, חלוקה בצדק בסמינר סיכום מצגתכלכלית ויעילות

' מרצה שמיידלר: דוד פרופ

דודזון: מגיש ישראל

בין ל אהקשר ושרעושר

Does Economic Growth Improve the Human Lot? Some Empirical Evidence

Richard A. Easterlin

University of Pennsylvania 1974

בין הקשר את בוחנת זו ושר אעבודה:על חתכים במספר ושר

קבוצות. 1 בין נתונה מדינה בתוך השוואהשונות כלכלי סטטוס

זמן. 2 לאורך נתונה במדינה השוואה

למדינות. 3 מפותחות מדינות בין השוואהמתפתחות

עשירות. 4 מדינות בין השוואה

ולאחר נשאל הבאות השאלות את עצמנוהמסקנות את נסיק הממצאים הצגתהמתאימות: הכנסה. 1 בין חיובי קשר קיים האם

לאושר?גידול. 2 בין חיובי קשר קיים האם

לבין ?בהכנסה באושר גידול

מאושרים. 3 יותר בהכרח עשירים האםמעניים?

יותר. 4 מאושרות עשירות מדינות האם? עניות ממדינות

Americans Personal Hopes1 own health 40%2 decent standart of living 33%3 children 29%4 housing 24%5 happy family 18%6 family health 16%7 leisure time 11%8 keep status quo 11%9 old age 10%

10 peace 9%11 resolution of religious problems 8%12 working conditions 7%13 family responsibility 7%14 to be accepted 6%15 an improved standart of living 5%16 employment 5%17 attain emotional maturity 5%18 modern conveniences 5%

The concept and measurement of Happiness

AMERICANS PERSONAL HOPES

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

PERSONAL HOPES

%

"general" categories of personal hopes1 economic 65%2 health 48%3 family 47%4 personal values 20%5 status quo 11%6 job or work situation 10%7 international situation, world 10%8 social values 5%9 political 2%

"GENERAL" CATEGORIES OF PERSONAL HOPES

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

economic health family personal values status quo job or worksituation

internationalsituation, world

social values political

Personal Hopes by Country 1960

country economic family health

values and character job/work social international political status quo total

1 brazil 68% 28% 34% 14% 8% 1% 1% 1% 155%2 cuba 73% 52% 47% 30% 14% 4% 3% 15% 1% 239%3 dominican republic 95% 39% 17% 15% 25% 2% 9% 202%4 egypt 70% 53% 24% 39% 42% 9% 2% 4% 243%5 india 70% 39% 4% 14% 22% 8% 2% 159%6 israel 80% 76% 47% 29% 35% 10% 12% 2% 4% 295%7 nigeria 90% 76% 45% 42% 19% 14% 286%8 panama 90% 53% 43% 26% 26% 3% 1% 1% 243%9 philippines 60% 52% 6% 9% 11% 5% 143%

10 united states 65% 47% 48% 20% 10% 5% 10% 2% 11% 218%11 west germany 85% 27% 46% 11% 10% 3% 15% 1% 4% 202%12 yugoslavia 83% 60% 41% 18% 20% 4% 8% 2% 236%

average 77% 50% 34% 22% 20% 6% 7% 5% 3% 225%

Personal Hopes

1 2 3AIPO (American Institute of Public Opinion) Very Happy Fairly Happy Not Very HappyNORC (The National Opinion Research Center) Very Happy Pretty Happy Not Too Happy

the happiness categories differ

Percentage Distribution of Population by Happiness, by Size of Income, United States 1970

income ($) very happy fairly happy not very happy no answer totalall classes 43 48 6 3 10015,000+ 56 37 4 3 10010,000-15,000 49 46 3 2 1007,000-10,000 47 46 5 2 1005,000-7,000 38 52 7 3 1003,000-5,000 33 54 7 6 100under 3,000 29 55 13 3 100Data from AIPO Poll of dec 1970 N=1,517

Within-Country Comparisons

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

%

15,000+ 10,000-15,000 7,000-10,000 5,000-7,000 3,000-5,000 under 3,000

INCOME($)

% DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY HAPPINESS BY SIZE OF INCOME,USA 1970

Pecentage Not Very Happy in Lowest and Highest Sratus Groups, United States 1946-1970

year

number of groups designation N.V.H% designation N.V.H% N

1946 4 poor 11% Wealthy 3% 3,151 1947 4 poor 9% Wealthy 0% 3,088 1947 4 poor 12% Wealthy 3% 1,434 1948 4 poor 10% Wealthy 0% 1,800 1948 4 poor 15% Wealthy 4% 1,596 1952 3 poor 12% Average+ 8% 3,003 1960 3 Low income 6% Upper income 2% 2,582 1963 6 income<3,000$ 10% income=15,000$+ 0% 3,668 1966 6 income<3,000$ 6% income=15,000$+ 0.3% 3,531 1970 6 income<3,000$ 13% income=15,000$+ 4% 1,517 Average 10% 2%

Lowest status group Highest status group

% N.V.H in the Highest and Lowest status group

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

16%

1946 1947 1947 1948 1948 1952 1960 1963 1966 1970

years

%

N.V.H% in the Lowest status group

N.V.H% in the Highest status group

Pecentage Not Very Happy in Lowest and Highest Sratus Groups, 7 countries 1965

countrynumber of groups designation N.V.H% designation N.V.H% N

1 Great Britain 3 very poor 19% upper,upper middle,middle 4% 1,179 2 West Germany 3 lower middle,lower 19% upper,upper middle 7% 1,255 3 Thailand 2 lower/middle 15% middle/upper 6% 500 4 Philippines 2 lower/middle,lower 15% upper,upper middle 5% 500 5 Malaysia 2 lower/middle 20% middle/upper 10% 502 6 France 3 lower 27% upper 6% 1,228 7 Italy 3 lower middle,lower 42% upper,upper middle 10% 1,166

Average 22% 7%N.V.H=Not Very Happy

Lowest status group Highest status group

% N.V.H in Lowest and Highest status groups ,7 countries

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

30%

35%

40%

45%

Great Britain West Germany Thailand Philippines Malaysia France Italy

%N.V.H Lowest status group

%N.V.H Highest status group

Personal Happiness Rating in Lowest and Highest Status Groups, 13 Countries 1960

country yearnumber of groups designation Rating designation Rating

difference high minus

low N1 united states 1959 5 Lower economic 6.0 Upper economic 7.1 1.1 1,549 2 cuba 1960 3 Lower socio-economic 6.2 High,upper middle socio-economic 6.7 0.5 992 3 israel 1962 3 Lower income 4.0 Upper income 6.5 2.5 1,170 4 west germany 1957 3 Lower economic 4.9 Upper economic 6.2 1.3 480 5 japan 1962 3 Lower,middle Lower socio-economic 4.3 Upper,upper middle socio-economic 5.8 1.5 972 6 yugoslavia 1962 4 Lower,farmer 4.3 Upper,nonfarmer 6.0 1.7 1,523 7 philippines 1959 4 Lower economic 4.1 Upper economic 6.2 2.1 500 8 panama 1962 2 Lower socio-economic 4.3 upper socio-economic 6.0 1.7 642 9 nigeria 1963 2 Lower socio-economic 4.7 upper socio-economic 5.8 1.1 1,200

10 brazil 1961 5 Lower socio-economic 3.9 upper socio-economic 7.3 3.4 2,168 11 poland 1962 5 unskilled 3.7 White-collar 4.9 1.2 1,464 12 india 1962 4 income<R75 3.0 income>R301 4.9 1.9 2,366 13 dominican republic 1962 2 Lower socio-economic 1.4 upper socio-economic 4.3 2.9 814

average 4.2 6.0 1.8min=0max=10

Lowest status group Highest status group

International Comparisons

Rating Happiness in countries by status groups

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

Happiness Rating

Cou

ntri

es

Lowest status group Happiness Rating

Highest status group Happiness Rating

Personal Happiness Rating and Real GNP per Head, 14 countries 1960

countryperiod of survey

Rating of personal happiness(min=0,max=10)

Real GNP per head 1961 ($)

N=sample sizes

1 united states 1959 6.6 2,790 1,549 2 cuba 1960 6.4 516 992 3 egypt 1960 5.5 225 4 israel 1962 5.3 1,027 1,170 5 west germany 1957 5.3 1,860 480 6 japan 1962 5.2 613 972 7 yugoslavia 1962 5.0 489 1,523 8 philippines 1959 4.9 282 500 9 panama 1962 4.8 371 642 10 nigeria 1963 4.8 134 1,200 11 brazil 1961 4.6 375 2,168 12 poland 1962 4.4 702 1,464 13 india 1962 3.7 140 2,366 14 dominican republic 1962 1.6 313 814

average 4.9 703

Real GNP per head 1961 ($)

-

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

COUNTRIES

$

Rating of personal happiness(min=0,max=10)

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

countries

hap

pin

ess r

atin

g

Percect Distribution of Population by Happiness, 9 countries,1965

countryvery happy

fairly happy

not very happy other N

Real GNP per head 1961($) TOTAL

1 Great Britain 53 42 4 1 1,179 1,777 1002 united states 49 46 4 2 3,531 2,790 1013 West Germany 20 66 11 3 1,255 1,860 1004 Thailand 13 74 12 1 500 202 1005 japan 81 13 5 920 613 996 Philippines 13.5 73 13.5 0 500 282 1007 Malaysia 17 64 15 4 502 552 1008 France 12 64 18 5 1,228 1,663 999 Italy 11 52 33 4 1,166 1,077 100

average 24 62 14 3 1,198 1,202

Real GNP per head 1961($)

-

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

Great Britain united states West Germany Thailand japan Philippines Malaysia France Italy

countries

US

A D

OL

LA

RS

$

very happy by countries

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Great Britain united states West Germany Thailand japan Philippines Malaysia France Italy

% very happy

co

un

trie

s

Percent Distribution of Population by Happiness, united states 1946-1970

AIPO Poolsyear very happy fairly happy not very happy other N Total %

1 1946 39 50 10 1 3,151 1002 1947 42 47 10 1 1,434 1003 1948 43 43 11 2 1,596 994 1952 47 43 9 1 3,003 1005 1956 53 41 5 1 1,979 1006 1956 52 42 5 1 2,207 1007 1957 53 43 3 1 1,627 1008 1963 47 48 5 1 3,668 1019 1966 49 46 4 2 3,531 101

10 1970 43 48 6 3 1,517 100average 47 45 7 1 2,371

Percent Distribution of Population by Happiness, united states 1957-1990NORC Pools

year very happy pretty happy not too happy N Total %1 1957 35 54 11 2,460 1002 1963 32 51 16 1,501 993 1965 30 53 17 1,469 1004 1972 30 53 17 1,606 1005 1980 34 53 13 1,462 1006 1990 33 58 9 1,361 100

average 32 54 14 1,643

National Time Series

very happy IN TIME SERIES IN USA

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1946 1947 1948 1952 1956 1956 1957 1963 1966 1970

YEARS

% V

ER

Y H

AP

PY

AIPO POOLS

1946-1970

very happy TIME SERIES IN USA 1957-1990

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

36

1957 1963 1965 1972 1980 1990

YEARS

% V

ER

Y H

AP

PY

NORC POOLS

Percent Very Happy by Size of Income, united states 1946-1952

year all classes

average+ and wealthy average poor

1 1946 39 47 43 342 1947 42 52 46 373 1948 43 54 50 374 1948 43 51 51 375 1952 47 51 51 42

average 43 51 48 37

Percent Very Happy by Size of Income, united states 1963-1970

year all classes 15,000$+ 10,000$-14,999$ 5,000$-9,999$ 3,000$-4,999$ Under 3,000$1 1963 47 59 50 50 46 402 1966 49 67 62 50 42 343 1970 38 56 49 43 33 29

average 45 61 54 48 40 34

% "very happy" by size of income,USA 1946-1952

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1946 1947 1948 1948 1952

year

% v

ery

happ

y

all classes

average+ and wealthy

average

poor

Life Satisfaction in 9 European countries from one Decade to the NextProportion of the sample who reported themselves as "very satisfied" with their lives

countryAverage % 1973-1981

Average % 1982-1990 delta%

Well-being increased ?

1 belgium 39.5 24.7 -14.8 no2 denmark 51.7 62.8 11.1 yes3 france 12.4 13.7 1.3 yes4 west germany 18.8 23.4 4.6 yes5 ireland 38.8 31.1 -7.7 no6 italy 9 13.2 4.2 yes7 luxembourg 34.6 39.1 4.5 yes8 netherlands 41.3 41.8 0.5 yes9 uk 31.7 30.9 -0.8 no

Satisfaction with life :Europe since 1973

"life satisfaction" in european countries

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

belgium denmark france westgermany

ireland italy luxembourg netherlands uk

countries

% v

ery

satis

fied

Average % 1973-1981

Average % 1982-1990

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

% "very satisfied"

belgiumdenmarkfrancewestgermany

irelanditalyluxembourgnetherlandsuk

countries

Life satisfaction in 9 countries from one decade to the next

Average % 1973-1981 Average % 1982-1990

The Microeconomics of Happiness in Europe 1975-1986

all unemployed

lowest-income quartile people

Highest-income quartile people

very happy % 23 16 19 28pretty happy% 58 51 55 59not too happy % 19 33 27 13TOTAL % 100 100 100 100N=108,802

Happiness in Wealthy Countries-Data Set

countries mean maximum minimum std.dev observations1 belgium 2.21 2.40 2.07 0.12 102 denmark 2.25 2.34 2.09 0.08 103 france 1.92 2.01 1.84 0.05 114 ireland 2.17 2.34 1.87 0.13 105 italy 1.72 1.82 1.51 0.09 116 luxembourg 2.11 2.20 2.00 0.08 107 netherlands 2.36 2.48 2.22 0.07 118 uk 2.15 2.49 1.90 0.17 129 USA 2.25 2.51 2.13 0.11 25

10 west germany 1.98 2.04 1.89 0.04 10average 2.11 2.26 1.95 0.09 12.00

1 not very happy2 fairly happy3 very happy

Cross-Country Evidence

Source:veenhoven 1995

Happiness and Income in Countries

countriescoefficient of income

coefficient of income growth

coefficient of lagged income growth

X0 X0+delta X0-delta1 belgium -0.0001400 -1.469091 0.0393402 denmark -0.0000439 0.237897 -0.0125593 france 0.0000008 -0.070912 -0.0022014 ireland 0.0001180 0.314271 -0.0061685 italy 0.0000207 -0.261726 -0.0059316 luxembourg 0.0000460 -0.514327 0.0344007 netherlands 0.0000071 -0.320419 -0.0032198 uk -0.0000745 -0.970901 -0.0197559 USA -0.0000273 0.028359 0.006634

10 west germany 0.0000220 0.729914 0.009728

column 1: Happiness against a constant and income per capitacolumn 2: Happiness growth against a constant and income growth per capitacolumn 3: Happiness against a constant and previous income growth per capitaseparate regressions for each countryincludes all countries with 10 or more separate years of data on national happiness and income

SOURCE:VEENHOVEN 1995 AND SUMMERS AND HESTON 1991

The Relationship Between Happiness and Income

Pooled regressions on bel,den,fra,ire,ita,lux,nld,gbr,usa,deu

Dependent variable HappinessHappiness Growth Happiness Income

Happiness Growth

Income Growth

Independent variableIncomeIncome Growth

Past income Growth

Past Happiness Growth

Initial Income

Initial Happiness

Fixed Effects Regressions

IV Coefficient -1.86E-05 -0.1856 -0.00079 6.089871 0.000287 9.727875IV t-stat -2.99791 -2.12082 -0.51106 0.246628 0.77 1.656368R-Squared 0.78 0.07 0.79 0.7 0.03 0.09

Common Constant Regressions

Constant 2.003128 0.611035 2.148801 11,435.82 -0.1279 10.30155Constant t-stat 23.13465 1.042926 99.06455 50.25898 -0.05296 1.684288

IV Coefficient 1.10E-05 -0.1712 -0.00683 -12.9238 9.86E-06 -3.11269IV t-stat 1.459264 -2.08803 -2.25093 -0.30108 0.046288 -1.08798R-Squared 0.02 0.04 0.05 0 0 0.01

includes all countries with 10 or more separate years of data on national happiness and income

SOURCE:VEENHOVEN 1995 AND SUMMERS AND HESTON 1991

Income, Inequality,and Happiness

country yearGNP per Capita

Gini Coefficient Happiness

belgium 1979 10.679 28.25 2.401985 11.285 26.22 2.10

denmark 1975 10.236 31.00 2.341986 13.449 33.15 2.13

france 1975 10.297 38.40 1.891984 12.034 37.20 1.91

ireland 1975 5.806 38.69 1.871986 7.238 34.60 2.10

italy 1975 8.282 39.00 1.611986 11.115 33.58 1.82

luxembourg Insufficient data

netherlands 1975 10.255 28.60 2.221986 11.797 29.68 2.36

uk 1965 7.679 24.30 2.491986 11.726 27.80 2.08

USA 1952 9.074 35.10 2.381989 18.095 38.16 2.22

west germany 1978 11.375 32.06 1.941984 12.302 32.20 1.97

מסקנות:

להכנסה. 1 אושר בין בין בהשוואהשונות המשתייכים מדינות כי רואים אנו

מאושרים הגבוה הסטטוס לקבוצת ) המשתייכים) מאלו בממוצע יותר

הנמוך הסטטוס חיובי קיימת. 2לקבוצת קשר לגבי ודאות איבזמן מדינות בין להכנסה אושר בין

האושר. 3נתון למדינות הבדלי עשירות מדינות ביןבתוך עניות השוואה בסיס על ציפינו אשר

כלכלי סטטוס בסיס על להבדלים המדינות" " ל הבינ הנתונים י ע מאומתים אינם

הפרטים. 4 בין נתפס האושר מדינה בכול(ביחס , תרבות) חברה יחסית כלומר .לכלל

המצב אבסולוטיתולא את משווים הפרטיםסטנדרטים הנתון עם נמצאים הם בו אשר

שבה מקובלים בחברה מקובלות ונורמותנמצאים ההכנסות . 5הם את נעלה הפרטים אם לכלל

מדינה יגדיל נתונה בתוך בהכרח זה איןהאושר מכיוון את היא לפרטים שההכנסה

באותה לשאר יחסית בחברה הפרטיםגם ולכן יחסי האושר מדינה ולא הוא

למקסימום העשירים. 6אבסולוטי מגיעים לא פעם אףמכיוון להיות אושר שצריך חושבים תמיד שהם

יותר להם

שבה. 7 הכנסה בחברה בעלי הפרטים כללמאשר ממוצע זהה יותר גבוה האושר

שבה הכנסות הפרטים בחברה בעלי הםאשר. 8שונות הכנסה מלבד נוספים גורמים קיימים

, משפיעים : , ציפיות בריאות כמו האושר עלאורח, , לעתיד , תרבות, קידמה השכלה חיים

וכד’

((Ui=f(Ci/(sigmaAij cj

Ui -פרט של iהתועלת

Ci -פרט של הצריכה iהוצאות

Cj -של הצריכה פרטים jהוצאות

Aij -להוצאות פרט כול שמייחס המשקלהפרטים שאר של הצריכה

נגזרות: הנחה פרט כול של הצריכה הוצאותשלו מההכנסה

:ביבליוגרפיה

1.Easterlin Richard, A “Does Economic Growth improve the human Lot? Some Empirical Evidence” in P.A . David and W.R. Melvin (eds) Nations and Households Economic Growth (palo alto stanford u.p 1974) pp.89-125

2 .Easterlin Richard, A “Will raising the incomes of all increase the happiness of all?” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization VOL 27(1995) 35-47

3.Oswald AJ “Happiness and economic performance”, ECONOMIC JOURNAL 107(445) 1815-1831 NOV 1997

4.Kenny C “Does growth cause happiness, or does happiness cause growth?”, KYKLOS 52(1) 3-25 1999