X-RADIOGRAPHYOF TEXTILES, DRESS

AND RELATED OBJECTS

Butterworth-Heinemann Series in Conservation and Museology

Series Editor: Andrew OddyFormely of the British Museum, London

Consultants: Page Ayres CowleyConservation Architect, New YorkDavid BomfordThe J. Paul Getty Museum, Los AngelesJohn FidlerSimpson Gumpertz and Heger Inc, Los AngelesVelson HorieThe British Library, LondonSarah StaniforthThe National Trust, SwindonJeanne Marie TeutonicoThe Getty Conservation Institute, Los AngelesDavid SaundersThe British Museum, London

Published titles: Architectural Tiles: Conservation and Restoration (Durbin)Chemical Principles of Textile Conservation (Tímár-Balázsy, Eastop)Conservation and Restoration of Ceramics (Buys, Oakley)Conservation of Building and Decorative Stone (Ashurst, Dime)Conservation of Furniture (Rivers, Umney)Conservation of Historic Buildings (Feilden)Conservation of Leather and Related Materials (Kite, Thomson)Conservation of Ruins (Ashurst)A History of Architectural Conservation ( Jokilehto)Lacquer: Technology and Conservation (Webb)The Museum Environment, 2nd edition (Thomson)Radiography of Cultural Materials, 2nd edition (Lang, Middleton)Tapestry Conservation: Principles and Practice (Lennard, Hayward)The Textile Conservator’s Manual, 2nd edition (Landi)Upholstery Conservation: Principles and Practice (Gill, Eastop)

Related titles: A Practical Guide to Costume Mounting (Flecker)Contemporary Theory of Conservation (Muñoz-Viñas)Digital Collections (Keene)Digital Heritage: Applying Digital Imaging to Cultural Heritage (MacDonald)Fragments of the World: Uses of Museum Collections (Keene)Historic Floors (Fawcett)Managing Conservation in Museums (Keene)Materials for Conservation (Horie)The National Trust Manual of HousekeepingNatural Materials: Sources, Properties and Uses (DeMouthe)Organic Chemistry of Museum Objects (Mills, White)Pigment Compendium: Dictionary (Eastaugh, Walsh, Siddall, Chaplin)Pigment Compendium: Optical Microscopy (Eastaugh, Walsh, Siddall, Chaplin)Pigment Compendium CD (Eastaugh, Walsh, Siddall, Chaplin)Restoration of Motion Picture Film (Read, Meyer)Risk Assessment for Object Conservation (Ashley-Smith)Structural Aspects of Building Conservation (Beckman, Bowles)

Sonia O’Connor ● Mary M. Brooks

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X-RADIOGRAPHYOF TEXTILES, DRESS

AND RELATED OBJECTS

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Preface xiii

Acknowledgements xv

Contributors xvii

Part 1: Textile X-radiography 1

1. Introduction 3Sonia O’Connor and Mary M. Brooks

The catalyst for this book 3The history of textile radiography 5Radiography at the Textile Conservation Centre 7Imaging textiles using mammography 8Developing practice 10Notes 10References 11

2. Principles of X-radiography 12Sonia O’Connor

Introduction 12X-rays and the electromagneticspectrum 12Properties of X-rays 13Production of X-rays 13Conventional radiography 15Optimising image quality 16Viewing film radiographs 21Working with film radiographs 21Storage and archive of radiographicfilms 22Summary 22Note 22References 22

3. High definition X-radiography oftextiles: methods and approaches 23Sonia O’Connor

Introduction 23Why textiles seem difficult to X-ray 23Low energy high definition radiography 24

Choosing X-ray equipment and facilities 25Practical approaches to textileradiography 30Determining correct exposureparameters 35Thin homogeneous textiles 39Layered and more complex textileobjects 39Thicker textiles 40Heterogeneous textiles 40Mixed-media objects 41X-raying ‘special needs’ textiles 43Special radiographic techniques 50Notes 56References 56

4. Textile X-radiography and digitalimaging 58Sonia O’Connor and Jason Maher

Introduction 58Digital versus analogue 58Components of a digital image 59Storage of digital images 62Digital image capture 64Direct and computed radiography 67CR and textile radiography 68Digital image processing 69Summary 71Notes 73References 73

5. Image interpretation 74Sonia O’Connor

Introduction 74Negative images 74Interpretation basics 76Characteristic images 78Effect of exposure on imageinterpretation 81Image artefacts 88References 90

Contents

vii

6. Assessing the risks of X-radiographyto textiles 91Sonia O’Connor, with a contribution onDNA by Jason Maher

Introduction 91Colour 91Dating 91DNA 92Organic textile fibres and dyes 92X-ray analysis 93Testing radiographed silk samples 94Summary 94Notes 94References 94

7. Radiation safety 96Graham Hart

Introduction 96Myths and legends 96Justification, optimisation and limitation 96United Kingdom Ionising RadiationsRegulations 97Radiation and risk 97Putting risk in perspective 100Practical radiation protection 100Radiation monitoring 101Conclusion 103Acronyms 103References 103

Part 2: Exploring the X-radiographic features of textile objects 105

Sonia O’Connor and Mary M. Brooks

8. Materials 107Fibres 107Fillings 109Supports, stays and substructures 119Miscellaneous materials 123Note 125References 125

9. Threads, fabrics and constructiontechniques 126Yarns and threads 126Cords and plaits 126Woven textile structures 126Non-woven structures 136Construction techniques 140Other construction methods andmaterials 145

Notes 149References 149

10. Surface decoration 150Painted and printed textiles 150Underdrawing 153Appliqué and embroidery 153Metal threads 154Unusual materials used for surfacedecoration 156Note 159References 159

11. Makers and making, degradationand repair 163Makers and making 163Degradation 164Use and wear 166Reuse, repair and conservation 168Summary 171Notes 171References 172

Part 3: Case studies 173

IntroductionMary M. Brooks and Sonia O’Connor

12. Evaluating X-radiography as a tool for examining upholstered furniture 175Kathryn Gill

Introduction 175Practical challenges to the radiographyof historic upholstered seat furniture 175Radiography for documentation:case study of an eighteenth centuryupholstered chair 176Radiography as a complement tophotographic evidence: case study ofthe Seehof Suite 176Interpretation of the X-ray images 178What is not revealed by radiography:case study of the Audley End settee 180Investigation of a portable medical facilityfor object examination 182Conclusion 183Acknowledgements 183Notes 183Acronyms 184References 184

viii Contents

13. The use of X-radiography in theTextile Conservation Laboratory,Opificio delle Pietre Dure, Florence:methodological, technical and researchapproaches towards a non-invasiveinvestigative technique 185Susanna Conti and Alfredo Aldrovandi

Introduction: concepts and issues 185Selecting appropriate analytical approaches 186Radiography applied to textiles:technical issues 186Radiography of large textiles 186The use of radiography at the Opificiodelle Pietre Dure 187Pilot study of the use of radiography intextile conservation: case study of achasuble 188Case study: a Chinese screen 190Case study: a fifteenth century velvetfragment from a nineteenth centurycollection 193Case study: a mitre 194Case study: dressed statue 196Case study: wax sculpture DormitioVirgini (‘The Death of the Virgin’) 199Discussion 201Acknowledgements 201Notes 201References 201

14. The role of X-radiography in thedocumentation and investigation of an eighteenth century multi-layeredstomacher 203Gabriella Barbieri

Introduction 203The Nether Wallop cache 203The practice of concealment: a contextualframework 203The stomacher 204Rationale for research 205General aims of project 206Specific objectives of X-ray examination 206Methodology 206Interpretation of the radiographic images 206Materials and construction 207Patterns of use 208Patterns of degradation 209Conclusion 209Acknowledgements 210Notes 210

Acronyms 210References 210

15. Hidden Structures: the use of X-radiography in the Fashion Gallery at Snibston Discovery Park, Leicestershire 212Clare Bowyer

Introduction 212The Fashion Gallery, Snibston DiscoveryPark 212Hidden Structures 212Selecting objects for radiographic displayimages 213Chosen objects and radiographs 214Feedback and evaluation 216

16. X-radiography of a knitted silkstocking with metal threadembroidery 217Sonia O’Connor, Mary M. Brooks andJosie Sheppard

Introduction 217The stocking 217Condition 218Radiography 219What the radiography revealed 221Summary 224Acknowledgement 224Note 224Reference 224

17. A chalice veil rediscovered 225Sonia O’Connor and Mary M. Brooks

Introduction 225Description 225Condition 226Evidence from radiography 226Conclusion 230Acknowledgement 230Notes 230References 230

18. The use of X-radiography in theanalysis and conservationdocumentation of a set of seventeenthcentury hanging wall pockets 231Mary M. Brooks and Sonia O’Connor

Introduction 231The hanging wall pockets 231

Contents ix

Materials and construction 231Condition before treatment 231Radiography 231Information obtained from theradiography 233Embroidery techniques 235Damage and repair 235Conclusion 236Acknowledgements 236Note 236Reference 236

19. ‘In needle works there doth greatknowledge rest’: the contribution ofX-radiography to the understandingof seventeenth century Englishembroideries from the AshmoleanMuseum of Art and Archaeology,Oxford 237Mary M. Brooks and Sonia O’Connor

Introduction 237Radiography techniques 237The contribution of radiography tounderstanding materials, condition andconstruction 238Summary 247Acknowledgements 247Notes 247References 247

20. X-radiography of dolls and toys 249Mary M. Brooks, Sonia O’Connor andJosie Sheppard

Introduction 249Materials and manufacture of Europeandolls: a brief overview 249The value of radiography for curationand conservation 256Summary of radiography methods 258Information from radiography 261Summary 265Acknowledgements 265Notes 265References 265

21. X-radiography of teddy bears andother textile artefacts at theVictoria & Albert Museum 266Marion Kite

Introduction 266Early radiography of textiles and dolls atthe Victoria & Albert Museum 266Radiography of teddy bears 266

Taking and interpreting radiographicimages 268Stuffings, squeakers and structures 268Construction and assembly methods 269Threads and fabrics 272Conclusion 272Acknowledgements 272Notes 272References 272

22. X-radiography of patchworkand quilts 273Mary M. Brooks, Sonia O’Connor andJosie Sheppard

Introduction 273Quilting and patchwork: a brief overview 274The value of radiography for curation andconservation 274Special requirements for radiography ofquilts and coverlets 275Information from radiography 275Benefits of radiography 284Acknowledgements 287Note 287References 287

23. Revealing the layers: TheX-radiography of eighteenthcentury shoes at Hampshire CountyCouncil Museums and ArchivesService 288Sarah Howard and Robert Holmes

Introduction 288Radiography at HCCMAS 288Films and processing 289Selection of shoes for radiography 289Construction of heels 289Stitching 290General construction 293Conclusion 293Notes 293References 293

24. The contribution of X-radiographyto the conservation and study oftextile/leather compositearchaeological footwear recoveredfrom the Norwegian Arctic 294Elizabeth E. Peacock

Introduction 294History of Russian Pomor huntingactivities on Svalbard 294

x Contents

Contents xi

The burial environment onWest Spitsbergen, Svalbard 295The Russekeila site 296The artefacts and their recovery 296The footwear recovered at Russekeila 296Radiography of the footwear 296Results and implications 298Conservation strategy and implementation 299Russian Pomor textile/leather compositearchaeological footwear revisited 299Conclusion 300Notes 301References 301

25. Controlled lifting and X-radiographyof gold threads from ancientarchaeological textiles 302Elizabeth Barham

Introduction 302The Spitalfields Roman sarcophagustextile finds 302The Prittlewell Anglo-Saxonchamber-grave textile finds 304Conclusions 306Acknowledgements 306Notes 306Reference 306

26. X-radiography of ethnographicobjects at the Horniman Museum 307Louise Bacon

Introduction 307Radiography equipment and methodsused at the Horniman Museum 307Textile elements in ethnographic artefacts 308The conservation benefits of radiographyfor ethnographic artefacts with textilecomponents: two case studies 308The ethics of radiography 311Conclusion 311Acknowledgements 312Notes 312References 312

27. The use of X-radiography in theconservation treatment andreinterpretation of an incompletemusette 314Sylvie François

Introduction 314Musette 314

The Horniman Museum musette 314Treatment proposal and the role ofradiography 315Radiographic procedures 315Interpreting the radiographs 316Impact of radiography on the treatmentand interpretation of the musette 318Acknowledgements 318Notes 318References 318

28. X-radiographic examination of ahistoric mannequin on display inEdinburgh Castle, Scotland 319David Starley and Fiona Cahill

Introduction 319History of the mannequins 319Description 320Background to the projects 320Purposes of radiography 320Radiographic procedure and equipment 320Interpretation of the radiographs 322Evidence for dating 323Summary 323Acknowledgements 324Note 324References 324

29. X-radiography of Rembrandt’spaintings on canvas 325Ernst van de WeteringPrécis by Mary M. Brooks andSonia O’Connor

Editors’ note 325Rembrandt’s oil paintings on canvas 325Objectives of research into canvas supports 325Radiographs as a means of studyingcanvas 325Research methods and results 326Characteristics of canvases by, orattributed to, Rembrandt 327Conclusion 327Acknowledgements 327References 328

Index 329

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This book presents results from a research projectexploring the potential of X-radiography as a toolfor the characterisation, condition assessment andstudy of ancient, historic and contemporary textilesand hence to aid conservation decision making andcuratorial studies. The project formed part of theresearch supported by the Arts and HumanitiesResearch Council (AHRC)1 Research Centre forTextile Conservation and Textile Studies. The ResearchCentre was established in July 2002 by the TextileConservation Centre (TCC), University ofSouthampton, in conjunction with the Departmentof Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford,and School of Art History and Archaeology and theWhitworth Art Gallery, University of Manchester.The Research Centre’s goal is to improve the con-servation and interpretation of historic textiles byenhancing knowledge and understanding. To thisend, research is structured into four themes: TextileMaterials, Modern Materials, Textiles and Text andWorldly Goods. This radiography project is part ofthe Textile Materials theme and is a collaborativeproject between the University of Southampton andthe University of Bradford.

The first questions that are asked about radiog-raphy of textiles are:

● Is it safe for me and safe for the artefact?● Will it show me anything I would want to know?● Can I get it done easily?

This book addresses these questions and presents con-servators, curators and others interested in under-standing textile artefacts and their histories with acomprehensive view of the role radiography has toplay in the study and conservation of textiles.

We have deliberately taken a broad view of textilesand dress – ranging from single layered fragments tocomplex three-dimensional mixed-media artefacts.The first part of this book covers the principles ofradiography and explores the techniques that are bestsuited to the taking of high quality images of textileartefacts at no risk to the object or personnel. Howthe resulting radiographs can be best examined andinterpreted is explained and developing technologies,which increase the range and depth of informationobtainable through radiography, are also introduced.

The aim of the second part has been to demon-strate the extraordinary contribution that radiographicinvestigation can make to our understanding oftextiles and to encourage further research andexploration. The concluding case histories in thethird part, written by colleagues with experience inthe radiography of textiles, demonstrate the addedvalue that radiography can provide in very diversecircumstances.

We hope this book will be the catalyst for thewider use and exploration of radiography in relationto the study and conservation of textiles and that the examples and case studies presented will exciteand inspire conservators to feel confident both toundertake radiography of textiles themselves andthose unfamiliar with radiography to brief others onappropriate techniques when commissioning textileradiographs.

Researching the systematic application of the estab-lished technique of radiography to textiles has been afascinating journey. Our goal throughout has been tocommunicate what we have learnt to the wider con-servation and textile communities through presenta-tions, publications and teaching. Many people havegenerously shared their experiences, given us guidance

PrefaceMary M. Brooks and Sonia O’Connor

xiii

Note

1. On 1 April 2005, the Arts & Humanities Research Board (AHRB) became the Arts & HumanitiesResearch Council (AHRC).

xiv Preface

and suggested avenues for further exploration. It hasbeen our privilege to draw together work from prac-titioners in this area and we are very grateful both tothose who made us aware of such work and also toour colleagues for participating in the book andsharing their knowledge. We are grateful to all thoseindividuals and institutions who have allowed us to

photograph and radiograph objects from their col-lections and given permission for their reproduc-tion. Unless otherwise specified, objects are fromprivate collections. We thank all the case studiesauthors for their input and acknowledge that anyerrors or omissions are our own.

We also thank colleagues in the AHRC ResearchCentre for Textile Conservation and Textile Studiesespecially Dr Maria Hayward, Director, and DinahEastop, Associate Director, Dr Paul Wyeth (all of theUniversity of Southampton) and Dr Carl Heron(University of Bradford) for their unstinting support.Chris Bennett provided invaluable administrativesupport. Nell Hoare MBE, Director of the TextileConservation Centre, gave both encouragement andmuch appreciated practical help. Thanks are also dueto Professor Mark Pollard, now of Oxford University.

We owe particular thanks to Dr Maria Haywardand Dr Paul Wyeth who undertook a peer review ofthe whole book and gave perceptive and construc-tive feedback and to Ed Newton, for his review ofthe technical material relating to radiographic the-ory and practice.

Our special thanks go to Jason Maher for his hugecontribution to the illustrative material for this bookand for sharing his expertise in digital imaging.

We extend our thanks to colleagues and friends fortheir help in tracking down information, allowing usto radiograph objects in both personal and institu-tional collections and giving us other valuable help:

Mary Ballard, Smithsonian Institution, WashingtonPeter Baucham, Argos Inspection, Washington,

Tyne & WearTom Bilson, Courtauld Institute of Art, London, for

information about the conservation of two dollsM. Annette Brooks for loaning pearlsPhyllis Brown, Sheffield, for loaning her lace

collectionJo Buckberry, University of BradfordVivienne Chapman, Conservation Centre, National

Museums LiverpoolAndy Chopping, Photography, Museum of London

Archaeological Service for comparison of meth-ods for digitising X-ray images

Nicola Christie, Paintings Conservation, Conserva-tion Centre, National Museums Liverpool foraccess to X-ray equipment and information

Mathew Collins, BioArch, University of York,York, for information relating to damage of pro-teins and DNA

David Crombie, Paintings Conservation, Conser-vation Centre, National Museums Liverpool, fortechnical information

Dr Ian Croudace, National Oceanography Centre,University of Southampton, for access to radiog-raphy facilities

Joyce Dawson, PhD student, Textile ConservationCentre, University of Southampton

Dinah Eastop, for information about and access toartefacts from the AHRC Deliberately ConcealedGarments Project

Vanessa Fell, English HeritageElia Flores, Radiology Programme, Blinn College,

Texas, for generously sharing information on heruse of mammography facilities

Chrissy Freeth, University of BradfordDr Paul Garside, Textile Conservation Centre,

University of Southampton, for undertaking teststo evaluate the effect of X-rays on silk

Mike Gentry, Johnson Space Centre, HoustonRuth Gilbert, PhD student, Textile Conservation

Centre, University of SouthamptonLynn Grant, textile conservatorDr Sonia Guillen, Director of the Centro Malliqui,

Bioanthropology Foundation of PeruLouise Hampson, York Minster ArchivesAllan Hall, Department of Archaeology, University

of York, for identification of plant remainsMichael Halliwell, Textile Conservation Centre,

University of Southampton, for providing photo-graphs from the TCC image archive

Liesbeth M. Helmus, Centraal Museum,Utretcht

Acknowledgements

xv

Robert Janaway, Department of ArchaeologicalSciences, University of Bradford, for access tothe University of Bradford’s teaching collection

Allan Janus, Archives Reference Desk, National Airand Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution,Washington

Jan Jansen, Experimental Zoology Group, Universityof Wageningen

Andrew Jones, University of Bradford, for identifi-cation of fish scales

Julie Jones, then of York Archaeological Trust, forinformation about radiographs

Susan La Niece, British Museum, LondonJanet Lang for her support in this projectAlison Lister, textile conservator, and Colleen Lister

for loaning an ethnographic textileRoss McEwing, Wildlife DNA Services Ltd, Bangor,

for information relating to damage of proteinsand DNA

Phil Morris, GE Inspection Technologies, Coventry,for technical advice and access to CR and DR

Richard Mould for valuable contacts for radiographyMark Norman, Head of Conservation, The

Ashmolean Museum of Art and Archaeology,Oxford

Professor Terry O’Connor, Department of Archae-ology, University of York, for information relat-ing to damage of proteins and DNA

Keith Oliver, Paper Conservation, ConservationCentre, National Museums Liverpool, for infor-mation relating to possible risk of damage topaper through radiography

Rosemary Payne for loaning an ethnographic textileAlan Phenix, University of Northumbria, now at

the Getty Conservation Institute, Los Angeles,for radiography and introducing us to Professorvan de Wetering and his work on the radiogra-phy of painted canvases

Eve Reay, Argos Inspection, Washington, Tyne &Wear

Amy Ross, Johnson Space Center, NationalAeronautics Space Administration, Houston

Cordelia Rogerson, Textile Conservation Centre,University of Southampton, for access to samplesand sharing thoughts on painted textiles

Amber Rowe, Head of Conservation Services, TextileConservation Centre, University of Southampton,for suggesting textiles for radiography

Vuka Roussakis, American Museum of NaturalHistory, New York

Hanna Szczepanowska, Smithsonian National Airand Space Museum, Washington

Josie Sheppard, York Castle Museum, York MuseumsTrust, for generously allowing access to manyfascinating artefacts

Peter Sinclair, GE Inspection Technologies, Coventry,for technical advice and access to CR and DR

James Spriggs, then of York Archaeological Trust, forloan of a chalice veil

Rebecca Smith, textile conservator, for sharing infor-mation about Tog

Susan Stanton, Conservation, The AshmoleanMuseum of Art and Archaeology, Oxford

Dr Arnulf von Ulmann, Germanisches National-museum, Nürnberg

Penelope Walton Rogers, The Anglo-SaxonLaboratory, York

Jacqui Watson, English Heritage, Fort CumberlandHoward Wellman, MAC Laboratory, MarylandDr Catherine Whistler, Senior Assistant Keeper,

Department of Western Art, The AshmoleanMuseum of Art and Archaeology, Oxford

Jane Williams Butt, Radiography, Bradford TeachingHospitals, for access to CT scanners

Amanda Young, Early Manned Spaceflight/Astronaut Equipment, Division of Space History,National Air and Space Museum, SmithsonianInstitution, Washington

Thanks are also due to Sarah Vanstone, DebbieClark, Marion Stockton and Stephani Allison ofElsevier for their input and help.

Finally, we would like to thank our families andfriends for their patient love and tolerance duringthe writing of this book.

Mary M. Brooks and Sonia O’Connor

xvi Acknowledgements

Alfredo Aldrovandi obtained his degree inPhysics at the University of Modena, Italy. He hasworked at the Opificio delle Pietre Dure e Laboratori diRestauro (OPD) in Florence since 1983. As Head ofthe Physics Laboratory at the OPD, his researchfocuses on the development and application of diag-nostic, non-invasive analysis for works of art. Healso teaches physics on the OPD’s four-year conser-vation training course, the Scuola di Alta Formazione(SAF). Among his many activities, he collaborateswith several institutions in the field of Fine ArtsConservation, taking part in research projects, con-ferences and courses.

Louise Bacon has been Head of Collections,Conservation and Care at the Horniman Museumin South East London since 1986. An objects con-servator trained at the Institute of Archaeology(University College London), she has been anAssociate Member of the Museums Association since1984 and completed her doctorate in Archaeometal-lurgy in 2003. She has more than 30 years of experi-ence of museums and heritage organisations both inBritain and abroad where radiography has alwaysplayed an important role in her work.

Gabriella Barbieri originally trained as a lin-guist, gaining a BA (Hons) in French and Italianfrom Bristol University in 1989, and a diploma inTechnical and Specialised Translation from theUniversity of Westminster in 1990. She subsequentlyfollowed a career in technical and legal translationwith the UK’s largest independent translationcompany. In 2000 Gabriella decided to pursue herlife-long interests in textiles and costume andretrained at the Textile Conservation Centre,University of Southampton, and was awarded anMA in Textile Conservation. After graduation,Gabriella worked on a number of projects at theTextile Conservation Centre before taking up aposition at a private conservation studio in Londonwhich specialised in the conservation of earlyMiddle Eastern textiles and carpets. Since February

2005, she has been working at the Bowes Museum,County Durham, England, where she is involvedprimarily in the conservation and display of theBowes Founders’ Collection, which includes aunique collection of embroidered and tapestry-woven seat covers, 16th and 17th century Europeanlace and 15th to 18th century ecclesiastical textiles.

Liz Barham has worked as a conservator forMuseum of London Specialist Services since 1999,where the conservation team provides contract con-servation services to archaeological units on fresharchaeological finds from sites across the UK, as wellas practical conservation services and preventiveconservation advice on wide-ranging historic andarchaeological artefact collections for museums,archaeological archives, private institutions andindividuals. She has an MA in the Conservation ofHistoric Objects (Archaeology) from the Universityof Durham and an Honours degree in ClassicalCivilisation from the University of Warwick.

Clare Bowyer was a Project Assistant for theFashion Gallery at Snibston Discovery Park and isnow at Kettering Museum. Prior to this, she workedas an exhibition researcher at Charnwood Museum,Loughborough and as cur-ator for the costume webpages at the Gallery of Costume, Manchester. Aswell as volunteering in museums and galleries, shehas worked for the Community Fund, EnglishHeritage and Liberty, London. She read History ofFine and Decorative Arts at the University of Leedsbefore gaining an MA in the History of Dress at theCourtauld Institute, London.

Mary M. Brooks MA, DMS, DipTexCons,FIIC, ACR, HEAM took her BA at CambridgeUniversity. After working in the book world, shemoved into management consultancy and thendeveloped her long-term interest in textiles bytaking the Postgraduate Diploma in TextileConservation. She has since worked as a curator andconservator in the USA and Europe, including

Contributors

xvii

developing an award-winning exhibition on conser-vation. She is now Reader at the Textile Conser-vation Centre, University of Southampton and has aspecial interest in the contribution that object-basedresearch and conservation approaches can make tothe wider interpretation and presentation of culturalartefacts.

Fiona Cahill graduated from De MontfortUniversity in 2002 with a degree in Restoration andConservation. Since then she has worked for anarchitectural conservation company and was a pro-ject conservator for the National Trust in Liverpool.She joined the Royal Armouries as a conservatorin 2004.

Susanna Conti received her art diplomas inPainting and in Weaving in 1972 and 1974 respect-ively. In 1975 she qualified as an art teacher in thesecondary school where she taught for one year.Subsequently, she trained in tapestry conservationand obtained her diploma in Textile Conservationfrom the prestigious Opificio delle Pietre Dure e Laboratori di Restauro (OPD) in Florence in 1980.She won her position as Capo Tecnico of the TextileConservation Laboratory at OPD as a result of opennational competition in 1981; in 2006 she wasappointed Textile Conservation Director. Duringher 25 years at the OPD, she has carried out conser-vation treatments on a wide variety of projectsfocused on textile and textile-related artefacts andalso conducted their four-year textile conservationtraining course, the Scuola di Alta Formazione (SAF).She collaborates with state institutions and museumson research projects, displays, publications, confer-ences and training courses, both in Italy and abroad.

Sylvie François holds the Postgraduate Diploma inTextile Conservation from the Textile ConservationCentre (Courtauld Institute of Art, University ofLondon). Her previous studies were in Canadawhere she received a Bachelor of Fine Arts (Majorin Art History and Studio Arts) from ConcordiaUniversity. Her early interest in textiles andcostumes led her to pursue technical studies sanc-tioned by a Professional Collegial Diploma inFashion from Cegep Marie-Victorin. She is cur-rently Conservation Officer at Cirque du Soleil, aninternational performing arts company that has itsheadquarters in Montreal, Canada. In 1999, shedeveloped their Heritage Costume Collection and,since 2000, manages this collection and the art col-lections. In this role, she oversees the development

and application of conservation policies and strate-gies.

Kathryn Gill gained a BA (Hons) in Textiles andFashion at Manchester Polytechnic, after which shetrained and worked as a textile conservator, specialisingin upholstery conservation at the Textile ConservationCentre, Hampton Court Palace. In 1984 Kate movedto the USA to set up the upholstery conservation sec-tion at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. After sevenyears as Senior Upholstery Conservator, she took apost at the Textile Conservation Centre, University ofSouthampton. Kate is Senior Conservator andLecturer, combining practical conservation (textilesand upholstered furniture) with teaching and research.She is principal contributor to and co-editor (withDinah Eastop) of Upholstery Conservation: Principles andPractice (2001).

Graham Hart BSc, MSc, MIPEM, MSRP workedas a medical physicist within the National HealthService for 30 years and has for the last 15 yearsworked as a radiation/laser/non-ionising radiationprotection adviser at the University of Bradford in the health, research, educational and veterinary sectors. Currently, Graham is a member of theAssociation of University Radiation ProtectionOfficers’ Technical Coordinating Committee, theSociety for Radiological Protection’s Non-IonisingRadiation Topic Group and an assessor for RPA2000, an assessing body for Radiation and LaserProtection Advisers in the UK. He is also an inde-pendent radiation protection consultant.

Robert Holmes BA (Hons) is Senior Conservatorof Antiquities and Fine Metalwork for theHampshire County Council Museums and ArchiveService. He has worked for the service since 1983and has recently taken on the Keepership of theFirearms Collection. He joined the Metals Sectionof the Conservation Department of the BritishMuseum in 1978, becoming a specialist in therestoration of Roman and Anglo-Saxon metalwork.Prior to joining the British Museum he took hisdegree in Silversmithing at BirminghamPolytechnic.

Sarah Howard BA (Hons), DipTexCons, ACRgraduated from the Textile Conservation Centre in1992 after completing the Postgraduate Diploma inTextile Conservation. After completion, she under-took a number of short-term contracts with free-lance conservators and institutions such as theVictoria and Albert Museum. She joined

xviii Contributors

Hampshire County Council Museums and ArchivesService in 1996 and is now Principal Conservatorand Senior Textile Conservator working with theirhistoric dress and textiles collection.

Marion Kite is Head of Furniture, Textiles andFrames Conservation at the Victoria and AlbertMuseum where she has worked since 1974. Herspecialist discipline is textile conservation. She haspublished and lectured widely on many aspects oftextile conservation and the conservation of organicmaterials associated with textile objects. During thepast 20 years she has developed a particular interestin the conservation of animal products and unusualmaterials incorporated into textiles and dress acces-sories. She is co-editor with Roy Thomson of Con-servation of Leather and Related Materials, published byElsevier in 2005. Marion served on the DirectoryBoard of the International Council of MuseumsCommittee for Conservation between 1993 and1999 and as Treasurer between 1993 and 1996. Sheis a Fellow of the International Institute forConservation and currently serves on the IICCouncil. She is Chairman of the Executive Councilof the Leather Conservation Centre and also sits onthe Council of the Museum of Leathercraft. She is aFellow of the Royal Society of Arts and a Trustee ofthe Spence and Harborough Collections of Glovesadministered by the Worshipful Company ofGlovers of London.

Jason Maher has a degree in Archaeological Sciencesfrom the University of Bradford and an MSc inOsteology, Palaeopathology and Funerary Archaeol-ogy from the Universities of Bradford and Sheffield.He was appointed Osteoarchaeological Technician in1996 in the Department of Archaeological Sciences,University of Bradford. In 2000 he left the univer-sity to become an IT consultant and freelance trainer.Since then he has combined his interests in anthropol-ogy, computing and radiography particularly throughthe application of digital imaging solutions to archae-ological problems.

Sonia O’Connor Dip Cons, FIIC, ACR trained asan archaeological conservator at the Institute ofArchaeology, University of London, passing withdistinction, and has worked in archaeological con-servation at the National Maritime Museum,Greenwich, London; University College, Cardiff;and the York Archaeological Trust. In 1995, shejoined the Department of Archaeological Sciences,University of Bradford. She now holds the post ofResearch Fellow in Conservation. Her research

forms part of the activities of the AHRC ResearchCentre for Textile Conservation and Textile Studiesbased at the University of Southampton in partner-ship with the University of Bradford. Her areas ofexpertise include the radiography of cultural mater-ial and she received the 2002 Nemet Award of theBritish Institute of Non-Destructive Testing for herwork in this field.

Elizabeth E. Peacock is Professor in Conservationand Senior Research Conservator on the staff ofVitenskapsmuseum at the Norwegian University ofScience and Technology (NTNU) in Trondheim,Norway. She holds a BA in Mathematics, an MAC inArt Conservation, and a PhD in Textile Science.During her conservation training she interned witha number of institutions in the USA and Europe.She is a Fellow and Council Member of the Interna-tional Institute for Conservation. Elizabeth’s maininterests are: the interface between archaeologicalscience, conservation science and conservation; theinteraction of organic materials with the buriedenvironment; and conservation education withoutborders. She has wide experience with organicarchaeological materials, especially textiles andleather. Primarily this experience is with materialsrecovered from wet sites, but earlier in her conserva-tion career she worked with finds from sites in theEastern Mediterranean and Egypt. This extensiveexperience includes laboratory-based and field con-servation, experimental and object-based research,and teaching and publishing.

Josie Sheppard has worked with costume and tex-tile collections in museums for 25 years, specialisingin fashionable and everyday dress of the last twocenturies. Since 1988 she has been Curator ofCostume and Textiles at York Castle Museum,where her remit includes the extensive collection ofdolls. Previous posts have included working at theWarwickshire Museum, and at Worthing Museumand Art Gallery, where she was Assistant Curator ofCostume.

David Starley initially trained as a metallurgistbefore studying Archaeological Sciences andundertaking a PhD studying steel in medievalarmour (both at Bradford University). He workedin English Heritage’s Ancient MonumentsLaboratory before moving to the Royal Armouries,Leeds, in 1999, as Science Officer.

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Part 1

Textile X-radiography