xii eed notes

8/4/2019 Xii Eed Notes

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UNIT I BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity- Variety and variability among living organisms (term coined by E. O.Wilson)

Values of biodiversity: Ecological Value purification of air, soil fertility, watershed benefits, prevention of soil

erosion etc.

Economic Value Timber, food, forage, non-timber forest products such as medicinesetc.

Genetic Value - maintain gene pools and prevent inbreeding.

Aesthetic Value- amazingly diverse and pleasing to the eye.

Legal Value- right to exist & right over their life support systems.

Ethical Value- mans responsibility towards preserving and conserving other organisms.

Option Value- anticipated future uses.

Ecological role of biodiversity- Maintenance of genetic pool

Circulation of clean air & uptake of carbon dioxide (green house gas)

Recharge of ground water

Prevention of soil erosion

Habitat for wild fauna and flora

Water cycle (transpiration)

Kinds of biodiversity:

Genetic diversity- Diversity in the number and types of genes as well as

chromosomes present in the various species and the variations within the genesand the alleles within the same species. Eg. 30,000 to 40,000 different genes inhumans.

Species diversity- Variety in number and richness of species inhabiting a region.

It can be species richness in 1 area, greater evenness or equitability in species andgreater diversity of species. Eg. Different species of plants and animals in

Tropical forest

Ecosystem diversity- Diversity of ecological complexes or biotic communitiesfound in a given area. It is the variety of species living together in different

niches. Eg. Different biomes like Arctic Tundra, Northern coniferous forests, ,

Temperate deciduous forests, Grasslands, Tropical rain forests, marine

ecosystems and Deserts

Alpha diversity refers to the diversity within a particular area or ecosystem, and is

usually expressed by the number of species (i.e., species richness) in that ecosystem. This

can be measured by counting the number oftaxa (distinct groups of organisms) within theecosystem (eg. families, genera, species).
http://cnx.org/content/m12147/latest/#alpha%23alphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://cnx.org/content/m12147/latest/#alpha%23alphahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species


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Beta diversity (-diversity) is a measure ofbiodiversity which works by comparing the

species diversity between ecosystems or along environmental gradients. This involves

comparing the number of taxa that are unique to each of the ecosystems. It is the rate ofchange in species composition across habitats or among communities. It gives a

quantitative measure of diversity of communities that experience changing environments.

Gamma diversity is a measure of the overall diversity within a large region. It refers to

the total biodiversity over a large area or region. It is the total of and diversity. Hunter(2002: 448) defines gamma diversity as "geographic-scale species diversity".

Factors for the loss of biodiversity:

Loss of habitat destruction of forests & fragmentation

Destruction of habitat

Developmental activities

Pollution of air, water and soil

Introduction of exotic speciesOver-exploitation of natural resources

Disturbance of migratory routes

International trade in rare animal products

Highways

Official laxity

Extinction of species will lead to -

Loss of gene pool

Food web affected If a keystone species, then the whole functioning of the ecosystem affected

Steps proposed to protect wildlife:

(a) On-site protection- Ecosystem maintenance & Species

management ( e.g. Protected areas)(b) Off-site protection- Living collections & Germplasm

storage ( e.g. gene banks)

(c) Law formulation and stricter enforcement

Ex-situ conservation entails removal of germplasm resources (seed, pollen, sperms andindividual organisms) from their original habitats and preserving them in botanicalgardens, zoos, aquaria and gene/seed banks.

In-situ conservation refers to the preservation of the genetic resources within the

evolutionary dynamic ecosystem of their original or natural environment. Eg. Nationalparks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Biosphere Reserves

Advantages of ex-situ conservation:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_gradienthttp://cnx.org/content/m12171/latest/#hunterbhttp://cnx.org/content/m12171/latest/#hunterbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_gradienthttp://cnx.org/content/m12171/latest/#hunterbhttp://cnx.org/content/m12171/latest/#hunterb


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Preserves the genes of the rare species

Opportunity for genetic manipulation

Possibility of restoring depleted populations for re-introduction in the wild

Disadvantages of ex-situ conservation:

Organisms not in natural habitat

At times only genetic resources preserved not a live specimenAdvantages of in-situ conservation:

Organisms preserved in their natural environment

The entire ecosystem along with the organism preserved

Ecosystem services derived from the ecosystem also preserved

Disadvantages of in-situ conservation:

High cost of conservation in terms of opportunity cost lost for development

Main strategies for mitigating animal-wildlife conflicts-

Declaration of protected areas & stopping encroachment

Identification of corridors

Creation of buffer zones and corridors along with protected areas.

Compensation for cattle predation and crop raiding for the forest adjoining

communities.

Create livelihood alternatives and give an alternative source of energy to the

traditional forest dwelling communities to reduce their dependence on the forest

resources.

Specific measures for particular species like planting crops that elephants dont

like in areas frequented by the elephants

Education and awareness to gain public support to conserve wildlife.

Indias mega biodiversity-

India is divided into four relatively well defined geographic regions - the

Himalayan Mountains, the Gangetic river plains, the southern (Deccan) plateau,

and the islands of Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar. (Ecosystem Diversity)

The climate of India is dominated by the Asiatic monsoon, most importantly by

rains from the south-west between June and October, and drier winds from the

north between December and February. From March to May the climate is dry

and hot.

The panorama of Indian forests ranges from evergreen tropical rain forests in the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Western Ghats, and the north-eastern states, to


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dry alpine scrub high in the Himalaya to the north. Between the two extremes, the

country has semi-evergreen rain forests, deciduous monsoon forests, thorn forests,

subtropical pine forests in the lower montane zone and temperate montane forests.

India has a total of 1,193 wetlands, covering an area of about 3,904,543 ha.

Coral reefs are present in the Gulf of Kutch, Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar

Islands.

India has 2 hotspots NE Himalayas and Western Ghats (rich in endangered

endemic flora and fauna)

India has about 350 species of Mammals, 1200 species of birds, 400 species of

reptiles, 2500 species of fish and 15,000 species of flowering plants. (Species

Diversity)

Some noteworthy species

Olive Ridley and Leather back turtles (Orrisa coastline)

Brow antlered deer(Manipur), Black Buck Deer(Rajasthan)

Asiatic Lion (Gir Wildlife Sanctuary, Gujrat) and Asiatic

Tiger (Gangetic Plain, Sunderbans)

Great Indian Bustard (Gujrat) , Lion tailed macaque

(Western Ghats)

Sal (Gangetic Plain), Indian Rosewood (Western Ghats)

(i)Rare Species Endangered Species

Small world populations of the taxa

At risk

Require attention but not in dire

need of extensive conservationmeasures

50% population decline in last 10

years; estimated to be


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E.g. Parasitism, Commensalism E.g. Aggregation

(iii) Parasitism Predation

Parasite derive nutrition from thehost

Parasite is smaller than the host

Can be on the body (ecto) or inside

the body (endo) of the host

Eg. Tape worm, ticks

Predators kill the prey

Predator is generally larger than the

prey

The prey body is eaten up

Eg. Large carnivores

(iv) National Parks Sanctuaries

Areas maintained for betterment of

wildlife

Cultivation, grazing, lopping,

habitat manipulation not allowed

89 N.P. in India Eg. Dudhwa N.P.

(U.P.)

Areas where animals can take

refuge without being hunted

Timber harvesting, collection of non

timber forest products, etc. allowed

492 WLS in India Eg. Mahananda

WLS (West Bengal)

Species richness- the number of species per unit area.

Kinds of species richness-

One species found in large numbers

Equal amount of species found in an area

Larger area and number of species more varied

Conservation - To try and preserve the biotic or abiotic components of the earth. Toprotect natural resources including plant and animal species as well as their habitat for thefuture.

Diversity- Variation between individuals in the population; genetic variation

Ecological Niche- The relational position of a species or population in an ecosystem.

More formally, the niche includes how a population responds to the abundance of its

resources and enemies (e. g., by growing when resources are abundant, and predators, parasites and pathogens are scarce) and how it affects those same factors (e.g., by

reducing the abundance of resources through consumption and contributing to the

population growth of enemies by falling prey to them). The abiotic or physicalenvironment is part of the niche because it influences how populations affect, and are

affected by, resources and enemies.

Population is the assemblage of individuals who are similar in characteristics and lie in a

particular area/habitat.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem


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A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionate effect on its environment

relative to its abundance. Such species affect many other organisms in an ecosystem and

help to determine the types and numbers of various others species in a community. Suchan organism plays a role in its ecosystem that is analogous to the role of a keystone in an

arch. While the keystone feels the least pressure of any of the stones in an arch, the arch

still collapses without it. Similarly, an ecosystem may experience a dramatic shift if akeystone species is removed, even though that species was a small part of the ecosystem

by measures ofbiomass or productivity.

Cryopreservation is a process where cells or whole tissues are preserved by cooling tolow sub-zero temperatures, such as (typically) 77 K or 196 C (the boiling point of

liquid nitrogen). At these low temperatures, any biological activity, including the

biochemical reactions that would lead to cell death, is effectively stopped. However,when vitrification solutions are not used, the cells being preserved are often damaged due

to freezing during the approach to low temperatures or warming to room temperature.

Decimation - Killing of large number of animals, plants and people in a particular area

leading to a drastic decrease in their population.

Soil Laterization- When laterite layer of soil is exposed because of extreme abuse or

disturbance making biological repair, in human terms, an intolerably slow process.

Species- Group or population of similar individuals that reproduce by interbreeding

within the group.

Inbreeding is breeding between close relatives, whether plant or animal. If practicedrepeatedly, it leads to an increase in homozygosity of a population. A higher frequency of

recessive, deleterious traits in homozygous form in a population can, over time, result in

inbreeding depression. This may occur when inbred individuals exhibit reduced healthand fitness and lower levels of fertility.

Law of limiting factor: The functioning of an organism is controlled or limited by thatessential environmental factor or combination of factors present in the least favorable

amount. The factors may not be continuously effective but only at some critical period

during the year or perhaps only during some critical year in a climatic cycle. Theavailability of food, predation pressure, or availability of shelter are examples of factors

that could be limiting for a species population in a specific area. In an ecosystem, the

limiting factors are the land, water and biological resources.

Endemic species- species confined / restricted to a specific geographical area of the

globe. Range Restricted Rarity Example- Giant robber crab or coconut crab of

Andaman and Nicobar Islands, brow-antlered deer Sanghai of Manipur.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keystone_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitrificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homozygosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inbreeding_depressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keystone_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_nitrogenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_deathhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitrificationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_reproductionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homozygosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inbreeding_depression


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Ecotype is a distinct entity of an animal, plant, or other organism that is closely linked (in

its characteristics) to the ecological surroundings it inhabits. The term ecotype was

coined in 1922 by Swedish botanist Gote Turesson.

Catchment areas or watershed is a region of land where waterfrom rain orsnowmelt

drains downhill into abody of water, such as a river, lake, dam,estuary, wetland,sea orocean. The drainage basin includes both the streams and rivers that convey the water as

well as the land surfaces from which water drains into those channels. The drainage basin

acts like a funnel - collecting all the water within the area covered by the basin andchanneling it into a waterway.

Gene poor countries- Developed countries in Europe and North America do not harboura lot of diverse species of flora and fauna & hence are termed as gene poor.

Red Data Book provides scientific and objective information about the status of genetic

diversity present and also information on the status of threatened species that requirespecial attention. It is an effort of IUCN, which started assessment of plant and animal

varieties at a global level.

CITES- Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of fauna and flora.

Checks on the poaching and subsequent trade across national boundaries

Recognizes the endangered status of an animal at an international level

Micronutrients are the essential elements needed in small quantities for life. E.g. Iron,

cobalt. copper, manganese, zinc & iodine.

Wetland ecosystems produce a great variety of floral species that act as a rich source ofraw materials for any industries besides fulfilling the needs of survival by many faunalspecies.

Source of firewood in local region- Mangrove forests produce a huge amount of

charcoal for commercial consumption.

Fish and shrimp production

Tourism e.g.-Bengal tiger of Sunder bans.

Raw materials which can be used in textile industry, construction of houses, food processing units, paper industry and shipping industry besides proving inland

navigation facilities.

Swamp is a wetland that features permanent inundation of large areas of land by shallow bodies of water, generally with a substantial number of hummocks, or dry-land

protrusions. Swamps are characterized by rich biodiversity and specialized organisms.

Traditional methods of conservation of biodiversity:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gote_Turessonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_of_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estuaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funnelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hummockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gote_Turessonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_of_waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estuaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funnelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hummock


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Sacred groves and lakes- forest patches around places of worship highly

respected and undisturbed. Eg. Deodar forests protected by tribals inKumaon; Jaintias and Khasias in Meghalaya and; Bishnois in Rajasthan.

Interactions:

Type of

interaction

Association Species A Species B E.g.

Mutualism Opportunistic + + Pollination

Bison and

cattle egret

Symbiosis Close

physiological

association

+ + Mycorhizzae

Lichens

Protocooperation

Opportunistic + + Oxpeckerandrhinocerous

Commensalism Nophysiological

association

+ 0 Sucker fish(ecto

commensal)

Harmless

protozoa inmammalian

intestinal

tract (endo

commensal)Predation Larger predator

devours

smaller prey

+ - Carnivoresfeeding on

the

herbivores

Parasitsm Smaller

parasite derivesnutrition form

larger host

+ - Ticks, lice

(ectoparasites)

Tapeworm,

Hook worm(endoparasit

es)

Amensalism Site specific &

1 population

inhibits the

growth of others

- 0 Trees withlarge

canopies

onlyallowing the

shade


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tolerant

species togrow under

them

Antibiosis 1 organism

producesmetabolitewhich is toxic

to others

+ - Penicillium

Algal blooms ofsome green

& red algae

Competition Striving for the

same resources

- - Over

crowding of

any animalor plant with

the same

source of

food or

spacerequirements

Categories of threaten species as per IUCN:II. Extinct- Species not definitely located in the wild in the last 50 yrs

III. Endangered- Species in danger of extinction & whose survival is

unlikely if the causal factors continue to operateIV. Vulnerable- Species likely to move into endangered category in

the near future if the causal factors continue to operate

V. Rare- Species with a small world population that is not at present

endangered or vulnerable but is at riskVI. Insufficiently known- Species suspected but not definitely known

to belong to any of the above categories

Categories of soil:

Alluvial soils- found in river basins and in coastal plains. Extremely fertile.

Black soils- Found in volcanic regions. Rich in minerals.

Red soils- Found in volcanic regions. Brittle and not very fertile.

Laterite soils- Found in regions having a steep topography and heavy rains.

Rendered infertile due to heavy leaching.

Sandy soils- Found in deserts and semi arid areas. Dry and porous but can

sustain agriculture with availability of fertilizers and water

Mountain soils- Confined to mountainous regions. thin and fragile for cropcultivation

Indicators of a healthy soil:

Soil surface cover-presence of soil vegetation, yield per hectare

Soil compaction- indicates soil erosion, soil texture, soil moisture etc


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Land use pressure- soil tillage practices

Presence of weeds- indicate dry/moist condition, fertility

Presence of micro organisms & organic matter

pH : 1-6 Acidic, 7 neutral and 8-14 Alkaline

Particle size: Coarse (0.125-2mm diameter of particles-Sandy soil ),

medium or loamy ( 30-50% Sand and 30-50% Silt and 20% Clay) andFine (2-4mm diameter of particles-Clayey soil)

Soil moisture and Porosity of water based on particle size

Soil Organic Matter (SOM) : influences infiltration rate of water, bulk

density, biological activity and ion exchange rate (slow release of

nutrients)

Types of soil Alluvial (rich in loam and clay), Black ( mostly clay), Red( Sandy and loamy), Desert (Sandy) and Laterite (Clay)

Trawling is a method offishing that involves actively pulling a fishing net through

the water behind one or moreboats, called trawlers. Its impact on marine ecosystem :a. perceived lack ofselectivity (Trawl nets may be non-selective, sweeping

up both marketable and undesirable fish and fish of both legal and illegalsize)

b. the physical damage which the trawl does to the seabed (becausebottom

trawling involves towing heavy fishing gear over the seabed at a speed ofseveral knots, it is destructive to the ocean bottom)

Ecotourism typically involves travel to destinations where flora, fauna and cultural

heritage are the primary attractions. Ecotourism is a conceptual experience, enrichingthose who delve into researching and understanding the environment around them. It

gives us insight into our impacts, as human beings and also a greater appreciation of ourown natural habitats. Responsible ecotourism includes programs that minimize the

negative aspects of conventional tourism on the environment and enhance the cultural

integrity of local people. Therefore, in addition to evaluating environmental and culturalfactors, an integral part of ecotourism is the promotion of recycling, energy efficiency,

water conservation and creation of economic opportunities for the local communities.

Ecotourism principles:

minimize impact

build environmental and cultural awareness and respect

provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts

provide financial benefits and employment for local people

raise sensitivity to host countries' political, environmental, and social

climate
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing_nethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trawlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selectivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_trawlinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_trawlinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faunahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishing_nethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trawlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selectivityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_trawlinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_trawlinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fauna


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Ideally, ecotourism should satisfy several criteria, such as:

conservation of biological diversity and cultural diversity through

ecosystem protection

promotion of sustainable use ofbiodiversity, by providing jobs to local

populations sharing of socio-economic benefits with local communities and indigenous

peoples by having their informed consent and participation in the

management of ecotourism enterprises

tourism to unspoiled natural resources, with minimal impact on the

environment being a primary concern.

minimization of tourism's own environmental impact

affordability and lack of waste in the form of luxury

local culture, flora and fauna being the main attractions

Ecotourism is now gaining recognisition worldwide and has huge economic value as

well. National ecotourism certification programs have been put in place in countries suchas Costa Rica, Australia, Kenya and Sweden and ecotourism is a major component of theGDP of these nations.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informed_consenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costa_Ricahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_diversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informed_consenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costa_Ricahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden


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UNIT II ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Reclamation- is the process of reclaiming something from loss or from a less useful

condition. Can be reclamation of land or of waste water.

Indicator Species- Unique environmental indicators offer a signal of the biological

condition in an ecosystem. Using bioindicators as an early warning of pollution or

degradation in an ecosystem can help sustain critical resources. Eg. Caddis fly larvae

used to assess water quality

Aspects of environmental management-

Ethical principles

Social principles

Economic principles

Technological principles

Holistic approach towards sustainable development (considering all the factors

together and concluding on the most feasible option)

Steps required for environmental development:

Analysis of present status

Study of the dynamics

Present social, economic and environmental status

Formulation of balanced program

Developing evaluation criteria

Promotion, guidance and supervision of the program

Steps to improve environmental quality:

Natural resource assessment and management

Strategies for environmental pollution monitoring & control

Population stabilization & public health

Environmental laws n regulations

Environmental education

Economic policies can be vital to environmental management as- Activities need to be carried out for maximum gain to economy and

minimum damage to ecology

Management of resources and technological applications which areecofriendly will help in abatement of pollution and also remain cost

effective

Impose heavy taxes/fines on those units which create pollution beyond acertain limit (Polluter Pays principle)


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Educate the companies in order to optimize the use of natural resources

and get a positive approach to environmental protection

National Economic Board has been set up to manage optimum utilizationof resources

Environment management is multidisciplinary. Linked to economics of the area, the industry concerned and the nation on

the whole mitigation measures and conservation both depend directly on

the economic resources available

Linked to national/regional politics- determines the priority of law framing

and stringent enforcement

Linked to technical advancements- development of eco friendly technologyand optimum resource utilization

Linked to the biological diversity- Higher the diversity, more the need for

management

Need to set the standards regarding environment: To control increasing environmental pollution

To restrict the increased levels of toxic pollutants

To prevent occupational hazards

Managing and maintaining the environment

To preserve environment for future generations

Disadvantage of borrowed standards:

May not be suitable for local; conditions; must be site specific. Maintaining higherenvironmental quality than need is costly and lower standards may result in health

hazards and environmental damage. So the standards must be minimum

environmental quality standards based on maximum assimilative capacity of theenvironment.

Alternate technology:

Material substitution eg. Aluminium instead of steel, glass fiber instead of

copper

Less environmentally harmful substances used

Energy derived from renewable resources cheaper, cleaner eg. Solar cooker,wind and tidal energy

Discharges checked and international obligations taken seriously

Environmental problems in India:

Those arising from conditions of poverty and underdevelopment

Those arising from the negative effects of the very process of development

Vehicle emission standards in India-


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Standards are legal limits of air pollutants in the ambient air during a

given period of time

Standards generally regulate the emissions ofNOx, particulate matter(PM) orsoot, carbon monoxide (CO), or volatile hydrocarbons.

Set by Ministry of Road Transport and highways, Ministry of Petroleum

and Natural gas, Ministry of Heavy Industry and Public Enterprise Implemented by Central Pollution Control Board (help in setting national

standards and implementing in union Territories) or State Pollution

Control Board (implementation in state)

Characterizes the allowable level of emissions for each group of emitters

Emission check of all vehicles mandatory

Bharat IV (equivalent to EURO IV) now classified

EIA is Environmental Impact Assessment. It is an important management tool forincorporating environmental concerns in developmental process.

Its role in conservation: Evaluation of environmental implications

Incorporation of necessary safe guards for such activities having a bearing

on the environmental quality

Important in decision-making and cost benefit analysis of any

developmental project.

An air quality standard is a description of a level of air quality that is adopted by a

regulatory authority as enforceable. This is a standard that specifies concentration limitsof main constituents in ambient air like carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone,

sulphur dioxide, lead particulate matter and suspended particles. These standards are set

by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). The basis of development of thisstandard is to provide a rational for protecting public health from adverse effects of air

pollutants, to eliminate or reduce exposure to hazardous air pollutants, and to guide

national and local authorities in their air quality management decisions.

ISO 14000 voluntary code for environmental regulation. It is a certification given for

better environmental management. Role in promoting a clean environment

This certification is recognized world over and governments provide

incentives for organizations which have this certificate.

It is essential for organizations to follow clean environment practises to

achieve this certification.

Consumers prefer products with this certification, which makes it essential

for industries to get this certification.

This will help in reducing the pollution caused by non biodegradablesubstances.

This will make producers responsible for their products.

The consumer need not worry about disposal of used material.

It promotes sustainable development.
http://www.answers.com/topic/nitrogen-oxide-2http://www.answers.com/topic/nitrogen-oxide-2http://www.answers.com/topic/particulatehttp://www.answers.com/topic/soot-1http://www.answers.com/topic/carbon-monoxidehttp://www.answers.com/topic/hydrocarbonhttp://www.answers.com/topic/nitrogen-oxide-2http://www.answers.com/topic/particulatehttp://www.answers.com/topic/soot-1http://www.answers.com/topic/carbon-monoxidehttp://www.answers.com/topic/hydrocarbon


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EXTENDED PRODUCER RESPONSIBILITY (EPR)

EPR is a policy tool that extends manufacturer's responsibilities beyond their current

accountabilities -- for worker health & safety, consumer safety, and production costs -- toalso include responsibility for life cycle costs of their products and associated packaging.

Essential to EPR is its mandate for producers to take back' their end-of-life products and

create closed looped systems that prevent pollution and the inefficient use of resources..

Eg.-Battery companies taking batteries back after its life.

Producers of products should bear a significant degree of responsibility

(physical and/or financial) not only for the environmental impacts of their

products downstream from the treatment and/or disposal of the product,but also for their upstream activities inherent in the selection of materials

and in the design of products.

A primary function of EPR is the transfer of the costs and/or physical

responsibility of waste management from local government authorities andthe general taxpayer to the producer. Environmental costs of treatment and

disposal could then be incorporated into the cost of the product. This

creates the setting for a market to emerge that truly reflects theenvironmental impacts of the product, and in which consumers could

make their selection accordingly

EPR extends the traditional environmental responsibilities that producers

and distributors have previously been assigned (i.e. worker safety, prevention and treatment of environmental releases from production,

financial and legal responsibility for the sound management of productionwastes) to include management at the post-consumer stage.

EPR enforces a design strategy that takes into account the upstream

environmental impacts inherent in the selection, mining and extraction of

materials, the health and environmental impacts to workers andsurrounding communities during the production process itself, and

downstream impacts during use, recycling and disposal of the products.

The ultimate goal of EPR is to encourage cleaner, safer materials and production

processes, as well as to eliminate waste at each stage of the products life cycle.

EPR is a policy tool to:

Enable producers to contribute to a more ecologically sustainable society by

designing and supplying products that provide the greatest functionality andlongest life with inherently safe materials and the least use of resources and with

safe chemicals.


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Reduce public costs by shifting costs of end-of-life product management from

taxpayers to manufacturers;

Prevent the disposal of used products in landfills and incinerators, their recyclingunder sub-standard conditions or their export to developing countries.

To increase consumer awareness, the Government of India launched the eco-labelling

scheme known as `Ecomark' in 1991 for easy identification of environment-friendly

products. Any product which is made, used or disposed of in a way that significantlyreduces the harm it would otherwise cause the environment could be considered as

Environment-Friendly Product.

The criterion follows a cradle-to-grave approach, i.e. from raw material extraction, to

manufacturing, and to disposal. The Ecomark label is awarded to consumer goodswhich meet the specified environmental criteria and the quality requirements of Indian

Standards.

The specific objectives of the scheme are as follows :

To provide an incentive for manufacturers and importers to reduce adverse environmental

impact of products.To reward genuine initiatives by companies to reduce adverse environmental impact of

their products.

To assist consumers to become environmentally responsible in their daily lives by

providing information to take account of environmental factors in their purchasedecisions.

To encourage citizens to purchase products which have less harmful environmental

impactsUltimately to improve the quality of the environment and to encourage the sustainable

management of resources

Environmental auditing is a systematic, documented, periodic and objective process in

assessing an organization's activities and services in relation to:

Assessing compliance with relevant statutory and internalrequirements

Facilitating management control of environmental practices

Promoting good environmental management

Maintaining credibility with the public Raising staff awareness and enforcing commitment to

departmental environmental policy


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Exploring improvement opportunities

Establishing the performance baseline for developing an

Environmental Management System (EMS)

Conducting an environmental audit is no longer an option but a sound precaution and a

proactive measure in today's heavily regulated environment. Indeed, evidence suggeststhat EA has a valuable role to play, encouraging systematic incorporation of

environmental perspectives into many aspects of an organizations overall operation,helping to trigger new awareness and new priorities in policies and practices


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UNIT III SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainability means having to use any resource in such a manner that its existence is

prolonged and they are not so exhausted that our productivity is declined.

Sustainable developmentis the development that meets the needs of the present withoutcompromising on the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs. It takes

the impact on environment into account and tries to minimize environmental damages.

Sustainable development includes: Prevent pollution

Reduce waste generation

Foster consumption on the basis of need and not greed

Preserve resources & Prevent damage to ecosystem

Regenerate resources that have been degraded

Security for future generations

Need for sustainable development:

All resources indispensable to basic human survival

Energy, food, air and water security

To continue our technological, social and economic development

Get maximum output of the resources

Reuse all the non renewable resources lest we run out of them

Bequest value- save for future generations

Various steps leading to sustainable development:

Political and administrative will Political framework, administration, regional

requirements and area specific preferences

Dynamic and flexible policies- Accommodate change and involve maximum

community participation and focus on the least developed sectors of the society Appropriate technology- Skilled man power, data base with sufficient know for

sustainable development of agriculture, water, land, air and energy.

Comprehensive review and revision mechanism- Feedback and remedialmeasures.

Steps leading to sustainable development-

Political and administrative will


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Dynamic and flexible policies

Appropriate technologies

Comprehensive review and revision mechanism

Human resource for sustainable development:

Traditional technologies replaced by modern by skilled man power Educated and trained man power

Research and implementation of eco friendly technologies

Development of HR can remove poverty

Concept of sustainable consumption:

use of goods and services that respond to the basic needs and bring a betterquality of life, while minimizing the use of natural resources, toxic materials and

emissions of waste pollutants over the life cycle, so as not to jeopardize the need

of future generations- Oslo symposium in 1994

Meeting needs of poor and socially backward people of the society

Enhancing the quality of life, through better and cheaper goods, services and

facilities

Improving resource efficiency, through skilled man power & modern, efficient

technology

Increasing the use of renewable energy sources, which enhances efficiency and

reduces pollution

Minimizing waste, using methods and technology to convert it to wealth, resource

or energy

Taking a life cycle perspective, through methods of recycling and reusing, thussaving virgin resources for future

Taking into account equity dimension, by promoting & implementing schemes,education/training programmes and varied employment opportunities o reducegap between the rich and the poor. To help the weaker sections of the society

achieve self sufficiency.

INTERNATIONAL BODIES & AGREEMENTS

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP):

Founded in 1973 with its HQ in Nairobi, Kenya.

Encourages sound developmental practices that help in environmental

conservation. Agency for implementation of GEF (Global Environment Facility).

Addresses issues of global concern like protection of ecosystems, mineralresources, monitoring of air and water quality, setting of standards etc.

Coordinates research facilities and information among nations to have a joint and

more effective effort to conserve environment.


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Montreal Protocol:

International treaty declared on September 16, 1987 and came into force onJanuary 1st 1989.

An effort that emphasizes on protection of the ozone layer.

Control and check the omissions of ozone depleting substances (ODs) due to

industrialization and vehicles. Joint effort with the help of sound technological and financial background.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP):

UN network on global level for sustainable development

HQ in New York City and offices in 166 countries.

Gets financial help from member nations.

Provides assistance and guidance to the local governments especially of the least

developed nations in order to meet their challenges.

Functioning areas- health issues, poverty, sustainable energy resources and

development of renewable resources, protection of human rights, womens

participation in development etc.

EARTH SUMMIT:

1 of the most significant collaborative efforts in order to save the

environment.

Held in Rio De Janeiro, Brazil in 1992 by UN in which more than175 countries participated. Significant documents signed are

mentioned below-

Agenda 21- Main aim of this was to stop and reverseenvironmental damage. Global Action Plan with a

comprehensive blue print.

Climate Treaty- Controlling pollution to check globalwarming. Reduce the production of greenhouse gases

(GHGs)

Rio Declaration-Aims at establishing equitable global

partnership through the creation of new level ofcooperation among the nations. Emphasizes at the need for

international agreements to protect the global

environmental and developmental system, recognizing it asintegral and interdependent.

Biodiversity Treaty- All signatories accepted

responsibility for conserving biological diversity and usingbiological resources in a sustainable manner.

Forest Agreement- To enhance safety of habitats and virgin

forestlands. Emphasis on EIA and loss due to commercialacivities to be minimized.


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Commission on sustainable development:

Established in Dec. 1993 by General Assembly Resolution of UN.

Helps in the implementation of Agenda 21 and remove any related problems.

Aims at- Development of ecologically sound technological development

Multi-year programme of work

Co-ordination among countries

Information exchange

Focus on sanitation, water and human settlements.

Others-

International Union for Conservation of Nature and natural resources (IUCN)

World Wide Fund for nature (WWF)Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of flora and fauna (CITES)

Kyoto Protocolis an agreement made under the United Nations Framework Conventionon Climate Change (UNFCCC). Countries that ratify thisprotocol commit to reduce their

emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in emissions

trading if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases. Adopted by consensus at thethird session of the Conference of the Parties (COP3) in December 1997, it contains

legally binding emissions targets for Annex I (developed) countries for the post-2000

period. The developed countries commit themselves to reducing their collectiveemissions of six key greenhouse gases by at least 5%.Each countrys emissions target

must be achieved by the period 2008-2012. By arresting and reversing the upward trend

in greenhouse gas emissions that started in these countries 150 years ago, the Protocol promises to move the international community one step closer to achieving theConventions ultimate objective of preventing "dangerous anthropogenic [man-made]

interference with the climate system".The Kyoto Protocol now covers more than 160

countries globally and over 55% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

Education helps in sustainable development by-

Creating awareness and sensitivity

Highlighting the importance of the environment

Elaborating the impacts on humans of the damage to environment

Producing more number of qualified professionals in different fields

People cooperation helps in conservation:

Community participation needed for implementation

Mass support effective in bringing change
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Awareness & sensitization of groups leads to sustained effort towards

conservation

Direct action, lobbying and litigation for environmental concerns

On ground work for preservation of species and habitat

Better implementation of plans

Removal of disparity between various fractions of the community groups

Examples-

Bishnois- The Bishnois, a Vaishnavite sect, living in western

Rajasthan on the fringe of the Thar desert, have for centuries, beenconserving the flora and fauna to the extent of sacrificing their lives to

protect the environment. The basic philosophy of this religion is that all

living things have a right to survive and share all resources.

Chipko Movement- In the 1970s, an organized resistance to the

destruction of forests spread throughout India and came to be known as

the Chipko movement. The name of the movement comes from the word'embrace', as the villagers hugged the trees, and prevented the contractors'

from felling them.

Silent Valley- Located in Pallakad district of Kerala. Part ofNilgiri Biosphere Reserve and Silent Valley national Park. Tropical forests

rich in biodiversity People fought against the threat of drowning under the

huge reservoir of a hydroelectric project (The Pathrakadavu Hydroelectric

Project) which was to be started by Kerala Electricity Board. Local peoplewho were supported by international agencies like IUCN (International

Union for Conservation of Nature and natural resources) and WWF

(World Wide Fund for Nature) came forward and this area was saved.

Ralegaon Sidhi Village in semi arid region of Maharashtra. Community participation, proper management of resources especially watershed

management & afforestation done. It is now declared as Urja Gram.Anna Hazare played an important role.

Beej Bachao Aandolan Movement of the local people to save the

native crop varieties by preserving their seeds them in the Himalayandistrict of Tehri Garhwal.

Friends ofDoon- Working in Doon valley and checking deforestation and

mining. (NGO)

Vanarai- Conservation activities with the help of rural community in

Pune. Consists of eco-clubs comprising of teachers & students too. (NGO)

Ladakh Ecology Development Board- Educating people and establishharmony with the local environment. (NGO)

Warlis tribe- Conservation of natural resources in the Western ghats in the

state of Maharashtra.

Role of N.G.O.s in environment conservation:


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Mobilizing people support

Spreading awareness about various environmental issues

Direct action, lobbying and litigation for environmental concerns

Organize activities like nature camps, nature walks and campaigns about

consumer education

On ground work for preservation of species and habitat E.g.- Kalpvriksh, Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), Bombay

Natural History Society (BNHS)

The Barefoot College was started in 1972 by Social Work and Research Centre

(SWRC), Tilonia, Rajasthan, with the conviction that solutions to rural problems liewithin the community. The College addresses problems of drinking water, girl education,

health & sanitation, rural unemployment, income generation, electricity and power, as

well as social awareness and the conservation of ecological systems in rural communities.

The College benefits the poorest of the poor who have no alternatives and encourages

practical knowledge and skills rather than paper qualifications through a learning bydoing process of education. The areas on which the Barefoot College concentrated were:

1. Groundwater: Survey, site selection, installation of hand pumps,repair and maintenance through community participation.

2. Education: Nursery schools, evening schools for dropouts, classes

for women and girls.

3. Medical care: Preventive health programmes where a doctor is notneeded. TB eradication, eye camps, immunisation camps, family planning

camps, pre-natal and post-natal care, appliances for the handicapped,

testing drinking water for contamination, decontamination of wells,

homoeopathy.4. Women's programmes Training of traditional midwives,

motivators in famine relief camps, nursery school teachers, awarenessgenerating, work among rural women.

5. Agricultural extension: Development of unused and underutilised

land allotted by government, soil and water testing, groundwater survey,

engineering survey, seeds and fertiliser loans, credit, grain storage,marketing facilities, social forestry.

6. Rural industry: Working with leather workers, weavers and rural

women in order to generate more income for their families; assistancewith raw materials, marketing, design, and credit.

7. Appropriate technology: Use of biogas for generating power,photovoltaic cells for generating electricity in night schools, dispensaries.8. Animal husbandry: Demonstrate how stall feeding of goats is

useful for milk and meat but constitutes an ecological hazard; rearing of

rabbits and sheep; the BC dealt only with the poor peasants' animals, notwith buffaloes and cows.

9. Communication: Use of traditional media like puppetry to

communicate with the rural poor; use of street plays and other media.


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Environmental Laws-Indian Forest Act, 1927

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974Forest Conservation Act, 1980

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981

Water Cess Act, 1977Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

Biodiversity Act, 2002

A Sustainable building, orGreen building is an outcome of a design which focuses on

increasing the efficiency of resource use energy, water, and materials while

reducing building impacts on human health and the environment during the building's

lifecycle, through better siting, design, construction, operation, maintenance, and removal

Green buildings are designed to reduce the overall impact of the built environment on

human health and the natural environment by:

Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources

Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity

Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation

Realising the importance of Environmental Information, the Government of India, inDecember, 1982, established an Environmental Information System (ENVIS) as a plan

programme. The focus of ENVIS since inception has been on providing environmental

information to decision makers, policy planners, scientists and engineers, researchworkers, etc. all over the country. ENVIS is a decentralised system with a network of

distributed subject oriented Centres ensuring integration of national efforts in

environmental information collection, collation, storage, retrieval and dissemination to allconcerned. Presently the ENVIS network consists of Focal Point at the Ministry of

Environment and Forest and ENVIS Centres setup in different

organisations/establishments in the country in selected areas of environment. TheseCentres have been set up in the areas of pollution control, toxic chemicals, central andoffshore ecology, environmentally sound and appropriate technology, bio-degradation of

wastes and environment management, etc.

ENVIS focal point ensures integration of national efforts in environmental information

collection, collation, storage, retrieval and dissemination to all concerned.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_degradationhttp://www.envis.nic.in/aboutenvis.asp#2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_(biophysical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_degradationhttp://www.envis.nic.in/aboutenvis.asp#2


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Objectives:

to build up a repository and dissemination centre in Environmental

Science and Engineering;

to gear up the modern technologies of acquistion, processing,storage, retrieval and dissemination of information of environmental nature; and

to support and promote research, development and innovation in

environmental information technology.

to provide national environmental information service relevant to

present needs and capable of develoment to meet the future needs of the users,originators, processors and disseminators of information;

to build up storage, retrieval and dissemination capabilities with the

ultimate objectives of disseminating information speedily to the users;

to promote, national and international cooperation and liasion forexchange of environment related information;

to promote, support and assist education and personnel training

programmes designed to enhance environmental information processing and utilisation

capabilities;

to promote exchange of information amongst developing countries.


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UNIT IV. SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Increasing population-increased need for food

Developmental pressures-restricted land resource

Over exploitation of land- desertification.

Hence the need for sustainable agriculture

Sustainable agriculture is a concept that deals with good production of crops without

making any compromise with the quality of soil, water, crops resources and using them insuch a manner that environmental quality, ecosystems health, commercial gains and

social concerns are safeguarded.

Tillage- Practice which prepares soil in order to carry out sowing seeds Helps in making the soil aerated and in germination of seeds

Clears soil of any unwanted plant growth.

Steps for sustainable agriculture-

Maintaining proper soil quality- following agronomic practices like croprotation, mixed farming and mixed cropping.


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Selection of different species of plants to maintain a good diversity

Proper site selection

Making use of Biopesticides/bioinsecticides and using organic

manures/biofertilizers/compost in order to stop pollution of soil

Effect of agrochemicals: Chemicals like DDT and some fungicides have carcinogens in them

Development of resistant varieties of pests

Leaching into ground water (water)

Aquatic life is killed when these chemicals leach into water bodies (water)

Biomagnification (water and soil)

Effects the microbial population that carry out decomposition in the soil(soil)

Eutrophication of lakes (water)

Spraying and fumigation can lead to deposition on the surface of plants(and hence enter the food chain) and also expose the people working to the

harmful pesticides. (air)

Organic fertilizers: Naturally occurring fertility enhancing living or non living products.

Include manure, slurry, worm castings,peat, seaweed,sewage , and guano. Green manure

crops are also grown to add nutrients to the soil like legumes. Benefits-

Mobilizing existing soil nutrients, so that good growth is achieved with lowernutrient densities while wasting less

Releasing nutrients at a slower, more consistent rate, helping to avoid a boom-

and-bust pattern

Helping to retain soil moisture, reducing the stress due to temporary moisturestress

Improving the soil structure

Organics also have the advantage of avoiding certain long-term problems associated withthe regular heavy use of artificial fertilizers:

the possibility of "burning" plants with the concentrated chemicals (i.e. an

over supply of some nutrients)

the progressive decrease of real or perceived "soil health", apparent in loss

of structure, reduced ability to absorb precipitation, lightening of soil color,

etc. the necessity of reapplying artificial fertilizers regularly (and perhaps inincreasing quantities) to maintain fertility increases the cost (substantial and

rising in recent years) and resulting lack of independence

DDT (dichloro diphenyl tricholoroethane)

Leads to biomagnification leading to death of many species in the food

chain
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Causes thinning of egg shells and death of hatchlings in certain bird

species like the bald eagle

Toxic to marine life and gets accumulated in fish

Classified as moderately hazardous by WHO and a probable

carcinogen

Biopesticides are measures to control pest populations using living organisms or

compounds produced by them. E.g. Bt toxin incorporated in Cotton (from bacteriaBacillus thurengienisis)

Advantages-

Less harmful than chemical pesticides

May be modified in such a manner that they attack only 1 targetorganism

Often are effective in very small quantities

Decompose quickly therefore avoid the pollution problem of chemicalpesticides

Can decrease the use of chemicals without the decrease in productivitywhen used with integrated pest management

Disadvantages-

Sometimes tough to make target specific

Condition specific-soil, climate moisture etc. (otherwise remain weak or die)

Some pests do not respond

Production involves long research which is time and money consuming

Quite slow at work sometimes

Tissue culture is the growth of tissues and/orcells separate from the organism. Tissueculture commonly refers to the culture of animal cells and tissues, while the more specific

termplant tissue culture is used for plants.

Plant tissue culture is a practice used to propagate plants under sterile conditions, often to

produce clones of a plant. Different techniques in plant tissue culture may offer certain

advantages over traditional methods of propagation, including:

The production of exact copies of plants that produce particularly goodflowers, fruits, or have other desirable traits.

To quickly produce mature plants.

The production of multiples of plants in the absence ofseeds or necessarypollinators to produce seeds.

The regeneration of whole plants from plant cells that have been

genetically modified.

The production of plants from seeds that otherwise have very low chances

ofgerminating and growing, i.e.: orchids and nepenthes.

To clean particular plant of viral and other infections and to quicklymultiply these plants as 'cleaned stock' forhorticulture and agriculture.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_tissue_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plant_tissue&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germinatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepentheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horticulturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_tissue_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plant_tissue&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germinatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepentheshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horticulture


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The production of plants in sterile containers that allows them to be moved

with greatly reduced chances of transmitting diseases, pests, andpathogens.

Plant biotechnology beneficial for crop improvement -

Helps producing transgenic plants with desired traits- Enhancement inagriculture production by developing high yielding strains, increased disease

resistance and higher nutrient levels in crops

Helped in horticulture and floriculture

Tissue culture helped in faster production of plant products, medicines and

flowers

Helps in preservation of endangered plants and seeds that are not found inlarge numbers

Unlike traditional plant breeding, which involves the crossing of hundreds or

thousands of genes, plant biotechnology allows for the transfer of only one or

a few desirable genes

Disadvantages of modified crops:

Loss of original gene pool

High requirement of fertilizers

High irrigation need

Possibility of gene leakage

GMO Genetically Modified Organisms

Biotechnology is used to genetically modify organisms (Plants, animals ormicrorganisms) for specific use. GM organisms are a result of modern biotechnology.

Uses-

GMO are widely used now for production of insulin, enzymes, antibiotics,alcohols etc. Eg-E. coli for insulin production

They are also used in bioremediation (purification of water or

decomposition of waste using micro organisms) of waste sewagetreatment, solid waste composting or oil spill treatment.

They are also used for biomining (Metals are absorbed in the body of the

micro organisms from where it is later extracted)

Plants are also genetically modified now Bt cotton (toxin producinggene incorporated in the cotton plant) and Flavr savrtomato(longer shelf

life)

Advantages of GM food-

Pest and disease resistant

Longer shelf life

Cheaper products-vaccines, antibiotics etc

Negative dimensions of biotechnology


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Biotechnology has created HYVs that require use of

pesticides, water and synthetic fertilizers in large amounts. (pesticide biomagnification, fertilizers- soil salinization and large dams needed for

irrigation)

Some people are allergic to Genetically Modified (GM)

crops Gene leakage and loss of gene pool

Scientists worries that plant-eating insects and weeds

will develop resistance to GM crops leading to the creation of super-bags orweeds that cannot be destroyed

Companies often hold patents on GM seeds and licence

and protect these patents.

Role of biotechnology in India:

Use of HYVs in agriculture - led to green revolution. Indian Council for

Agriculture Research (IARI) developed many new strains of High

Yielding Varieties of wheat, rice, millets and corn. Eg K68 variety ofwheat

Sequences from varied sources like bacteria, viruses and eukaryotic

systems can be transferred to plants to develop transgenic crop varieties eg

Bt cotton

Pharma crops are standard crops genetically engineered to produce pharmaceuticals

and industrial chemicals. Eg. Corn is genetically modified to produced trypsin, E. coli

used to produce insulin

Green revolution term coined by William Gadd of Rockfellar Foundation

A step towards gaining self sufficiency in food production

Use of high yielding varieties

Use of irrigation facilities (like tube wells)

Use of chemical fertilizers

Use of pesticides and insecticides

Advantages-

Self sufficiency in food production

Economic gains

Maintenance a good standard of living by the farmers Research in the field of agriculture

Disadvantages-

Salinization of soil (Desertification)

Water logging and leaching

Using of selected fertilizers (leading to eutrophication too)

Loss of genetic diversity and food security


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Land use pattern changed

Pollution of resources (biomagnification)

Economic strain on the small scale farmer

Perishable food like fruits and vegetables have short shelf life hence need elaborate

storing and preserving techniques like Drying

Pickling

Salting

Freezing

Canning

Use of vinegar

Drying refers to natural desiccation, such as spreading fruits on racks in the sun.

Dehydration designates drying by artificial means, such as a blast of hot air.Both meansof preservation work by removing water from the food, which prevents the growth of

microorganisms and decay.

Non-perishable food products like wheat, rice, potatoes, onions etc have longer shelf life

and basically need hygienic and pest free storage space. Cold storage and godowns canbe used for them

Steps to manage or store food products-

Proper grading by concentrating the food products

Proper processing in order to preserve the food

Removal of moisture content (drying) Mixing of salt/ sugar and/or spices

Keeping it at low temperature & Freezing

Canning

Pasteurization & sterilization

In India, food transportation and management is a far more serious concern than food

production. Methods adopted to overcome this problem

Storage in well ventilated godowns

Use of preservation in packing

Preserving by refrigeration

Use of dehydration of certain food items Fumigation/pest control methods/neem

Cropping techniques:

Mixed farming- Include livestock rearing (reduces risk and reutilizesresources) E.g. pisciculture, apiculture or rearing cattle with crops.
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Mixed cropping- 2 or more crops grown together randomly (Inter

cropping) or 2 or more crops planted in alternate rows (alternate cropping)

Crop Rotation- Planting different crops in successive cropping seasons

Strip cropping- Practice of growing field crops in narrow strips either at

right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind, or following the natural

contours of the terrain to prevent wind and water erosion of the soil. Thegrowing of a cultivated crop, such as cotton, and a sod-forming crop, such as

alfalfa, in alternating strips following the contour of the land, in order to

minimize erosion.

Multiple cropping is the practice of growing two or more crops

simultaneously in the same space during a single growing season. It is a form

ofpolyculture, in which a second crop is planted after the first has beenharvested, or relay cropping, in which the second crop is started amidst the

first crop before it has been harvested.

Example - tomatoes + onions + marigold; the marigolds repel some tomato

pests.

In agriculture, "monoculture" describes the practice of planting crops with the samepatterns of growth resulting from genetic similarity.

In forestry, monoculture refers to the planting of a single species of tree crop instead

of encouraging a diverse canopy of trees. Examples include Wheat fields or Appleorchards or Grape vineyards. The planting of a single species of tree crop instead of

encouraging a diverse canopy of trees or the practice of planting crops with the same

patterns of growth has the following disadvantages:

Monoculture can lead to large scale crop failure as this single genetic variant

orcultivarbecomes susceptible to a disease.

Low biodiversity Depreciated the soil of particular nutrients

Major techniques of irrigation:(a) Sprinkler irrigation/ Spray irrigation- spray continuous

drizzle of water. Avoids wastage and water logging.

(b) Drip irrigation- Plastic pipes with holes laid down in the

field when crops have to be watered. Advantages:

Water is used efficiently by being poured directly at the

base of the plant, and not being wasted between the

rows.

Fertilization is possible through the system. The plant leaves remain dry, thereby reducing fungal

problems in sensitive crops.

Relatively low pump pressures are required to operate

the system.

(c) There is low labor requirement to operate these systems,

which are easy to automate
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(d) Furrow irrigation- Irrigation in rows that have crops. Water

absorbed by soil as it flows through these furrows.

(e) Sub irrigation- Indirect method of irrigation applicable tothose areas where ground water is available at shallow

depths.

(f) Flood irrigation- flood the field with water (usually usedfor paddy)

(g) Centre pivot system- This system is built of many metal

frames which move on wheels that hold the central water providing system. This transports water from a pump

located at the center and water is sprayed through

sprinklers. The whole structure keeps moving all over the

field. Minimum effort and less time.

Macro systems of irrigation- large dams and canals

Advantages of macro systems of irrigation: Larger areas of cultivation

Relatively regular supply

Disadvantages of macro system of irrigation:

Water logging

Salinization- accumulation of salts in soil

which make it saline and render soil infertile

Eutrophication and chemical pollution

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT(IPM)

"Integrated Pest Management is the coordinated use of pest and environmental

information along with available pest control methods, including cultural, biological,

genetic and chemical methods, to prevent unacceptable levels of pest damage by the

most economical means, and with the least possible hazard to people, property, and the

environment".

IPM is a pest control strategy that uses an array of complementary methods: naturalpredators and parasites, pest-resistant varieties, cultural practices, biological controls,

various physical techniques, andpesticides as a last resort. It is an ecological approach

that can significantly reduce or eliminate the use of pesticides. An IPM regime can be

quite simple, or sophisticated enough to be a farming system in its own right. The mainfocus is usually insect pests, but IPM encompasses diseases, weeds, and any other

naturally occurring biological crop threat.

An IPM system is designed around six basic components:

1. Acceptable pest levels: The emphasis is on control, not eradication. IPM holdsthat wiping out an entire pest population is often impossible, and the attempt can
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be more costly, environmentally unsafe, and all-round counterproductive than it is

worth. Better to decide on what constitutes acceptable pest levels, and apply

controls if those levels are reached.2. Preventive cultural practices: Selecting varieties best for local growing conditions,

and maintaining healthy crops, is the first line of defense.

3. Monitoring: Regular observation is the cornerstone of IPM. Visual inspection,insect traps, and other measurement methods are used to monitor pest levels.

Record-keeping is essential, as is a thorough knowledge of the behavior and

reproductive cycles of target pests.4. Mechanical controls: Should a pest reach an unacceptable level, mechanical

methods are the first options to consider. They include simple hand-picking,

erecting insect barriers, using traps, vacuuming, and tillage to disrupt breeding.

5. Biological controls: Natural biological processes and materials can providecontrol, with minimal environmental impact, and often at low cost. The main

focus here is on promotingbeneficial insects that eat target pests.

6. Chemical controls: Considered as an IPM last resort, synthetic pesticides may be

used when other controls fail or are deemed unlikely to prove effective.Biological insecticides, derived from plants or naturally occurring

microorganisms (eg: Bt), also fit in this category.

IPM is applicable to all types of agriculture. Reliance on knowledge, experience,

observation, and integration of multiple techniques makes IPM a perfect fit for organic

farming (the synthetic chemical option is simply not considered). For large-scale,chemical-based farms, IPM can reduce human and environmental exposure to hazardous

chemicals, and potentially lower overall costs.

An exampleIn 1954, a new type ofaphid was seen in California. At first, organophosphatepesticides

were applied but after 5 years, most of the aphid population had become resistant. The

pesticides also killed natural predators of the aphid. In the application of IPM, the amountof organophosphate used was lowered to allow the natural predators to live; further

predators were also introduced.
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