© 2007 thomson brooks/cole, a division of thomson learning the counseling profession’s past,...

© 2007 Thomson Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning

The Counseling Profession’s Past, Present and Future

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Since dawn of existence, people have attempted to understand the human condition

Shamans Egyptian papyrus (3330BCE)—attempt to

understand functions of the brain Early philosophers

Hippocrates (460-377BCE): Offered suggestions for treatment of human condition: for melancholia he recommended sobriety, a regular and tranquil life, exercise short of fatigue, and bleeding, if necessary. For hysteria, he recommended getting married!

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Early philosophers (cont’d) Monotheistic religions: Old Testament, New

Testament, Quran, and other religious text speak to how to “treat” suffering

Plotinus (205-270): Soul separate from the body (dualistic understanding of mind and body)

Descartes (1596-1650) and James Mill (1773-1836): Mind a blank slate upon which ideas become generated.

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These three professions originated in the 19th century and all impacted on the counseling field

Over the years, they have maintained their unique identities, but have all moved to many of the same theoretical conclusions.

Today, they, along with the counseling profession, can be seen on slightly different, yet parallel paths See Figure 2.1, p. 35

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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Poor Laws (1500s) Charity Organization

Societies (COSs)▪ “Friendly visitors”

Settlement movement▪ Jane Addams/Hull

House All of above led to

social casework, group work, community, first social work programs

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1940s-1950s: focus on family and social systems e.g., Virginia Satir

1955: NASW 1965 ACSW

Today, social workers found in a wide variety of settings

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Systems: Family and social systems perspective has become required focus by CACREP

Field experience: Practicum, Internship, and other “field experiences” today seen as critical in counseling programs

Advocacy and Social Justice: Social work’s focus on advocacy and social justice has become an important ingredient for the counseling profession

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Historical Background (Early Basis of Psychology)• Greek philosophers

• Hippocrates: Focused on how to treat mental illness

• Plato (427-347BCE): Introspection and reflection—road to knowledge; dreams and fantasies—substitute satisfactions; human condition: physical, moral and spiritual origins

• Aristotle (384-322BCE): Considered “first psychologist” used objectivity and reason to study knowledge

• Augustine (354-430) and Aquinas (1225-1274): highlighted consciousness, self-examination, and inquiry

• Focus on Christianity during Augustine and Aquinas times limited the psychological nature of people

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Historical Background (1800s)• Europe: First experimental psychologists studied

similarities and differences of people• E.g.,: Wundt and Galton

• 1800s in U.S.: experimental psychologists• James Cattell & G. Stanley Hall (1st president of

APA)• Williams James’ theory of philosophical pragmatism:

truth and reality is continually constructed• Testing: Binet, vocational assessment, personality

tests• Mesmer (mesmerize), Charcot (hypnosis)• Psychoanalysis and Freud

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Historical Background (late 1800s to 1900s)• 1892: APA• Other schools arise:

• Pavlov (classical conditioning); Phenomenology psychology; Existentialism psychology; Gestalt psychology

• Above schools led to today’s cognitive-behavioral and existential-humanistic therapies

• Mid 1940’s: Division 17 (counseling psychology)• Today: experimental psychologists, clinical and

counseling psychologists, school psychologists, psychologists in business and industrial organizations

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Probably influenced counseling most of all professions

Gave us the first comprehensive approaches to counseling and therapy

Tests developed by psychologist used by early vocational counselors and other counselors today

Research techniques

Early development of counseling skills

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Historical Background• Mental illness originally: mystical, demonic--

treatment horrific• Pinel (late 1700s): Founder of psychiatry; one of

first to view mental illness from a scientific perspective

• Other well known psychiatrists: • Kraepelin (early classification system)• Charcot and Janet: relationship between

disorders and the mind• Rush and Dix: Advocated for humane treatment of

mentally ill (see Box 2.1, p. 40)• Assoc. of Medical Superintendents of Am.

Institutions for Insane—Forerunner of APA (1844)11


Historical Background• Early 1900s: Many psychiatrists into

psychoanalysis, some move toward psychobiology, some toward social psychiatry

• 1950s and 1960s: Expansion of psychotropics• 1950s: DSM-I, Today DSM-IV-TR; 2013: DSM-5• 1960s: Psychiatrists needed to work in

Community Based Mental Health Centers after “Donaldson v. O’Connor)

• Today: Mental illness predominantly or partially biological

• Today: Psychiatrists often consult with counselors 12


• Diagnosis

• Illnesses may be organic

• Psychopharmacology

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Precursors to the Counseling Profession: The 1800s Read quote, top of p. 41

Beginning of Counseling Influenced by: Social Reform Movement of the 1800s

▪ John Dewey writings in education▪ More humane treatment of the mentally ill▪ Social Workers who worked with poor and

destitute

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Beginning of Counseling Movement Influenced by: Need for Vocational Guidance in the late 1800s

▪ Traced all the way back to: Sanchez de Arevalo (1468)--Mirror of Men’s Lives

Testing▪ Binet Intelligence test▪ Group tests (e.g., special and multiple aptitude

testing)▪ Others

Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy: Turn of 20th Century▪ Offered a “psychological view” of people

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Vocational Guidance Movement—early 1900s Jesse Davis, Anna Reed, Eli Weaver Frank Parsons and Spread of Vocational Guidance

▪ Influenced by Jane Addams▪ Man with a vision—”Founder” of guidance in America▪ Vocational Guidance: 3-part process, see top of p. 44▪ Established Vocational Bureau▪ Led to establishment of NVGA

John Brewer Wagner-O’Day Act “Vocational” & “Guidance” counselors are first

counselors

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Counseling and Expansion of Testing Movement (1900-1950) Army Alpha (see Box 2.2, p. 45) Strong Interest Inventory Woodworth’s Personal Data Sheet Group testing and vocational guidance Some tests used in vocational guidance, other

tests later used in school and agency counseling

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Spread of Psychotherapy--Impact on Counseling (1900-1950) Clifford Beers: A Mind that Found Itself:

▪ Congress passed laws to improve mental hospitals End of WWI, doughboys, PTSD

▪ Need for more helpers E. G. Williamson’s Minnesota Point of View (trait and

factory theory) Humanists fleeing Europe Carl Rogers and Rochester Guidance Clinic All of the above influenced the burgeoning counseling

field as counselors moved from schools into other areas

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The 1950s: Emergence, Expansion, and Diversification Carl Rogers and Client-Centered Therapy Developmental theories of counseling arise:

career counseling, child development, lifespan development Sputnik and NDEA

End of WWII and college counseling 1945: AAMFC—later AAMFT 1950s: NASW Division 17 of APA APGA

▪ ASCA, ACES, ACDA, ARCA, C-AHEAD

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1960s: Increased Diversification Ellis Behavioral: Bandura, Wolpe, Krumboltz Glasser’s Reality Therapy Gestalt: Perls Existential: Arbuckle, Frankl, May Expansion of services: Johnson’s Great Society Community Mental Health Centers Act of 1963 NDEA expanded Other federal acts APGA’s 1961 1st ethical code Precursors of CACREP More ACA divisions and branches: NECA, AACE, State

branches

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Continued Proliferation: 1970s Donaldson v. O’Connor (see Box 2.3, p. 44) Expansion of Community Mental Health Centers Act (12

services) Rehabilitation Act PL 94-142 Microcounseling skills training Multicultural Counseling: Sue, Pedersen, Cross, Atkinson ACES draft of standards for counseling programs CORE NACMHC Virginia: First state to have licensing New Divisions: AMCD, ASERVIC, ASGW, IAAOC, AMHCA

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1980s-2000: Recent Changes CACREP (1981) NBCC started NCC (1982) IAMFC: certification for family therapists (1994) Increased focus on multicultural issues AMCD: Multicultural Counseling Competencies (1991) Focus on: ethics, supervision, teaching, & online

counseling ACPA disaffiliates AMHCA and ASCA threaten disaffiliation APGA becomes AACD (1983) then ACA (1992) New divisions: ACEG, AADA, IAMFC ACCA, AGLBIC, CSJ

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The New Millennium: 2000 and On Expansion of NCC

▪ Over 45,000 NCCs▪ Specialty certifications in: Clinical mental

health counseling, school counseling, addictions counseling

Licensing in all 50 states, Puerto Rico, and DC Divisions become increasingly independent

(not separate) of ACA ASCA National Model New divisions: ACC and CSJ Importance of Evidence-Based Practice

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The New Millennium: 2000 and On (Cont’d) Multicultural Counseling know considered

“fourth force” Focus on Social Justice Advocacy

▪ 2003: ACA endorses Advocacy Competencies▪ Fifth Force?

Focus on Crisis, Disaster, and Trauma Training 2005: New Ethics Code 2010: 20/20 Standards (see bottom of p. 54)

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We are what we are because of our past.

Why not strive to understand from whence we came, and attempt to make smart, conscious choices about our future.

It’s not easy taking a hard look at oneself, and it is difficult memorizing all those names! See Table 2.1, pp. 56-58

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Learning from the Past, Moving Toward the Future Are we moving fast enough? Today we must:

▪ Ensure all students are trained in the Multicultural Counseling Competencies and Advocacy Competencies

▪ Ensure all students are working on their biases▪ Ensure that all students have the knowledge and

skills to be culturally competent▪ Provide vehicles for increased scholarship,

especially outcome research relative to social justice and cross-cultural counseling

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Ethics: Changing over time

Prior ethical codes tells us where we’ve been

New ethical codes tell us where we are and point us in the direction of the future

Must be aware of our ethical codes

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Looking Back, Looking Ahead, and Embracing Paradigm Shifts Our history tells us about where we have been Our history shows us our paradigm shifts But, where are we now? What new paradigm shifts might be occurring

now?

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© 2007 thomson brooks/cole, a division of thomson learning the counseling profession’s past,...

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