testing and evidence decreases the possibility of serious problems later in the process
Many costs are associated with maintenance deal with unmet, or unanticipated, user requirements
“An average of 48% of application code is devoted to the user interface
and 50% of the development time required for the entire application is
devoted to the user interface portion. Given this estimate, incorporating
usability into the design of the UI that customers and end-users are
interacting with is critical.” (Weinshenck 2005)
Page 6
© Simeon Keates 2008
Increased Product Sale, Market Share, and Revenue
On e-commerce or software as a service site, many potential product sale are lost due to poor site usability.
A 2001 study found that 5% of online shoppers typically fail to find the product or service they are looking for, with as many as 65% of online shopping visits resulting in failure (Souza 2001; Mayhew & Tremaine 2005)
Usability can be also used to increase advertising revenue; a revamp of Yahoo! Overture’s Search marketing tool found a 9% increase in click-through rate after only two weeks and “phenomenal” customer response (Cooper 2008)
Page 7
© Simeon Keates 2008
Increased Site Visits and Conversions
Usability can also increase the frequency with which users visit the site, contributing directly to the overall market share and customer base
eBay redesign their “Sell your Item” form, which had a high rate of drop-off for first time users, based on their user experience consulting and usability testing. A predicted 1% improvement in the drop off rate contributed to a revenue increase of $1.2 million a year (Braun 2002; Wilson & Rosenbaum 2005)
Page 8
© Simeon Keates 2008
Improve Customer satisfaction and Loyalty
A product that is easy to use and fun to use creates satisfaction and loyalty in its users
One early study of e-commerce trust found that good navigation and presentation were essential in creating trust, and one of the authors found a link between quality in design and trust in the channel and the company’s brand (Karat & Lund 2005)
Page 9
© Simeon Keates 2008
Decreases customer support costs
The average call to a software development center is estimated to cost between $12 and $28 per call, and can cost up to $250
(Karat & Lund 2005; Mauro 2005)
“A leading manufacturer of printers released a product that had a serious usability problem in the installment and operation of the printer driver software. This problem was so difficult to solve that more than 50% of the first 100,000 users called the customer service line. The cost was nearly $0.5 million per month. The total cost of replacing the printer driver was $900,000. It was clear upon analysis that the problem could have been identified and corrected at a fraction of the cost if the product had been subject to even the simplest usability testing” (Mauro 2005)
Page 10
© Simeon Keates 2008
Improve Employee Productivity
Supporting improved, enjoyable-to-use products can increase employee satisfaction and improve the quality of customer service, as well as reducing re-work and “downtime”. These factors contribute to overall improved job satisfaction, which can lead, long term, to improve employee retention (Robb & Pfefer 2003)
“After Oracle changed the navigation structure on its database manager, database administrators were able to perform their duties 20% faster” (Black 2003)
Page 11
© Simeon Keates 2008
Brand perception and media Coverage
Products with great user experience are recognized for it. Users talk to each other about products they like, increasing sales due to world-of-mouth.
Positive interactions can affect the brand's “halo”.
“Apple’s iPhone, while accounting for only a small blip in the worldwide mobile phone sale, had the most media coverage of any product launched in history, and will likely have long-term effects on the mobile business” (Maurio 2008)
Page 12
© Simeon Keates 2008
Rosson and Carroll “Usability Engineering”
“Cost-benefit analysis of usability activities contributes to more systematic usability engineering …”
“… BUT benefits are difficult to quantify, so estimates will often be overly conservative.”
Issues: Benefits (e.g. customer satisfaction) are harder to quantify and predict
accurately Costs are very concrete and easy to identify Thus, can be difficult to justify usability…
Page 13
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 14
Typical sources of usability “costs” (also Rosson and Carroll’s usability approach - 1)
Development of requirements scenarios Validation/refinements of scenarios with users and customers Development of basic-level task scenarios Refinement of design scenarios with development team and customers Development of information model Review with team members Development of paper prototypes Walk-throughs with users of paper prototypes …
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 15
Typical sources of usability “costs” (also Rosson and Carroll’s usability approach - 2)
… Analysis of transcripts/report preparation Development of interaction model Review with team members Development of running prototypes Formative evaluation Analysis of transcripts/report preparation Detailed design and prototype-driven iteration of previous three steps
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 16
Typical usability benefits
Fewer downstream design changes Increased sales (and consequently reduced time to profitability) Reduced need for user training Enhanced customer productivity Reduced resources spent on customer support Increased loyalty in customer base (repeat and referral sales)
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 17
A more scientific approach
Mantei and Teorey(*) examined the cost/benefit analysis in 1988
We will look at their calculations
But first we need to examine their methodology
NOTES:• Costs are based on 1988 prices and techniques• Not all costs are required for every project – choose which ones carefully• Costs are indicative, not definitive• Assumes 32,000 lines of code to be used by 250 employees
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 18
Typical development stages in a prototyping lifecycle
Feasibility study Requirements definition Global design Prototype construction User evaluation System implementation Testing Update and maintenance
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 19
Typical development stages in a prototyping lifecycle
Feasibility study Requirements definition Global design Prototype construction User evaluation System implementation Testing Update and maintenance
Page 19
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 20
Typical development stages in a Human Factors software lifecycle
Market analysis Feasibility study Requirements definition Product acceptance analysis Task analysis Global design Prototype construction User testing and evaluation System implementation Product testing User testing Update and maintenance Product survey
Page 20
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 21
A breakdown of tangible costs
Cost type Cost (1988 levels)
Salaried employee (SE) Fixed ($40/hr)
Hourly employee (HE) Fixed ($15/hr)
External contractor (EC) Fixed ($60/hr)
Consultant (CN) Variable
Equipment and supplies (ES) Variable
Software purchase (SP) Variable
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 22
Further assumptions
40 hours per week 4.3 weeks per month =>172 hours per working month (WM)
Examples: $6880/WM for a salaried employee (at $40/hr)
• i.e. 172 * 40
$10,320/WM for an external contractor • i.e. 172 * 60
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 23
Costs added by Human Factors stages
1 – Cost of running focus groups 2 – Cost of building product mock-ups 3 – Expense of the initial design of a prototype 4 – Expense of making a prototyping design change 5 – Expense of purchasing the prototyping software 6 – Cost of running user studies 7 – Cost of creating (or renting) a user study environment (laboratory) 8 – Cost of conducting the user survey
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 24
Cost 1 – Focus groups cost breakdown
Time cost of the individuals involved + small equipment cost Individuals involved:
• Participants • Moderator/facilitator• Video-taping/recording personnel• Any other observers/data analysts
Page 24
~3 people
~10 people
1 person
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 25
Focus groups cost breakdown
Focus groups typically take 3 hours to run + 1 day to set-up and 1 day to dismantle
Minimum of 2 days to analyse the data
Moderator: Time for focus group + analysis Support staff: Time for set-up + focus group + dismantling Participants: Time for focus group [+ any preparation time]
A complete focus group analysis (3 consecutive groups) takes ~2 weeks
Used for Market Analysis and Product Acceptance Analysis
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 26
Focus groups cost breakdown
Estimated costs for conducting focus groups
Type of expense Category Amount
A Cost of operating 3 internal focus groups
30 participants, 10 per focus group (3 hrs each)
SE $3,600
Group moderator (25 hrs) CN $1,500
3 support staff (25 hrs each) HE $1,125
Videotape ES $60
Total $6,285
B Cost of contracting3 external focus groups
Fee charged by agency for complete study ( 3 focus groups and analysis for 2 weeks)
CN $10,000
Page 26
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 27
Cost 2 – Estimating product mock-up costs
Building a product mock-up involves constructing a false UI scenario in software and video-taping the scenario
Script has to be written Someone has to execute the scenario Videotape needs to be professional
Videotape mock-up is used in Product Acceptance Analysis• To focus groups to initiate discussions• To target users who are then asked to complete questionnaires about the
use of the product and their response to it
Can also be used in marketing
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 28
Estimating product mock-up costs
Costs incurred in building a product mock-up of the proposed software system
Type of expense Category Amount
Preparation of mock-up scenario (40 hrs) SE $1,600
Videotaping sessions (20 hrs) SE $800
Splicing/integration of scenarios (20 hrs) SE $800
Equipment rental for splicing, etc. ES $500
Videotape ES $60
Total $3,760
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 29
Estimating product mock-up costs
The techniques just described are somewhat out of date More usually accomplished via early development cycle prototypes
• e.g. alpha and beta versions• Flash movies, etc.
Q - What to do if no software written? A – Wizard of Oz!
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 30
Wizard of Oz
Page 30
Do Action A
{Receive response to Action A}
Do Action B, etc.
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 31
Wizard of Oz (The Wizard unmasked!)
Page 31
Do Action A
{Receive response to Action A}
Do Action B, etc.
Create response to Action A
Create response to Action B, etc.
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 32
Wizard of Oz explained
User interacts with a UI mock-up only There is no significant software back-end
Remote user (the Wizard) “pretends to be the system” Wizard creates the response based on expected system performance
Still needs a script and plenty of preparation• Imagine if the Wizard does not know a response!
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 33
Cost 3 – Estimating user survey costs
Used in the Product Acceptance stage to assess users’ responses to the product mock-up
Also used in Product Survey (after launch) to:• Determine the difficulties users have with the working system• Examine the tasks the system is being used for• Gather suggestions for changes to system
For a user population of 250 employees Typically half (125) would receive a user survey A typical survey is 4 pages in length… … and takes 30 minutes to complete
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 34
Estimating user survey costs
Cost breakdown for running a user survey for the software product being tested
Type of expense Category Amount
Development of questionnaire (40 hrs) SE $1,600
Pilot testing of questionnaire (40 hrs) SE $1,600
Distributing and collecting survey (20 hrs) HE $300
Coding and entering data (20 hrs) HE $300
Analysing the results of the survey (40 hrs) SE $1,600
Cost of time “lost” in filling out survey (40 hrs) SE $1,600
Computer time ES $100
Supplies and duplicating costs ES $100
Total $7,200
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 35
Cost 4 – Estimating initial prototype building costs
Cost breakdown for building a prototype does NOT include the design time • Only the building time
Typically 4 weeks
Most prototyping systems involve 2 stages:• Stage 1 – specify the connections between the screen displays• Stage 2 – design each individual screen layout
Alternatively (and more modern)• Stage 1 – specify the states between user interactions• Stage 2 – design the individual states and the alterations that take place
because of user actions
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 36
Estimating initial prototype building costs
As the UI grows more complex, time required to build the prototype also increases
Cost of building a prototype is:
C = S × ( a + b D)
Where C = Cost S = Number of states D = Average number of new details per state a = Constant reflecting the cost of building a single state b = Constant reflecting the cost of adding a single detail
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 37
Estimating initial prototype building costs
Costs incurred in the initial design of a prototype of the proposed software system (the prior development of a global design is assumed)
Type of expense Category Amount
Specifications of the screen transitions (80 hrs) SE $3,200
Design of the individual screen layouts (80 hrs) SE $3,200
Total $6,400
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 38
Cost 5 – Estimating costs for design changes to original prototype
Once the prototype is built, user studies will uncover problems with it• Difficulties learning and using the system
Design change suggestions will be made … … incorporated into the design … … and evaluated again, etc. … … until the number and severity of problems are “acceptable”
The initial user studies will usually find the most and most major issues Later changes should be minimal
• Especially if the prototype is close to the final product design …• … which it should be if task analyses, user surveys, etc. have been used• Also, design changes should simply be updates of parts of the prototype …• … and not a complete re-design
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 39
Estimating costs for design changes to original prototype
The initial user studies will usually find the most and most major issues Later changes should be minimal
Especially if the prototype is close to the final product design … … which it should be if task analyses, user surveys, etc. have been
used
Also, design changes should simply be updates of parts of the prototype …
… and not a complete re-design
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 40
Estimating costs for design changes to original prototype
Since changes should be restricted to parts of the UI, should only take ~1 day per change
The number of changes expected and amount of time per change depends upon complexity of the interface
Similar equation to cost of building a prototype
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 41
Estimating costs for design changes to original prototype
Costs incurred in incorporating a design change to the original prototype of the proposed software system. These costs assume that the design change does not require a complete revision of the screen transitions.
Type of expense Category Amount
Modification of the screen transitions (4 hrs) SE $160
Re-design of the individual screen layouts (4 hrs) SE $160
Total $320
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 42
Cost 6 – Estimating the cost of purchasing the prototyping software purchase
Actual purchase cost Also time spent deciding which one … … and then learning it
1988 prices - $10,000 for the software ($2,500 to $15,000+) 2008 prices - $600 per user (AXURE)
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 43
Estimating the cost of purchasing the prototyping software purchase
Page 43
Costs incurred in incorporating a design change to the original prototype of the proposed software system. These costs assume that the design change does not require a complete revision of the screen transitions.
Type of expense Category Amount
Time spent reviewing potential packages (1 month) SE $6,080
Purchase cost of package SP $10,000
Total $16,080
+ Time spent learning package
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 44
Cost 7 – Estimating costs of performing user studies
Preparation time can be substantial• Example: preparing a manual for a completely new UI• Manual need not be complete, but it needs to be sufficient and pilot-tested• Example: preparing the study protocol• Protocol needs to be complete and pilot tested
Costs of individual user studies are often independent of complexity of UI …
… however, the number of user studies increases with complexity
3 types of user study in the Human Factors software lifecycle…
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 45
Estimating costs of performing user studies
In Task Analysis: Users are asked to perform the types of tasks the system should
support Aim is to build a model of how users approach the task
In User Testing and Evaluation and in final User Testing: More conventional user studies Conducted on prototypes or final system Final system evaluation is always needed
• May be significant changes from the prototype behaviour
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 46
Estimating costs of performing user studies
Costs incurred in conducting a single user study on 5 participants
Type of expense Category Amount
Development of user directions [i.e. protocol] (40 hrs) SE $1,600
Pilot testing of directions (20 hrs) SE $800
Re-designing user directions (20 hrs) SE $800
Running experiment (40 hrs) SE $1,600
Analysing results of lab study (40 hrs) SE $1,600
Videotape ES $120
Cost of users in experiment (20 hrs) SE $800
Total $7,320
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 47
Cost 8 – Estimating costs of construction of a user laboratory
A user lab can be a borrowed / rented or permanent office Permanent office is recommended where significant usability activity is
expected User lab should be a mock-up of the environment of use for the
product The lab should allow space for an adjoining observation/recording
room Construction of a lab takes ~5 weeks
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 48
Estimating costs of construction of a user laboratory
Cost of establishing a permanent human factors lab. These are mid-level costs. Much more sophisticated labs can be built.
Type of expense Category Amount
Time spent laying out lab design and selecting lab equipment (160 hrs)
SE $6,400
Cost of carpenter and electrician (20 hrs) EC $1,200
Cost of cameras, VCRs, one-way mirror ES $10,800
Total $17,600
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 49
Estimating costs – a summary
Lifecycle stage Cost item Total cost
Market analysis Focus group (set of 3) $6.285
Product acceptance analysis Focus group (set of 3) $6.285
Product mock-up $3,760
User survey $7,200
Task analysis User study $7,320
Lab construction $17,600
Prototype construction Initial design $6,400
Design change (20 @ $320) $6,400
UIMS system $16,080
User testing and evaluation User study (4 @ $7,320) $29,280
User survey $7,200
User testing User study $7,320
Product survey User survey $7,200
Total $128,330
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 50
Estimating times – a summaryLifecycle stage Cost item Total WM Dev time
Market analysis Focus group (set of 3) 1.11 6 wks
Product acceptance analysis
Focus group (set of 3) 1.11 6 wks
Product mock-up 0.47 2 wks
User survey 1.16 4 wks
Task analysis User study 1.05 4.3 wks
Lab construction 1.05 5 wks
Prototype construction Initial design 0.93 4 wks
Design change (20 @ .05 WM) 1.00 4 wks
UIMS system 1.00 4.3 wks
User testing and evaluation
User study (4 @ 1.05 WM) 4.20 17.2 wks
User survey 1.16 4 wks
User testing User study 1.05 4.3 wks
Product survey User survey 1.16 4 wks
Total 16.45 WM 69.1 wks
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 51
Common tangible benefits of Human Factors design
Direct benefits can be calculated by making several valid assumptions about the improvements to the UI, specifically:
(1) A reduction in user learning times
(2) A reduction in user errors
(3) A reduction in the cost of maintaining the system
Remember: for 32,000 line program for 250 employees…
© Simeon Keates 2008
Intangible costs of Human Factors software lifecycle
1 - The selection of non-critical design decisions for user studies 2 - The establishment of too high a level of usability 3 - Falling into the trap of overdesign 4 - Communication problems between Human Factors specialists and
software designers
Page 52
© Simeon Keates 2008
Selection of non-critical design decisions for user studies
Not all design decisions affect the overall “quality” and “acceptability” of the final UI
How do you determine which ones are worth investigating?• Examples: Arial or Helvetica? 11 pt or 12 pt? Icon names?
Most usability experts rely on experience and intuition to decide… … but they can be wrong!
Costs: Wasted user study time Discovery of important changes may be put off until later
Solution: Make your user studies flexible enough to allow discovery of new problems
Page 53
© Simeon Keates 2008
Establishment of too high a level of usability
Some UI performance targets simply cannot be met Example: “This system must be learnable within 1 week” This may appear to be a reasonable target … … but what if the task itself takes >1 week to learn?
Costs: Design and development time chasing unrealistic performance targets
Solution: Set realistic targets This can be informed by your task analysis studies Also, aim for incremental improvements in performance over design
cycles
Page 54
© Simeon Keates 2008
Falling into the trap of overdesign
Prototyping software (UIMS) can make it very easy to add more features (“bells and whistles”)• Examples: borders, colours, icons, images, etc.
How to know when to stop??? How to know what are valuable additions?
Costs: Designer’s time + implementation time
Solution: Strong management control
Page 55
© Simeon Keates 2008
Communication problems between Human Factors specialists and software designers
There is a knowledge gap between HF specialists and the coders/developers…
Unless there is a shared common language and understanding, it is difficult to communicate effectively
Costs: Time lost in establishing a common language/understanding Time lost developing the wrong thing (or the thing wrongly) Time lost designing solutions that simply cannot be implemented
Solutions: HF specialists learns to develop own UI Better corporate culture of communication
Page 56
© Simeon Keates 2008
Intangible benefits from Human Factors software lifecycle
1 - Adoption of features that save time 2 - Avoiding system sabotage problems 3 - Enhancing the ability to solve conceptual problems using the
software system
Page 57
© Simeon Keates 2008
Adoption of features that save time
Feature adoption by users is reduced when the system is so complex that users give up trying to learn the advanced features• i.e. they satisfice
Users will typically adopt the least complex system that offers them the required functionality• Even if it is less efficient
The Product Acceptance Analysis should identify unnecessary features
The User Tests should reduce feature complexity
Page 58
© Simeon Keates 2008
Avoiding system sabotage problems
Being asked to use a system that is inappropriate, difficult or inadequate can lead to employee frustration
This frustration can lead to employees “taking it out on the system”• Example: entering incorrect or incomplete data• Example: reporting false system failures
This is referred to as “system sabotage”
Focus groups in Market Analysis and Product Acceptance stages are designed to address this issue• They test the receptivity of the target users to the new system
Also, the Task Analysis ensures that the final product matches the needs of the users as closely as possible
Page 59
© Simeon Keates 2008
Enhancing the ability to solve conceptual problems using the software system
Increasing the user’s cognitive load to use the system … … decreases the user’s cognitive capacity for “solving the problem”
So although the problem may be “solved” … … there may have been a “better” solution
User Testing is designed to remove complexities from the system … … and thus support users’ creative problem solving
Page 60
© Simeon Keates 2008
Recommendations for Human Factors inclusion
Page 61
The HF lifecycle stages and the type of cost reduction that they are most likely to effect
Cost reduction item Related lifecycle stage
Increased system adoption Market analysis
Product acceptance analysis
User testing and evaluation
Reduced training costs Task analysis
User testing
Reduced user errors Task analysis
User testing
Transfer of design changes to an earlier stage in the lifecycle
Prototype construction
User testing (on prototype)
Product survey (next re-design)
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 62
Cost of running User Tests vs. size of user population
Page 62
Size of user population
$
Break-even point
Benefits of testing
Cost of testing
User testing not cost-effective
User testing cost-effective
© Simeon Keates 2008
Summary of cost-benefit analysis
For any large user group, the benefits will usually outstrip the costs … …often by a significant margin
For smaller user groups, the case is less clear-cut … … so either decrease costs …
• e.g. through “discount” usability methods
… or examine the intangible benefits more closely
Page 63
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 64
Designing for mobile devices
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 65
5 products killed by the mobile phone (according to Wired.com)
1 – The PDA 2 – The camera 3 – The Ultra Mobile PC 4 – The telephone 5 – The MP3 player 6 – Books 7 – Handheld games consoles
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 66
Designing for Mobile devices(Jakob Nielsen's Alertbox, February 17, 2009)
Abysmal success ratesUsers failed more often than they succeeded when using their mobiles to perform tasks on websites
Download timesMost pages take far too long to load, particularly on non-3G phones. But even the highest-end phones deliver much slower browsing than a desktop computer. As a result, users are reluctant to request additional pages and they easily give up.
Search Dominance
Mobile users are more likely to want information to help them at that location or time, such as finding directions or finding out what's going on nearby.
© Simeon Keates 2008
Mobile Internet Motivations and behaviour (Carol Taylor, Judith Ramey, Motricity & University of Washington)
Motivation 1. Awareness: The desire to stay current,
to keep oneself informed in general. Examples:
scanning email and checking news sites.
Motivation 2. Time Management: The desire to be
efficient, to manage projects, or get things done.
Examples: looking up an address; checking traffic
maps; looking for supplies/ jobs/ roommates; getting
instructions for a class assignment.
Motivation 3. Curiosity: The interest in an unfamiliar
topic, often based on a tip or chance encounter.
Examples: looking up information about a country of
interest or information to settle a friendly bet in a bar.
Page 67
© Simeon Keates 2008
Mobile Internet Motivations and behaviour (Carol Taylor, Judith Ramey, Motricity & University of Washington (CHI 2009))
Motivation 4. Diversion: The desire to kill time or
alleviate boredom. Examples: browsing favorite sites;
checking social networking sites.
Motivation 5. Social Connection: The desire to
engage with other people. Examples: arranging to get
together; sending email; posting to social networking
sites; seeking information as a group.
Motivation 6. Social Avoidance: The desire to
separate oneself from others, to appear occupied so as
not to be bothered. Examples: using cell phone activity
as a “cover” to prevent others from talking to you.
Page 68
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 69
Designing for Mobile devices
Excellent sets of slides at from MobileHCI 2008
http://albrecht-schmidt.blogspot.com/2008/09/mobilehci-2008-tutorial.html
Suggested reading: Scott Mackenzie’s presentation “Text input for mobile devices”…
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 70
Exercise
© Simeon Keates 2008Page 71
Exercise
Conclude your user trials
If you want feedback on your group presentation – then prepare slides for Friday 4th of December• NOTE – this is optional, but recommended