zurich is teaching multilingual children-evidence-based teaching
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If a doctor, lawyer, or dentist had 40 people in hisoffice at one time, all of whom had differentneeds, and some of whom didn't want to be there
and were causing trouble, and the doctor, lawyer,or dentist, without assistance, had to treat themall with professional excellence for nine months,then he might have some conception of the
classroom teachers job.Donald Quinn
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Teaching multilingual students:Methods and activities based on evidence
From the Classroom to the Lab and Back:
Visible Learning +Mind, Brain, and EducationMeet Multilingualism
Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Ecuador
Zurich International School
September 2013
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BackgroundBA and BS from Boston University in International Relations
and Mass Communication (magna cum laude). Mastersfrom Harvard University in International Education and
Development and doctorate (Ph.D.) from Capella University
(cross-disciplinary approach comparing findings in
neuroscience, psychology, pedagogy, cultural anthropology
and linguistics).
Director of the Institute for Research and Educational
Development, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Ecuador.
Author ofRaising Multilingual Children (2001), TheMultilingual Mind(2003), and Living Languages (2008). Newbook on neuroscience and language 2014.
Teacher (pre-kindergarten through university) with 24 years
of comparative research based on family case studies
(Japan, Ecuador, USA, Canada, France, Switzerland,
Germany) and work in 24 different countries.
Three children (raised in English, Spanish, German and
French).
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Today:
1. Part I: Framework: Backward Designand context
2. Part II: From the classroom to the lab
and back: Visible Learning (Hattie, 2009, 2012, 2013)
+
Mind, Brain, and Education science
Part III: The Teacher
Teaching: Evidence-based activities
School design
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Premise: Do no harm
1. The first rule in
education is to Do noharm
2. The greatest goal in
education:
Form critical thinkers Form life-long learners
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Video:A Hole in the Wall
What is the role of schools in todaysworld?
1. Ian Jukes: Why Do I Need a TeacherWhen Ive got Google
2. Can the brain notlearn? How does it learn best?
Under what conditions does it learn best? What levels of learning require a teacher
to be successful?
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m_CkyPbigFU&feature=youtu.be
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Do you need teachers if you have
access to a computer with Internet?
1. Objective: If your
objective is contentknowledge, no.
2. Objective: If you
desire is to form
critical thinkers, yes.
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Rip van Winkle
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Transportation
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Banks
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Government
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Supermarkets
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Schools.
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Education has to catch up with other
aspects of society! But how?
Baby steps Bold measures
Teacher Education and 21st Century Skills http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0eGHAuV5yLo
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FRAMEWORK
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Think of your favorite teacher
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Characteristics of a good teacher
In groups: Put the characteristic in order of importance:
Caring
Knowledgeable
Experienced
Intelligent
Planner
Organized
Just
Happy
Dedicated
Balanced
Good values
Creative
Professional
Concerned
Reflective
Respectful
Active
Sure
Didactic
Dynamic
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There are lots of ways to be a
great teacher! There is nosingle recipe, but there are
learnable traits in teaching.
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Three steps to ensuring understanding
(backward design)
Adopted from Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe (1998), Understanding by Design.
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PART I: VISIBLE LEARNING
(HATTIE, 2009; 2012)
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Visible Learning (Hattie, 2009;
2012) is a meta analysis of 900+meta-analyses on what influences
student learning outcomes.
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Source: Based
on John Hattie(2009; 2012)
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Source: Based
on John Hattie(2009; 2012)
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Source: Based
on John Hattie(2009; 2012)
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Almost Everything Works:
Of 150 influences, 145 have apositive influence on student
learning
While goodactivities abound,however, greatactivities arefar and few between.
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General guide (50 Best Classroom
Practices:
1. Plan Activities Grab Attention
2. Plan Activities That Stimulate Memory
3. Plan to Use Spaced Versus Massed Learning Moments
4. Plan to Incorporate Repetition
5. Take Advantage of Variation and Transdisciplinarity
6. Plan Authentic Lessons
7. Implement Formative Evaluation
8. Use Product, Process, and Progress Evaluations
9. Test to Improve Learning
10. Develop Shared, Explicit Learning Objectives
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General guide:
11. Strive for Clarity and Immediacy12. Provide Feedback for Mastery Learning
13. Nurture Teacher-Student Relationships
14. Believe in the Role of Plasticity and in Your Students
15. Foster Metacognition and Mindfulness16. Employ Zemelman and Colleagues Best Practice Filter
When Selecting Activities
17. Develop Students Ability to Identify Similarities andDifferences
18. Develop Students Summarizing and Note Taking Ability
19. Reinforce Effort and Provide Recognition
20. Provide Purposeful Homework and Practice
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General guide:
21. Prepare Students to Set Personal Objectives and GiveThemselves Feedback
22. Teach Students to Generate and Test Hypotheses
23. Use Cues
24. Use the Socratic Method
25. Cultivate the Art of Questioning
26. Incorporate Problem-Based Learning
27. Incorporate Cooperative Learning
28. Incorporate Reciprocal Teaching
29. Incorporate Case Studies
30. Harness the Power of Analogies
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General guide:
31. Implement the 5Es: Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate,Evaluate
32. Improve Student Self-Efficacy
33. Maintain High Expectations
34. See Learning as Fluid
35. Appreciate the Role of Affect in Learning
36. Take the Lead in Social Contagion
37. Award Perseverance and Celebrate Error
38. Motivate
39. Never Work Harder Than Your Students
40. Be Passionate!
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General guide:
41. Design Engaging Classrooms42. Manage
43. Use Thinking Routines
44. Keep Abreast of Technology and Flip the Classroom
45. Pay Attention to Ages and Stages
46. Improve Nutrition
47. Get Students Out of Rows
48. Begin Year-Round Schooling
49. Change The School Day
50. Stop Using Multiple-choice Tests as Indicators of Higher
Thinking
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Mind, Brain, and
Education scientist: In some instances this label will
mean teachers who areintegrating cognitive
neuroscience and psychologicalfoundations into their practice.
In other cases it will mean
psychologists who seek tobridge the hard and soft
sciences. In yet others it will mean
neuroscientists who dare tobring laboratory findings into
the classroom.
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Mind, Brain, and Education(MBE) Science is the new and
improved brain-basedlearning. It is the scientifically
substantiated art of teaching.It is the intersection of
neuroscience, education, and
psychology. And it is a
paradigm shift in formal
education
Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2010a, p.22).
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Why change from Education
to Mind, Brain, and Education?
Begin with the premise that solutions to problems in
education today require the more sophisticated and
complex approach offered by MBE science.
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Findings: Comparison with existing
literature.(bad info)
A large percentage of what teachers are exposed to in
literature and on the Internet was based on neuromyths
rather than well-established sources.
Ex.: Teachers were told to sit in a circle and pass arounda candle before class in order to getboys to focusneeded because of their primitive instincts; boys arent
meant to sit in our typical classrooms (Costa Ricanteachers conference).
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Delphi Participants
Daniel Ansari
Michael Atherton
Jane Bernstein
Sarah Jayne Blakemore Renate Nummela-Caine
Donna Coch
David Daniel
Stanislas Dehaene
Marian Diamond
Kurt Fischer
John Geake
Usha Goswami
Christina Hinton
Mary Helen
Immordino-Yang Eric Jensen
Jelle Jolles
Michael Posner
Marc Schwartz
Rita Smilkstein
David Sousa
Judy Willis
Virginia Berninger
John T. Bruer
Howard GardnerPaul Howard-Jones
Hideaki Koizumi
Neuroscientists
Psychologists
Educators
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Topics Researched in Mind, Brain,
and Science Education1. Neuroimaging
2. Neurotransmitters and Chemicals
3. Neurogenesis and Plasticity4. Theories of Consciousness
5. Beliefs about Intelligence
6. New Learning Theories
7. Neuroethics
8. Learning Differences9. Mind-Body Connection
a. Sleep
b. Physical Exercise
c. Nutrition
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Major Brain Functions in the Research1. Art
2. Creativity
3. Language
4. Reading
5. Math
6. Music
7. Science
1. Affect and Empathy
2. Emotions
3. Motivation4. Attention
5. Executive Functions and/orDecision-Making
6. Facial Recognition and
Interpretation7. Memory
8. Social Cognition
9. Spatial Management
10.Time Management
School Subjects Life Skills
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Eleven Areas Discussed by the Experts
1. Name of the emerging field;
2. Academic roots;
3. Definition of terms;
4. The overarching research, practice and policy goals of the emerging field;
5. History;
6. Thought leaders;
7. Steps to judging quality information;
8. Organizations and societies qualified to judge the information;
9. BELIEFS AND NEUROMYTHS (todays focus);
10. Enhanced communication between professionals in the parent disciplines;
11. Design of a new Masters program to meet the needs of new professionals in
the emerging field.
For complete dissertation, email [email protected]
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Categorization criteria
In Understanding thebrain: The birth of a
learning science, (OECD,2002)* the authors
propose a continuum of
four categories of
information quality.
*OECD= 30 countries (Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea, Luxemburg, Mexico, the
Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey,
United Kingdom, United States.
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Criteria used to categorize concepts
Categories:
A. What is well-established (i.e.plasticity, which now hashundreds of credible human studies behind it);
B. What is probably so (i.e., sensitive periods, which has
hundreds of studies behind it, though not all conducted onhumans);
C. What is intelligent speculation (i.e., gender differences, whichhas thousands of studies behind it, albeit of mixed quality and
sometimes with contradictory findings); and
D. What is popular misconception or a neuromyth (i.e., "rightbrain" and "left brain" discussion, which has been the targetof thousands of books and articles, some of which promote
the term, but most of which criticize the lack of factual
accuracy of the claim).
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Principles That Great Teachers Teach By:
1. Great teachers know that each brain is unique and uniquely organized.2. Great teachers know that all brains are not equally good at
everything.
3. Great teachers know that the brain is a complex, dynamic system and
is changed daily by experiences.
4. Great teachers know that learning is a constructivist process, and the
ability to learn continues through developmental stages as an
individual matures.
5. Great teachers know that the search for meaning is innate in human
nature.
6. Great teachers know that brains have a high degree of plasticity and
develop throughout the lifespan.
7. Great teachers know that MBE Science principles apply to all ages.
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Principles That Great Teachers Teach By:
8. Great teachers know that learning is based in part on the brainsability to self-correct and learn from past experience.
9. Great teachers know that the search for meaning occurs through
pattern recognition.
10. Great teachers know that brains seek novelty.
11. Great teachers know that emotions are critical to detecting patterns,
to decision-making, and to learning.
12. Great teachers know that learning is enhanced by challenge and
inhibited by threat.
13. Great teachers know that human learning involves various attentional
networks.
14. Great teachers know that the brain conceptually processes parts and
wholes simultaneously.
15. Great teachers know that the brain depends on interactions with
other people to make sense of social situations.
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Principles That Great Teachers Teach By:
16. Great teachers know that feedback is important to learning.
17. Great teachers know that learning relies on memory and
attention.
18. Great teachers know that memory systems differ in input and
recall and are vital to learning.
19. Great teachers know that the brain remembers best when facts
and skills are embedded in natural contexts.
20. Great teachers know that learning involves conscious and
unconscious processes.
21. Great teachers know that learning engages the entire physiology
(the body influences the brain, and the brain controls the body).
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Tenets in MBE
1. Motivation
2. Stress
3. Anxiety
4. Depression
5. Tones of voice6. Facial expressions
7. Movement and exercise
8. Humor (laughter)
9. Nutrition
10. Sleep
11. Cognitive preferences
12. Differentiation
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Instructional Guidelines
1. Good learning environments are made, not found.2. Good lessons take into account both sense (logical order) and
meaning (personal relevance).
3. Teaching to different memory systems enhances recall.
4. Well-managed classes take advantage of natural human attentionspans.
5. Good classroom activities take advantage of the social nature oflearning.
6. Good teachers understand the mind-body connection (sleep,nutrition, exercise).
7. Good teachers understand how to manage different students
(orchestrated immersion).8. Skills are retained better when learned through active processes.
9. Explicit teaching of metacognitive skills aids higher-order thinkingacross subjects.
10. Learning can and does take place throughout the lifespan.
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PART III: TEACHING: EVIDENCE-
BASED ACTIVITIES
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B Cl P i
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Best Classroom Practice:
Improve Student Self-Efficacy
If a student thinks she can learn, she will.
According to Hatties research (2009), a students self-
reported grades are the greatest indicator of improved
learning. In many ways, this is a self-fulfilling prophecy: If I
think I can learn, I will; if I believe I am incapable of learning, I
will fail.
As Hattie points out, a childs willingness to invest in learning,
openness to experiences, and the general reputation she canbuild as a learner are key s to success (2009), and this self-
efficacy is prejudiced by the way the teacher makes the child
feel.
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How can we promote this virtuous cycle in the classroom?
One way is to create a climate in which students believe that
its okay to make errors (I can always try again; I am not my
failures but rather my successes).
B t Cl P ti
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Best Classroom Practice:
Maintain High Expectations
Learners respond to expectations. When teachers and
parents let kids know they expect a lot from them, the
kids react positively.
Examples: Proctor (1984); Rosenthal and Jacobson in1968, the Pygmalion effect the students performed to
the level of their teachers expectations, high or low
(Good, 1987; Good & Brophy, 1997; Rubie-Davies, 2010).
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Many teachers dont even realize how they are
communicating low expectations to their students. For
instance, a noteworthy finding of Hatties work is that failing a
grade is a strong indicator for future failure, primarily because
the student loses faith in her own ability to learn because her
teachersthose in the knowhave deemed her unable to
learn. On the other hand, the joy of learning is a great
motivator, and people who love learning have often had at
least one teacher in their lives who has given them confidence
in their ability to learn and pushed them to achieve more thanthey believed they were capable of
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Teachers often unconsciously have different expectations for
different students (related to race, gender, socio-economic
status and even physical attractiveness [see Clifford & Walster,
1973]), contributing to the self-fulfilling prophecy of failure for
many (Graham, 1991), or unintentional raising of IQs with
exceptional ability (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968).
B t Cl P ti
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Best Classroom Practice:
See Learning As Fluid
It is actually impossible for the brain not to learn.
Intelligence is fluid, not fixed.
Teachers who believe that their students are locked into a
level of intelligence that is fixed are less effective than
teachers how believe that intelligence in fluid and ever-changing (Geake, 2011).
Teachers with the right mentality know that all students can
learn, as it is the brains natural state.
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Expert teachers do not label their students.
Remember: When something is repeated over and over, it
becomes true in the mind (Schacter, 1997).
In expert teacher classrooms, there are no smart kids or
dumb kids, no free lunch kids or special needs kids.Calling someone learning disabled, ADD, or dyslexic isnt
helpful, and only places impediments in the path of learning.
Best Classroom Practice:
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Appreciate the Role of Affect in
Learning
There is no decision without emotion, and there is no
learning without decision-making; therefore, there is no
learning without emotion.
According to the editors ofThe Nature of Learning, emotionsare the primary gatekeepers to learning (Dumont, Istance, &
Benavides, 2010, p.4),
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How well do we recognize our own emotions and those of
others? How well to we manage the emotional states of
others and ourselves?
Emotional abilities and social functioning are closely related
(Brackett, Rivers, Shiffman, Lerner, & Salovey, 2006). Being able to manage ones own feelings and clearly
understand their origins is important in decision-making,
which is a decision in and of itself.
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A quote attributed to Aristotle (384322 B.C.) in tica aNicmaco captures how difficult it is to control and directemotions: Anyone can get angry, that is simple. But to get
angry with the right person in the right degree and the right
moment, with just reason and delivered in the right way, that,
most certainly, is not easy.
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Establishment of relevant emotional connections to what is
being learned is key to remembering that information.
Teachers should be more conscious of actively managing the
social and emotional climate of the classroom
Best Classroom Practice:
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Best Classroom Practice:
Take the Lead in Social Contagion
Teachers communicate to their students verbally and
nonverbally, but they are often conscious only of the message
sent and not the message received.
The complex mirror neuron system in the brain appears to be
triggered when the brain perceives, then acts on, an
understanding of the Other (Pineda, 2008).
Best Classroom Practice:
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Award Perseverance and Celebrate
Error
Challenge, ok, threat, no.
Every problem is an opportunity.
People who have a great degree of openness to experienceslearn faster than those who dont.
Dare to err
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Why does openness flourish in some settings and not inothers? Because being open to new ideas requires a mind
frame that takes fear out of the equation.
Students who fear they will be ridiculed for their ideas will not
speak. The concept of brain plasticity (MBE principles 3 and 6) tells us
that the brain adapts to what it does most: If the brain is in
contact primarily with tolerance of error and openness, it
remains open. However, if it has been punished for being
openas in being told, Dont be ridiculous! or Why wouldyou every think that?then it learns to retreat from suchnegative confrontation and learning is stunted.
Best Classroom Practice:
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Best Classroom Practice:
Motivate
Dan Willingham, author ofWhy Dont Students Like School?(2010), looks at students lack of motivation from a cognitive
scientists angle and makes the case that the way school is
structured, and the way teachers teach, is not compatible with
how the brain wants to learn.
The Goldilocks's Rule: No one likes to do things that are too
easy or too hard; we seek learning experiences that are just
slightly beyond our reach.
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Motivation is a tenet of MBE because it influences all learners,but no one in exactly the same way. People spend time and
energy doing things they think are important. When students
think something is worth learning, they invest time in the
process, and the more time they spend, the more likely they
are to actually learn the new competency.
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Anderman, Andrzejewski, and Allen (2011) tried to determinehow teachers can increase student motivation and learning in
their classrooms and suggested a model that consists of
three core themes: supporting understanding, building and
maintaining rapport, and managing the classroom (p. 969).
Best Classroom Practice:
N W k H d h Y
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Never Work Harder than Your
Students
The Law of Minimal Effort: Human beings usually choose to
do the minimum to get by (Kingsley, 1949).
The person who does the work is the person who does the
learning.
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It takes energy to learn, and students parcel it out sparsely inorder to survive. An observer might say that these students
arent motivated, but they are actually conserving their energy
and lying in wait for something that deserves their attention.
Thus, instead of being discouraged, teachers should takecontrol of the situation and spiral up the energy.
Best Classroom Practice:
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Best Classroom Practice:
Be Passionate!
The teaching profession cant afford apathy or fear. However,
passion is not a tangible or easily structured concept, which is
why it has evaded the core curricula in teacher colleges:
Resorting to obedience to teach passion just isnt going to
work, (Godin, 2012 , p. 48).
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The passion with which a teacher approaches the profession ismore important than all other factors combined; passionate
people are the reason teaching works (Hattie, 2009).
Without passion, there is no motivation, and without
motivation (positive or negative, intrinsic or extrinsic), there isno learning.
People who love what they are doing are contagious and
inspirational.
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Great teachers are passionate and instinctually so; others cantry to cultivate a passion for their work, but not all do so
successfully.
Best ClassroomPractice:
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Best Classroom Practice:
Design Engaging Classrooms
As classes let out in todays schools, students are often heard
ruminating about the value of what they just supposedly
learned: When will I ever use thatin real life? Whenstudents dont see how the new knowledge or skill will benefit
them in the real world, they wont spend time on it and they
are more likely to create distractions (Nelson, Lynn & Glenn,
1999).
5E E l
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5Es Example
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Your brain pays attention to different things at different timesfor different reasons. Your brain is drawn to elements that
help sustain your focus. When the situation is not engaging,
sustained focus is dropped.
The difference between whats happening in class with whatsimportant in real life is sometimes a formula for boredom.
Authentic learning is connected to engagement.
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In The Highly Engaged Classroom (2010), Marzano andPickering recommend a thoughtfully planned classroom with
space to adjust for individual needs through tactics like
initiating friendly controversy, presenting unusual
information, connecting to students lives and ambitions,
and using effective pacing to precisely stimulate memory
and attention mechanisms.
Best Classroom Practice:
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Manage
Great teachers know that, even if you have oodles of content
knowledge and a firm handle on teaching methodologies, you
wont succeed if you have poor class management skills.
Effective classroom management often entails stifling negative
disturbances.According to Hattie (2009), a teachers ability toperceive and take action on potential problems has a
significant impact on learning. A single student can have a
detrimental effect on the entire groups learning, so being able
to contain negative behavior is a must.
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Class size has less of an impact on student learning thaneffective management of behavior (Hattie, 2009).
What do expert teachers do to manage large classes? They
apply the oldest war tactic in history: Divide and conquer. One
way to divide is to move the furniture in your classroom
around until youve structured seating for smaller groups,
which are easier to handle.
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When we can see one anothers faces, were more likely torespond to someone elses comments (Winston, Strange,
ODoherty, & Dolan, 2005).
While lecture-style formats, with students in rows, are good at
directing attention to the professor, circles or divisions in
which people can see one another are helpful in stimulating
student exchange and social engagement. When this energy is
well focused, extended student learning occurs.
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Good classroom management doesnt result in silence; itresults in learning.
There are a variety of classroom management problems that
can be handled by changing the types of activities that
normally constitute course design. These activities usually
focus on harnessing the energies of small groups of students
to meet collaborative learning goals and include peer
teaching, peer correction of homework, small-group
discussion, collaborative writing of a script, debate, group
mind maps, shared responses to essential questions, researchprojects (in jigsaw fashion), and one-minute paper
discussions.
Best Classroom Practice:
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Use Thinking Routines (Ritchhart, Church andMorrison (2011)
See-Think-Wonder: This activity emphasizes the idea that
observation is fundamental to thinking and interpreting. The
ability of a student to pay attention to detail and the subtleties
of a visual image allow her to posit why the author of thepiece chose to interpret his image in the way he did. In
studying literature, students are often asked to identify salient
messages, and the same goes for visual imagery as well: What
are the really important details in this drawing (photo,
painting, advertisement)? (See Ritchhart et al., 2011, pp. 5563.)
n=21: Examples
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Zoom In. This activity is a variation of See-Think-Wonder butchallenges kids to consider only parts of an image. Students
are given a small portion of an image and asked to relate their
thoughts on it. What do the textures and colors mean? What
about the location and order of elements? Students are then
given a slightly larger image to use in the interpretation and
asked to make growing inferences about the purpose of the
image. This continues until the entire image is visible.
Students are then asked to think about how they developed
their understanding of the picture, determine which elements
are more important than others, and imagine the authors
process of devising the image. (See Ritchhart et al., 2011, pp.
6470.)
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Chalk-Talk. In this activity, the teacher places a controversialidea (e.g., Should uniforms be mandated? When is revenge
justified? Is loyalty more important than respect for the
law?) on a piece of butcher paper in the middle of a table
shared by a small group of students and then asks them to
write their reactions to the question. The students are then
asked to read the reactions of other students are invited to
react to those responses in writing. This activity provides
sufficient thinking time and allows all students to participate
in democratic fashion, without the controversy that oral
debate sometimes invites and allows them to refine their own
beliefs by reviewing others ideas on the same topic. (See
Ritchhart et al., 2011, pp. 7885.)
Compass Points This activity solicits the groups ideas and reactions
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Compass Points.This activitysolicits the group s ideas and reactions
to a proposal, plan, or possible decision. The north, south, east, and
west directions on a compass serve as a mnemonic for remembering
steps to take when making a decision: E = excitements; W = worries; N= needs; and S = stance, steps, or suggestions. The idea is that
students view the same decision from a variety of decision-making
angles before embarking on them. Some people see change as
exciting, while others find it worrisome. This activity forces students
to develop the habit of mind of evaluating circumstances in a more
balanced manner. The teacher labels four pieces of butcher paper
with each of the compass points, places them in different corners of
the room, and asks students to contribute to each page. The group
then reviews each compass point and considers everyones comments
in depth. Finally, a group consensus is sought and suggestions for
moving forward are developed. Different types of groups can do thisexercise (e.g., parents and students or teachers and administrators),
and their answers can be compared. (See Ritchhart et al., 2011, pp.
93100.)
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TEACHER INFLUENCES INMULTILINGUAL CLASSROOMS
Th F d S d
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The Facts and Studies
Cenoz and Lindsay (1994) in
their study, "Teaching English inPrimary School: A Project To
Introduce a Third Language to
Eight Year Oldshighlight the
important role of the teacher.
Cenoz, J. and D. Lindsay (1994). Teaching English in Primary School: A Project To Introduce a third language to eight year
olds." Language and Education 8(4): 201-210.
h d
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What motivates students?
1. Teacher enthusiasm2. Relevance of the subject
3. Organization of course4. Appropriate difficulty level5. Active participation by student6. Variety of activities and
methodology
7. Personal link between teacherand student8. Use of appropriate, concrete and
clear examples.
According to Sass (1989), the eight most influential factors thatmotivate students and that are controlled by the teacher are:
Sass, E. J. (1989). Motivation in the college classroom: What students tell us. Teaching of Psychology,
16(2), 86-88.
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What is needed in a teacher
What is essentially needed then is a teacher who
understands, appreciates, and respects the cultural
background of the child;
who knows the phonic and grammatical differences
between the childs native language and that of the second
language being taught so that he can help the child with his
linguistic needs;
and who is knowledgeable concerning the various reading
approaches so that he will be able to select and utilize thosethat best meet the particular needs of the bilingual child.
(Paraphrasing Doris Ching 1976).
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Teacher Preparedness High EFL teacher qualifications mean
Being versed in appropriate teaching methods
Understanding of students native language structure (orbeing able to speak it)
Owning a good toolbox of motivational skills
Appropriate use of evaluation and feedback mechanisms
Respect for other cultures Knowledge of students home languages
Student-centered learning practices
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Aspects of a good teacher training
program: Train teachers in language instruction;
Have regular meetings for discussing instructional issues
and exchanging ideas; Develop an activity-based and thematic syllabus;
Program coordinators observe classrooms several times a
year;
Apply a formative evaluation
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Teaching practices-Whatnotto do
Do most of the talking in classrooms (poor language teachersmake about twice as many utterances as do students).Students produce language only when they are workingdirectly with a teacher, and then only in response to teacher
initiations. In over half of the interactions that teachers have with
students, students do not produce any language as they areonly listening or responding with non-verbal gestures oractions.
When students do respond, typically they provide only simpleinformation recall statements. Rather than being providedwith the opportunity to generate original statements, studentsare asked to provide simple discrete close-ended or patterned(i.e., expected) responses.
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Teaching practices-Whatto do
Teacher should make classes student-centered and try NOT speak
most of the time, nor initiate the majority of the exchanges by asking
display questions, but rather seek out student-initiated requests.
As students prefer to verbally request help only in small group or one-to-one interactions with the teacher, teachers should call on students
individually and approach them personally to offer support.
Teachers should not only modify their own speech in response to
students' requests (verbal or non-verbal), they should also request
modifications of the students' speech.
Sustained negotiation - in which teachers and students verbally
resolve incomplete or inaccurate messages should occur frequently.
Cl i M h d f
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Classroom strategies: Methods for
better language learning Cooperative learning and other grouping strategies (allow
for native language use)
Task-based or experiential learning Whole language strategies
Push for vocabulary development (grammar follows
natural samples)
Use of graphic organizers/portfolios to track development.
Teacher qualifications
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Teacher qualifications
Typically, teachers who have more graduate education andmore specialized training for working with language minority
children are more successful.
Teachers with greater knowledge of the home language(s) of
their students are more successful.
Knowledge of evaluation methods that ensure instructurally
embedded assessment.
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Curriculum designsand school choices
Program design should include:
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Program design should include:
Ongoing assessment using multiple measure.
Integrated schooling (all language learners together)
High expectations by teachers
Equal status of languages
Healthy parent involvement
Continuous staff development
second language taught through academic content
Critical thinking across language program
Activation of students' prior knowledge
Respect for students' home language and culture
Cooperative learning
Interactive and discovery learning
Intense and meaningful cognitive/academic development
(Collier & Thomas, 2003).
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What does a good multilingual
school look like?
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Guidelines for Assessing Bilingual
and Trilingual Children
Bilingualism is a complex concept and includes individuals with a
broad range of speaking, reading, writing, and comprehendingabilities in each language. Furthermore, these abilities are
constantly in flux.
Assessment must be developmentally and culturally appropriate.
The child's bilingual linguistic background must be taken into
consideration in any authentic assessment of oral languageproficiency.
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Guidelines for Assessing Bilingual
and Trilingual Children
The goal must be to assess the child's language or languages
without standardizing performance, allowing children todemonstrate what they can do in their own unique ways.
Assessment must be accompanied by a strong professional
development component that focuses on the use of narrative
reporting, observations of language development, and sampling
the child's language abilities.
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Guidelines for Assessing Bilingual
and Trilingual Children A fully contextual account of the child's language skills requires the
involvement of parents and family members, the students
themselves, teachers, and staff in providing a detailed picture of the
context of language learning and the resources that are available to
the child (Nissani, 1990). What is called for is a description of the
child's language environment, of the extent to which significant
others-adults or children-provide language assistance by modeling,
expanding, restating, repeating, questioning, prompting, negotiating
meaning, cueing, pausing, praising, and providing visual and other
supports. Assessment of the child needs to take into account the
entire context in which the child is learning and developing.
I li i
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Implications
The Individual and his family (strategies and attitudes) Frequency: Opportunities to use English
Interest and Motivation
Parental encouragement
Pride in home language Use of home language
Teaching of home language
The Institution (curriculum structure and teacher training)
School structure
Teacher preparedness Knowledge of students home languages
Student-Centered Learning
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Bilingual and
multilingual curriculumdesign
Seven observations of good
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Seven observations of good
multilingual programs*
1. First, successful multilingual programs start foreign
language instruction early, normally in elementary
school.
2. Second, successful multilingual programs teach throughcoherent, well-articulated frameworks, which are careful
to scaffold their learning in a developmental style.
3. Third, the successful multilingual schools typically enjoy
strong leadership, and have enthusiastic backing fromkey stakeholders.
*Elizabeth Clayton, Center for Applied Linguistics, 1997
4 Fourth successful multilingual programs teach
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4. Fourth, successful multilingual programs teachlanguages as core subjects, (unlike the Americantendency to make foreign languages electives).
5. Fifth, successful multilingual school teachers receiverigorous preparation and are trained how to managestudents from different language backgrounds. Theyalso make language a priority, giving it equal status with
prestigious courses like Math, Physics and CoreLanguage.
6. Sixth, good multilingual programs creatively use
technology in the classroom to increase interaction
with native language speakers.
7. Seventh, successful multilingual schools offered
support for heritage language, or the childs mother
tongue
Ten additional characteristics of
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Ten additional characteristics of
successful multilingual schools*
1. Successful multilingual schools ensure that languagebasics, including phonemic awareness, phonic fluency,age appropriate vocabulary, text comprehension and
grammar are taught explicitly.2. They emphasize good oral skills and encourage active,
authentic language use by students.
3. Successful multilingual schools integrate the students
family in a positive way.
Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, 2007
4 The se a ariet of assessment tools and consider the
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4. They use a variety of assessment tools and consider theproduct, the process and the progress of the student.
5. Some of the most successful schools use thematic syllabiand work within dual-immersion structures in which allstudents take pride in their home language while learninga second or third.
6. The most successful schools conduct linguistic and ethnicaudits and know their clients (students) well. Whenpossible, they hire staff that speak the home languages ofthe families they serve and make every effort to keepclear channels of communication.
7 S f l h l d t l t h
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7. Successful schools conduct regular teachertraining to ensure that teachers keep an up to
date toolbox of activities handy.8. They also have high expectations of their
students.
9. The best multilingual schools allow a portion of
their budget to be invested in multilingualmaterials and media.
10. Successful multilingual schools do their best tocreate a significant learning experiences, which
relate new information to prior knowledge, andgive students a certain level of autonomy(control and choice).
Program design should include:
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Ongoing assessment using multiple measure.
Integrated schooling (all language learners together)
High expectations by teachers
Equal status of languages
Healthy parent involvement
Continuous staff development
Second language taught through academic content
Critical thinking across language program
Activation of students' prior knowledge
Respect for students' home language and culture
Cooperative learning
Interactive and discovery learning
Intense and meaningful cognitive/academic development
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An overview of the most
effective language programs inmultilingual schools
Thomas & Collier, 2007)
ll
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Full Immersion(MOST effective)
Characteristics:
All instruction is in target second language.
Target language is taught through thecontent areas (as well as a separate subject).
High level of peer teaching.
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Partial immersion
Characteristics:
There is some initial instruction in the childs
primary language, thirty to sixty minutes a day, This is usually limited to the introduction of
initial reading skills. All other instruction is in
the second language.
Dual immersion
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Dual immersion
Characteristics: Two languages are taught to the same group,
normally divided by native vs. non-nativespeakers.
Normally taught by two different team teachers.
Can be conducted from 30-70 to 50-50 model(time in designated languages).
Need for qualified teachers. High level of peer teaching.
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Early English Immersion
Characteristics
All instruction is in English
English is taught through the content areas (as
well as a separate subject)
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Early Exit Programs
Characteristics There is some initial instruction in the childs primary
language, thirty to sixty minutes a day,
This is usually limited to the introduction of initial reading
skills. All other instruction is in English.
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Late exit programs
Characteristics Receive a minimum of forty-percent of their total
instructional time in country language. Students remain in this program through sixth grade,
regardless of when they are reclassified as fluent-English
proficient.
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(E)SL Sheltered
Characteristic: Students remain in class with the other
students, but are given a tutor in the class.
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(E)SL Pullout(WORST results)
Characteristic: Students are taken out of regular class time for
support in the second language.
LEAST effective (Thomas & Collier)
R l C i
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Results: Comparison
Children in immersion programs had comparable test scores
regardless of the school they amended; the same was true for
students in the early-exit programs (Ramirez et al., 1991, Vol.
II, p. 96).
In sum, after four years [K-3] in their respective programs,
limited-English proficient students in immersion strategy and
early-exit programs (as defined in this study) demonstrate
comparable skills in mathematics, language, and reading whentested in English. (ES, p. 20)
Different growth curves between
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immersion strategy, early-exit, and
late-exit students
While the growth curves for immersion strategy and early-exit
students show growth for first to third grade in mathematics, English
language, and reading skills, they also show a sawing down in therate of growth in each of these content areas as grade level
increases. This deceleration in growth is similar to that observed for
students in the general population.
In contrast, the growth curves for students in the late-exit program
from first grade to third grade and from third grade to sixth grade
suggest not only continued growth in these areas, but continued
acceleration in the rate of growth, which is as fast or faster than the
norming population. That is, late-exit students appear to be gaining
on students in the general population.
Virginia Colliers Model
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Virginia Collier s Model
When first language instructional support cannot be provided,the following program characteristics can make a significant
difference in academic achievement:
Second language taught through academic content
Conscious focus on teaching learning strategies needed to
develop thinking skills and problem-solving abilities
Continuous support for staff development emphasizing
activation of students' prior knowledge, respect for students'
home language and culture, cooperative learning, interactive
and discovery learning, intense and meaningfulcognitive/academic development, and ongoing assessment
using multiple measures.
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THIRD LANGUAGES
Does English as a third language
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g g g
help or hurt immigrants (in
Holland)?
English as a high prestige language: Europes lingua franca in
2005. Bilinguals performed better learning English (as a third
language) than monolinguals.
The more languages you know, the easier it gets to learn an
additional one. Third-language learners are highly successful;they learn more language faster than second language
learners of the same target language; and (2) their behaviours
are those of the self-directed learner.
English as a third language HELPS
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low income children (in Holland)
when School programs are accompanied by
(1) Home stimulation and support for all three
languages with special emphasis on native languagefluency;
(2) Parents' motivation for schooling is high and the
give value to their childrens efforts; and
(3) Children's self-esteem is integrated into theacademic, social, cultural and cognitive goals of
multilingualism.
Future challenges
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utu e c a e ges
The practical obstacles include
Continual increase in immigrant community growth.
Shortage of teachers who can teach with knowledge of students
native languages
A complex set of legal, administrative and funding issues in urban
school districts that balance the needs of schools
The political obstacles include
Wariness and lack of support among substantial portions of the
population. Rights of new immigrants a priority?
Threat to the status of home country language.
UNESCO recommendation
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UNESCO recommendation
Mother tongue education and multilingualism are increasingly acceptedaround the world and speaking ones own language is more and more a
right. International Mother Language Day, proclaimed in 1999 by
UNESCO and marked on 21 February each year, is one example.
Encouraging education in the mother tongue, alongside bilingual or
multilingual education, is one of the principles set out by UNESCO in anew position paper. This includes:
1. Promoting education in the mother tongue to improve the quality
of education.
2. Encouraging bilingual and/or multilingual education at all levels of
schooling as a means of furthering social and gender equality and asa key part of linguistically diverse societies.
3. Pushing languages as a central part of inter-cultural education.
National Language Policy
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g g y
Language is a sensitive political issue, as it is a profound
symbol of national and personal identity.
In the Netherlands, itself containing a high percentage of
immigrants, research has begun into the common challenges
facing both "old" and "new *language minorities+. Whetheror not the EU is willing to include the thorny issue of
immigration in a future language policy remains a point of
debate
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Questions?
Thank you for coming!
Summary
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y
There are general practices that we should use
on a daily basis.
Specific activities can spice up class structures
Specific tools should be explicitly taught (good
note taking, summary skills, questioning tactics,
cooperative learning, clear objectives for everyclass, etc.).
In practice:
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In practice:
Choose one of the tools that you
have not yet applied (successfully)in class to date and prepare a
lesson for tomorrow.
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References
(in MyDropBox link)
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3-2-1
1. Three things you learned.
2. Two things you will share.
3. One thing you will change.
For more information:
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For more information:
Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.
Universidad San Francisco de Quito
Casa Corona, primer piso
Campus Cumbay
Diego de Robles y va Interocenica
Tel.: (593)-2-297-1700; (593)-2-297-1937
Fax: (593)-2-289-0070.
P.O.BOX 17-1200-841,Quito - Ecuador
Telf: 297-1700 x1338