Министерство образования и науки Российской Федерации

НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКИЙ

МОСКОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ СТРОИТЕЛЬНЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ

Кафедра иностранных языков и профессиональной коммуникации

ИНОСТРАННЫЙ ЯЗЫК

Методические указания к аудиторной и самостоятельной работе для студентов

бакалавриата очной формы обучения направления подготовки

20.03.02 Природообустройство и водопользование

© НИУ МГСУ, 2015

Москва 2015

УДК 811.111

ББК 81.2

И68

С о с т а в и т е л ь

Э.В. Роот

И68 Иностранный язык [Электронный ресурс] : методические указания к

аудиторной и самостоятельной работе для студентов бакалавриата очной формы

обучения направления подготовки 20.03.02 Природообустройство и

водопользование / М-во образования и науки Рос. Федерации, Нац. исследоват.

Моск. гос. строит. ун-т, каф. иностранных языков и профессиональной

коммуникации ; сост. Э.В. Роот. – Электрон. дан. и прогр. (913Кб). – Москва,

2015. – Учебное сетевое электронное издание. – Режим доступа:

http://lib.mgsu.ru/Scripts/irbis64r_91/cgiirbis_64.exe?C21COM= F&I21DBN= IBIS&P21SBN=IBIS –

Загл. с титул. экрана.

Представлены тексты на английском языке для аудиторной и самостоятельной

работы и упражнения для закрепления пройденного материала.

Для студентов бакалавриата очной формы обучения направления подготовки

20.03.02 Природообустройство и водопользование.

Учебное сетевое электронное издание

© НИУ МГСУ, 2015

Отв. за выпуск — кафедра иностранных языков и профессиональной коммуникации

Подписано к использованию 19.10.2015 г. Уч.-изд. л. 2. Объем данных 913 Кб

Федеральное государственное бюджетное

образовательное учреждение высшего образования

«Национальный исследовательский Московский государственный

строительный университет» (НИУ МГСУ).

129337, Москва, Ярославское ш., 26.

Издательство МИСИ – МГСУ.

Тел. (495) 287-49-14, вн. 13-71, (499) 188-29-75, (499) 183-97-95.

E-mail: ric@mgsu.ru, rio@mgsu.ru

Introduction

This textbook is intended for technical students of the University of Civil Engineering or

other ones at the faculties where students learn Environment Engineering or building practitioners

who are new to the field of ecologically sustainable building. It will help them to understand the

basic performance expected of a sustainable building. For example, a building must not collapse

because of incorrect design or construction of the foundations. The materials used in a building

must be durable and resistant to climatic extremes. A building must be well lit and ventilated. It

should be cool in hot weather and warm in cold weather. If the building has bathrooms and toilets,

then they should be hygienic.

It is also designed to provide grounding in the general issues and in the fundamental laws

and principles of ecological sustainability. People in construction should develop an understanding

of the relationships between natural systems and built environments and between decisions and

intended outcomes. This textbook is intended to help people in general to develop an initial level of

ecological literacy and environmental awareness, an approach to

thinking about building that can become a platform for life-long learning in this field.

Unit1

Education

1. Discuss the following in pairs:

a. What kind of things might students learn at the University of Civil Engineering in

general? Think about:

Safe construction, healthy and durable building, technical and vocational studies as part of

the curriculum, practical information on techniques and performance of materials used in

construction, outline of the procedures to build a house

b. What difficulties might students face with their studies? Think about:

too much time on coursework, pressure from deadlines, hard work, too many academic books

c. What are the things that might give them enjoyment? Share your own thoughts.

2. Which of the following aims are most important? Rank them in order of

importance, then compare with your partner.

a. prepare for life in the workplace

b. get knowledge on how to build the different parts of a building

c. develop critical thinking

d. become aware of construction safety methods

e. develop understanding of other people

f. get practical knowledge on the use of equipment

3. Before you read the text, discuss the following questions in pairs.

a. Where should you put the education section of your CV?

b. What qualifications should you include?

4. Before you read, look at the following statement. How far do you agree with it? Tell

your partner.

If your education and qualification are your strongest selling point, then you’ll want to put

this information close to the top of your CV. This is especially true if you are a recent graduate,

obtained excellent academic results or have gained a professional qualification which is a

prerequisite for the job you’re applying for.

5. Read the article about how to write about your education in your CV and answer

the following questions.

a. Why should recent graduates put the education section near the top of their CV?

b. What terms does the author use to mean just the main pieces of information, nothing

more?

c. Under what two circumstances would you include your A-level results in a CV?

d. What qualifications should you mention first?

e. What should you do if you’re searching for employment in the IT field?

Detailing your education and qualifications in CV

Should your education be proudly at the top of the CV or among the optional section at the

end? It all depends on who you are and what job you are trying to get. If you have just left school,

college or university, your education experience is going to be more immediately relevant and

should therefore be prominently displayed early on. Your potential employer may be keen to hire

recent graduates and will wish to see exactly what your educational attainments are. This means you

can give plenty of detail of curricula, theses and grades. However, if you have been in the world of

work for 20 years your education is of little interest to an employer and should go in skeletal form

near the bottom of the CV. What you have achieved since leaving full-time education is obviously

more indicative of your value.

Another thing to bear in mind is that higher qualifications imply lower once. If you have

only got GCSEs, fine. If, however, you have a bachelor’s degree, it is unnecessary good. A recruiter

will simply assume they were taken at the usual time and is unlikely to be interested in how many

there were and what grades they were. The same applies to a Master’s degree or PhD. The higher

qualification makes the mention of any lower ones redundant.

If you feel you need to mention more in the way of academic attainment, for example as a

recent graduate or as someone with professional qualifications or other postgraduate training, the

section should be organized in reverse chronological order, like your work experience section.

Finally, the education section can be the place to mention the all-important computer skills

that continue to dominate working life. Different jobs and professions will require you to have an

understanding of different computer packages, and if you have good working knowledge of these it

is worth mentioning that you know they exist, or have been trained to use them. If you are applying

for a job more closely related to IT, your technical proficiencies should have a relevant section of

their own (entitled ‘computer efficiency’ or ‘computer skills’ or ‘technical expertise’) much higher

up the priority list.

6. What five types of qualification are mentioned in the text? Put them in order

from highest to lowest.

a__________ b __________ c __________ d __________ e __________

7. In pairs, discuss the following questions.

a. What are the equivalents of the qualifications in your own country? Use the phrases

from the list.

something like, is equivalent to, Phd, Master’s degree, Bachelor’s degree, A-levels

GCSEs

b. Would the advice in the text be relevant if you were applying for a job in your own

country?

c. At the moment in the UK most university students study for three years (four years in

Scotland) to gain a bachelor’s degree. Some students then decide to continue at

university for one or two years to do postgraduate studies and gain a Master’s degree.

How does the higher education system in your country compare to this system? Discuss

in the group.

8. In pairs, tell each other about the qualifications you are going to acquire.

9. Look at the following example of an education section of a CV and say if you need

additional information about the given qualification. Think about the following: (Is

it clear from the title what the course involved?)

2009-2010 The Ludwig-Maximilians-University in Munich

10. Say what other details can be included. Think about your research (coursework,

dissertation).

11. Write your own education section of your potential CV. 12. Before you read the text, tell your partner what you think it is about.

13. Can you guess about the meaning of the Greek words, without a dictionary?

14. Read the text and in pairs answer the following question:

According to the text, how important is the awareness of Nature’s value?

Ecology, economy, ecosophy

The Greek terms economy, ecology and ecosophy belong together:

Oikos - House

Nomos – Management

Logos - Understanding

Sofos - Wisdom

If we consider the world to be our common house, we can say that we have managed too

much and understood too little. In Nature – the existential base of humanity – the consequences of

this are becoming clearer: melting of polar ice caps, desertification, diminishing biodiversity. These

are things of which we are all aware.

The growing incidence of stress and mental problems among the populations of

industrialized nations would indicate that we have not even understood the nature of ourselves –

that we, too, have become the victims of too much management.

Ecosophy expands the Kantian imperative ‘to see every person as a goal, rather than a

means’, and to include other living beings. In this way, it defends the value of Nature in itself, and

acknowledges that it is impossible to escape the third law of ecology according to Barry

Commoner: ‘All things are connected’.

We need a sustainable perspective of Nature that has a guiding influence on human activity

or, alternatively, a general morality which is acceptable to all. The ecologist Aldo Leopold

maintains: ‘A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic

community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.’

This represents an ethic for which, in ancient times, there was no need. Trond Berg Eriksen

describes the situation in antiquity:

In antiquity, commanding the forces of Nature and bringing discipline to human nature were

two sides of the same coin. In neither area did the interveners need to fear that they would succeed

completely. The power of Nature was overwhelming. It took care of itself. Humans had to battle to

acquire the bare necessities. Nature’s order and equilibrium was unshakeable. Man was, and

considered himself, a parasite on an eternal life system. The metropolis was a hard won corner, a

fortified camp under threat from earthquakes, storms, drought and wild animals. The metropolis did

not pose a threat to Nature, but was itself an exposed form of life... In such a perspective,

technology was ethically neutral. Morality comes into play only when one can cause damage, in

relation to someone or something that is weaker or equally strong. Therefore, the consequences of

human actions for non-human objects lie beyond the horizon of moral issues.

Our ancestors’ morality was based on the axiom that people themselves were the only living

beings that could be harmed by human actions. Ethics focused on this; and ethics dealt with

interpersonal relationships. At the same time this morality was limited to the moment – only the

immediate consequences of an action were of significance. Long-term effects were of no interest

and beyond regulation. Today, humankind’s position and influence is drastically

changed. The way in which we manage natural resources may have irremediable consequences for

future generations of all life forms.

15. What do the Greek words above the text mean in terms of Ecological

Engineering?

16. Explain Kantian imperative «to see every person as a goal, rather than a means».

17. What does the author mean by the following phrases?

…commanding the forces of Nature and bringing discipline to

human nature were two sides of the same coin.

Humans had to battle to

acquire the bare necessities.

The metropolis was a hard won corner,…

The metropolis …, but was itself an exposed form of life...

18. Trond Berg Eriksen describes the situation in antiquity: Nature’s order and

equilibrium was unshakeable. What does he mean? Why has the situation changed

in recent years? Tell the group.

19. Read the following text about American Education and say if it is similar or

different in Russia.

Standards of American Education

Those who believe that American schools are more play than work overlook an important

fact: a high school diploma is not a ticket that allows someone to automatically enter a university.

Standardized examinations play a decisive role at almost every level of education, especially in the

admission to colleges and universities. Students who wish to go to a good university but only took

high school courses that were a “snap”, or who spent too much time on extracurricular activities

will have to compete with those who worked hard and took demanding courses.

There are two widely used and nationally-administered standardized tests for high school

students who wish to attend a college or university. One is the SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test),

which attempts to measure aptitudes in verbal and mathematical fields necessary for college work.

The other is the ACT (American College Testing program), which attempts to measure skills in

English, mathematics, and the social and natural sciences. Both tests are given at specific dates and

locations throughout the U.S. by non –profit, nongovernmental organizations. The tests are used by

universities as standards for comparison, but are not in any way “official”.

Each year, the SAT is taken by some two million high school students. One million of these

students are in their last year of high school. Another million are in their next-to-last year. The

ACT, more commonly used in the western part of the U.S., is taken each year by another million

high school students. With so many different types if high schools and programs, with so many

differences in subjects and standards, these tests provide common, nationwide measuring sticks.

Many universities publish the average scores achieved on these tests by the students they admit.

This indicates the “quality” or level of ability expected of those who apply.

Similar testing programs exist at higher levels, as well. Someone who has already finished

four years if university and wishes to go to a law or medical school is also required to take

standardized tests. These tests have been agreed upon by the various law and medical schools and

are administered nationwide at scheduled times. Like the SAT or ACT, these tests are not official or

governmentally controlled. Other examinations, however, are official and usually quite difficult.

For example, even after someone has studied for many years and earned a medical degree from a

university this still does not mean that he or she can begin to practice in the U.S. The individual

states require still further examinations.

Other pressures also operate at the university level. Most universities require mid-semester

and final (end-of-semester) examinations. It is possible, as a great many students have learned to

“flunk out” of a university, that is to be asked to leave because of poor grades. And most students

who have scholarships must maintain a certain grade average to keep their scholarships.

Since tuition fees alone can be rather high (ranging from over $10,000 for an academic year

at Harvard of Yale to under $1,000 at small public institutions) at most colleges and universities, a

large number of students hold jobs besides studying. These part-time jobs may be either “on

campus” (in the dormitories, cafeterias, students services, research, and in teaching and tutoring

jobs) or “off campus” (with local firms and businesses, in offices, etc.). In this way, for example,

more than half of all students at Stanford University earn a significant part of their college expenses

during the school year. In addition, there are work-study programs at a number of universities, and

financial assistance programs which are provided by the states and the federal government. At

Alaska Pacific University, for instance, about 71 percent of all students receive aid through the

university, and 15 percent work part-time in campus. At Harvard about 40 percent of all students

receive scholarships, and the average scholarship at Stanford is $ 4,500 per year. Students who must

work as well as study are the rule rather than exception. Students also cannot simply move from one

university to another, or trades places with other students. Before changing to another university,

students must first gave been accepted by the new university and have met that university’s

admission requirements.

The competition and pressures at many universities, especially at the higher, “graduate”

levels, are not pleasant. Nor are they evident in the popular pictures of “campus life”. However,

this system has been highly successful in producing scholars who are consistently at the top or near

the top of their fields internationally. One indication of this can be seen by looking at the textbooks

or professional journals used and read in foreign universities and nothing the authors, where they

teach and where they were trained.

Another indication, less precise perhaps, is the number of Americans have won Nobel

Prizes. Americans who have won 146 Nobel Prizes in the sciences – physics, chemistry, and

physiology or medicine – since the awards were first given in 1901. This represents 38.5 percent of

all recipients. The next closest country is Great Britain, with 63 Nobel Prizes. If the U.S. is still

distant from the aim of educating everyone well, it has at least done a good job with many.

20. Tell the partner about the two standardized exams for those going to college or

university.

21. Compare the standards for High School exams in America to the ones in Russia.

Unit 2

Building types and their functions

1. Look through the list of types of building and say what each building is used for and

discuss the types of activities that could go on in each building :

block of flats fire station railway station

hotel school swimming pool

hospital church bank

2. Look at this table and complete the examples:

Building type Purpose of building Examples of activities Spaces provided

University educating 200 students

per year

giving lectures

a). . . . . . storing and

reading books

lecture room

laboratory

b). . . . . .

House accommodating a

family of 5 persons

preparing and cooking

food

c). . . . . .

d)_____

e). . . . . .

dining room

bedroom

Hospital treating 150 patients

per day

f). . . . . .

examining patients

g). . . . . .

treatment room

h). . . . . .

dispensary

Factory making 400 precast

concrete panels per

week

storing materials

i). . . . . .

casting concrete panels

j). . . . . .

mixing space

k). . . . . .

3. Now add examples from the list of building types in exercise 1.

4. Look at the table above and then ask and answer the questions like the following:

a. What is the function of a university?

A university functions/ serves as a place for educating students

b. What spaces are provided in the building?

Spaces provided in the building include a lecture room, laboratories and library.

c. What is the lecture room used for?

The lecture room is used for giving lectures.

5. Look at the following example and match the building type on the left with the phrase

on the right to make similar sentences:

Example:

The university has the capacity to educate/ is able to educate 200 students a year.

House make 400 precast panel per week.

Hospital accommodating a family of five persons.

Factory serving up to 200 customers per day.

Post office treat up to 150 patients per day.

Shop dealing with 10 train movements per day.

Railway station handle up to 1000 letters per day.

6. Read about the function of the proposed building and say how many different

categories of building use can you find in your own city (town or village).

A building is designed for a specific purpose and it is this purpose which defines the overall

function of the building. The various elements of a building have to be put together in such a way as

to achieve that overall function. To a certain extent the functions of the various elements of a

building can be generalized, but usually these will be related to the overall function of the building.

The planners control building projects because they approve the overall design and position

of a building. They are not usually concerned with the detail of a building design, but they want to

make sure that the building will fit into area. This means that the planners consider:

• the type of proposed building;

• the height of the building;

• the materials that will be used to construct the building;

• access to the building.

Buildings are permanent features of the landscape in all countries. The planners want to

control the way an area develops to make sure that it does not result confused mix of uses.

The planners will normally reject a proposal to build a factory in a residential area or to

build a block of flats in an industrial area. Building types are usually divided into categories and

approved only for areas that share the same characteristics.

Common categories are:

• domestic – houses, flats, hostels and hotels

• commercial – offices, shops, showrooms, markets

• industrial – factories, workshops, quarries

• public – cinemas, theatres, hospitals, churches, schools, colleges, universities

• agricultural – farms, ranches, smallholdings

7. Read the passage and speak about the design requirements:

Buildings are designed so they are capable of performing the design requirements. The most

important design requirements include the following:

a. Weather resistance – keep out wind, dust and precipitation

b. Privacy – provide visual screening

c. Surfaces – provide surfaces for activities

d. Security – keep out intruders

e. Fire resistance – prevent fire from spreading

f. Structure – resist loads

g. Ventilation – provide fresh air

h. Thermal insulation – modify the passage of heat

i. Sound insulation – control sound transmission

j. Moisture – control the passage of moisture

k. Light - provide natural and artificial light

8. Complete the table and then make up statements like in the following example:

The functions of the lowest floor include providing surfaces for activities and modifying the

passage of heat.

Element Main functions

External envelope Lowest floor C, H, etc.

External wall

Roof

Internal division Suspended floor

Partitions

Suspended ceiling

9. Look at the following examples and answer the questions:

Examples:

a) The external wall acts as a thermal insulator.

b) The roof and the external walls are designed to resist loads.

c) The partition enables the building to provide visual screening

1. What enables the occupants of a building

-to keep dry?

-to have privacy?

-to keep warm?

-to be safe from fire?

-to read during the nighttime?

-to be safe from intruders?

2. What element is designed to

-control the noise level between rooms?

-support snow loads?

-resist the passage of moisture?

-let in natural light?

-control the movement of people into and out of the building?

3. What elements act as

-a thermal insulator?

-a sound insulator?

-a filter to separate the internal volume from the external environment?

-a moisture barrier?

10. Study the table and make up statements about the materials and their properties using

the following:

has the ability to / is able to/ is capable of

Name Properties

Concrete Low combustibility, high destiny, pervious

Aluminium Impervious, corrosion resistance, high strength

Steel High strength, high thermal conductivity

Mineral wool Low thermal conductivity, low strength

Ceramic tile Hard, impervious, good appearance

For example: Concrete is capable of withstanding high temperatures.

11. Read about the functions of wall components and fill in the gaps:

Function: structure; suitable material -----------

Function: thermal insulation; suitable material -----------

Function: sound insulation; suitable material -----------

Function: weather resistance; suitable material -----------

Function: fire resistance; suitable material -----------

Function: attractive finish; suitable material -----------

12. Write sentences like in example:

Concrete has low combustibility and is therefore used to provide fire resistance for walls.

13. Look again at the diagrams in exercise 1. Choose a suitable material for each element

and say why you have chosen that material then write down sentences.

Speak about the following materials: steel, aluminium, mineral wool, concrete, ceramic

tile.

Example: Steel has high tensile and compressive strength and is therefore used to provide a

structure for a building.

14. Before you read the text find the Russian equivalents of the following words and

expressions:

Aquastat, outlet pipe, boiler, continuous loop, thermal conductivity, fin tube, expansion

tank, safety valve, relieve the pressure

15. Read the text, and then answer the questions below.

One method of heating a building is to circulate hot water through radiators which are

located in each room. The water is heated in a boiler by a burner and is kept at a constant

temperature by a thermostat device called an aquastat. The aquastat is located on the outlet pipe

from the boiler. The pipe runs in a continuous loop from the boiler to the radiators and back to the

boiler. The function of a radiator is to transfer the heat from the hot water to the air in the room.

Therefore they are made of a material which has the property of high thermal conductivity. The

shape of the radiator is also important because the greater the surface area the more rapidly it gives

off heat. One type of radiator, called a fin tube, consists of a number of thin fins shaped like a circle

which welded to a pipe passing through their centres.

A thermostat in the room can be set to the required temperature. When the air temperature in

the room decreases, the thermostat switches on the pump which is located on the return line from

the radiators. When the room reaches the set temperature, the thermostat switches off the pump.

An expansion tank is provided to allow for expansion of the water as it heats. A safety valve,

located on the pipe leading to this tank, serves to relieve the pressure in the boiler if it is too high.

a. What enables the inside of a building to be kept warm?

b. Which part of the heating system circulates hot water through the continuous pipe?

c. Which part acts as the room temperature controller?

d. Which part functions as a means of controlling the temperature of the water in the boiler?

e. Which part is designed to transfer the heat from the hot water to the air in the room?

f. Which part prevents the boiler from blowing up?

g. Which part serves as a device for heating the water in the boiler?

h. Which part enables the water to expand safely?

16. Make true statements by matching the following halves of sentences a-g and 1-7:

a. When the pump is switched on

b. When the temperature of the water in the boiler decreases

c. When the temperature of the water on the boiler reaches the set temperature

d. When the air temperature decreases

e. When the radiator is turned on

f. When the water in the boiler expands

g. When the boiler pressure is too high

1. the aquastat shuts down the burner.

2. the safety valve relieves the pressure.

3. the thermostat switches on the burner.

4. if flows into the expansion tank.

5. the aquastat starts up the burner.

6. heat is transferred from the hot water to the air in the room.

7. hot water flows through the pipe to the radiators.

17. What do you think are the functions of an air conditioner? Tell the partner.

18. Study the functions of an air conditioner and say if you were right about them.

Functions of an air conditioner:

a. temperature control

b. air cleaning

c. odour removal

d. germicidal treatment

e. noise control

f. air motion

g. relative humidity

Air conditioners are designed so that they are capable of performing some or all of the above

functions.

19. Look at the following list of the most important functions for the following spaces, and

make statements like the example below:

a. Auditoria A C E

b. Commercial offices C B F

c. Apartments A C E

d. School classrooms A C D

e. Motels A E C

Example: In an auditorium, the three most important functions of an air conditioner are to control

the temperature, to remove odour and to control noise.

20. Now make similar statements about what you think to be the three most important

functions of an air conditioner for the following spaces and discuss the reasons for your

choice with a partner:

a. Hospital patients’ rooms

b. Factory buildings

c. Computer rooms

d. Medical buildings

e. Hotel guests’ rooms.

Unit 3

The Assembly Sequence of a Prefabricated Building

1. Study the phases of the assembly sequence.

The Assembly sequence of a prefabricated building is divided into four stages or

phases, which in turn consist of some events:

Phase 1

Ground is excavated

The concrete foundations are constructed

The column base plates are fixed

The steel columns are erected

Phase 2

Roof decking is put in place

Upper floor steel columns are erected

Concrete floors slabs are put in place

Beams and bracing are fixed

Phase 3

Weatherproof roof membrane is laid

Balustrade fixing plates are fixed

Conner units are erected

Horizontal cladding panels are fixed

Vertical cladding panels are fixed

Phase 4

Suspended ceilings are fixed

Partitions are erected

Services are installed in the ceiling void

Floor finishes are laid

Building is decorated

2. Study the example, describing the events in the first phase of the assembly sequence

and make statements about the sequence of events in phases 2, 3 and 4.

Event 1 - Initially/ first, the ground is excavated.

Event 2 – Then/after that, the concrete foundations are constructed.

Event 3 – Later/subsequently, the column base plates are fixed.

Event 4 – Finally, the steel columns are erected.

3. Read the following questions and say if they are different or the same. Try to give

your own answer.

a. Why are the upper floor steel columns erected before the roof decking has been

put in place?

b. Why is the roof decking put in place after the upper floor steel columns have

been erected?

4. Read the answer and compare it to what you said.

Because the roof decking requires the upper floor steel columns to support it.

5. Look through the phases 1, 2, 3 and 4 and again and make similar questions to which

these are the answers:

a. Because the concrete foundations require solid ground to support them

b. Because the column base plates need a flat rigid surface to support them.

c. Because the steel columns transmit their loads through them to the foundations

d. Because the concrete floors are supported by the beams.

e. Because the weatherproof membrane is laid over the balustrade fixing plates.

f. Because the horizontal cladding panels are fixed to the corner units.

g. Because the vertical cladding panels are fixed to the horizontal cladding panels.

h. Because the workmen require access to the ceiling void to install the services.

i. Because the partitions are fixed to the suspended ceilings.

6. Identify the part of the building or the phase of the assembly sequence described in

these sentences:

a. This cannot be put in place until the upper floor steel columns have been erected.

b. Before fixing these, the workmen erect the corner units.

c. During this phase the beams and bracing are fixed.

d. The workmen fix these after constructing the concrete foundations.

e. The electric wiring is installed during this phase.

f. When the balustrade fixing plates have been fixed, the workmen can start laying this.

7. Read the description of phase 1 of the assembly sequence:

Having completed the preparation of the site, the workmen begin the initial stage. This

includes excavating the ground, constructing the concrete foundations, fixing the column and

erecting the steel columns. The workmen begin by excavating the ground. This precedes the

constructing of the concrete foundations because they require solid ground to support them. This is

followed by the fixing of the column base plates. Finally the steel columns are erected.

8. Use the above text as a model to write similar descriptions of phases 2, 3 and 4. 9. Before you read the following text think about precautions, which should be taken for

safe construction.

10. Say what you think are the things which create risks for the building workers on a

construction site?

11. Read the first and the last sentences of each paragraph. Can you guess what each

paragraph is about? Discuss in pairs.

12. Read the whole text and choose the suitable heading from the list 1-7 for each

paragraph A-H.

a. Working safely

b. Wearing protecting clothing

c. Working in excavations

d. Working with dangerous materials

e. Working with electricity

f. First aid

g. Health and hygiene

Health and safety

A building site can be a dangerous environment. Powerful machinery, hazardous materials,

scaffolding and trenches create risks for the building workers and other people in the

construction area. This chapter describes some of the safe working practices that can prevent

accidents happening from carelessness or inexperience on building sites.

Accidents will happen on building sites, but the number can be reduced by developing the skills

that you need to do your work safely. By keeping your eyes open and thinking about the work

on site, you may be able to work out in advance the safest methods for carrying out different

jobs. This helps you to avoid methods that might endanger yourself and others.

Remember – you will improve your safety record if you use the correct tools and equipment

properly:

A) You should keep your working clothes in a safe place on site so that you can change in and

out of them each day. A locker is useful so that you can store your personal effects securely

while you are working. The best working clothes are overalls and strong boots. If you are

working in wet weather you will also need rubber boots. You should always wear a hard hat

to protect you head in case anything is dropped from above or if you hit your head on a

sharp edge on the site.

B) A site may have many excavations or holes. If shallow excavations are not protected, then

they should be surrounded by excavated material. Deep excavations must be surrounded by

barriers.

When you are working in a deep excavation you may not be seen by other people working at

ground level. To work safely, you should always:

wear a hard hat to protect your head in case something is accidentally thrown or dropped

into the hole;

put supports against the sides of the excavation so that the soil cannot fall in on you.

Depending on the weather and the type of soil, excavations can be wet or dusty. If it is wet,

then you will need rubber boots to protect your work shoes. In dry dusty conditions you should

wear a mask to cover your mouth nose.

Excavations should be inspected daily before anyone is allowed to work in them. This is

very important after heavy rain.

If excavations are blasted out of rock, then before the charge is fired. Only very experienced

people should carry out blasting.

Heavy loads and machinery should not be too close to the edge of any excavation. Too much

weight can cause unsupported ground to collapse and the heavy load to fall into the hole.

C) A building site may have many dangerous materials such as:

• explosives and detonators;

• petrol;

• cellulose thinners;

• caustic cleaners;

• paraffin.

Careless use of these materials can cause considerable harm to the building workers. Some

simple precautions can prevent accidents or theft.

Explosives and detonators must be cleared from a site when they are not in use. When they

are kept on site, they must be locked in a safe place, and the site should have a record book which

lists:

1. the amount of explosive received;

2. the amount of explosive used;

3. the amount that remains.

The petrol that fuels the machinery must be kept in a locked compound. If a considerable

amount of petrol is needed, then it should be stored in a brick enclosure. Diesel is a better choice

that petrol because it does not catch fire so easily, but it should also be locked away.

Cellulose thinners, caustic cleaners and paraffin should be stored in locked areas so that their

use can be controlled.

D) You can power machinery and temporary lighting with electricity. Because building sites are

often wet places, electric shocks are possible. The wiring to the equipment and lighting may

get rough treatment. For this reason, it is extremely important to inspect and check the

condition of the wiring at regular intervals.

Ideally, the electricity to power tools and lights should be 110 volts and connected to

transformers instead of 240 volt supplies. The reduced voltage means that an electric shock

is less likely to be fatal.

E) If a person suffers an electric shock on site, then follow these steps:

• Turn off the electric current.

• Make the person comfortable with as little movement as possible.

• Cover the person with extra clothing or a blanket for warmth.

• Check the strength of the person’s pulse.

• Use artificial respiration.

• Contact an ambulance.

F) A building site should have a first aid box which as a minimum contains:

1. plasters;

2. bandages;

3. ointment;

4. disinfectant.

Someone on site should be in charge of the box and know how to deal with broken bones,

burns and electric shocks.

G) Health and hygiene are as important as safety in building sites. This means that the workers

should have access to an area for cooking and the facilities for basic hygiene as well as

schedule that allows rest breaks and meal times.

Healthy workers need:

• shade for rest breaks;

• dry areas to prepare food and drink on rainy days;

• facilities for washing hands;

• WCs;

• areas to hang up wet clothes;

• a room to change in and out of working clothes

Unit 4

The building team

1. Read the following extract and think about the most important things which are

necessary for construction.

Buildings are the result of the need to provide an enclosed, secure space for people’s activities.

In the short term a building can be constructed out of grass or mud on a timber frame. In the longer

term, there is a need to use more expensive and durable materials. If more money is invested in the

construction of buildings, then people will expect them to last a long time.

2. Think about the people involved in construction and tell your partner.

3. Read the following passage and compare your answers with it.

The building industry has developed separate but related disciplines that employ

people trained in building construction and technology. These people include:

a. the client;

b. the design team;

c. the contractor’s team;

d. the building material suppliers;

e. the regulators.

4. Read the following passage and say what the client needs before issuing an instruction

to an architect to design a building.

A client with access to money and land is one of the most important people in a building

project. When a client, who may be a private individual or a commercial organization, decides to

build, the process begins even before the first soil is turned.

In many countries, the government is the main client for building projects that meet the

basic needs of the people. Hospitals, schools and other public buildings are typical projects of this

type.

5. Find appropriate Russian equivalents of the following words and phrases:

a client, access to money and land, a private individual, a commercial organization, the first

soil is turned

6. Read about the people in the design team. Then name them and speak about their

responsibilities.

The design team is responsible for the overall layout and appearance of a building. An

architect may lead a design team, which consists of other architects and technicians. Together the

design team will produce: design drawings; working drawings; perspectives.

During the building project the design team will also carry out administrative jobs and visit

the site to observe progress and deal with problems that arise from the design or building work.

The design team includes a structural engineer, who makes sure that buildings are

structurally stable. You employ a structural engineer if the stresses and loads are greater than those

in a simple house.

The engineer calculates the weight of the construction materials, the weight of the people

and equipment who will occupy the building and the maximum wind pressure on the building.

These calculations enable the engineer to design:

a. foundations;

b. columns and beams;

c. roof trusses;

d. suspended floors;

e. other structural elements of the building.

When the structural drawings and calculations are produced, they are approved by the

building inspector and used by the contractors on site.

The quantity surveyor prepares a bill of quantities for building projects so that constructors

can accurately price the work. The quantity surveyor works out the size of the areas and the volume

of required materials from the design team’s drawings and specifications.

The clerk of works, who is usually employed by the client, is an expert in how buildings

should be constructed. The clerk of works uses this knowledge to make sure that the contractor

builds the building correctly and safely.

7. Say how the structural engineer helps the architect on the design team.

8. Before reading the following text speak with your partner about the people on a

construction site.

9. Read the text about the construction team and say if people on construction site in

Russia are corresponded to the people in the text.

The construction team

The construction team is the term we use to describe the builders who put up the building.

This team consists of these people:

• main contractor; • general foreman;

• subcontractors; • trades foremen;

• estimator; • tradespeople;

• surveyor; • apprentices;

• contract supervisor; • labourers.

• site agent;

The main contractor enters into a contract with the client to build the building according to

the design team’s drawings, specifications and bill of quantities.

The estimator works out the cost of constructing the proposed building shown on the

drawing and specification. If there is a bill of quantities, the estimator fills in the rates and produces

the total cost for the job. This becomes the tender document which is offered to the client.

The surveyor lays out the shape of the building on the ground before construction starts. The

surveyor also checks the ground levels.

The contract supervisor deals with the paperwork that may be required for large building

projects.

The site agent is the contractor’s representative on site for large contracts. The site agent’s

job is to manage the site on a day-to-day basis.

A general foreman is always employed on small contracts. The foreman should have

extensive knowledge of all aspects of building construction. This includes knowing how to organize

the workers, materials and schedules.

Trades foreman are experienced at specific trades such as brickwork, carpentry or plumbing.

They organize and control the workers in their own trade. The trades foremen report to the general

foreman.

Tradespeople form the bulk of the construction team. They have spent years learning a

trade, probably beginning as an apprentice to a skilled person, and obtaining the necessary

qualifications to become recognized as an expert in their particular skill, e.g, bricklaying, carpentry,

electrical work, plastering, plumbing.

Apprentices are building workers who are learning the basic skills of a trade. Normally

apprentices work with experienced people until they are capable of working alone. An apprentice

may attend classes and work for a certificate while training for a specific trade.

Labourers carry out the jobs on a building site that do not need special skills. These are

usually physical tasks such as digging trenches and general carrying of materials around the site.

Some trades also require labourers. Bricklayers use labourers to mix and carry mortar and to bring

bricks and blocks to the place where they are working.

The subcontractors

Subcontractors, who are employed by the main contractor, do specific parts of the building

project. They provide additional skills for the main contractor, who may not have a workforce that

is competent in all the building trades. Subcontractors run their own businesses and have the same

responsibilities for the standard of work and safety issues as the main contractor. Many trades are

involved in the construction of a building. They cannot all work on the building at the same time

because some jobs cannot start until others have been completed. Consequently, the timetabling of

jobs is extremely important if the building is to be completed on schedule. Usually the sequence of

events in a building programme are shown on a bar chart, although for large building contracts the

critical path analysis method is required. This is a technique for determining the most efficient way

in which events can be timetabled.

10. Say what the relationship between the main contractor and subcontractor is.

11. Study the bar chart and make up sentences similar to the example:

While the steelwork is being erected, some of the brickwork is built.

12. Complete these sentences with the name of a building trade and then make up similar

sentences:

a. The _______ finish just before the plumbers start.

b. The _______ should finish by the end of the week 40.

c. The _______ _______ work until the end of week 30.

d. The _______ work up to the end of week 50.

e. The _______ _______ should finish no later than the end of week 8.

13. Before you read the text explain how you understand the title Collaborative

Development.

14. Read the text below and say if you have been aware of the process before.

Collaborative Development

The design and construction teams are involved in a construction project on and off the

building site. Their work is to:

a. complete details on drawings;

b. make changes on site when required;

c. price the changes;

d. inspect the building work;

e. complete paperwork;

f. organize the right number and type of building workers;

g. order equipment;

h. order the building materials.

When a design team consists of engineers and consultants from different organizations, the

design development process needs to be carefully coordinated.

Before the first draft (version) of a drawing is sent to members of the team, a decision is

made about who needs a copy. Sometimes, a drawing will only be issued to certain specialists in the

team. Sometimes, it will be circulated to all the team members.

After team members have received a drawing, they can comment on it, and may ask for the

design to be changed. Following these comments, the drawing will be revised – that is, drawn again

with the requested changes made to it. Every drawing is numbered, and each time a drawing is

amended (revised), the letter next to the drawing number is changed. Therefore drawing 110A, after

a revision, becomes 110B. When revision B is issued, it becomes the current drawing, and A is

superseded. With each new revision, written notes are added to the drawing. These describe the

amendments that have been made.

When engineers revise drawings during the early stages of the design process, they may

have to go back to the drawing board (start again), and redesign concepts completely. For later

revisions, the design should only need to be refined slightly.

After a preliminary drawing has been finally approved (accepted), a senior engineer can sign

off (authorize) the drawing as a working drawing – that is, one that the production or construction

team can work to. However, this does not always mean the drawing will be final. Often, working

drawings go through more revisions to resolve problems during production.

15. Put the words in the box into the table to make groups of verbs with similar meanings. Amend circulate redesign revise supersede

approve issue refine sign off

1 2 3 4

change

improve

send out

distribute

accept

agree

replace

16. Choose the correct words from the brackets to complete the sentences about drawings.

a. Has the drawing been revised, or is the first (draft/refine)?

b. This has been superseded. It’s not the (current/preliminary) drawing.

c. Has this drawing been signed off? Can they (circulate/work) to it in the factory?

d. I still need to (comment/note) on the latest set of drawings.

e. Construction can’t start until the first (current/working) drawings have been issued.

17. Complete the email using the correct forms of the words in the box. The first one has

been done for you.

amendment current draft issue note

revision supersede work

There seems to be a problem with dwg 1120, which you (1) issued yesterday. The

drawing is marked as (2) _____________C, but there are no (3) ___________ in the right-

hand column detailing the (4) __________ made. And on the actual drawing, there are no

visible differences from the first (5) ____________ . Has the (6) _________ version

(1120B) been sent accidently, incorrectly labeled as 1120C, instead of the new drawing?

Please advise asap, as we are assuming this is not the (7) ___________ drawing, and I have

therefore told the fabrication team not to (8) ____________ to it until we receive

clarification.

18. Before you read the text say if you know what design documents are.

19. Read the text and say what a specification is.

Design calculations

Design information is shown on drawings, and written in specifications – documents which

describe the materials, sizes and technical requirements of components. In order to specify this

detailed information, an engineer must evaluate – this is, identify and calculate – the loads (forces)

that key components will have to carry. To do this, the engineer needs to determine (identify) the

different loads, then quantify them – that is, calculate them in number form. Usually, each load is

quantified based on a worst-case scenario – in other words, the engineer will allow for the

maximum load, such as an aircraft making a very hard landing, or a bridge being hit by extremely

high winds.

After maximum loads have been quantified, an engineer will apply a factor of safety. This is

an extra margin to make the component strong enough to carry loads that are higher than the worst-

case scenario. For example, a factor of 1.5 increases the load a component can carry by 50%. After

this has been factored in, the engineer will then size the components – that is, calculate their

required size.

Engineers are sometimes criticized because they overdesign things (add excessive factors of

safety), which increases costs. However, according to Murphy’s Law, ‘Anything that can go wrong,

will.’ This suggests that belt and braces – an expression often used in engineering, based on the

safest method of holding up trousers – is a sensible approach.

20. Discuss the meaning of the words in italic with your partner.

21. Complete the sentences from technical conversations using the words in the box. Look

at A opposite to help you.

budget cost-effective exceed feature proposed

constraint designed existing function

(a) Of course, money is limited. Cost limitations are always a_________ . But some finance

is available. A ___________ has been allocated for the preliminary design phase – a total of

$35,000. But we mustn’t ____________ that amount.

(b) Obviously, if we have to spend €80 on components for each appliance, and the

appliances are sold for €70, that’s not a __________design solution.

(c) The _____________ of this detector is to locate underground cables by giving audio

feedback. Since it’s ………….. to be used in noisy environments, the earphone is an

important_______________ .

(d) Are these already on the market – are they _________ products? Or are we talking

about _____________ products that are still under development?

22. Choose the correct words from the brackets to complete the sentences. Look at B

opposite to help you.

a. The types of loads that will be encountered must be (designed/determined).

b. Maximum loads are based on predicted (specifications/worst-case scenarios).

c. On top of maximum loads, additional safety margins are (factored in/sized).

d. For cost reasons, components shouldn’t be (overdesigned/quantified)

e. The practice of overdesigning components can be described as the (belt and

braces/factor of safety) approach.

f. (Quantifying/Sizing) components means calculating their dimensions.

23. Replace the underlined words and expressions with alternative words and expressions

from A and B opposite.

Most engineering designs (1) make provision for excessive operating conditions. The critical

question is, how much of a (2) percentage of extra size or capacity should be applied without (3)

adding too much of a margin? To (4) calculate an amount for this figure, it is critical to assess the

consequences of a technical failure. Where the stakes are high, in applications such as aviation,

designing for (5) the most extreme situations is clearly critical on safety grounds. On the face of it,

the result of this may seem costly. But where the human implications and expense of failure are

serious, a high level of expenditure aimed at accident prevention can be considered (6) financially

viable.

Unit 5

Information Technologies

1. Ask and answer the questions in pairs.

Do you have a computer? Do you have access to the Internet?

How often do you use your computer? What do you use it for?

Do you know how to download/delete files? Describe the procedure to your

partner.

Have you ever crashed your computer? What happened?

Has your computer ever had a virus? What did you do?

Do you think computers are a good or bad thing?

2. Before you read the following text, speculate about what IT involves; share your

opinion with the partner.

3. Read the text and say what the World Wide Web is.

What is Information and Communication Technology (ICT)?

ICT is not computing. Computing is the field of study that deals with the design,

development and programming of computers. Computers are a vital part of ICT but not the whole

part.

ICT does not only involve computer technologies but is the result of a synergy between

computer, telephone, camera, radio, television and other technologies so that the result are more

than one might expect if one just considered each technology in isolation.

That a computer is powerful especially compared to manual calculating is an accepted fact

in today’s world. A telephone is now everyday technology. Both computers and telephones have

ceased to be wonders and have become part of everyday life. Put them together, however, and the

result is eventually the Internet and the World Wide Web, which is in effect a mechanism for

linking every computer and the data contained on it to every other computer on the planet. This

gives an individual user access to a huge amount of data and a communication network that would

have been considered in the realms of science fiction not many years ago. Link the technologies to

digital cameras and people can exchange data and see each other in real time with no boundaries of

distance. ICT is truly powerful and we are only scratching the surface of what it can do. What was

science fiction yesterday is science fact today and (as many who have bought a brand new computer

system know only too well) may be approaching obsolescence tomorrow.

Although processing power and storage capacities have increased beyond all recognition

since the 1970s the underlying technology of LSI (large-scale integration) or VLSI (very-large scale

integration) microchips has remained basically the same, so that most of today’s computers are

widely regarded as still belonging to the fourth generation. By 2000 there were few offices across

the world and few homes in the developed world that did not contain a PC in some form or another.

Most vehicles and many domestic appliances had embedded computers. The future will see smaller

and smaller yet more powerful computers, perhaps using biological means of memory. The growth

in computing has been almost exponential, a growth that seems set to continue.

Although computers are now very sophisticated the basic concept has not changed and can

be illustrated as shown in the following diagram:

Input Processing Output

Memory for

storage

The input method may be:

a. Keyboard

b. Mouse

c. Trackerball

d. graphic tablet

e. Touchscreen

f. from memory

g. scanner

h. email

i. the Internet

j. audio device for music

k. video device

l. microphone

Outputs are:

a. screen

b. to memory

c. printer

d. email

e. facsimile (fax)

f. plotter

g. external drive

h. web camera

i. speakers

The processor takes data from the input and acts upon it to produce information in the form

of a meaningful output.

4. Tell the group which different technologies ICT involves.

5. Tell the partner how you understand the sentence from the text: «What was science

fiction yesterday is science fact today and may be approaching obsolescence

tomorrow».

6. According to the text what opportunities do we get if we link the telephone and the

computer to digital cameras?

7. Explain how you understand the basic concept of computer.

8. Say to the group what the parts of the input and the output are.

9. Study the words and expressions associated with the Internet, use a dictionary, if

necessary.

The Internet/”the net”: a network connecting millions of computer users worldwide. You

can access information on the Internet or send and receive e-mail (electronic mail) from a

computer, through a modem.

World Wide Web/ “the Web”: a huge portion the Internet containing linked documents,

called pages.

to surf the net/ the Web: to navigate around the Internet, sometimes aimlessly

website/home page: a document on the Web giving information about a person or institution

newsgroup: a meeting place on the Internet for discussion of a particular topic

chat room/chat forum: a group of people who have the same interests who e-mail one

another live as a group

FAQ: “frequently asked questions”, a list of common questions and helpful answers

10. Nowadays computers are everywhere. Even people who don’t own or operate

computers are exposed to computer terminology. Here are some words associated

with personal computers. Translate them into Russian. Use a dictionary if

necessary.

personal computer/PC/desktop computer: a computer that fits on a desk, used by individuals

at work or at home.

laptop (computer): a lightweight portable computer that usually fits in a briefcase

palmtop (computer): one small enough to fit in your hand

hardware: computer equipment or machinery

software: programs that you put into a computer to make it run

floppy(disk)/diskette: a small plastic disk that stores (a limited amount of) information. A

floppy can be inserted into a computer and taken out.

hard disk: a device inside a computer that stores large amounts of information

disk drive: an apparatus that allows information to be read from a disk or stored

modem: a piece of equipment that sends information from one computer along telephone

lines to another computer

scanner: machine for transferring pictures and texts into a computer to download: to transfer

data or software from a large computer to a smaller one

RAM (random access memory/memory: the memory available on a computer to store and

use information temporarily, usually measured in megabytes)

spreadsheet (program): a program or the grid you create with it to perform mathematical

operations

computer graphics: pictures, images, and symbols that you can form on a computer

word processing: writing and storing printed text on a computer

virus: hidden instructions in a program designed to destroy information

11. Match the words to the pictures below.

Laptop desktop computer mouse floppy disk drive

floppy disk printer spreadsheet

12. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.

a. It’s so easy to use a ______________ when you want to send photographs to friends by

e-mail. It’s just like using a photocopier.

b. I’ve lost a lot of data. I wonder if my computer has a _______________ . I’m always

impressed by people who carry their ________________ on aeroplanes and work on

them during the flight.

c. Those ________________ disks don’t store nearly enough information. You really need

to use you _______________ disk for all the data you want to store.

d. If you want some photos of the USA, you could just try _____________ the Web. You’ll

be amazed how many you can find.

e. I belong to a great _______________. There are about ten people who are all interested

in 1960s music. We e-mail one another almost every day, and can talk live to one

another.

f. I ________________ a good program from the Internet the other day. Would you like a

copy?

g. Do you ever visit any ______________ for pop stars or film stars? Some of them have

photos and music too.

13. Here are some other words associated with computers and the Internet. Use them

to complete the text. Use your dictionary if you need to. Remember to use the

appropriate form of the verbs.

down scan click attachment crash

The other day I (1) _______________ some photos I’d taken, so that I could send them to a

friend in Australia. However, as I was doing the last one, I just (2) _______________ the mouse

and the program (3) _________________. It was very annoying! Then, when I got it started again, I

tried to send the photos by e-mail, as an (4) ________________ but the server was (5)

__________________, and so I just gave up, I was so frustrated!

14. Do you use a computer regularly? If so, what do you use it for? Do you have access

to the Internet? If so, what do you use if for?

15. Complete the labels for these pictures.

16. Match the words on the left with the examples/definitions on the right.

1 software a the memory available for temporary use on a computer

2 modem b an address where you can find information, e.g. about computer

3 scanner c programs you use on your computer

4 spreadsheets d for example, a computer, a printer, a screen

5 website e it makes it possible for one computer to communicate with another

6 virus f a unit of measurement for storing information

7 RAM g you can use it to transfer pictures to your computer

8 hardware h a program that destroys data and damages computers

9 hard disk I a series of linked electronic addresses all round the world

10 megabyte j a program for doing mathematical calculations

11 the Web k the place in your computer where information is stored

17. Choose the correct answer, (a), (b) or (c).

a. Some people spent hours (a) serving (b) serfing (c) surfing the Web.

b. I can (a) e-post (b) e-mail (c) e-letter you tomorrow and send you the information.

c. I managed to (a) download (b) downput (c) downtake an interesting program frm the

Internet the other day.

d. Have you ever seen Madonna’s (a) own page (b) home page (c) net page?

e. My friend spends hours in those (a) speak (b) chat (c) talk rooms on the Internet.

18. Answer these questions.

a. What does the FAQ mean?

b. What do newsgroups do?

c. What is the short form of the word Internet?

d. Can you use your computer if it is “down”?

e. Is an “attachment” something you can receive with an e-mail? Yes or no/

f. What do you do to your mouse? You c………………… it.

g. If a program “crashes”, does it mean (a) you can’t use it, or (b) it opens automatically?

h. What do the initials WWW mean?

i. What does the “e” in “e-mail” mean?

j. What is another name for a “chat room”? a chat f………………… .

19. What do the following words mean in a context of computing? Make sentences

showing each usage. If necessary, use a dictionary.

Crash, terminal, hack, load, navigator, update, web, wallpaper, mouse, wizard

Unit 6

People who made a difference

1. Before you read the biography of Barry Commoner, say if you know who Paul

Revere is. If necessary ask a teacher or use an encyclopedia. Try to guess why these

two personalities are compared.

2. Do you know anything about Barry Commoner? What is he famous for? Read the

biography and find out.

Barry Commoner

a. Barry Commoner (born 1917) was a biologist who became an environmental activist, leading

efforts to inform the general public about the many environmental dangers posed by various

scientific advances and common practices. He was one of the founders of the modern

environmental movement who was referred to as the "Paul Revere of Ecology."

Barry Commoner was born in Brooklyn, New York, on May 28, 1917. As a boy he lived the

rugged life of the city streets, but on weekends he prowled Brooklyn's Prospect Park looking

for microscope specimens. Educated at James Madison High School, which fostered his

interest in biology, he put himself through Columbia University by doing odd jobs and got his

bachelor's degree with honors in 1937. Earning master's and doctoral degrees at Harvard

(1938, 1941), he began his teaching career as a biology instructor at Queens College (1940-

1942). Serving in the Navy in World War II, he took part in spraying Pacific islands against

insect-borne diseases with the new wonder chemical DDT, unaware as yet that indiscriminate

use of such toxins was an invitation to environmental disaster.

b. Married after the war to Gloria Gordon, a psychologist, Commoner served as associate editor

of Science Illustrated before joining the faculty of Washington University in St. Louis, first as

associate professor of plant physiology, later as chairman of the Botany Department, and

finally as university professor of environmental science (1976-1981). It was here that he began

the Center for the Biology of Natural Systems (CBNS). Although he published numerous

professional research papers, he rejected the conventional view that what non-scientists do

with scientific knowledge is none of the scientists' business. He became a social activist and

vocal public educator.

c. What brought him out of the laboratory in 1953, Commoner declared afterward, was

strontium-90, one of the radioisotopes contained in the fallout from nuclear tests in the

atmosphere. His Committee for Nuclear Information set parents all over St. Louis to collecting

their offspring's baby teeth for testing, and found out that in addition to the normal element

calcium, those teeth contained also ominous proportions of strontium-90, which behaves

physically and chemically much like calcium and can combine in building bones and teeth in

much the same way, except that strontium-90 is highly radioactive.

d. In the first sentence of a book published in 1966, Science and Survival, Barry Commoner

announced that "the age of innocent faith in science and technology may be over." A massive

electric power failure all over the Northeast, the admission of children to a St. Louis hospital

15 years after they had been exposed to radio-iodine from Nevada nuclear bomb tests, the

disturbing news about DDT, and the potential menace of recombinant DNA—not to mention

the threat of "nuclear winter" in the event of thermonuclear war, a prospect Commoner

discussed years before most Americans even heard of it—led him to the conclusion that

science, like the magic practiced by the legendary Sorcerer's Apprentice, was getting out of

control. Therefore, scientists could no longer simply remain at their work; they had to go out

and alert the nonscientists to the problems that their work was creating. "Science can reveal the

depth of this crisis," the book concluded, "but only social action can resolve it."

e. By 1970 Time magazine was calling Barry Commoner "the Paul Revere of Ecology." It said

that Commoner was "endowed with a rare combination of political savvy, scientific soundness

and the ability or excite people with his ideas." Commoner was not trained professionally as an

ecologist. He came to it in reaction against the dismemberment of modern science by over-

specialization, such that its practitioners could not see the forest for their own narrow trees.

Scientists as well as laypeople, he believed, had to be educated to the fact that in nature

"everything is connected to everything else," which is the primary message of ecology. From

the 1950s Commoner played a leading role in every aspect and important phase of the

environmental movement. He stated his opposition to nuclear weapons testing in the 1950s,

was part of the science information movement of the 1960s, joined the energy debates of the

1970s and the organic farming/pesticides, waste management/recycling, and toxic chemicals

issues of the 1980s and 1990s.

f. Commoner's best-known book, The Closing Circle (1971), concluded that "human beings have

broken out of the circle of life, driven not by biological need, but by the social organization

which they have devised to 'conquer' nature. … We must learn how to restore to nature the

wealth that we borrow from it." The political lesson to be learned from Los Angeles smog,

from fertilizer-poisoned water supplies in Illinois, from algal bloom in Lake Erie, and from

detergent foam everywhere was that the older forms of both capitalism and socialism, with

their emphases respectively on profit and productivity, were quite inadequate to cope with a

deteriorating planet. At the same time Commoner did not want to sit back and contemplate

nature fatalistically, or, as he called it, "inactivism."

g. In the 1970s, as Congress passed laws for clean air, pure water, and the protection of the

environment, Barry Commoner's warnings seemed to be generating serious political and legal

action because, as Time warned in its cover story on Commoner (February 2, 1970), "the price

of pollution could be the death of man." Gradually, however, Commoner came to believe that

much of the politicians' concern with the environment and with energy conservation was sham.

He was particularly disappointed in President Jimmy Carter's national energy policy, which

Commoner said was "not designed to solve the energy crisis … but merely to delay it."

h. In The Politics of Energy (1979) Commoner called for "a national policy for the transition

from the present, non-renewable energy system to a renewable one"—a transition which he

believed a traditional free market economy would be unable to accomplish. He wanted

Americans to use solar rather than conventional power, trains rather than automobiles, and

methane or gasohol rather than gasoline—proposals which ran not only up against powerful

vested interests but also against come basic American habits and preferences. This theme of

the evils of an increased dependence on technology remained a theme for the rest of

Commoner's career appearing again in 1995 in his book Making Peace with the Planet.

i. Since none of the presidential candidates of 1980 seemed to be dealing with environmental

issues in the most superficial way, Barry Commoner ran for president on a ticket of his own,

the Citizens Party. It polled only a quarter of one percent of the vote.

j. Commoner returned to Queens College in 1981 as professor of earth and environmental

sciences, serving also as visiting professor of community health at the Albert Einstein College

of Medicine. He also moved his Center for the Biology of Natural Sciences to Queens as well.

The research conducted at Queens continued to make major advances in environmental

science. He discovered the origin of dioxin in trash-burning incinerators, developed

alternatives to incinerators and the economic benefits to communities of recycling their trash

and developed a computer model that tracks the long-range transport of dioxin and other

pollutants from their sources through the food chain into the human diet. This model became

invaluable to evaluating dioxin contamination of milk on Wisconsin and Vermont dairy farms.

k. The 1980s saw a slight diminution of Commoner's influence as capitalist sway was on the rise

and environmental concerns fell by the wayside. With the advent of the 1990s, however,

increased interests in the environment returned Commoner and his theories to the forefront. In

1995, he was one of the featured speakers at the Dartmouth College Earth Day Conference,

commemorating the 25th anniversary of Earth Day. There he called for the government to

include in its "industrial policy" a promotion of organic farming and the improvement of

electric motors as a clean energy source. He encouraged the development of a preventive

strategy that encourages production without polluting in the first place.

l. The Earth Times (October 21, 1995) cited Commoner as one of the "100 Who Made A

Difference" world-wide and called him "the dean of the environmental movement, who has

influenced two generations." In May 1997, on the occasion of his 80th birthday and to

commemorate his 50 year career in environmental research and activism, a symposium was

sponsored by CBNS, entitled "Science and Social Action: Barry Commoner's Contribution to

the Environmental Movement." The purpose of this event was to both honor Commoner's

career of outspoken activism, even before it was fashionable, and to create a momentum for a

strong future environmental movement.

In a directory of scientists published in 1984 Barry Commoner listed among his special

concerns "alterations in the environment in relation to modern technology" and "the origins and

significance of the environmental and energy crises"—realities which would not go away just

because people for the moment chose to ignore them.

3. Explain the phrase: «one of the "100 Who Made A Difference" world-wide».

4. Read the biography again and make notes about Barry Commoner’s activities.

How have they changed the concept of modern technologies, energy consumption

and the other ones?

5. Study the laws of ecology by Barry Commoner and discuss them in the group.

Four laws of ecology

One of B. Commoner's lasting legacies is his four laws of ecology, as written in The Closing

Circle in 1971.

The four laws are:

1. Everything is connected to everything else. There is one ecosphere for all living organisms

and what affects one, affects all.

2. Everything must go somewhere. There is no "waste" in nature and there is no "away" to

which things can be thrown.

3. Nature knows best. Humankind has fashioned technology to improve upon nature, but such

change in a natural system is, says Commoner, "likely to be detrimental to that system"

4. There is no such thing as a free lunch. Exploitation of nature will inevitably involve the

conversion of resources from useful to useless forms.

Unit 7

ECOLOGY OF BUILDING MATERIALS

1. Before you read the text say what you think it might be about. Tell the partner.

2. Read the text and say what is taken into consideration while analyzing the

possibilities for materials.

The Ecology of Building Materials as an Attempt to

Present the Possibilities for Materials

The Ecology of Building Materials is an attempt to present the possibilities

for existing materials, as well as evaluating new materials. There is also a

number of partly abandoned material alternatives which should be evaluated. The role and

potential of building materials should be illustrated in the perspective of providing humanity with

an acceptable material standard of living. And, in the same context, this illuminates the following

aspects:

Work. The methods used to produce each building component. How

production takes place and can take place.

Raw materials. Occurrence of material resources, their nature, distribution

and potential for recycling.

Energy. The energy consumed when producing and transporting the

materials, and their durability.

Pollution. Pollution during production, use and demolition, the chemical footprint of each

different material.

A primary goal of Ecology of Building Materials is to enable the various actors in the building

industry to pose environmental requirements, and to do this with greater precision. In order to

ensure an environmentally responsible building, it is important to obtain precise answers to

questions such as ‘Is the steel produced in a blast furnace or an electric arc furnace?’; ‘Are

pozzolanas used in the cement clinker?’; or ‘What kind of adhesive is used in the hemp matting, and

how much?’.

It is also hoped that the appearing discipline will contribute towards reducing misleading

advertising information. Green products are now much in demand, and many producers are

claiming to fit this mould without apparent justification.

Professionals assess the usability of the various alternatives from an ecological perspective.

They take into consideration the following:

1. Structural materials that support and brace.

2. Climatic materials that regulate warmth, humidity and air movement.

3. Surface materials that protect and shield structures and climatic

materials from external and internal environments.

4. Windows, doors and stairs.

5. Fixings and connections that join different components.

6. Paint, varnish, stain and wax that improve appearance and provide

protection.

7. Impregnating agents, and how to avoid them: the different impregnating

substances and the alternatives.

3. What is the main objective of Ecology of Building Materials? Discuss with the

partner.

4. Do you know the difference between a blast furnace and an electric arc

furnace? Find the information either in the Internet or in an encyclopedia and

tell the group.

5. Do you know what the word «pozzolanas» mean? Find the information either

in the Internet or in an encyclopedia and tell the group.

6. How do you understand the phrase «green product»? Are you keen on green

products? Justify your answer.

7. Before you read the following text about Resources, say how you understand

the definitions of resources ‘renewable’ or ‘non-renewable’.

8. Read the text and give the examples of both.

Resources

Natural resources are usually defined as ‘renewable’ or ‘non-renewable’.

The first are resources that can be renewed or harvested regularly, such as timber for construction or

linseed for linseed oil. They are only renewable as long as the right conditions for production are

maintained. Depletion of the ozone layer is an example of how conditions for many renewable

resources can be drastically changed.

Most renewable resources have photosynthesis in common. It has been estimated that

human society currently exploits about 40% of the earth’s photosynthetic activity.

Non-renewable resources are those that can only be harvested once. These are often referred

to as ‘stocks’ (iron ore is an example); or else resources that are formed extremely slowly, such as

crude oil. Many of these are seriously limited; metals and fossil oils are the most exploited, but in

certain regions even materials such as sand and gravel are becoming scarce. It is clear that some of

the most important resources are in danger of being exhausted in the near future.

Fresh water is a vital resource which cannot be described as either renewable or non-

renewable. The total amount of water is constant in a global perspective; but on a regional level,

shortages of water are already critical, and likely to become more so given climate change.

This is especially the case for potable water, which is essential not only in food production but also

in many industries. Water is often used in industry in secondary processes; for example, as a

cooling liquid, which is then returned to nature polluted and with a lower oxygen content.

Biodiversity and fertile soils are also to be seen as resources in the global ecosystem; and

they too are only conditionally renewable. Their rate of exploitation or depletion is now in some

cases so rapid that there is a danger that critical thresholds will be crossed. This is closely linked to

both increased extraction of resources and increased water use.

Research based on measurements of the loss of forest area, freshwater and marine species,

indicates that the ‘health’ of the world’s ecosystems has declined by 30% in the past 25 years.

9. How is water described in a global perspective? Find in the text.

10. Which resources are mentioned in the text? In what context? Discuss with your

partner.

11. Read the title of the following text about another classification and discuss with

your groupmates what it might be about.

12. Read the text and say if you were right.

Usable and less usable resources

It is also common to classify resources into ‘usable’ and ‘less usable’. The earth’s crust

contains an infinite amount of ore. The problem of extracting it is a question of economy, available

technology, effects on the landscape and environment and energy consumption.

At the beginning of 1900 it was estimated that, for a source of copper to be

exploitable there should be at least 3% copper in the ore; by1970, the level had fallen to 0.6%.

Resources that have been uneconomical to extract in the past can become a viable proposition; this

is both due to rising value and better extraction technologies.

For example, a more efficient technology for stone extraction would give this material a

fresh start for use in construction. The sum of usable and less usable resources is also called the

‘reserve base’, whilst the usable resources are called ‘reserves’.

There are also cases where economic conditions and developing technology have a negative

impact on the extraction of raw materials; for example, technical mechanization in the timber

industry has made hilly forests inaccessible. Only by using a horse or other small-scale equipment

should timber be retrieved from such a forest, but this is rarely the way of the modern timber

industry, despite the fact that it causes the least damage to the forest. In the same way, modern

technology cannot cope with small deposits of metallic ores – modern mining needs large amounts

of ore to make it economical.

Political situations can also affect the availability of raw materials. The civil war in Zaire

increased the price of cobalt by 700%, as Zaire has the world’s largest deposits of cobalt. Similarly,

the situation in the Persian Gulf has affected the price of oil for many years. The United States

Department of Domestic Affairs has made a list of ‘critical minerals’. In addition to cobalt it

includes bauxite for aluminium production, copper, nickel, lead, zinc, manganese and iron; in other

words, quite a few of the most important metals.

13. Explain the meaning of the ‘reserve base’ and ‘reserves’.

14. According to the text how might political situations affect the availability of

raw materials.

15. Read about one more classification of resources and explain the title.

Used and unused resources

Resources can also be categorized as ‘used’ or ‘unused’. The total number of different plant

species for all of Scandinavia is about 1500. Of these only two to three are widely used for

building, 10 are used occasionally, whilst some 60 further species have potential for use. A further

example is flint, which was once amongst the most important resources available, but is virtually

left unused now. Similarly, it can be said that in1840 oil was an almost totally unexploited ‘non-

resource’.

16. Read the title of the following text and speculate with the partner about the

content.

17. Read the text and say if you were right.

Resources and Civilization belong together

In 1933 the geographer Zimmermann stated: ‘Resources are not

anything static, but something as dynamic as civilization itself’. However, this statement does not

offer us much ground for optimism. With accelerating rates of exploitation, we are on the verge of

bankruptcy in many important raw materials. Those at a real risk of exhaustion are mineral ores and

fossil oils; but for several renewables, prospects are not good either. Problems related to tropical

timber are well known, and discussions centre around the effect of different forms of management,

tax rates, replanting, etc. Conditions for the renewability or failure of important biological resources

are very likely to change quickly as a result of increased climate change, in particular alterations in

temperatures and precipitation.

It is quite absurd that our planet’s stocks of raw materials should be stripped and disappear

in just a fraction of the time-span of human existence – whether by that we mean two, ten or fifty

generations. Even a traditional ‘anthropocentric’ morality with a limited time perspective requires

that use of such raw materials be allowed only in special circumstances, and that recycling should

be mandatory. A differentiation is also made between material resources – the actual constituents of

a resource and energy resources – the type and amount of energy needed to produce the material.

18. Find Russian equivalents to the following words and phrases:

ground for optimism

rates of exploitation

on the verge of bankruptcy

at a real risk of exhaustion

tax rates

discussions centre around

replanting

very likely to change

precipitation

in special circumstances

mandatory

19. Comment on the following statements:

Resources are not anything static, but something as dynamic as civilization itself.

… this statement does not offer us much ground for optimism.

… for several renewables, prospects are not good either.

…disappear in just a fraction of the time-span of human existence…

20. Before you read the following text try to suggest about two largest consumers

of raw materials. Tell the group.

21. Read the text and say if you were right.

The largest consumer of raw materials

The building industry is, after food production, the largest consumer of raw materials in the

world today. A broadly accepted goal for a sustainable future is a drastic reduction in the use of raw

materials. This is most important for the scarce non-renewable resources but also for the

others; partly because it is the throughput of materials in the economy that is linked to major energy

and environmental loads. Equally important is reducing wastage and losses during production, the

construction process and throughout the life of the completed buildings. The recycling of materials

following demolition must also become the rule. Recycling processes should also ensure that

materials can be taken care of at their original level of quality, rather than downcycled.

22. Find Russian equivalents to the following words and phrases:

the largest consumer

a sustainable future

a drastic reduction

scarce non-renewable resources

throughput of materials

energy and environmental loads

wastage and losses during production

demolition

downcycled

23. Explain in English how you understand the above list of words and phrases:

24. Before you read the following text discuss with the partner what actions can be

taken for resource conservation in the production of materials.

25. Run through paragraph headings and check your suggestions.

26. Read each paragraph and answer the questions following each paragraph.

Actions for resource conservation in the production of materials

Change-over to exploitation of smaller deposits of raw materials

This is mainly a question of technology. Even though modern technology is primarily

geared to large-scale exploitation (‘economies of scale’), viable smaller-scale alternatives often

exist. Small-scale exploitation is often far less damaging to the environment, in particular as regards

water resources and biodiversity. P

If consider ‘economies of scale’, what is less damaging to the environment

large-scale exploitation or smaller-scale alternatives?

ART 1

Greater attention to unused resources and waste products

Many resources that were formerly classified as ‘uneconomical’, and now fallen into disuse,

and others that have not previously been used, need to be studied. Examples of such resources are

compressed earth used as a construction material; fibres from the seaweed eelgrass as an insulating

material; and increased use of timber from deciduous trees. The same applies to an increasing

number of ‘waste’ products from industry, agriculture and dwellings, such as straw, fly ash,

industrial sulphur and waste glass.

Which resources were formerly classified as unused being «uneconomical»?

Substitution with less limited types of resources

Many raw materials are not in danger of exhaustion in the foreseeable future. An example is

stone, which is still plentiful in most places. Another is blue clay, which has great potential and is in

no way near being exhausted by the small existing production of clay bricks.

What are the examples of raw materials that are not in danger of exhaustion?

Substitution with renewable resources

Many building components currently made from non-renewable raw materials have

renewable alternatives. For example, timber can be used as an alternative to steel. A wide range of

plastics can be produced from plants instead of fossil hydrocarbons. This type of substitution will

usually have a positive overall environmental impact. However, we must beware of the risk of

increased use of renewable resources in construction coming into conflict with food production.

Seen in the global perspective, with a rising population, one should give first priority to waste

products from agriculture and plants that can be grown in relatively unproductive land areas – as is

the case with most timber species.

What are the examples of renewable alternatives to hydrocarbon plastics and

steel?

What effect might the increased use of renewable resources in construction

have?

Increased recycling of waste products during production

For reasons of simple efficiency and cost, many good examples, showing how the recycling

of waste products during production can save valuable resources, already exist. For example, in the

plasterboard industry today waste has nearly been eliminated in the production process. Re-use of

water in the production processes of certain industries also occurs more often; for example, in the

production of ceramic tiles and wood fibre boards.

What are the examples of industries which show how the recycling of waste

products during production can save resources?

Reduction of the use of materials in the building

‘Do we really need to build this at all?’ should be a basic question if one wishes to reduce

the use of resources in construction. It is, however, seldom appreciated by any of the parties

involved in design processes. The obvious second question is then ‘How can we reduce the need for

materials?’, and here a whole range of possibilities emerge.

Reduce the need for materials, adaptable buildings

Space use per person has doubled in the western world since 1960. In housing, each of us

now consumes 40 to 50 square metres. This implies an approximate doubling of the consumption of

materials. At the same time, both housing and other types of building have become more

specialized, being tailored and optimized for specific functions. In most cases they are becoming far

less flexible or adaptable. This static approach, in a society characterized by rather rapid changes

both in cultural patterns and technology, means that buildings are often demolished well before

their intended lifetime is over. Initial lifetime projections (service life predictions) are often

incorrect. In Sweden, 25% of the buildings that have been demolished since 1980 were less than 30

years old. In Tokyo the average lifetime of a building has been as low as 17 years in periods of high

economic activity. Expected climate changes will make this picture even worse. Considerable areas

of land may become uninhabitable due to sea level rises as well as increased risks of flooding and

landslides. Higher temperatures may increase the need for solar shading, cooling technology and

insect protection measures, all requiring building modifications or replacement. Increased

precipitation or more frequent temperature variations may also lead to accelerated decay of building

envelope materials.

Our response to these scenarios has to be a requirement for buildings that have an increased

adaptive capacity. This relates not only to the technical systems, but also to planning aspects, where

the following principles need to be addressed:

* Generality: spaces allowing for a broad range of activities.

* Flexibility: buildings permitting easy changes to floor plans as well as to the technical systems.

* Elasticity: designs permitting expansion as well as contraction of buildings. Extreme elasticity

implies buildings with short lifetimes of say 10–15 years that can be easily dismounted,

reprogrammed and reassembled.

All the above necessitate new and appropriate design and construction methods, in order to

allow for change and the avoidance of extensive waste of materials usually associated with the

modification and demolition of buildings. It has been estimated that such solutions can increase real

building lifetimes by 25% in 25% of all buildings. Optimizing buildings in this way also reduces

overall space needs and therefore also the energy consumption for heating, cooling, lighting and

ventilation. This kind of approach is probably more efficient than today’s conventional approach of

reducing energy use by superinsulation, solar panels and heat pumps.

How has the consumption of housing space changed in last years?

Can you explain how you understand the expression «static approach»?

What does it involve? What are the effects of the static approach?

What are the detrimental effects of expected climate changes from building

materials perspective? Give several examples.

Can you explain how you see the buildings that have an increased adaptive

capacity? Check your suggestions in the text.

What should be the requirements for buildings from adaptive capacity

perspective?

What principles should be observed from planning aspects perspective?

What kind of approach is considered more efficient than conventional

approach of reducing energy use?

What does conventional approach of reducing energy use involve?

Economical use of materials

Any given structural system requires a specific amount of materials, and the difference

between systems can be quite significant. As the best engineers know, the amount of material used

in a steel column can be reduced several times by optimizing the design; and a lattice beam uses

much less material than a solid beam, whether it is timber or steel. Other typical examples are

hollow bricks and aerated concrete blocks instead of massive products. Again, due to increasing

resource and cost constraints this kind of efficiency is in full progress. A choice of lightweight

constructions rather than heavy alternatives, such as timber instead of concrete, also significantly

reduces the need for foundations. On difficult sites such as waterlogged or clay areas, it has been

calculated that the use of a lightweight construction can reduce the use of concrete footings from

250 to 150 kg/m2.

Can you give the examples of reducing the amount of material used by optimizing the

design of a structural element?

Minimizing materials losses and wastage on site

Every material has a ‘loss factor’, which describes how much of a particular material is

typically lost during storage, transport and installation of the final product. Loss of materials on site

is approximately 10% of the total waste in the building industry. This can be halved with carefully

planned site management. Timber and other off-cuts can be sorted and re-used elsewhere. Using

loose fill insulation avoids the often considerable wastage of insulation off-cuts. Prefabrication

provides even greater savings, where almost all wastage can be eliminated either through pre-cut

components or prefabrication of whole elements. In Scandinavia today almost 80% of all new

housing units are produced off-site. One should remember, however, that some prefabrication

systems necessitate extensive use of jointing mastics or gaskets that may have unfavourable

environmental characteristics. Within the building industry, a great deal of packaging material is

used during transport and for storage on site. Some packaging serves no greater purpose than to

advertise the name of the supplier. If nothing else, packaging should be easily recyclable and

therefore should not comprise materials such as aluminium and plastic composites.

Loss of material caused by wear and tear in the completed building will also occur. The

Swedish Department of the Environment estimated in 1995 that the loss of copper from roofs and

pipes through weathering amounted to more than 1000 tons per year. In addition to the resulting

pollution, this represents a large loss of resources. Materials based on rare, non-renewable resources

should thus preferably not be used in exposed parts of the building.

Can you explain how material’s ‘loss factor’ is defined?

How can the loss of materials be reduced?

What can help to get rid of wastage of insulation off-cuts?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of prefabrication from both environmental and

saving perspectives?

What is and what must be the purpose of packaging building materials?

Can you find in the text an example of material waste in a ready for use building?

Use materials in ways that ensure their durability

It is important to match the resource quality to the task required, so as not to use a high-

grade resource when a lower grade one will suffice. But it is still a general rule that by producing

more durable products the use of raw materials is reduced. However, one must ensure that materials

of similar durability are used throughout the vital parts of a building; therefore not sacrificing high

quality components due to rapid decay elsewhere. Lower quality materials should be used in such a

way that they are easily replaceable, whilst more durable materials may be easily dismantled for re-

use or recycling. Simply put: twice as much damage to the environment can be tolerated for a

product that lasts 60 years compared to one that lasts only 30

years. The lifespan of materials is governed mainly by four factors:

* the material itself, its physical structure and chemical composition.

* the local environment, climatic and other chemical or physical conditions.

* the construction and its execution, where and how the material is

fitted into the building.

* maintenance and management.

Why is it important to match the resource quality to the task required?

Which factors define the lifespan of materials? Comment on each of them.

The lifespan of a roof tile, for example, is dependent not only on the type of clay used, but also

on the immediate environment of the building. A high moisture content in winter can cause frost

damage even in high quality tiles. The best way to determine the real lifespan of a material is

through long experience and concrete documentation. It is therefore difficult to anticipate the

lifespan of many new materials, such as new types of plastics. It is possible to perform accelerated

deterioration tests in laboratories, but these generally give a simplified picture of deterioration

processes, and results can only be taken as approximate. During construction, many materials are

exposed to rain or humidity. Sealing damp materials into buildings is a principal cause of

subsequent defects, as well as posing a well-documented health risk. Adjoining building

components may also be damaged. Careful site management routines and storage are recognized

today as an important preventive solution. Other solutions include construction systems where the

load bearing structure and roof covering are assembled first, and construction canopy systems,

usually called Weather Protection Systems (WPS).

What are the best ways to determine the real lifespan of a material? What are the

problems?

What precautions are taken to combat deterioration due to moisture?

Construction systems also need to protect materials during their lifetime from stresses (arising

from within or without) such as undue temperature and humidity conditions. An important aspect of

this is due adaptation to local climatic conditions, not always the case in an industry that uses

standardized solutions regardless of regional climatic differences. This applies in particular to high

value items such as doors, windows and balconies, as well as to appropriate roof detailing. A major

investigation was made in 2001 of 16 000 buildings in Denmark, including single-family houses,

apartment blocks, offices and schools. It showed that buildings with flat roofs had twice as high a

risk of serious humidity damage. Bathrooms with timber based wall and floor structures had twice

as high a risk as those in masonry and mineral materials. In order to reduce energy consumption and

climate emissions, most temperate and cold climate countries are introducing ever stricter norms for

increased thermal insulation of buildings. In some cases, this has led to increased humidity damage

– partly because less heat from inside the building actually leaks out into the walls to dry out any

humidity that may have gathered there. This means that there is a higher requirement for precision

in both the detailing and execution of highly insulated, low energy buildings. This will not be easy

to achieve. For this reason it would be a major advantage if one can employ materials with good

hygroscopic qualities – materials that can tolerate and regulate humidity.

What types of buildings are more subjected to humidity damage?

What problems might highly insulated buildings face?

We should also remember that durability is not only a quantifiable technical parameter.

Durability also has an important aesthetic aspect. It is quite a challenge to design a product that can

outlast the vicissitudes of both time and fashion. On the other hand, there is a point where long-

lasting buildings become an economic or environmental burden; it becomes difficult

to upgrade or adapt them any further, and their replacement would save resources due to

technological advances and efficiency gains. The resources saved by continuing to use an old,

energy consuming building have to be weighed against the new materials needed to build a

replacement building that can save much energy over the following 50 or 100 years. Comparative

lifecycle assessments can be made to inform such decisions. The key question is thus optimum

rather than maximum durability. The decay of building materials is also a health issue. Decay of

building sheets and tiles containing asbestos releases the toxic fibres into the environment; decay

over time of bathroom boards exposed to prolonged dampness can also increase off-gassing and

release of synthetic chemicals into the rooms. Material decay can also increase the danger of fungal

growth and other harmful agents into the indoor environment, causing increased allergic or

respiratory ailments.

Can you explain the concept of optimum durability?

If for an architect it is a challenge to design a long-lasting product, then why might long-

lasting buildings become an economic or environmental burden? Discuss first with the

partner, then in the group.

Unit 8

CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS

1. Think about the main groups of building materials, then read the text and say if you

were right.

Material types

Engineering materials can be divided into: metals and non-metals. Examples of metallic

materials are iron (Fe) and copper (Cu). Examples of non-metallic materials are carbon (C) and

silicon (Si). As iron is such a widely used material, metals can be divided into: ferrous metals and

non-ferrous metals. Ferrous metals are those that contain iron, non-ferrous metals are those that do

not contain iron.

With regard to the chemical composition of materials -the chemicals they contain, and how

those chemicals are combined- three main categories can be used: elements, compounds and

mixtures. Elements are pure materials in their most basic form. They cannot be broken down into

different constituents ('ingredients'). Examples of elements widely used in engineering materials are

iron, carbon and aluminium (AI). Compounds consist of two or more elements that are chemically

bound - that is, combined by a chemical reaction. An everyday example is water, which is a

compound of hydrogen (H) and oxygen (0). Mixtures consist of two or more elements or

compounds which are mixed together, but which are not chemically bound. In engineering,

common examples are alloys -that is, metals which have other metals and/or non-metals mixed with

them. A common example is steel, which is an iron-carbon alloy, and can include other alloying

metals- metals which are added to alloys, in small quantities relative to the main metal. Examples of

widely used alloying metals are chromium (Cr), manganese (Mn) and tungsten (W).

2. Complete the sentences using the words in the list.

metal

non-metal

metallic

non-metallic

ferrous

non-ferrous

1 Carbon (C) is a ___________ .

2 Copper (Cu) is a ___________________ metal.

3 Aluminium (AI) is a common _____________ .

4 Steel (Fe + C) is a widely used _______________ metal.

5 Although it is used in steel, carbon is _______________ .

6 Aluminium is relatively lightweight for a ______________ material.

3. Decide whether the sentences below are true or false, and correct the false sentences.

(1) The elements that make up a compound are chemically bound.

(2) Alloys are chemical compounds that are frequently used in engineering.

(3) Alloys can contain both metallic and non-metallic constituents.

(4) In an alloy, an alloying metal is the biggest constituent, by percentage.

(5) Steel is a metallic element.

4. Before reading the following article which is from an engineering journal, look at the

title and explain to the partner how you understand it.

Materials under the microscope: composites

When you think of examples of hi-tech materials, composite materials come to

mind- such as carbon-fibre, used in aerospace and Formula 1 cars. But although we think of

composites as hi-tech and highly expensive, that's not always true. The earliest examples of

composite materials were bricks made from mud and straw. Or, to use the correct composite

terms, from straw reinforcement- the structural network that reinforces the material inside,

and a mud matrix- the material surrounding the reinforcement. These terms explain what a

composite material is: a matrix with a reinforcing material inside it. A modern, everyday

example is fiberglass - correctly called glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) -which has a plastic

matrix reinforced with glass fibres.

5. Complete the extract about concrete and steel, using suitable forms of the word

reinforce from the text above. Sometimes there is more than one possible answer.

(1) ____________ concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials, and one

we take for granted. However, using steel bars to (2) _____________ concrete structures

located outdoors is only possible thanks to a fortunate coincidence: concrete and steel have

practically the same coefficient of thermal expansion - in other words, as atmospheric

temperature varies, the concrete and the steel (3) ______________ expand and contract at

the same rate, allowing uniform movement. Using a (4) _________ material with a different

coefficient of expansion would not be feasible. For example, (5) aluminium-

________________ concrete would quickly disintegrate.

6. Read the text below and find two elements, two compounds, an alloy and a composite.

Look at the texts above to help you.

Generally, the steel used in reinforced concrete will have previously been exposed to

water and to the oxygen in the air. As a result, it will usually be partly corroded, being

covered with a layer of iron oxide (rust). However, once the steel is inside the hardened

concrete, it will be protected from air and water, which prevents further rusting.

Additionally, the cement in concrete does not react aggressively with the iron in steel.

7. Before you read the following text, look at the title and say how you understand

sustainability concept.

8. Read the text quickly and say if you were right.

Sustainability Aspects of Materials

Executing the concept of sustainable construction poses numerous difficulties. For

example, contemporary architecture’s efforts relative to materials analysis and their

sustainability aspects generally rely on vague criteria, resulting in a great deal of

imprecision. Many of these criteria are intuitive and perhaps even sensible. A typical

approach is to specify, as much as possible, materials that are natural and renewable, that

are local and indigenous, and which have low embodied energy. Specifying

local materials has been cited as climatically appropriate, supportive of the local economy,

and more economically viable. An additional criterion that often appears

in contemporary guides to “green” building materials is to avoid the use of synthetic

materials. What is meant by “synthetic” is not clearly defined. Concrete could be said to

be synthetic, yet variants of modern concrete have been used during all of recorded

history. Metals, especially alloys, which constitute the bulk of metals in use, could also be

considered synthetics. Plastics clearly fit this category in spite of their potential benefits

and the fact that some varieties can be made from biomass.

In many countries, there are now references available to aid in the selection of lowimpact,

green building materials. The Environmental Policy of the Royal Australian

Institute of Architects provides several principles for guiding materials selection. Principle

2 of the Environmental Policy calls for architects to minimize the consumption of resources

and is accompanied by recommendations on how to implement this principle via use of

renewable resources, recycling buildings and using recycled components, and designing

for durability.

9. Read the text again and answer the following questions:

What criteria are taken into account by the architects while evaluating materials from a

sustainability perspective?

What is taken into account in specification?

What materials are seen as synthetic? And what is the problem faced with it?

Can you describe the composition of concrete, alloys?

Can you explain the phrase «lowimpact materials »?

10. Before you read the following text discuss with the partner what factors influence the

selection of materials for a building.

11. Read the text and check if you were right.

The choice of material

During the design process architects often use a foam board model as a quick way to realize

and study a form or space. A foam board model (usually white) is neutral in texture and color, as it

has neither. Frequently, the building’s materials may not yet have been chosen or finalized, and

there is a seductive simplicity to the foam (or wood or cardboard) model at this point: anything is

still possible. Aside from the overarching impact of the project’s budget, numerous factors

influence the selection of materials for a building’s structure, skin, and finishes. Some materials are

more readily available in certain regions, or the local building trades may be more comfortable with

specific construction practices. Other materials have very long lead times, and for some projects,

time constraints may rule these out. Also, different climates have different material needs, and the

building’s program, size, and code requirements bear on the appropriateness of materials and

methods of construction.

12. Say why architects often use a foam board model during the design process.

13. Find Russian equivalents for the following words and expressions:

a foam board model

… have (not) been finalized

a seductive simplicity

overarching impact

skin

finish

more readily available

lead times

rule something out

bear on the appropriateness of materials

14. Think of some of the materials used to make products or structures you know about.

Say whether the materials are elements, compounds, mixtures, alloys or composites. If

they are composites, what materials are used (a) as matrix, (b) as reinforcement?

Wood

1. Before you read the following text say about the use of timber in your home (office,

room) both as building materials and to make fixtures and furniture within the

building?

2. Read the text about the main classifications of timber and discuss with the group what

type of timber is used within the university building.

Lightweight, strong, and durable, wood is an ideal construction material with many uses.

The two major classifications – soft wood and hard wood – do not necessarily indicate relative

hardness, softness, strength, or durability. Hard wood is wood from deciduous trees (which lose

their leaves in the winter months). Oak and walnut constitute 50 percent of all hardwood

production. Softwood is wood from coniferous (evergreen) trees.

In engineering wood can be categorized as: solid wood and engineered wood. Solid wood is

softwood or hardwood that has been sawn into specific shapes and sizes, but whose natural

structure, consisting of grain and knots, remains intact. Engineered wood is made by bonding

(sticking together) layers of solid softwood or hardwood, or by mixing quantities of wood particles

and bonding them with resin.

In industry, wood is often referred to as timber (BrE) or lumber (AmE). In American

English, timber generally means wood that is still growing in trees.

3. Tell the group about the difference of the terms: wood, timber and lumber.

4. Match the two parts to make correct sentences about wood. In each case, there is more

than one possible answer.

(1) Engineered wood

(2) Softwood

(3) Solid wood

(a) comes only from coniferous trees.

(b) comes only from deciduous trees.

(c) can come from either coniferous or deciduous trees.

(d) specifically describes single pieces of timber, not multiple pieces that have been

bonded together.

(e) is always made from multiple pieces or particles of wood. f may have knots in it.

5. Complete the sentences below.

1 Wood has a smooth finish after it has been __________________ .

2 Wood cut with a circular saw is called _______________ timber.

3 After timber is tested for strengths and weaknesses, it is given a_______________.

4 When timber is inspected by a person who looks for weaknesses, it is___________ .

5 When timber is inspected by a machine which tests its strength, it is ____________ .

6. The text below is from a technical handbook about structural timber. Before you read

say how you understand the term structural timber.

7. Read the text and say if you were right.

Solid structural timber

Structural timber - wood intended to support loads in a structure. Generally, timber is cut to

the required section- the width and depth that determine its cross-section - at a sawmill, where a

range of section sizes are produced. Timber from sawmills is generally supplied in rough-sawn

sections. This refers to the surface texture produced by sawing timber with a circular saw. If the

timber needs to have a smooth finish - for example, because it will be visible in the structure- it can

subsequently be planed to smooth its surface. Because the strength of wood varies, structural timber

must be stress-graded. This means its strength is tested in order to give it a stress grade - a standard

strength value which an engineer can use for design calculations. Timber can be mechanically

stress-graded, where its strength is checked by machine. It can also be visually stress-graded, where

the wood is examined by an inspector who looks for potential weaknesses - in particular, the

position of knots. As grading is based on the appearance, strength, and stiffness of the timber,

numerous associations nationwide establish their own grading standards. Grading is often difficult

to understand, and because it deals with both strength analysis and visual analysis, there is an

allowable 5 percent variation below a given grade.

Engineered wood

Engineered wood covers a range of softwood and hardwood materials. It includes:

• cheap, low-strength boards, such as particle board (often called chipboard) and mediumdensity

fibreboard (MDF)

• stronger boards suitable for structural use - primarily orientated strand board (OSB), which is

made from strands of wood bonded with resin, and plywood, which consists of several plies (layers)

of solid wood, bonded so that the grain of each ply runs at 90 degrees to that of the adjacent plies, to

provide increased strength. Plywood quality is generally graded by the quality of the veneer on both

front and back sides of the panel. Veneer grades describe appearance according to natural

unrepaired growth characteristics and the size and number of repairs allowed during manufacture.

• glue-laminated sections- sometimes called glulams are engineered, stress-rated structural

members built up of several layers of wood bonded by high-strength adhesives. Several grades of

timber are used, with the highest grades in areas of high stress and the lowest in areas of less stress.

Because laminated timbers are factory made and engineered, they are more dimensionally stable

than solid timbers and therefore can be used as major structural elements, such as beams, in large

buildings.

8. Complete the article about the environmental considerations of wood using words

from the texts above.

From an environmental perspective, wood has many advantages. Firstly, it comes

from a sustainable source. Coniferous trees grow relatively fast, providing a rapidly

replaceable source of (1) _______________. Secondly, almost all the timber in a tree can be

utilized, leaving little or no waste. The best quality wood can be used for structural

applications, where solid, (2) _______________ sections are required by engineers; for

high-strength elements such as (3) _________________beams; and in the high-quality plies

used to make (4) _______________. Smaller strands can be made into engineering wood

with structural properties, such as (5) ________________ . And small particles and fibres,

including those from waste timber, can go into cheaper materials, like (6) _______________

board and (7) __________________ .

Common wood terms:

Dimensional stability: Ability of a section of wood to resist changes in volume at

fluctuating moisture levels. Low dimensional stability produces expansion in humid

nvironments and contraction in dry ones.

Early growth/Late growth: In region of little climatic change, trees tend to grow at a fairly

consistent rate and have little variation in texture. In regions of seasonal climatic change,

however, trees grow at different rates, depending on the season. Variations in growth

contribute to the color and texture of the growth rings in the tree.

Gum pocket: Excessive accumulation of resin or gum in certain areas of the wood.

Hardness: Ability of wood to resist indentation. .

Pressure-treated lumber: Wood products that are treated with chemical preservatives to

prevent decay brought on by fungi and to resist attack from insects and microorganisms.

Under pressure, the preservatives are forced deep into the cellular structure of the wood.

Warp: Bowing, cupping, and twisting distortion in lumber that occurs after it has been

planed, usually during the drying process.

Glass and glazing

1. Think about the use of glass within the building. Discuss it with your partner.

2. Read the text and say what the main constituents of glass are.

Glass composition

Most architectural glass comprises three major raw materials that are found naturally: silica,

lime, and sodium carbonate. Secondary materials may be added to facilitate the glass-making

process or to give the glass special properties, which can be broken into three basic categories.

Soda-lime glass accounts for the majority of commercially produced glass. Used for bottles,

glassware, and windows, its composition of silica, soda, and lime does not give a good resistance to

sudden thermal changes, especially high temperatures, or to chemical corrosion. Lead glass contains

about 20 percent lead oxide, and its soft surface makes it ideal for decorative cutting and engraving,

though it does not withstand sudden temperature changes. Borosilicate glass, which refers to any

silicate glass with a composition of at least 5 percent boric oxide, has greater resistance to thermal

changes and chemical corrosion.

3. Tell the partner why secondary materials are added to glass.

Glass production

The most common flat glass is float glass, in which properly weighed and mixed soda lime

glass, silica sand, calcium, oxide, soda and magnesium are melted in a 2,732°F (1,500°C) furnace.

The highly viscous molten glass is floated across a bath of molten tin in a continuous ribbon.

Because the tin is very fluid, the two materials do not mix, creating a perfectly flat surface between

them. By the time the glass has left the molten tin, it has cooled enough to proceed to a lehr, where

it is annealed, that is, cooled slowly under controlled conditions. But if it's left in this state, and the

glass later gets broken, it breaks into dangerous, sharp pieces. So for most engineering and

architectural uses, annealed glass is unsuitable.

Glass may also be rolled, a process by which semimolten glass is squeezed between metal

rollers to form a ribbon with predefined thicknesses and patterned surfaces. This process is used

mostly for patterned and cast-glass production.

4. Find Russian equivalents of the following words and expressions:

properly weighed

melt

highly viscous molten glass

continuous ribbon

perfectly flat surface

lehr

annealed

under controlled conditions

semimolten glass

squeezed between metal rollers

predefined thicknesses

patterned surfaces

Glass Thickness

Sheet size, wind, and other loads determine the required glass thickness for any particular

window.

Glass forms

Glass Block: Glass blocks are considered to be masonry units. Typical units are

made by fusing together two hollow halves, with a vacuum inside. Solid blocks,

called glass bricks, are impact resistant but can be seen through. Solar control units

may have coatings or inserts. Glass block walls are constructed in a similar fashion

to other masonry walls, with mortar, metal anchors, and ties; they can be applied to

interiors or exteriors.

Cast or Channel glass: U-shaped linear glass channels are self-supporting and

contained within an extruded metal perimeter frame. One or two interlocking layers

may be used creating varying levels of strength, sound and thermal insulation and

translucence. Cast glass can be employed vertically or horizontally, internally or

externally, and as a curved surface. The glass itself can be made with wires, tints,

and other qualities. Double layers of channels provide a natural air space that can be

filled with aerogel, a lattice-work of glass strands with small pores, which results in

an insulating substance that is 5 percent solid and 95 percent air.

Glass types

Insulating glass: Two or more panes of glass enclose a hermetically sealed air space

and are separated by a desiccant-filled spacer that absorbs the internal moisture of

the air space. The multiple layers of glass and air space of these insulating glass units

(IGUs) drastically reduce heat rates. Low-E or other coatings may be used on one or

more of the glass surfaces to further improve thermal performance. Argon and sulfur

hexafluoride gases may fill the space between glass sheets for even further efficiency

as well as reduced sound transmission.

Reflective Glass: Ordinary float glass (clear or tinted) is coated with metal or metal

oxide to reduce solar heat. The coating also produces a one-way mirror effect,

generally with the mirror on the exterior. Shading coefficients depend on the density

of the metallic coating and range from about 0.31 to 0.70.

Low-E Glass: Low emissivity is clear float glass with a microscopically thin metal

oxide coating that reduced U-value by suppressing radiative heat flow and blocking

short wave radiation to impede heat gain. At the same time, it provides for light

transmission, low reflection, and reduced heat transfer. Generally, Low-E glass can

be cut, laminated, or tempered. It is produced in soft-coat (vacuum or sputter coated)

or hard-coat (pyrolitic) versions.

Body-Tinted Glass: Chemical elements added to the molten glass mixture produce a

variety of colors. The visible light transmitted depends on the color and ranges from

about 14 percent for very dark colors to 75 percent for light colors. (Clear glass has

about an 85 percent light transmission.) Shading coefficients range from 0.50 to 0.75,

meaning that they transmit 50 to 75 percent of the solar energy that would be

transmitted by double-strength clear glass.

Safety Glass

Tempered Glass: Annealed glass is cut and edged before being reheated at about

1,200°F (650°C). If the glass is cooled rapidly, it is considered to be fully tempered;

the glass can be up to four times as strong as annealed glass, and, when broken, it

shatters into small, square-edged granules instead of into sharp shards. If cooled

slowly, the glass, and the broken pieces are more linear but tend to stay in the frame.

The slower process is also much less expensive. Tempered glass is ideal for floor-to-

ceiling glass, and walls exposed to heavy winds and intense temperatures.

Chemically Strengthened Glass: Glass is covered by a chemical solution that

produces a higher mechanical resistance, giving the glass similar properties to

thermal-strengthened (tempered) glass

Laminated Glass: Interlayers of plastic or resin are sandwiched between two sheets

of glass and the layers are bonded together under heat and pressure. When the glass

breaks, the laminate interlayer holds the fragments together, making it ideal for use

in overhead glazing, stair railings, and store fronts. Security glass (bullet-proof) is

made of multiple layers of glass and vinyl, in many thicknesses.

Wired Glass: A wire mesh is sandwiched between two ribbons of semimolten glass,

which are squeezed together through a pair of metal rollers. When the glass breaks,

the wire holds it in place. Wire glass is often acceptable for windows in fire the doors

and walls.

5. Read a technical adviser for a glass manufacturer who is giving a briefing to a

group of engineers at a trade fair. Complete the missing parts of the text.

«Sheets of glass, which are obviously flat and thin, are called float glass. This refers to the

manufacturing technique where (1) _________glass is floated on molten (2) _________, to produce

flat sheets. Usually, after float glass has been formed, it's (3) ___________ - it's left to cool slowly.

But if it's left in this state, and the glass later gets broken, it breaks into dangerous, sharp pieces. So

for most engineering and architectural uses, annealed glass is unsuitable. We need to use what we

call (4) _________ glass.' 'One type of safety glass is toughened glass, also called tempered glass.

As the term suggests, the glass is (5) ___________ - it's heated and kept hot for a certain time, to

change its structure. Then if tempered glass is broken, it shatters - it breaks into tiny pieces. These

are a lot safer than the long, sharp pieces produced when annealed glass breaks. The disadvantage

of toughened glass is that it can't withstand impacts from small objects, such as flying stones. So,

for instance, that makes it unsuitable for vehicle windscreens. So in cases where impacts are a

problem, another type of safety glass -laminated glass- is generally used. This is made by

laminating glass with a polymer- in other words, making a (6) _________ and polymer 'sandwich',

with a sheet of polymer in the middle and sheets of glass at either side. The advantage of having a

laminated material is not just that it's very strong. The layers of glass are bonded to a layer of (7)

_________ - they're stuck to the polymer- so if the glass does break, the broken pieces are held

together, and don't fly.»

6. Complete the article about bulletproof glass from a science and technology

magazine, using words from the texts above. Sometimes, more than one word is

possible.

«Bulletproof» is a loosely used word, suggesting something is totally unbreakable. But

technically speaking, how accurate is the term 'bulletproof glass'? Outside of Hollywood movies,

can glass really stop bullets? The answer is, not on its own. But if several (1) _______ of glass are

sandwiched with a high-strength polymer to form (2) ________________ glass, a bullet-resistant, if

not completely bulletproof barrier can be obtained.

The technique of sandwiching polymer and glass is nothing unusual. Car windscreens are

made by (3) __________________ glass to a polymer, such as polyvinyl butyral (PVB), to form a

type of safety glass Unlike the other main type of safety glass - (4) _________________ glass -

laminated glass remains intact on breaking. If a stone hits a windscreen, even though a small section

of the glass on the outside may crack, the polymer behind it will stop the stone, and also ensure the

entire piece of glass doesn't (5) _______________. Bullet-resistant glass uses the same principle,

but must be much tougher. A stronger polymer is therefore used - often polycarbonate - as well as a

greater number of (6) _________________ of glass and polymer.

1. Before you read the following, say what you think masonry units are.

2. Read the text and check your answer.

Masonry

Masonry building has become quicker, stronger, and more efficient than in the past, but the

basic principles of construction have changed very little since ancient times. Masonry units include

bricks, stones, and concrete blocks, and because they all come from the earth, they are suitable for

use as foundations, pavers, and walls embedded in the earth. The strength and durability of most

masonry makes it ideal to resist fire and decay from water and air.

3. Say what is common in masonry units and what the intended use of the masonry units

is.

4. Read about the first group of masonry units – bricks.

Bricks

Bricks are made from clay that is found in the ground. You dig out the clay and mix it with

water to make a pliable material that you can mould into a specific shape. Using moulds ensures

that the bricks are a consistent size. The small scale of a single brick makes it a flexible material for

use in walls, floors, and even ceilings. Brick production, in which the clay is fired at very high

temperatures, gives brick excellent fire-resistive qualities. The process transforms the clay into a

hard strong material. The main costs of brick production are the manual work required to mould the

bricks and the fuel to fire them.

Brick grades (Building and Facing)

SW: Severe weathering (where water may collect)

MW: Moderate weathering

NW: Negligible weathering

Brick Types (Facing)

FBS: General use in exposed exterior and interior walls; most common type and default

choice if architect does not specify.

FBX: Special use in exposed exterior and interior walls, where a higher degree of

mechanical perfection, narrower color range, and minimal variation in size are required.

FBA: Special use in exposed exterior and interior walls, where non-uniformity in size,

color, and texture are desired.

Brick manufacturing

Winning and storage: Clays are mined and enough raw material is stored for several

days’ use to allow continuous operation in any weather. The three principal types of clay

are surface clays, shales, and fire clays.

Preparation: Clay is crushed and pulverized

Forming processes:

Stiff mud process (extrusion process): Clay is mixed with minimal amounts of

water and then “pugged” (thoroughly mixed). Air pockets are removed from

the clay as it is passed through a vacuum. Then it is extruded through a

rectangular die and pushed across a cutting table where it is sliced into bricks

by cutter wires.

Soft mud process (molding process): Moist clay is pressed into rectangular

molds. Water-struck bricks have a smooth surface, produced when the molds

have been dipped into water before being filled; sand-struck, or sand-mold,

bricks have a matte-textured surface, produced by dusting the molds with sand

before forming the brick.

Dry-press process: Clay is mixed with a minimum of water and machine-

pressed into steel molds. This process is used for clays with low plasticity.

Drying process

Molded bricks are placed in a low-temperature kiln and dried for one to two days.

Firing Process

In periodic kilns, bricks are loaded, fired, cooled, and unloaded. In continuous tunnel kilns,

bricks ride through a tunnel on railcars, where they are fired the entire time at various temperatures

and emerge at the end fully burned. Firing can take from 40 to 150 hours.

Water-smoking and dehydration: Remaining water is removed from the clay.

Oxidation and vitrification: Temperatures reach up to 1,800°F (982°C) and 2,400°F

(1,316°C) for these respective processes.

Flashing: Fire is reduced and regulated to produce color variations in the brick.

Higher firing temperatures produce darker and generally smaller bricks, though overall color

depends on the chemical composition of the clay. Bricks may also be glazed, either during the

initial firing or in a special additional firing.

Mortar

Mortar adheres masonry units together, cushions them while mediating their surface

irregularities, and provides a watertight seal. Mortar is composed of Portland cement, hydrated

lime, an inert aggregate (generally sand), and water.

Colors

Bricks come in numerous textures and patterns, and both bricks and mortar are available in

almost endless varieties of color (especially if either is custom produced). Coordination of brick and

mortar colors can be an effective way to achieve different qualities within one brick type and color.

Matching mortar to brick color, for example, produces a more monolithic look for the wall.

Similarly, darker mortars can make a wall feel darker overall, and lighter mortars can make it feel

lighter. Full-scale mockups are helpful for testing color combinations.

5. Read about another group of masonry units - concrete blocks.

Concrete masonry units

CMUs (also called concrete blocks) are available as bricks, large hollow stretcher units, and

large solid units. The cores of hollow units can receive grout and reinforcing steel, making them a

common element in masonry bearing-wall construction, either alone or as a backup for other

cladding material. Like bricks, CMUs have nominal dimensions and accommodate mortar joints.

CMU production

To produce CMUs, a stiff concrete mixture is placed into moulds and vibrated. The cement

binds the aggregate that forms the bulk of the block into a firm building material. The wet blocks

are then removed from the moulds and steam cured. The strength and durability of the block

depends on the type of aggregate used with cement. Fire-resistance ratings for CMUs also

vary depending on the aggregate type used in the concrete and the size of the block.

CMU Grades

N: General use above and below grade

S: Use above grade only; good where wall is not exposed to weather; if used on exterior,

wall must have weather-protective coating.

CMU Types

I: Moisture-controlled, for use where shrinkage of units would cause cracking.

II: Not moisture-controlled.

Decorative CMUs

Concrete blocks are easily produced in many different shapes, surface textures, and colors,

allowing for a variety of walls surfaces. Numerous standard decorative units exist and units may be

custom designed.

6. Read about the third group of masonry units – stone.

Stone

Natural stone masonry uses stone that is removed from the ground a nd broken and shaped

into suitable-sized pieces for building. You can use most stones, but you need to check for

durability. This is an economic building material since the stone is often freely available. The cost is

in manual work to quarry and shape it. As a building material, stone may be used in two different

manners: as a masonry unit laid with mortar, similar to brick or concrete blocks, or as a thin, non-

load-bearing veneering facing attached to a backup wall and structural frame. Stone colors, textures,

and patterns are highly varied, as are the design and detailing of unit masonry and cladding systems.

Sedimentary rock (rock deposited as a result of natural action or wind): limestone,

sandstone.

Limestone: Color limited mostly to white, buff, and gray. Very porous and wet when

quarried, though after air seasoning, quarry sap evaporates and stone becomes harder. Suitable for

wall and floor surfaces, but not accept a polish.

Sandstone: Colors range from buff to chocolate brown to red. Suitable for most building

applications, but also does not accept a high polish.

Igneous rock (rock deposited in a molten state)

Granite: Wide range of grains and colors including gray, black, brown, red, pink, buff, and

green. Nonporous and very hard. Suitable for use in the ground and with exposure to weather.

Comes in many textures and may be highly polished.

Metamorphic rock (sedimentary or igneous rock transformed into another rock type by

heat pressure)

Slate: Colors range from red and brown to grayish-green to purple and black. Sheetlike

nature makes it ideal for paving, roofing, and veneer panels.

Marble: Highly varied in both color and streaking patterns. Color range includes white,

black, blue, green, red, and pink, and all tones between. Suitable for use as a building stone but is

most often highly polished and used as a veneer panel.

Stone masonry includes rubble stone (irregular quarried fragments), dimension stone (quarried and

cut into rectangular forms called cut stone when large and ashlar when small), and flagstone (thin

slabs of paving stone, irregular or cut).

Masonry bearing walls

Brick, concrete block, and stone walls built as load-bearing walls will have many different

characteristics, depending on whether or not they are reinforced, use more than one masonry unit

type (composite wall), or are solid or cavity walls.

Reinforcing

Reinforcing masonry allows the entire wall system to be thinner and taller. Reinforced

concrete (RC) structures contain steel bars. Steel reinforcement is needed mainly because concrete

is weak in tension - that is, bad at resisting stretching forces. As steel is strong in tension,

reinforcing bars overcome this weakness. In order to form the different parts of structures,

formwork - sometimes also called shuttering - is used. This consists of moulds of the required size

and shape, made from steel or timber, which are used to contain the concrete until it has set. In-situ

reinforced concrete being poured When wet concrete is cast (placed) in its final position, it is called

in-situ concrete. Instead of being cast in-situ, reinforced concrete elements can also be precast- cast

at a factory - then delivered to the construction site ready for assembly. Sometimes, precast concrete

is also prestressed. With prestressing, tension is applied to the reinforcing bars, by machine, usually

before the concrete is poured. The bars are then held in tension while wet concrete is poured around

them. After the concrete has fully set, the bars become 'trapped' in tension. This increases the

concrete's ability to resist bending forces.

7. Complete the text book extract about a type of prestressed concrete using the words

from the list. Look at the text above to help you.

cast, concrete, formwork, in-situ, pouring, precast, prestressing, reinforcement, structural

Presstressing techniques

In the production of reinforced concrete components, the process of (1) ____________ usually

involves holding the (2) ____________ in tension while (3)______________ the concrete. This

form of prestressing is called pre-tensioning, as tension is applied before the concrete is poured. The

technique is often used in the manufacture of floor components, which are small enough to fit on

the back of a truck, and can therefore be (4) _________________ at a factory. A less common

prestressing technique is post-tensioning (applying tension after the concrete has set). This is more

suitable for large elements, especially long beams, which cannot be transported, and therefore need

to be poured (5) _________________. Before the concrete is poured, ducts (usually plastic tubes)

are placed inside the (6) _______________ along the length of the beam. These ducts contain steel

cables. After the concrete has been (7) _______________ and has gained sufficient

(8)______________ strength, the cables are put in tension, using jacks at either end of the beam.

This is only possible because the cables are free to move within the ducts- it is not possible with

pre-tensioned reinforcing bars, which are held fast by the hard (9)__________________

surrounding them. The ends of the cables are then permanently anchored at either end of the beam.

Composite Walls

Composite masonry walls employ a concrete block backup with brick or stone veneer on the

exterior wythe, with the two layers bonded with steel horizontal reinforcing. Masonry ties join

wythes of masonry together or to supporting wood, concrete, or steel backup structures. Anchors

connect masonry units to the supporting structure.

Cavity Walls

Cavity walls have an inner and outer wythe of masonry units, separated by an air space of a

minimum 2”(51). Masonry ties hold the two wythes together. If rain penetrates the outer wythe, it

runs down the inner surface of the outer wythe and is collected at the base with flashing materials

that divert it back to the outside through weep holes.

Concrete

Concrete comprises a mixture of aggregate (sand and gravel), Portland cement, and water.

Because these elements are found almost everywhere, concrete is employed as a construction

material throughout the world. When combined correctly with steel reinforcing, concrete becomes

virtually indestructible structurally and is generally not susceptible to burning or rotting. It can be

shaped into almost any form.

Cement is a key material in construction. It consists of a very fine powder. When water is

added to cement, a chemical reaction occurs, and the cement begins to set - it starts to become solid.

The most widely used cement-based material is concrete, which is made from cement, fine

aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate (gravel) and water. After concrete has set, it needs time to reach

its structural strength - the strength needed to perform effectively. Generally, engineers consider

that this strength is reached after 28 days - a point called 28-day strength.

Concrete mix designs, which are specified by engineers, state the proportions of cement,

fine aggregate and coarse aggregate to be used for specific structures. For example, a 1:2:4 (one-

two-four) mix consists of one part cement, two parts fine aggregate and four parts coarse aggregate.

For mixing precise quantities- known as hatching- proportions are measured by weight. Mix

designs also specify the water-cement ratio - the amount of water added relative to the amount of

cement used. Excess water reduces the strength of concrete, so the quantity of water is kept to a

minimum. But as drier concrete is more difficult to work with, an additive (added chemical

substance) called a plasticizer is often used. This helps the concrete to flow more easily. Other

additives can also be used - for example, a retarder may be added to delay setting, which gives

workers more time to pour (place) the concrete.

There is no universal international standard for Portland cement. The United States uses the

ASTM C-150 Standard Specification for Portland Cement, as do a number of other countries.

Aggregate: Mixture of sand and gravel. Gravel sizes can range from dust to 212"⁄ but

should not exceed one-quarter of the thickness of the unit being poured (that is for a 4” slab, gravel

should not be greater than 1”). Rounded fragments are preferred. Larger gravel yields more cost-

effective concrete and fewer problems from shrinkage.

Portland cement:

Chemical combination of lime, silicon, aluminum, iron, small amounts of other ingredients,

and gypsum, which is added in the final grinding process. Exact ingredients vary by region, based

on local availability. There are five basic types of Portland cement.

Water: Clean and impurity free.

Air: Millions of tiny air bubbles in the mixture make up a fourth component of some mixes

of concrete. Air makes the concrete lighter and more able to withstand the effects of freezing and

thawing, thus useful in cold climates.

Water-to-Cement Ratio

Ratios of the component materials of concrete depend on the desired compressive strength,

application, geographic location, and watertightness of the cured concrete, among many other

factors. Guidelines for mixing concrete of a high quality are the same for any application, however,

and advocate the use of clean ingredients, proper mixing and proportions, careful handling of wet

concrete, and controlled curing.

The water-to-cement ratio is of distinct importance to the strength of the cured concrete. A

rule of thumb is to keep ratios to below 0.60 (the weight of water in the mix should be no more than

60 percent the weight of the cement). More water makes the wet concrete easier to pour but

jeopardizes the strength of the cured concrete with air bubbles. Conversely, mixtures with low

water-to-cement ratios must often be treated with workability admixtures to ensure large air voids

do not occur as a result of less fluidity.

8. Find words and expressions in the texts above to match the descriptions (1-10).

(1) gravel used in concrete ___________________

(2) sand used in concrete _______________________

(3) powder that enables concrete to set _____________________

(4) mixing concrete accurately ____________________

(5) specification of concrete ingredients _______________

(6) effective structural capability of concrete ________________________

(7) affects the wetness and strength of concrete ______________________

(8) different types of chemical put in concrete ______________________

(9) allows concrete to stay wet for longer ___________________________

(10) makes drier concrete easier to work with ______________________________

Placing and Curing

As concrete is poured and placed, care must be taken to ensure that it is not subjected to

excessive vibration or sudden vertical drops, which could cause segregation of the materials (course

aggregate to the bottom, water and cement to the top). For this reason, vertical transportation should

be done with drop chutes. If the concrete must travel excessive distances from the mixer to the

formwork, it should be pumped through hoses, not transported in the formwork.

Concrete curses by hydration, as a binding chemical combination of the cement and water; it

must be kept moist during this period, generally twenty-eight days, before it is adequately cured.

Surfaces may be kept moist by spraying them with water or a curing compound or by covering them

with moisture-resistant sheets.

Finishes

Concrete can be finished in a variety of ways, allowing it to be used on virtually any surface

in almost any kind of space. Finishes serve decorative and practical functions. They improve the

appearance of the structure underneath, but also prolong building lifespans.

Color

Colored concrete provides numerous design opportunities; it is generally achieved in one of

two ways:

Integral coloring: Color is added to the wet concrete or mixed in at the jobsite – in either

case, the color is distributed throughout the concrete. Because so much concrete is involved, colors

are limited to earth tones and pastels. Once cured, the surface is sealed which provides protection

and a sheen that enhances the color.

Dry-shake color hardeners: Color hardeners are broadcast onto freshly placed concrete

and troweled into the surface. The hardeners produce a dense and durable surface. Because the

color is concentrated on top of the concrete, more vibrant and intense tones are possible. Sealers

applied after curing further accentuate the richness of the color.

As in all natural materials, variations in color outcome will occur. The base color of the

cement determines the ranges possible.

Metals

1. Think about some items you're familiar with that are metallic, say whether metals are

elements, compounds or mixtures.

2. Before you read the following text discuss in the group the different use of metals, then

read the text and compare your answers.

Metals play an enormous role in almost every component of many projects and building

types, from structural steel to sheet-metal ductwork, from drywall partition studs to oxides used as

paint pigments. Metals of most varieties occur in nature as oxide ores, which can be mined and

worked to extract and refine the metals, separating them from other elements and impurities. Metals

fall under two broad categories: ferrous (containing iron) and nonferrous. Ferrous metals are

generally stronger, more abundant, and easier to refine, but they have a tendency to rust. Nonferrous

metals tend to be easier to work and most form their own thin oxide layers that protect them from

corrosion.

Modifying metal properties

Most metals in their chemically pure and natural form are not very strong. To be suitable for

construction and other functions, their properties must be dependent on the proposed use of the

metal.

Alloys

Metals are mixed with other elements, usually other metals, to create an alloy. For example,

iron mixed with small amounts of carbon produces steel. Generally, the alloy is stronger than its

primary metal ingredient. In addition to improved strength and workability, alloys provide self-

protecting oxide layers.

3. Think about some items you're familiar with that are made of steel, but which are not

protected (for example, by paint). How serious is the potential problem of corrosion?

How is it prevented or limited - for example, by using a specific grade of steel?

4. This extract from an article in an engineering journal is about different types of steel.

Steel is the most widely used engineering material. Technically, though, this well-known alloy

of iron and carbon is not as simple as one might think. Steel comes in a huge range of different

grades, each with different characteristics. For the inexperienced, it can be difficult to know where

to begin. A good place to start is with the two main types of steel: carbon steels and alloy steels.

The first, carbon steels, consist of iron and carbon, and contain no significant quantities of other

metals. Carbon steels can be divided into three main grades:

• Mild steel - the most widely used grade - is a low carbon steel which contains up to

approximately 0.3% carbon.

• Medium carbon steel contains between approximately 0.3% and 0.6% carbon.

• High carbon steel contains between approximately 0.6% and 1.4% carbon.

The second main category of steel is alloy steels, which consist of iron, carbon and one or more

alloying metals. Specific grades of alloy steel include:

• low alloy steels, which contain 90% or more iron, and up to approximately 10% of alloying

metals such as chromium, nickel, manganese, molybdenum and vanadium

• high strength low alloy steels (HSLA), which contain smaller quantities of the above metals

(typically less than 2%)

• stainless steels, which contain chromium as well as other metals - such as nickel - and which

do not rust.

• tool steels, which are extremely hard, and are used in cutting tools. They contain tungsten

and/or cobalt. A widely used grade of tool steel is high-speed steel, which is used in cutting tools

that operate at high temperatures, such as drill bits.

5. Decide whether the sentences below are true or false, and correct the false sentences.

Look at the text above to help you.

(1) Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon.

(2) Mild steel is a high carbon steel.

(3) Alloy steels contain carbon.

(4) Chromium and nickel are used as alloying metals in steel.

(5) Low alloy steels contain more chromium than iron.

(6) Stainless steel is an alloy steel.

(7) Tungsten is added to steel to make it softer.

(8) High-speed steel is suitable for making cutting tools that get very hot.

6. Before you read the following text, speculate about the ways to overcome the weakness of

mild steel – corrosion.

7. Read the text and compare your answers.

Corrosion

One weakness of mild steel is that it corrodes - its surface progressively deteriorates due to a

chemical reaction. This reaction takes place between the iron in the steel and the oxygen (O2) in the

air, to form iron oxide. When iron corrodes, we say that it rusts. In some metals, such as aluminium

(Al), the presence of corrosion is not a problem, as the layer of oxide around the metal remains

hard, which prevents it from oxidizing any further. However, when mild steel goes rusty, the rust on

the surface comes off continuously, and a new rusty layer forms, progressively 'eating into' the

metal.

Generally, the steel used in reinforced concrete will have previously been exposed to water

and to the oxygen in the air. As a result, it will usually be partly corroded, being covered with a

layer of iron oxide (rust). However, once the steel is inside the hardened concrete, it will be

protected from air and water, which prevents further rusting. Additionally, the cement in concrete

does not react aggressively with the iron in steel.

8. Complete the article about a special type of steel, using words from the texts above.

Weathering steel

The perennial problem with mild (1) ____________________ is that it (2)

_______________ when exposed to air and water. Generally, the only solution is either to

apply a protective coating, or to use another (3) _______________ of steel that is resistant to

the (4) _________________ process - the most well-known being

(5) ____________ steel, which contains significant quantities of (6) ______________ and,

often, nickel. There is, however, an alternative solution. So-called weathering steel is a

special alloy suitable for outdoor use. But rather than being completely protected from

corrosion, the surface of the steel is allowed to go (7) _______________ . Once a layer of

(8) __________________ has formed on the surface, it stabilizes and forms a hard

protective layer This layer differs from ordinary (9) _______________oxide, as it does not

continue to eat into the metal. While not everyone may like the 'rusty look', weathering steel

has been widely used in architectural applications and outdoor sculptures.

9. Complete the sentences below with words related to corrode, oxide and rust. There is

more than one possible answer.

(1) When steel is exposed to air and water, it ________________________ .

(2) A brown/red material on the surface of steel is called ____________________ .

(3) The strength of steel is reduced if it is _____________________________ .

Heat-Treated Metals

Tempering: Steel is heated at a moderate rate and slowly cooled, producing a harder and

stronger metal.

Annealing: Steel and sometimes aluminum alloys are heated to very high temperatures and

cooled slowly, softening the metal so that it is easier to work.

Cold-Worked Metals

At room temperature, metals are rolled thin, beaten, or drawn, making them stronger but

more brittle by altering their crystalline structures. Cold-worked metals may be reversed by

annealing.

Cold rolling: Metal is squeezed between rollers.

Drawing: Drawing metal through increasingly smaller orifices produces the wires

and cables used to prestress concrete, which have five times the structural strength of

steel.

Common non-ferrous engineering metals

Aluminium is widely used, often in alloy forms. An example is duralumin, an alloy used in aircraft

manufacturing, which also contains copper (4.4%) and magnesium (1.5%). Aluminium can also be

alloyed with titanium to produce very strong, lightweight metals.

When pure, it resists corrosion well, but is soft and lacks strength; with alloys, it can achieve

various levels of strength and stiffness, at one-third the density of steel, and can be hot- or cold-

rolled, cast, drawn, extruded, forged, or stamped. Sheets or foil, when polished to a mirror finish,

have extremely high levels of light and heat reflectivity. Its uses include curtain wall components,

ductwork, flashing, roofing, window and door frames, grills, siding, hardware, wiring, and coatings

for other metals. Aluminum powder may be added to metallic paints and its oxide acts as an

abrasive in sand paper.

Brass: Alloy of copper, zinc, and other metals; can be polished to a high luster and is mostly

used for weather stripping, ornamental work, and finish hardware.

Bronze: Alloy of copper and tin that resists corrosion; used for weather stripping, hardware,

and ornamental work.

Cadmium: Similar to zinc; usually electroplated onto steel.

Chromium: Very hard and will not corrode in air; like nickel, often used as an alloy to

achieve a bright polish and is excellent for plating.

Copper: Ductile and corrosion-, impact-, and fatigue-resistant; it has high thermal and

electrical conductivity, and can be cast, drawn, extruded, hot-, or cold-rolled. Widely employed as

an alloy with other metals, it can also be used for electrical wiring, flashing, roofing, and piping.

Lead: Extremely dense, corrosion resistant, limp, soft, and easy to work; most often

combined with alloys to improve hardness and strength. Foil or sheets are ideal for waterproofing,

blocking sound and vibrations, and shielding against radiation. Can also be used as roofing and

flashing, or to coat copper sheets (lead-coated copper) for roofing and flashing. High toxicity of

vapors and dust have made its use less common.

Magnesium: Strong and lightweight; as an alloy, serves to increase strength and corrosion

resistance in aluminum. Often used in aircraft, but too expensive for most construction.

Tin: Soft and ductile; used in terneplate (80 percent lead, 20 percent tin) for plating steel.

Titanium: Low density and high strength; used in numerous alloys and its oxide has

replaced lead in many paints.

Zinc: Corrosion resistant in water and air, but very brittle and low in strength. Primarily

used in galvanizing steel to keep it from rusting; also electroplated onto other metals as an alloy.

Other functions include flashing, roofing, hardware, and die-casting.

10. Make correct sentences using one part from each column. Look at the texts above to help

you.

Duralumin

Titanium

Zinc

Copper

Gold

(1) can be mixed with copper to make silver.

(2) resists corrosion better than the other precious metal,

(3) has a high strength-to-weight ratio and is often alloyed with

(4) is an aluminium alloy that also contains copper and

(5) can be mixed with tin and lead to produce

a) silver

b) brass

c) aluminium

d) bronze

e) magnesium.

Coated Metals

Non-ferrous metals can be used to protect steel from corrosion by plating it- that is, covering it with

a thin layer of metal.

Electroplating: Chromium and cadmium are coated onto steel to protect it from

oxidation and improve its appearance.

Galvanizing: Steel is coated with zinc to protect it against corrosion. Steel can be

hot-dip galvanized, by placing it in molten (liquid) zinc. It can also be

electrogalvanized, which is a type of electroplating. With this technique, the steel

component is placed in a liquid (often an acid)- called the electrolyte- and connected

to the negative terminal (-) of an electrical supply, to become the cathode (the

negative side). A piece of zinc is also placed in the electrolyte, and is connected to

the positive terminal ( +) of the supply. This then becomes the anode (the positive

side). An electric current then flows between the pieces of metal, through the

electrolyte. This causes a chemical reaction, which deposits zinc on the cathode,

plating the component.

Anodizing: A thin oxide layer of controlled color and consistency is electrolytically

added to aluminum to improve its surface appearance. The component to be

anodized is connected to the positive terminal (to become the anode) and placed in

an electrolyte, with a cathode. As electricity flows, aluminium oxide is deposited on

the anode. As this is harder than aluminium metal, it provides protection.

Other coatings: Coatings can include paints, lacquers, powders, fluoropolymers, and

porcelain enamel.

11. Complete the checklist for electroplating using the words from the list. Look at the texts

above to help you.

anode, cathode, electrolyte, electroplating, galvanizing, negative, plated, positive

Check that there is sufficient (1) ___________________in the bath to completely

cover the component, in order to ensure that the component will subsequently be (2)

______________ over its entire surface area .

Ensure that the component is connected to the (3) ____________________ terminal

of the electrical supply. During the (4) ________________ process, the component

should function as the (5) ____________________ .

Ensure that the metal being used for plating- e.g. zinc for (6) ______________

is connected to the (7) ................................ terminal of the electrical supply.

During the process, it should function as the (8) _____________________ .

12. Read the guidelines and say if you think they are always observed by engineers.

General Guidelines

Electrically insulate metals from different groups whenever possible; otherwise,

paint metals or use plastic coatings at joints.

Do not join dissimilar materials by threaded connections, which will deteriorate.

Instead, use brazed or thermal joints, with a brazing alloy more noble than at least

one of the metals being joined.

Avoid combinations that involve small areas of the less noble metal, relative to larger

areas of the more noble metal.

Apply paints and coatings judiciously. If the less noble metal is painted, so should

the more noble one, to avoid corrosive attacks in areas of imperfection. Coatings

should be well maintained.

Avoid putting metals in contact with chemically active materials and moisture

(aluminum with concrete or mortar, steel with certain treated woods, for example),

which may cause deterioration.

13. Before you read the following text say how you understand the concepts of «good»

construction, green construction.

14. Read the text quickly and compare it to your own ideas.

Construction Ecology

Through the efforts of a wide array of public and private organizations around the globe, a

strong and growing movement is beginning the process of transforming the systems that create the

built environment from ones that pay no attention to resources and the environment to a new variety

in which these considerations are the pre-eminent criteria for “good” construction.

Although dating back only to the early 1990s, there is already ample evidence that the

“green building” movement is affecting the design, construction, operation, and disposal of the built

environment. It utilizes many of the same efforts used in the mid-1970s to reduce building energy

consumption and promote a shift to renewable energy resources.

Green buildings are designed and built with a sharp focus on the overall environmental and

resource impacts of human habitation. In addition to significantly reducing energy use, the green

building movement also attempts to reduce water consumption, minimize construction and

operational waste, select materials that are recyclable and/or with recycled content and renewable

resource content, optimize the siting of buildings, and insure healthy interior environments for the

occupants.

In spite of the early success of this movement, much work needs to be done, particularly

in deepening the understanding of the connections and interplay between the built environment and

natural systems. At present, green building movements rely on a virtual smorgasbord of options that

are no more than the best judgment of the designers and builders who are seeking to explore new

practices. Building professionals are using a largely intuitive approach to creating a green built

environment that, although fairly effective in decelerating the destruction of environmental and

resource capacity, lacks an adequate understanding of the very systems it purports to protect. A

strong philosophical and technical basis for the wide array of decisions that must be made in the

selection of sites, materials, or energy systems does not currently exist. This is the purpose of a new

discipline called construction ecology involving the development of an understanding of how the

structures and behavior of natural systems, their organization, metamorphosis, resource utilization,

pulsing, complexity, and other important aspects can be examined both as heuristic metaphors and

for providing information for the life cycle of the built environment.

15. Read the text again and answer the following questions.

Which issues are outstanding for good construction according to the text?

Which spheres are affected by «green building» movement?

When did «green building» movement start?

What were the first steps in the «green building» movement?

What is the main objective of the «green building»?

What does the concept of environmental and resource impacts of human habitation

involve?

Do professionals follow any building regulations to create green built environment?

Glossary

ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials.

Accessible: Capable of being reached by all persons, regardless of levels of disability.

Aggregate: Particles such as sand, gravel, and stone used in concrete and plaster.

Alloy: Substance made of two or more metals or a metal and another substance.

Annealed: Metal cooled under controlled conditions.

Angle: L-shaped steel or aluminum structural section.

Beam: Horizontal linear element that spans an opening and is supported at both ends by

walls or columns.

Bearing wall: Wall that supports floors or roofs.

Building code: Legal restrictions meant to enforce safety and health in the built

environment.

CAD: Computer-aided drafting.

Canopy: Projection over doors or windows.

Cavity wall: Masonry wall with a continuous airspace between wythes.

Cement: Dry powder that combines chemically with water and bonds aggregate particles

together to form concrete. Also known as portland cement.

Cold rolling: Rolling of metal at room temperature and stretching its crystals to harden the

metal.

Concrete: Mix of cement, aggregates, and water that forms a structural material.

Concrete masonry unit (CMU): Solid or hollow block cured concrete.

Course: Horizontal layer of one-unit-high masonry units.

Detail: Drawing that provides very specific information about the materials and construction

of a component of a project and that is keyed into larger-scale drawings.

Dimensional stability: Ability of section of wood to resist changes in volume at fluctuating

moisture levels.

Flashing: Continuous sheet of thin metal, plastic, or other waterproof material used to divert

water and prevent it from passing through a joint into a wall or roof.

Float glass: Common plate glass made by floating the material on a bed of molten metal,

producing a smooth, flat surface.

Foundation: Lowest portion of a building that transfers the building’s structural loads into

the earth.

Galvanic action: Corrosion resulting from an electrical current between two unlike metals.

Grade: Classification of size or quality; the surface of the ground; the act of moving earth to

make the ground level.

Hardwood: Wood from deciduous trees.

HSLA: High-strength low-alloy grade of steel.

Insulation: Any material that slows or retards the flow or transfer of heat.

Laminate: Material produced through bonding together layers of other materials.

Loads: Forces acting on a structure. Dead loads are fixed and static elements such as the

building’s own skin, structure, and equipment; live loads are the changing weight on a building and

include people, snow, vehicles, and furniture.

Masonry: Brickwork, blockwork, and stonework; also, the trade of a mason.

Mild steel: Steel with a low carbon content.

Model: Physical representation (usually at a reduced scale) of a building or building

component; in computer drafting and modeling, it is the digital two- or three- dimensional

representation of a design.

Molding: Strip of wood, plaster, or other material with an ornamental profile.

Mortar: Material composed of portland cement, hydrated lime, fine aggregate (sand), and

water, used to adhere and cushion masonry units.

Occupancy: Category of the use of a building for determining specific code requirements.

Partition: Interior nonload-bearing wall.

Passive solar: Technology of heating and cooling a building naturally, through the use of

energy-efficient materials and proper site placement.

Precast concrete: Concrete that is cast and cured in a location other than its final position.

Schedule: Chart or table in a set of architectural drawings, including data about materials,

finishes, equipment, windows, doors, and signage; also, plan for performing work.

Softwood: Lumber from coniferous (evergreen) trees.

Specifications: Written instructions about the materials and means of construction for a

building, and included as part of the construction document set.

Sustainable design: Environmentally aware design using systems that meet present needs

without compromising the needs of future generations.

Thermal performance: Ability of a glass unit to perform as a barrier to the transfer of heat.

Undressed lumber: Lumber that is not planed.

Veneer: Thin layer, sheet, or facing.

Wythe: One-unit-thick vertical layer of masonry