www erchargedsciencecomets and asteroids. two planets (ceres and pluto) have been reclassified after...
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TABLEOFCONTENTSIntroduction...............................................................................................................................................................................................................3
EducationalGoalsforAstronomy2.................................................................................................................................................................4
MasterMaterialsListforAllLabs.....................................................................................................................................................................6
LabSafety...................................................................................................................................................................................................................7
Lesson#1:Stars,Planets,andBlackHoles...................................................................................................................................................8
Lesson#2:SolarSystemScaleModel...........................................................................................................................................................12
Lesson#3:Atmospheres....................................................................................................................................................................................15
Lesson#4:LunarPhases....................................................................................................................................................................................18
Lesson#5:EclipsesandTransits....................................................................................................................................................................21
Lesson#6:RustyBalloon...................................................................................................................................................................................24
Lesson#7:Meteorites.........................................................................................................................................................................................27
Lesson#8:Neptune’sFurnace.........................................................................................................................................................................30
Lesson#9:BinaryPlanetarySystems...........................................................................................................................................................33
Lesson#10:BuildYourOwnSolarSystem................................................................................................................................................36
Lesson#11:WatchYourWeight.....................................................................................................................................................................43
Lesson#12:Sundial.............................................................................................................................................................................................47
Lesson#13:Diffraction......................................................................................................................................................................................52
Lesson#14:InfraredVision..............................................................................................................................................................................55
Lesson#15:UVLight...........................................................................................................................................................................................58
Lesson#16:StarWobble...................................................................................................................................................................................62
Lesson#17:SpaceTelescopes.........................................................................................................................................................................64
Astronomy2Evaluation.....................................................................................................................................................................................67
Astronomy2Quiz..................................................................................................................................................................................................68
Astronomy2LabPractical................................................................................................................................................................................70
AnswerstoExercisesandActivities..............................................................................................................................................................71
VocabularyfortheUnit.......................................................................................................................................................................................76
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Introduction
GreetingsandwelcometothestudyofAstronomy.Thisunitwascreatedbyamechanicalengineer,universityinstructor,airplanepilot,astronomer,robot‐builderandrealrocketscientist…me!IhavethehappyopportunitytoteachyoueverythingIknowaboutastronomyoverthenextsetoflessons.Ipromisetogiveyoumybeststuffsoyoucantakeitandrunwithit…orfly!
Astrophysicscombinestheknowledgeoflight(electromagneticradiation),chemicalreactions,atoms,energy,andphysicalmotionallintoone.Togetthemostoutoftheselabs,therearereallyonlyacoupleofthingstokeepinmind.Sinceweareallheretohavefunandlearnsomethingnew,thisshouldn’tbetoohard.
Oneofthebestthingsyoucandoasthestudentistocultivateyourcuriosityaboutthings.Whydidthatmove?Howdidthatspin?What’sreallygoingonhere?
ThisunitonAstronomyischock‐fullofdemonstrationsandexperimentsfortwobigreasons.First,they’refun.Butmoreimportantly,thereasonwedoexperimentsinscienceistohoneyourobservationalskills.ScienceexperimentsreallyspeakforthemselvesmuchbetterthanIcaneverputintowordsorshowyouonavideo.AndI’mgoingtohityouwithalotofthesesciencedemonstrationsandexperimentstohelpyoudevelopyourobservingtechniques.
Scientistsnotonlylearntoobservewhat’sgoingonintheexperiment,buttheyalsolearnhowtoobservewhattheirexperimentistellingthem,whichisfoundbylookingatyourdata.It’snotenoughtoinventsomenewkindofexperimentifyoudon’tknowhowitwillperformwhentheconditionschangeabit,likeonMars.We’regoingtolearnhowtopredictwhatwethinkwillhappen,designexperimentsthatwilltestthisidea,andlookovertheresultswegottofigureoutwheretogofromthere.Scienceisaprocess,it’sawayofthinking,andwe’regoingtogetplentyofpracticeatit.
Goodluckwiththisastronomyunit!
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FortheParent/Teacher:EducationalGoalsforAstronomy2
Astrophysicscombinestheknowledgeoflight(electromagneticradiation),chemicalreactions,atoms,energy,andphysicalmotionallintoone.You’llsoonbediscoveringhowtomakearealscalemodelofthesolarsystem(andwheremostmodelsgowrong),you’lllearnaboutthedifferentatmospheresonplanets,howtocapturemeteorites,designasolarsystem,learnaboutdifferentspacemissionsandsomuchmore.
Herearethescientificconcepts:
Objectsintheskymoveinregularandpredictablepatterns.Thepatternsofstarsstaythesame,althoughtheyappeartomoveacrosstheskynightly,anddifferentstarscanbeseenindifferentseasons.
ThepositionoftheMoonchangesduringthecourseofthedayandfromseasontoseason. ThephasesoftheMoonandthelunarcycle. TheEarthisoneofseveralplanetsthatorbittheSun,andtheMoonorbitstheEarth. ThesolarsystemconsistsofplanetsandotherbodiesthatorbittheSuninpredictablepaths. Oursolarsystemincludesrockyterrestrialplanets(Mercury,Venus,Earth,andMars),gasgiants(Jupiter
andSaturn),icegiants(UranusandNeptune),andassortedchunksoficeanddustthatmakeupvariouscometsandasteroids.
Twoplanets(CeresandPluto)havebeenreclassifiedafterastronomersfoundoutmoreinformationabouttheirneighbors.
TheOortCloudholdsanestimated1trillioncomets.TheKuiperBeltholdschunksoficeanddust,likecometsandasteroidsaswellaslargerobjectslikedwarfplanetsErisandPluto.
Theappearance,generalcomposition,relativepositionandsize,andmotionofobjectsinthesolarsystem,includingplanets,planetarysatellites,comets,andasteroids.
HowtouseastronomicalunitsandlightyearsasmeasuresofdistancebetweentheSun,stars,andEarth. ThepathofaplanetaroundtheSunisduetothegravitationalattractionbetweentheSunandtheplanet. TheSun,anaveragestar,isthecentralandlargestbodyinthesolarsystemandiscomposedprimarilyof
hydrogenandhelium.TheSunusesnuclearreactionstogenerateitsenergy. ThepositionoftheSunintheskychangesduringthecourseofthedayandfromseasontoseason. Starsarethesourceoflightforallbrightobjectsinouterspace.TheMoonandplanetsshinebyreflected
sunlight,notbytheirownlight. Visiblelightisasmallbandwithinaverybroadelectromagneticspectrum. Whitelightisamixtureofmanywavelengths(colors),includinginfrared,ultra‐violet,visible,andmore.
Differentinstrumentsdetectandmeasuredifferentwavelengthsoflight. Galaxiesareclustersofbillionsofstars,andmayhavedifferentshapes.TheSunisoneofmanystarsinour
ownMilkyWaygalaxy.Starsmaydifferinsize,temperature,andcolor. Gravitationallensingoccurswhenblackholesandothermassiveobjectsbendlight.
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Bytheendofthelabsinthisunit,studentswillbeableto:
DesignandbuildanexperimentthatshowshowtheshapeoftheMoonchangesovertime. Knowhowtodemonstratehowthepositionofobjectsintheskychangesovertime. Knowthecelestialobjectsinthesolarsystemandhowtheyrelateandinteractwitheachother. Measureandestimatethelengthandvolumeofobjects. Formulateandjustifypredictionsbasedoncause‐and‐effectrelationships. Conductmultipletrialstotestapredictionanddrawconclusionsabouttherelationshipsbetween
predictionsandresults. Constructandinterpretgraphsfrommeasurements. Followasetofwritteninstructionsforascientificinvestigation.
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MasterMaterialsListforAllLabs
Thisisabrieflistofthematerialsthatyouwillneedtodoalloftheactivities,experimentsandprojectsinthisunit.Thesetofmaterialslistedbelowisjustforonelabgroup.Ifyouhaveaclassof10labgroups,you’llneedtoget10setsofthematerialslistedbelow.Mostmaterialsarereusable.
BakingsodaBallbearingormagneticmarbleBalloons(4)BlackpaperBouncyballCalciumchlorideCalculatorCamera(videoorstillcamera)CardboardorsmallpieceofclayCDorDVDChalkClockDiffractiongratingEmptyCDCaseFeatherFlashlightGallonmilkjugcontainerHandheldmagnifyingglass
Indexcards(3)Magnet(strong!)MarkersMeasuringtapePencilPhenolredorredfooddyePieceoffabricPlasticwrapPopsiclesticksProtractorRemotecontrolforTVorstereoRulerSaltSandScaletoweighyourselfScissorsSkewerSmallballs(5)
SoupcansorplasticcontainersSteelwoolStopwatchStringSunblockSunglassesTackorneedleTape(regularanddouble‐sided)TennisballThermometers(4)ThinplasticcuttingboardUVbeads(thesechangecolorswhenexposedtotheSun,5)VinegarWaterbottles(7)WaxpaperYardsticks/metersticks(2)
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LabSafetyGoggles:Theseshouldbewornwhenworkingwithchemicals,heat,fire,orprojectiles.Theseprotectyoureyesfromchemicalsplatter,explosions,andtinyfast‐movingobjectsaimedattheeyes.Ifyouwearglasses,youcanfindgogglesthatfitoverthem.Don’tsubstituteeyeglassesforgoggles,becauseofthelackofsideprotection.Eyeglassesdon’tprovidethisimportantprotection.
CleanupMesses:Yourlabareashouldbeneat,organized,andspotlessbeforeyoustart,duringyourexperiment,andwhenyouleave.Scientistswastemoretimehuntingforlostpapers,piecesofanexperiment,andtryingtorepositionsensitiveequipment…allofwhichcouldhaveeasilybeenavoidedhadtheybeentaughtorganizationalskillsfromthestart.
DisposeofPoisons:Ifapoisonoussubstancewasused,created,orproducedduringyourexperiment,youmustfollowtheproperhandlingproceduresfordisposal.You’llfinddetailsforthisintheexperimentsasneeded.
SpecialNotesonBatteries:Donotusealkalinebatterieswithyourexperiments.Findthesuper‐cheapkindofbatteries(usuallylabeled“HeavyDuty”or“SuperHeavyDuty”)becausethesetypesofbatterieshaveacarbon‐zinccore,whichdoesnotcontaintheacidthatalkalinebatterieshave.Thismeanswhenyouwireupcircuitsincorrectly(whichyoushouldexpecttodobecauseyouarelearning),thecircuitswillnotoverheatorleak.Ifyouusealkalinebatteries(likeEnergizerandDuracell)andyourstudentsshortacircuit,theirwiresandcomponentswillgetsuper‐hotandleakacid,whichisverydangerous.
NoEatingorDrinkingintheLab:Allfoodsanddrinksarebannedfromyourclassroomduringscienceexperimentation.Whenyoueatordrink,youruntheveryrealriskofingestingpartofyourexperiment.Forelectricityandmagnetismlabs,alwayswashyourhandsafterthelabisovertorinseofftheleadfromtheelectricalcomponents.
NoHorsePlay:Whenyougoofaround,accidentshappen,whichmeanschemicalsspill,circuitsshort,andallkindsofhazardscanoccurthatyouweren’texpecting.Neverthrowanythingtoanotherpersonandbecarefulwhereyouputyourhands–itcouldbeinthemiddleofasensitiveexperiment,especiallywithmagnetismandelectricity.Youdon’twanttoruntheriskofgettingshockedorelectrifiedwhenit’snotpartofyourexperiment.
Fire:Ifyouthinkthere’safireintheroom(evenifyou’renotsure),letyourteacherknowrightaway.Iftheyarenotaround(theyalwaysshouldbe),smotherthefirewithafireblanketoruseafireextinguisherandsendsomeonetofindanadult.Stop,drop,androll!
Questions:Ifyou’renotsureaboutsomethingstopandask,nomatterwhatit’sabout.Ifyoudon’tknowhowtoproperlyhandleachemical,dopartofanexperiment,ask!Ifyou’renotcomfortabledoingpartoftheexperiment,thendon’tdoit.
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Lesson#1:Stars,Planets,andBlackHolesOverviewGreetingsandwelcometothestudyofastronomy!Thisfirstlessonissimplytogetyouexcitedandinterestedinastronomysoyoucandecidewhatitisthatyouwanttolearnaboutastronomylateron.
WhattoLearnWe’regoingtocoveralotinthispresentation,includingstarslikeoursunaswellasdistantstars,iceandgasgiants,comets,asteroids,moons,ringedplanets,blackholesquasars,supernovaandmore.Thisisanoverviewofmanydifferentconceptswe’regoingtostudyinfurtherdepth,including:
TheSun,anaveragestar,isthecentralandlargestbodyinthesolarsystemandiscomposedprimarilyofhydrogenandhelium.
ThesolarsystemincludestheEarth,Moon,Sun,sevenotherplanetsandtheirsatellites,andsmallerobjectssuchasasteroidsandcomets.
Thestructureandcompositionoftheuniversecanbelearnedfromthestudyofstarsandgalaxies. Galaxiesareclustersofbillionsofstars,andmayhavedifferentshapes. TheSunisoneofmanystarsinourownMilkyWaygalaxy. Starsmaydifferinsize,temperature,andcolor.
Materials
Metalball(likeaballbearing)ORamagneticmarble Strongmagnet(thestrongestoneyouown).IhaveaneodymiummagnetthatIamusing. Thinplastic,cardboard,orwoodsheet(likeatableorcuttingboard).Makesurethemagnetcaninfluence
themetalballthroughit(don'tusemetal.) SmallbouncyballandtennisballORatennisballandabasketball(youneedtwoballsofdifferentsizes)
Experiment
Beforewatchingthevideo,printoutyourworksheetsoyoucanjotthingsdownasyoulisten.Thengrabyourpencil(andahandfulofpopcorn)andfillitinasyougoalong,orsimplyenjoytheshowandfillitoutattheend.
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PlanetariumStarShowTable
Planet InterestingFactYouDidn’tKnow‘TilNow
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Reading
Earlyastronomerstrackedthemovementofthestarssoaccuratelythatinmostcases,we’veonlymademinoradjustmentstotheirdata.AlthoughGalileowasn’tthefirstpersontolookthroughatelescope,hewasthefirsttopointitatthestars.Originally,astronomywasusedforcelestialnavigationandwasinvolvedwiththemakingofcalendars,butnowadaysit’smostlyclassifiedinthefieldcalledastrophysics.
Astronomersstudycelestialobjects(stars,planets,moons,asteroids,comets,galaxies,etc.)thatexistoutsideourplanet’satmosphere.It’stheonefieldthatcombinesthemostscience,engineeringandtechnologyareasinonefellswoop.Astronomyisalsooneoftheoldestsciencesontheplanet.
QuestionstoAnswer:
1. IsMercurythehottestplanet?Whyorwhynot?
2. Whatissolarwind?Whatprotectsplanetsfromit?
3. Canasteroidshavemoons?
4. WhyisIodifferentcolors?
5. Canmoonshaveatmospheres?Doallplanetshaveatmospheres?
6. HowmanyobjectsinthePlutosystem?
7. Nametwowaysyoucandetectblackholes.
8. Ifastarcollapseswhenitrunsoutoffuel,thenwhydosupernovasexplode?
9. Nametwoscientistswhocontributedtotheworkonblackholes.
10. Whatisagalaxy,andhowisitdifferentfromaquasar?
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Lesson#2:SolarSystemScaleModelOverview:Todayyougettomakeascalemodelofthesolarsystem.Byscalemodel,Imeanboththesizesoftheplanetswillbetoscaleaswellasthedistancesbetweentheplanets.Yourjobistomakeitasaccurateasyoucan.
WhattoLearn:Youwilllearnhowoursolarsystemismostlymadeupofemptyspaceandthatthedistancesbetweentheobjectsarehuge.You’llalsofindoutwherethatpeskydwarfplanetCeres(whichwasdiscoveredin1801andthoughttobeaplanet,butquicklywasdemotedtoanasteroidandlateradwarfplanet)lives.
Materials
Measuringtape Ruler(metricorinches) Popsiclesticks Markers Indexcards Tape Tennisball Grassyfieldoroutdoorareatospreadout
Experiment
1. First,drawthesolarsystemonasheetofpaper.Onceyou’vecompletedthisstep,proceedtothenextstep.(Nopeeking!)
2. Moststudentswilltendtodrawtheplanetsevenlyspacedapart.You’lllearnhowtocorrectthismistakethenexttimeafteryou’veworkedthroughthisexperiment.
3. Whenbuildingthismodel,startbymarkingoffthelocationoftheSun(youcanusechalk,apapercirclecutto2.63”(66.8mm)orplaceatennisballasaplaceholderfortheSun).Therestisforthemtofigureout.
4. Ononeendofeachstick,writethenameofeachplanet/objectfromthedatatable.1. Ontheotherend,drawthescalesizeoftheplanet.IftheplanetislargerthanthePopsiclestick,drawiton
anindexcardandtapeittothestick.Usethefraction‐to‐decimalconverterifneeded(dependingonyourruler).
2. Placeyourtennisballatoneendoftheareamarkedoffforyourexperiments.ThisistheSun.3. Usingthetableandthemeasuringtape,measurethedistancefromtheSuntoMercury.Havealabpartner
holdoneendofthemeasuringtapeatthecenterofthetennisball(oranXyou’vemarkedonthegroundthat’sunderthetennisball).At10.4inches,placeyourPopsiclestickintothegroundsoitstandsup.Ifyou’reonconcrete,layitdownwiththedotrepresentingMercury10.4inchesawayfromtheSun.
4. Continuewiththerestoftheplanets,asfarasyouhaveroomtogo.Whichplanetdidyouhavetostopatbecauseyourareawasn’tbigenough?Ordidn’tyou?
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SolarSystemDataTable
AlldistancesaremeasuredfromthecenteroftheSun.TheSunis2.63”(66.8mm)indiameter.
Planet/Object ObjectDiameter DistancefromtheSun
Mercury 0.009inches 0.2mm 10.4inches 0.264m
Venus 0.023inches 0.5mm 1foot7.4inches 0.493m
Earth 0.024inches 0.6mm 2feet2.9inches 0.682m
Mars 0.013inches 0.3mm 3feet4.9inches 1.039m
Jupiter 0.27inches 6.8mm 11feet7.76inches 3.649m
Saturn 0.22inches 5.5mm 21feet4.3inches 6.51m
Uranus 0.089inches 2.2mm 42feet11.5inches 13.094m
Neptune 0.086inches 2.1mm 67feet4.2inches 20.529m
Pluto(dwarfplanet) 0.004inches 0.1mm 88feet6inches 36.975m
Reading
HowlargeofasheetofpaperdoyouneedtomakeascalemodelofthesolarsystemiftheSunwasasbigasabeachball?Youwouldneedasheetofpapernearlyamilelong!
Howwouldyoumeasurethedistanceofafootballfieldifyouonlyhadaruler?Howwouldtheymeasurehowhighatreeis(withoutclimbingit)usingthesameruler?HowwouldyoumeasurethedistancetotheMoon?
Oneofthefirstwayswefiguredoutthedistancestotheplanets.Sincetheplanetsmoveintheirorbits,scientistshadtotakethatintoaccountwhentheydidtheirmeasurementsandcalculations.Inordertogetthehangofhowbigandfarawaycelestialobjectsreallyare,we’regoingtomakeascalemodelofthesolarsystem.
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AGreekmathematician,Eratosthenes,wasthefirstpersontomeasuretheEarth’scircumferenceaswellascalculatethetiltoftheEarth’saxis,bothwithremarkableaccuracy.ScientiststhinkhewasalsothefirsttocorrectlycalculatethedistancefromtheEarthtotheSun.Hissystemoflatitudeandlongitudeisstillusedtoday.
Thediameterofoursolarsystemisalittlehardertofigureout,sincetheexactboundarystillhasn’tbeenexploredthoroughlyyetinordertoprovideenoughinformationaboutwhatshouldbeincludedandwhatdoesn’tbelong.Formeasuringlargedistances,astronomersuse“AU”or“au”meaningastronomicalunit.OneAUisthedistancefromtheEarthtotheSun,or93millionmiles(150millionkm).
GianDomenicoCassinimadethefirstgoodplanetmeasurementsin1672byusingparallax.Here’showhedidit:Ifyouholdyourhandoutatarm’slengthandlookatitwithonlyoneeyeatatime,you’llseeyourhandshiftslightlybackandforth.Thisiscalledparallax.Thishappensbecauseyoureyesareseparatedbyacoupleinches.Ifweknowhowfarapartyoureyesare,andcarefullymeasurethehowfaryourhandappearstoshift,wecanfindouthowlongyourarmis.
Nowimaginedoingthisbutinsteadthedistancebetweenyoureyes,we’llusethedistancetheEarthmoveswhenit’sononesideoftheSunversustheother,likeinwinterandsummer.Thespacingbetweentheeyesnowisn’tacoupleinches;it’snearly2AU’sapart.Bycarefullymeasuringhowmuchanobjectappearstoshift,wecanfindouthowfarthatobjectisfromus.
TodayweusearadiosignalandtimehowlongittakesthesignaltotravelfromtheEarthtoaspacecraftparkedinorbitaroundanotherplanet.Sincethesignaltravelsatthespeedoflight(186,000milespersecond),it’seasytofindouthowfarawaytheobjectis.ScientistsalsobounceradarsignalsoffaplanetandtimehowlongittakestoechobacktoEarth,muchthesamewaythepolicecanfindoutyourspeedusingaradargun.
QuestionstoAnswer
1. Whatdoyounoticeaboutthepositionoftherockyterrestrialplanets?
2. Aretheicegiantsfurtherapartfromeachotherthanthegasgiantsare?
3. Mariner10took147daystoreachMercuryfromEarth.HowlongdoyouthinkitwouldtaketogettoNeptune?
4. IftheEarthis93millionmiles(150millionkm)fromtheSun,andCeresis413millionmiles(665millionkm)fromtheSun,wherewouldyouplaceitinyourscalemodel?
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Lesson#3:AtmospheresOverview:ScientistsdoexperimentshereonEarthtobetterunderstandthephysicsofdistantworlds.We’regoingtosimulatethedifferentatmospheresandtakedatabasedonthemodelweuse.
WhattoLearn:Eachplanethasitsownuniqueatmosphericconditions.MarsandMercuryhaveverythinatmospheres,whileEarthhasadecentatmosphere(asleast,weliketothinkso).Venus’satmosphereissothickanddense(92timesthatoftheEarth’s)thatitheatsuptheplanetsoit’sthehottestrockaround.JupiterandSaturnaresogaseousthatit’shardtotellwheretheatmosphereendsandtheplanetstarts,soscientistsdefinethelayersbasedonthedensityandtemperaturechangesofthegases.UranusandNeptunearecalledicegiantsbecauseoftheamountsoficeintheiratmospheres.
Materials
4thermometers 3jarsorwaterbottles Plasticwraporclearplasticbaggie Waxpaper Stopwatch
Experiment
1. Placeonethermometerindirectsunlight.ThisisliketheatmosphereofMercuryandMars.2. Placeasecondthermometerinajarandcapit.Placethisinsunlight.ThisistheEarth’s,Jupiter’sand
Saturn’satmosphere.3. Linethesecondjarwithwaxortissuepaper.Placethethirdthermometerinthejarandcapit.Placeitnext
totheothertwoinsunlight.ThisistheatmosphereonVenus.4. Insertthefourththermometerintoaplasticbaggie,insertitintothebottleandcapit.Makesurethebaggie
isloose.ThisisNeptuneandUranus.5. Recordyourdataobservationsinthetable,takingdataeverycoupleofminutes.
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AtmospheresDataTable
Don’tforgettolabelyourunits!
Time NakedThermometer
ClearJarThermometer
WaxJarThermometer
IceJarThermometer
Reading
Venusishotenoughtomeltcannonballsandcrushanyspaceshipthattriestolandonthesurface.Carbondioxideisa“greenhousegas,”meaningthatsomewavelengthsoflightcanpassthroughit,butspecificallynotinfraredlight,whichisalsoknownasheat.LightfromtheSuneitherbouncesofftheuppercloudlayersandbackintospace,orpenetratesthecloudsandstrikesthesurfaceofVenus,warminguptheland.Thegroundradiatestheheatbackout,butthecarbondioxideatmosphereissodenseandthickthatittrapsandkeepstheheatdownonthesurfaceoftheplanet.Thinkofrollingupyourwindowsinyourcaronahotday.
TheheatissointenseonVenusthatthecarbonnormallylockedintorockssublimated(turnedstraightfromsolidtogas)andaddedtothecarbonintheatmosphere,tomakeevenmorecarbondioxide.
Mercurydoesn’thavemuchofanatmosphere,whichisjustlikeabarethermometer.There’snothingtoholdontotheheatthatstrikesthesurface.Marsisinasimilarsituation.
Earth’satmosphereissimulatedbyplacingthethermometerinabottle.TheEarthhasacloudlayerthatkeepssomeoftheheatontheplanet,butmostofitdoesgetradiatedbackintospace.Whenthecloudsareinatnight,theplanetstayswarmerthanwhenit’sclear(andcold).
Venus’sheavy,densecarbondioxideatmosphereissimulatedbyusingthewaxedpaper.Venusisthehottestplanetinoursolarsystembecauseoftherunawaygreenhouseeffectthattrapsmostoftheheatthatmakesitthroughtheatmosphere,bouncingitbackdowntothesurface.TheaveragetemperatureofVenusisover900oF.
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JupiterandSaturn’satmospheresarethinnerlayersofhydrogenandheliumthandeeperinthecore.
UranusandNeptunearecalledicegiantsbecauseoftheamountsoficeintheiratmospheres.Theiratmospheresarealsomadeofmostlyhydrogenandhelium.
QuestionstoAnswer
1. Whichatmospherereachedthehighesttemperature?
2. EachofthejarsreceivedthesameamountofenergyfromtheSun.Whyisthisnotquiteliketherealsolarsystem?
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Lesson#4:LunarPhasesOverview:TheMoonappearstochangeinthesky.Onemomentit’sabigwhitecircle,andnextweekit’sshapedlikeasidewaysbikehelmet.There’sevenadaywhereitdisappearsaltogether.Sowhatgives?
WhattoLearnTheSunilluminateshalfoftheMoonallthetime.Imagineshiningaflashlightonabeachball.Thehalfthatfacesthelightislitup.There’snolightonthefarside,right?FortheMoon,whichhalfislitupdependsontherotationoftheMoon.AndwhichpartoftheilluminatedsidewecanseedependsonwherewearewhenlookingattheMoon.Soundcomplicated?Thislabwillstraighteneverythingoutsoitmakessense.
Materials
Ball Flashlight
Experiment
1. Thislabworksbestifyourroomisverydark.Buttondownthoseshadesandmakeitasdarkasyoucan.2. AssignonepersontobetheSunandhandthemtheflashlight.Staystandingupaboutfourfeetawayfrom
thegroup.TheSundoesn’tmoveatallforthisactivity.3. AssignonepersontobetheMoonandhandthemtheball.Staystandingup,asyou’llbecirclingtheEarth.4. TherestofthepeoplearetheEarth,andtheystandorsitrightthemiddle(sotheydon’tgetaflashlightin
theireyesastheMoonorbits).5. StartwithanewMoon.ShinetheflashlightabovetheheadsoftheEarth.MovetheMoon(ball)intoposition
sothattheballblocksallthelightfromtheflashlight.AsktheEarthkidshowmuchlighttheycanseeontheirsideoftheMoon(shouldbenone).WhichphaseoftheMoonisthis?
6. NowtheMoonmovesaroundtotheoppositesideoftheEarthsothattheEarthkidscanseetheentirehalfoftheballlitupbytheflashlight.AsktheEarthkidshowmuchlighttheycanseeontheirsideoftheMoon(shouldbehalftheball).WhichphaseoftheMoonisthis?
7. Nowfindthepositionsforfirstquarter.WheredoestheMoonneedtostandsothattheEarthkidscanseethefirstquarterMoon?
8. Continuearoundinacompletecircleandfilloutthediagram.ColorinthecirclestoindicatethedarkhalfoftheMoon.Forexample,thenewMoonshouldbecompletelydarkened.
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LunarPhasesDataObservations
1. Nowit’stimetoinvestigatewhyVenusandMercuryhavephases.PuttheSuninthecenterandassignastudenttobeVenus.Venusgetstheball.
2. VenusshouldbewalkingslowlyaroundtheSun.TheSunisgoingtohavetorotatetoalwaysfaceVenus,sincetheSunnormallygivesofflightineverydirection.
3. TheEarthkidsneedtomovefurtheroutfromtheSunthanVenus,sotheywillbewatchingVenusorbittheSunfromadistanceofacoupleoffeet.
4. Earthkids:WhatdoyounoticeabouthowtheSunlightsupVenusfromyourpointofview?IsthereatimewhenyougettoseeVenuscompletelyilluminated,andothertimeswhenit’scompletelydark?
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5. Drawadiagramofwhat’sgoingon,labelingVenus’sfullphase,newphase,halfphases,crescent,andgibbousphases.LabeltheSun,Earth,andalleightphasesofVenuslikewedidontheboardfortheEarthatthebeginningofthislesson:
Reading
TheSunilluminateshalfoftheMoonallthetime.Imagineshiningaflashlightonabeachball.Thehalfthatfacesthelightislitup.There’snolightonthefarside,right?SofortheMoon,whichhalfislitupdependsontherotationoftheMoon.AndwhichpartoftheilluminatedsidewecanseedependsonwherewearewhenlookingattheMoon.Soundcomplicated?Thislabwillstraighteneverythingoutsoitmakessense.
Onequestionyoumighthaveis:Whydon’twehaveeclipseseverymonthwhenthere’sanewMoon?Thenextlessonisallabouteclipses,butrememberthattheMoon’sorbitaroundtheEarthisnotinthesameplaneastheEarth’sorbitaroundtheSun(calledtheecliptic).It’sactuallyoffbyabout5o.Infact,onlytwicepermonthdoestheMoonpassthroughtheecliptic.
Thelunarcycleisapproximately28days.Tobeexact,ittakesonaverage29.53days(29days,12hours,44minutes)betweentwofullmoons.Theaveragecalendarmonthis1/12ofayear,whichis30.44days.SincetheMoon’sphasesrepeatevery29.53days,theydon’tquitematchup.That’swhyonMoonphasecalendars,you’llseeaskippeddaytoaccountforthemismatch.
AsecondfullMooninthesamemonthiscalledablueMoon.It’salsoablueMoonifit’sthethirdfullMoonoutoffourinathree‐monthseason,whichhappensonceeverytwoorthreeyears.
TheMoonisn’ttheonlyobjectthathasphases.MercuryandVenusundergophasesbecausetheyareclosertotheSunthantheEarth.IfwelivedonMars,thentheEarthwouldalsohavephases.
QuestionstoAnswer
1. DoestheSunalwayslightuphalftheMoon?
2. HowmanyphasesdoestheMoonhave?
3. WhatisitcalledwhentheMoonappearstogrow?
4. WhatisitcalledwhenyouseemorelightthandarkontheMoon?
5. Howlongdoesittakeforacompletelunarcycle?
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Lesson#5:EclipsesandTransitsOverview:ItjustsohappensthattheSun’sdiameterisabout400timeslargerthantheMoon,buttheMoonis400timescloserthantheSun.ThismakestheSunandMoonappeartobeaboutthesamesizeintheskyasviewedfromEarth.Thisisalsowhytheeclipsethingissuchabigdealforourplanet.You’reabouttomakeyourowneclipsesasyoulearnaboutsyzygy.
WhattoLearn:AtotaleclipsehappensaboutonceeveryyearwhentheMoonblockstheSun’slight.LunareclipsesoccurwhentheSun,Moon,andEartharelinedupinastraightlinewiththeEarthinthemiddle.Lunareclipseslasthours,whereassolareclipseslastonlyminutes.
Materials
2indexcards Flashlightorsunlight Tackorneedle Blackpaper Scissors
Experiment
1. Tracethecircleofyourflashlightontheblackpaperandcutoutthecirclewithpaper.ThisisyourMoon.IfyouareusingtheSuninstead,cutoutacircleaboutthesizeofyourfist.
2. Makeatinyholeinoneoftheindexcardsbypushingatackthroughthemiddleofthecard.3. Holdthepunchedindexcardacoupleinchesabovetheplainoneandshineyourlightthroughtheholeso
thatasmalldiskappearsonthelowercard.Movethecardsclosertogetherorfurtherapartuntilitcomesintofocus.ThediskoflightistheSun.
4. AskyourlabpartnertoslowlymovetheblackpaperdiskinfrontofyourlightasyouwatchwhathappenstotheSunonthebottomindexcard.
5. ContinuemovingtheblackpaperuntilyoucanseetheSunagain.6. Wheredoesyourcircleneedtobeinordertocreateanannulareclipse?Apartialeclipse?7. HowwouldyousimulateMercurytransitingtheSun?Whatwouldyouuse?8. Filloutthetable.
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EclipsesandTransitsDataTable
Forthesecondcolumn,describewhereyourobjectwascomparedtotheflashlight/Sun,andhowlargeitwas.Forthethirdcolumn,drawthechangeyousawintheSun.
TypeofEclipse WherewastheMoonlocated? Whatdiditlooklike?
Total
Partial
Annular
Transit
Reading
Aneclipseiswhenoneobjectcompletelyblocksanother.Ifyou’rebigonvocabularywords,thenletthestudentsknowthateclipsesareonetypeofsyzygy(astraightlineofthreeobjectsinagravitationalsystem,liketheEarth,Moon,andSun).
AlunareclipseiswhentheMoonmovesintotheEarth’sshadow,makingtheMoonappearcopper‐red.
AsolareclipseiswhentheMoon’sshadowcrawlsovertheEarth,blockingouttheSunpartiallyorcompletely.Therearethreekindsofsolareclipses.AtotaleclipseblockstheentireSun,whereasinapartialeclipsetheMoonappearstoblockpart,butnotalloftheSun’sdisk.AnannulareclipseiswhentheMoonistoofarfromEarthtocompletelycovertheSun,sothere’sabrightringaroundtheMoonwhenitmovesinfrontoftheSun.
ItjustsohappensthattheSun’sdiameterisabout400timeslargerthantheMoon,buttheMoonis400timescloserthantheSun.ThismakestheSunandMoonappeartobeaboutthesamesizeintheskyasviewedfromEarth.Thisisalsowhytheeclipsethingissuchabigdealforourplanet.
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Transitsarewherethediskofaplanet(likeVenus)passeslikeasmallshadowacrosstheSun.IotransitsthesurfaceofJupiter.Inrarecases,oneplanetwilltransitanother.Thesearerarebecauseallthreeobjectsmustaligninastraightline.
Astronomersusethismethodtodetectlargeplanetsarounddistantbrightstars.Ifalargeplanetpassesinfrontofitsstar,thestarwillappeartodimslightly.
Note:Atransitisnotanoccultation,whichcompletelyhidesthesmallerobjectbehindalargerone.
QuestionstoAnswer
1. Whatotherplanetscanhaveeclipses?
2. WhichplanetstransittheSun?
3. Howisasolareclipsedifferentfromalunareclipse?
4. Whatphasecanalunareclipseoccur?
5. Canasolareclipseoccuratnight?
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Lesson#6:RustyBalloonOverview:Marsiscoatedwithironoxide,whichnotonlycoversthesurfacebutisalsopresentintherocksmadebytheMartianvolcanoes.
WhattoLearn:Todayyougettoperformachemistryexperimentthatinvestigatesthedifferentkindsofrustandshowsthatgiventherightconditions,anythingcontainingironwilleventuallybreakdownandcorrode.When iron rusts, it’s actually going through a chemical reaction: Steel (iron) + Water (oxygen) + Air (oxygen) = Rust
Materials
Fouremptywaterbottles Fourballoons Water Steelwool Vinegar Water Salt
Experiment
1. Thislabisbestdoneovertwoconsecutivedays.Plantosetuptheexperimentonthefirstday,andfinishupwiththeobservationsonthenext.
2. Lineupfouremptybottlesonthetable.3. Labelyourbottlessoyouknowwhichiswhich:Water,Water+Salt,Vinegar,Vinegar+Salt4. Filltwobottleswithwater.5. Filltwowithvinegar.6. Addatablespoonofsalttooneofthewaterbottles.7. Addonetablespoonofsalttooneofthevinegarbottles.8. Stuffapieceofsteelwoolintoeachbottlesoitcomesincontactwiththeliquid.9. Stretchaballoonacrossthemouthofeachbottle.10. Letyourexperimentsit(overnightisbest,butyoucanshortenthisabitifyou’reinahurry).11. Thetricktogettingthisonetoworkisinwhatyouexpecttohappen.Theballoonshouldgetshovedinside
thebottle(notexpandandinflate!).Checkbackoverthecourseofafewhourstoafewdaystowatchyourprogress.
12. Fillinthedatatable.
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RustyBalloonDataTable
What’sintheBottle? Whathappened?Describewhathappenedtothewool,bottle,andballoon.
Reading
Rustisacommonnameforironoxide.Whenmetalsrust,scientistssaythattheyoxidize,orcorrode.Ironreactswithoxygenwhenwaterispresent.Thewatercanbeliquidorthehumidityintheair.Othertypesofrusthappenwhenoxygenisnotaround,likethecombinationofironandchloride.Whenrebarisusedinunderwaterconcretepillars,thechloridefromthesaltintheoceancombineswiththeironintherebarandmakesagreenrust.
Marshasasolidcorethatismostlyironandsulfur,andasoftpastel‐likemantleofsilicates(therearenotectonicplates).Thecrusthasbasaltandironoxide.TheironisintherocksandvolcanoesofMars,andMarsappearstobecoveredinrust.
When iron rusts, it’s actually going through a chemical reaction: Steel (iron) + Water (oxygen) + Air (oxygen) = Rust
Therearemanydifferentkindsofrust.Stainlesssteelhasaprotectivecoatingcalledchromium(III)oxidesoitdoesn’trusteasily.
Aluminum,ontheotherhand,takesalongtimetocorrodebecauseit’salreadycorroded—thatis,assoonasaluminumisexposedtooxygen,itimmediatelyformsacoatingofaluminumoxide,whichprotectstheremainingaluminumfromfurthercorrosion.
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Aneasywaytoremoverustfromsteelsurfacesistorubthesteelwithaluminumfoildippedinwater.Thealuminumtransfersoxygenatomsfromtheirontothealuminum,formingaluminumoxide,whichisametalpolishingcompound.Andsincethefoilissofterthansteel,itwon’tscratch.
QuestionstoAnswer
1. Whydidoneballoongetlargerthantherest?
2. Whichhadthehighestpressuredifference?Why?
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Lesson#7:MeteoritesOverview:Ameteoroidisasmallrockthatzoomsaroundouterspace.WhenthemeteoroidzipsintotheEarth’satmosphere,it’snowcalledameteoror“shootingstar.”Iftherockdoesn’tvaporizeenroute,it’scalledameteoriteassoonasitwhacksintotheground.ThewordmeteorcomesfromtheGreekwordfor“highintheair.”
WhattoLearn:Meteoritesareblack,heavy(almosttwicethenormalrockdensity),andmagnetic.However,thereisanEarth‐maderockthatisalsoblack,heavy,andmagnetic(magnetite)thatisnotameteorite.Totellthedifference,scratchalinefrombothrocksontoanunglazedtile.Magnetitewillleaveamarkwhereastherealmeteoritewillnot.
Materials
Whitepaper Strongmagnet Unglazedporcelaintile Handheldmagnifyingglass(optional)
Experiment
1. Imagineyouaregoingonarockhunt.YouaretofindwhichrocksaremeteoritesandwhichareEarthrocks.Ifyoudon’thaveaccesstorocksamples,justwatchtheexperimentvideoofthedifferentrocksamples.Ifyou’dliketomakeyourownsamplecollection,herearesomeideas:
a. 8‐10differentrocks,includingpumice(fromavolcano),lodestone(anaturallymagnetizedpieceofmagnetite,andoftenmistakenformeteorites),afossil,tektite(dryfusedglass),pyrite(alsoknownasfool’sgold),marble(calciteordolomite),andacoupleofdifferentkindsofrealmeteorites(ironmeteorite,stonymeteorite,etc.)Alsoaddtoyourbaganunglazedtileandamagnet.
2. Asyouwatchtheexperimentvideo,recordyourobservationsonyourdatasheet.a. Sincenearlyallmeteoriteshavelotsofiron,theyareusuallyattractedtoamagnet.However,
lodestoneisanEarthrockthatalsohasalotofiron.Ironisheavy,andmeteoritescontainalotofiron.Whenlookingthroughthepossibilities,removeanylightweightrocks,astheyarenotusuallymeteorites.
b. Meteoritesaresmall.Mostnevergetbigenoughorhotenoughformetaltosinkintothecore,sothemajorityaremixedwithrockanddust(stonymeteorites).Thefewthatdogetbigandformmetalcoresarecalledironmeteorites.
c. MostmeteoritescomefromtheAsteroidBelt.Somemeteoritesgetadarkcrust.Whileotherslooklikesplashedmetal.Theyarealldark,atleastontheoutside.Removeanylight‐coloredrocks.
d. Rocksthathaveholesvaporizeorexplodewhentheygothroughtheatmosphere,theydon’tburnup.Onlystrongspacerockswithoutholesmakeittotheground.Removeanyporousrocks.
e. Theonesyouhaveleftareeithermeteoritesorlodestone.Totellthedifference,scratchalinefrombothrocksontoanunglazedtile.Magnetite(lodestone)willleaveamarkwhereastherealmeteoritewillnot.
FindingMeteorites
3. Placeasheetofwhitepaperoutsideontheground.Dothisinthemorningwhenyoufirststartupclass.4. Afterafewhours(likejustbeforelunchtime),yourpaperstartstoshowsignsof“dust.”
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5. Carefullyplaceamagnetunderneaththepaper,andseeifanyoftheparticlesmoveasyouwigglethemagnet.Ifso,you’vegotyourselfafewbitsofspacedust.
6. Useamagnifyinglenstolookatyourspacemeteoritesupclose.
MeteoritesDataTable
RockSample#
Color? HeavyorLight?
LargeorSmall?
PorousorDense?
Magnetic? MarksonTile?
Reading
94%ofallmeteoritesthatfalltotheEartharestonymeteorites.Stonymeteoriteswillhavemetalgrainsmixedwiththestonethatareclearlyvisiblewhenyoulookataslice.
Ironmeteoritesmakeuponly5%ofthemeteoritesthathittheEarth.However,sincetheyarestronger,mostofthemsurvivethetripthroughtheatmosphereandareeasiertofindsincetheyaremoreresistanttoweathering.Morethanhalfthemeteoriteswefindareironmeteorites.TheyaretheoneofthedensestmaterialsonEarth.TheystickstronglytomagnetsandaretwiceasheavyasmostEarthrocks.TheHobameteoriteinNamibiaweighs50tons.
Sincenearlyallmeteoriteshavelotsofiron,theyareusuallyattractedtoamagnet.However,lodestoneisanEarthrockthatalsohasalotofiron.Ironisheavy,andmeteoritescontainalotofiron.Whenlookingthroughthepossibilities,removeanylightweightrocks,astheyarenotusuallymeteorites.
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Meteoritesaresmall.Mostnevergetbigenoughorhotenoughformetaltosinkintothecore,sothemajorityaremixedwithrockanddust(stonymeteorites).Thefewthatdogetbigandformmetalcoresarecalledironmeteorites.
MostmeteoritescomefromtheAsteroidBelt.Somemeteoritesgetadarkcrust,whileotherslooklikesplashedmetal.Theyarealldark,atleastontheoutside.
Rocksthathaveholesvaporizeorexplodewhentheygothroughtheatmosphere,theydon’tburnup.Onlystrongspacerockswithoutholesmakeittotheground.
Everyyear,theEarthpassesthroughthedebrisleftbehindbycomets.CometsaredirtysnowballsthatleaveatrailofparticlesastheyorbittheSun.WhentheEarthpassesthroughoneofthesetrails,thetinyparticlesentertheEarth’satmosphereandburnup,leavingspectacularmeteorshowersforustowatchonaregularbasis.Thebestmeteorshowersoccurwhenthemoonisnewandtheskyisverydark.
Meteoritesareblack,heavy(almosttwicethenormalrockdensity),andmagnetic.However,thereisanEarth‐maderockthatisalsoblack,heavy,andmagnetic(magnetite)thatisnotameteorite.Totellthedifference,scratchalinefrombothrocksontoanunglazedtile(orthebottomofacoffeemugortheundersideofthetoilettank).Magnetitewillleaveamark,whereastherealmeteoritewillnot.
Ifyoufindameteorite,headtoyournearestgeologydepartmentatalocaluniversityorcollegeandletthemknowwhatyou’vefound.IntheUSA,ifyoufindameteorite,yougettokeepit…butyoumightwanttolettheexpertsinthegeologydepartmenthaveathinsliceofittoseewhattheycanfigureoutaboutyourparticularspecimen.
AnnualMeteorShowers
Jan3‐4 Quadrantids
Apr21‐22 AprilLyrids
May4‐5 EtaAquarids
Jul28‐29 DeltaAquarids
Aug12‐13 Perseids
Oct21‐22 Orionids
Nov3‐13 Taurids
Nov16‐17 Leonids
Dec13‐14 Geminids
Dec21‐22 Ursids
QuestionstoAnswer
1. Aremeteorsmembersofthesolarsystem?
2. Howbigaremeteors?
3. Whydowehavemeteorshowersatpredictabletimesoftheyear?
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Lesson#8:Neptune’sFurnaceOverview:We’regoingtodoachemistryexperimenttosimulatetheheatgeneratedbytheinternalcoreofNeptunebyusingasubstanceusedformeltingsnowmixedwithbakingsoda.
WhattoLearn:Calciumchloridesplitsintocalciumionsandchlorideionswhenitismixedwithwater,andenergyisreleasedintheformofheat.Theenergyreleasedcomesfromthebondenergyofthecalciumchlorideatoms,andisactuallyelectromagneticenergy.Whenthecalciumionsandchlorideionsarefloatingaroundinthewarmsolution,theyarefreetointeractwiththerestoftheingredientsadded,likethesodiumbicarbonate,toformcarbondioxidegasandsodiumchloride(tablesalt).
Materials
Calciumchloride Sodiumbicarbonate(bakingsoda) Phenolredorredfooddye Resealableplasticbaggie Gallonmilkjugcontainer Straightpin Warmwater Coldwater
Experiment
1. Cutthetopoffthemilkjugjustabovethehandlesoyoucaneasilyputyourexperimentinthejug.2. Fillyourmilkjugwithcoldwatermostoftheway.Leaveenoughroomforyoutoaddthebagwithout
overflowingthewater,andmakesureyouputinverycoldwater.Setthisaside.3. Addaninchofwarmwatertotheplasticbag.4. Addacoupleofdropsofreddyetothebag.5. Ifyouareusingahotpack,openthehotpack(usescissors)carefully.Youdon’twanttopuncturethewater
pouchinside.Throwthewaterpouchawayandpourtherestofthecontentsintoacontainer(thisiscalciumchloride).Youwantacoupleoftablespoonsofcalciumchlorideintheplasticbaggie.
6. Sealthebagclosedandrollthepelletsbetweenyourfingers.7. Useastraightpinandmakesixholesnearthetopofthebag,awayfromthewater.8. Openthebagandaddacoupleoftablespoonsofsodiumbicarbonate(bakingsoda).Quicklyzipupyour
bag!9. Makesurethebagissealedbeforeinsertingitintoyourcoldwaterjug.Watchcarefullyforseveralminutes
andrecordyourobservationswiththenextstep.10. Drawyourexperimentduringstep9.Labelallpartsofwhat’sgoingonwithyourexperiment:
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Reading
We’resimulatingtheheatgenerationonNeptuneusingachemistryexperimentwithahotpack.
Mostinstanthotpacksavailableindrugstoresworkonthissameprinciplewe’reabouttoinvestigate.Whenthehotpackisneeded,thebagissqueezedtocausethewaterandsalttomix.Dependingonthesaltusedinthepack,energyiseitherabsorbed(coldpack)orgivenoff(hotpack).Ammoniumnitrateisthemostcommonlyusedsaltincoldpacks.Andcalciumchlorideisthemostcommonlyusedsaltinhotpacks.
Calciumchloridesplitsintocalciumionsandchlorideionswhenitismixedwithwater,andenergyisreleasedintheformofheat.Thisisthesameheatenergyyouwillfeelwhenholdingthebaggieandrubbingthepellets.
Dissolvingcalciumchlorideishighlyexothermic,meaningthatitgivesoffalotofheatwhenmixedwithwater(thewatercanreachupto140oF,sowatchyourhands!).Theenergyreleasedcomesfromthebondenergyofthecalciumchlorideatoms,andisactuallyelectromagneticenergy.
Whenthecalciumionsandchlorideionsarefloatingaroundinthewarmsolution,theyarefreetointeractwiththerestoftheingredientsadded,likethesodiumbicarbonate,toformcarbondioxidegasandsodiumchloride(tablesalt).Youcantellthere’scarbondioxidegasinsidewhenthebagpuffsup.
Asthegasinthebagincreases,itpuffsoutandincreasesthepressure.Thisstretchesthebagandsomeofthegasisreleasedouttheholesinthetopofthebag,bubblinguptothesurfaceofthemilkjug.Afterawhile,thewarmwaterwillalsoriseoutoftheholesduetothetemperaturedifferencebetweenthebagandjugandyou’llseereddriftuptothetopsurfaceofthemilkjug.TheheatgeneratedbyNeptuneisdeepinthecore,anditbubblesupandradiatesouttospace,justlikethewarmbagbubblingitscontentstothecoldwaterjug.Theentireplanetisawhirling,swirling,fast‐movingballofgasandicethatmovebecauseoftemperatureandpressuredifferences.
Neptuneisoneoftheicegiantsofoursolarsystem,andthefurthestplanetfromthesun.Becauseit’sagasgiant,youcouldn’tlandyourspaceshiponthesurfacebecauseitdoesn’thaveone.You’dcontinuouslyfalluntilthepressurecrushedyourship.Andthenwhenyougotdownfarenough,you’dberoasted,becauseNeptuneradiates2.6timesmoreenergythanitgetsfromtheSun.That’simpressive,especiallysinceit’ssofarfromtheSun(30.1AU,ormorethan30timestheEarth‐Sundistance).TheaveragedailywindspeedonNeptuneis1,200mph.That’sfourtimesfasterthanthebiggesthurricanesonEarth!
NeptunehasmoremassthanUranuseventhoughit’ssmallerthanUranus.Theringsaroundtheplanetweren’tconfirmeduntilaspaceprobepasseditandsentusbackpicturesoftheblueplanet.It’shardforbackyardastronomerstofindthisplanet,sinceit’snotanaked‐eyeobject.Youneedacomplicated‐lookingsetofstarchartsoraGPStrackingsystemcoupledwithastronomicaldatatopointyourscopeintherightdirection.Eventhen,allyouseeisawhite‐bluelookingstar.
Althoughit’sagasgiant,it’sclassifiedasanicegiant,sincetherearelargeamountsofmethaneandammoniaicesintheupperatmosphere,givingtheplanetitsbluecolor.Thelargestof13moonsisTriton(nottobeconfusedwithSaturn’smassivemoon,Titan),whichorbitsNeptuneintheoppositedirectionfromtheplanet’srotationandalsoupataninclinefromtheplanet’sequator.
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QuestionstoAnswer
1. Whathappenswhenthechemicalscomeincontactwitheachother?
2. Whatdidyounoticewhenyousealedthebagclosedandrolledthepelletsbetweenyourfingers?
3. Whathappenedwhenthesolutionwasplacedinthecoldwaterjug?
4. WhatdoesthisexperimenthavetodowithNeptune?Whydidweusethebakingsodaatall?
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Lesson#9:BinaryPlanetarySystemsOverview:Abinarysystemexistswhenobjectsapproacheachotherinsize(andgravitationalfields),thecommonpointtheyrotatearound(calledthecenterofmass)liesoutsidebothobjectsandtheyorbitaroundeachother.Astronomershavefoundbinaryplanets,binarystars,andevenbinaryblackholes.Studentswillknowthatthepathofaplanetaroundanobjectisduetothegravitationalattractionbetweentheobjectandtheplanet.
WhattoLearn:ThepathofaplanetaroundtheSunisduetothegravitationalattractionbetweentheSunandtheplanet.ThisistrueforthepathoftheMoonaroundtheEarth,andTitanaroundSaturn,andtherestoftheplanetsthathaveanorbitingmoon.
Materials
Soupcansorplasticcontainerswithholespunched(likeplasticyogurtcontainers,buttertubs,etc.) String Water Sand Rocks Pebbles Bakingsoda Vinegar
Experiment
1. Threadoneendofthestringthroughoneoftheholesandtieastrongknot.Reallystrong.2. Tietheotherendthroughtheotherholeandtieoff.3. Gooutside.4. Fillyourcanpartwaywithwater.5. Moveawayfromeveryonebeforeyoustarttoswingyourcontainerinagentlecircle.Asyouspinfasterand
faster,noticewherethewaterisinsidethecontainer.6. Nowemptyoutthewaterandreplaceitwithrocks.Spinagainandfilloutthedatatable.7. Tomakecarbondioxidegas,you’llneedtoworkwithanotherlabteam.Coverthebottomofyourcontainer
withbakingsoda.Addenoughvinegarsothatthebubblesreachthetopwithoutoverflowing.Waitpatientlyforthebubblestosubside.Younowhaveacontainerfilledwithcarbondioxidegas(andalittlesodiumacetate,theleftoversfromthereaction).Carefullypourthecarbondioxideintotheemptycontainerfromtheotherlabteam.Theycanspinagainandrecordtheirresults.Whentheyaredone,borrowtheircontainerandgivethemyourssotheycanfillitforyou.
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BinaryPlanetarySystemsDataTable
Whenfillingoutthethirdcolumn,noticehowhardoreasyitwastospinthecontainer,whatitfeltlike,whichwayitfaced,etc.Recordeverythingyoucanabouteachone.
ItemintheCan StateofMatter(solid,liquid,orgas?)
Whatdidyounotice?
Water
Rocks
Sand
Air
Pebbles
CarbonDioxideGas
Reading
ThepathofaplanetaroundtheSunisduetothegravitationalattractionbetweentheSunandtheplanet.ThisistrueforthepathoftheMoonaroundtheEarth,andTitanaroundSaturn,andtherestoftheplanetsthathaveanorbitingmoon.
CharonandPlutoorbitaroundeachotherduetotheirgravitationalattractiontoeachother.However,CharonisnotthemoonofPluto,asoriginallythought.PlutoandCharonactuallyorbitaroundeachother.PlutoandCharonalsoaretidallylocked,justliketheEarth‐Moonsystem,meaningthatonesideofPlutoisalwaysfacesthesamesideofCharon.
Imagineyouhaveabuckethalffullofwater.Canyoutiltabucketcompletelysidewayswithoutspillingadrop?Surething!Youcanswingitbythehandle,andeventhoughit’supsidedownatonepoint,thewaterstaysput.What’skeepingthewaterinsidethebucket?
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Beforeweanswerthis,imagineyouareapassengerinacar,andthedriverislateforanappointment.Theytakeaturnalittletoofast,andyouforgottofastenyourseatbelt.Thecarmakesasharpleftturn.Whichwaywouldyoumoveinthecariftheytookthisturntoofast?Exactly–you’dgoslidingtotheright.So,whopushedyou?
Noone!Yourbodywantedtocontinueinastraightline,butthecaristurning,sotherightsidecardoorkeepspushingyoutoturnyouinacurve–intotheleftturn.Thecardoorkeepsmovinginyourway,turningyouintoacircle.Thecardoorpushingonyouiscalledcentripetalforce.Centripetalmeans“center‐seeking.”It’stheforcethatpointstowardthecenterofthecircleyou’removingon.Whenyouswingthebucketaroundyourhead,thebottomofthebucketismakingthewaterturninacircleandnotflyaway.Yourarmispullingonthehandleofthebucket,keepingitturninginacircleandnotlettingitflyaway.That’scentripetalforce.
Thinkofitthisway:IfIthrowaballinouterspace,doesitgoinastraightlineordoesitwiggleallovertheplace?Straightline,right?Centripetalforceistheforceneededtokeepanobjectfollowingacurvedpath.
Rememberhowobjectswilltravelinastraightlineunlesstheybumpintosomethingorhaveanotherforceactingonthem,suchasgravity,dragforce,andsoforth?Well,tokeepthebucketofwaterswinginginacurvedarc,thecentripetalforcecanbefeltinthetensionexperiencedbythehandle(oryourarm,inourcase).Swinginganobjectaroundonastringwillcausetheropetoundergotension(centripetalforce),andifyourropeisn’tstrongenough,itwillsnapandbreak,sendingthemassflyingoffinatangent(straight)lineuntilgravityanddragforcepulltheobjecttoastop.Thisforceisproportionaltothesquareofthespeed‐thefasteryouswingtheobject,thehighertheforce.
QuestionstoAnswer
1. HowisspinningthecontainerlikePlutoandCharon?
2. Whatwouldhappenifwecutthestringwhileyouarespinning?Whichwaywouldthecontainergo?
3. Whathappensifwetriplethesizeofyourcontainerandwhat’sinsideofit?
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Lesson#10:BuildYourOwnSolarSystemOverview:Whatwouldhappenifoursolarsystemhadthreesuns?OrtheEarthhadtwomoons?Youcanfindoutalltheseandmorewiththislessononorbitalmechanics.Insteadofwaitinguntilyouhitcollege,wethoughtwe’dthrowsomeuniversity‐levelphysicsatyou…withoutthehardmath.
WhattoLearnKeyconceptsaboutgravity:
a. Gravityisaforcethatattractsthingstooneanother.b. Allbodies(objects)haveagravitationalfield.c. Thelargerabodyis,thegreaterthestrengthofthegravitationalfield.d. Bodiesmustbevery,verylargebeforetheyexertanynoticeablegravitationalfield.e. Gravityacceleratesallthingsequally.Whichmeansallthingsspeedupthesameamountastheyfall.f. Gravitydoesnotcarewhatsizethingsareorwhetherthingsaremoving.Allthingsareaccelerated
towardtheEarthatthesamerateofspeed.g. Gravitydoespullonthingsdifferently.Gravityispullinggreateronobjectsthatweighmore.h. Weightisameasureofhowmuchgravityispullingonanobject.i. Massisameasureofhowmuchmatter(howmanyatoms)makeupanobject.
Materials
AccesstoacomputerwithInternet Ruler
Experiment
AbouttheConceptofGravity
1. Eventhoughwedealwithgravityonaconstantbasis,thereareseveralmisconceptionsaboutit.Let’sgettoanexperimentrightawayandI’llshowyouwhatImean.
2. Whenyoudropagolfballandapingpongballfromthesameheight,whathappens?3. Whatyoushouldseeisthatbothobjectshitthegroundatthesametime!Gravityacceleratesbothitems
equallyandtheyhitthegroundatthesametime.Anytwoobjectswilldothis,abrickandaBuick,aflowerandafish,akumquatandacow!
4. Butwhatifyoudropafeatherandaballatthesametime?Thereisonethingthatwillchangetheresultsandthatisairresistance.Thebigger,lighterandfluffiersomethingis,themoreairresistancecanaffectitandsoitwillfallmoreslowly.Airresistanceisatypeoffrictionwhichwewillbetalkingaboutlater.Infact,ifyouremovedairresistance,afeatherandaflounderwouldhitthegroundatthesametime!!!
5. Wherecanyouremoveairresistance?TheMoon!!!OneoftheApollomissionsactuallydidthis(well,theydidn’tuseaflounder,theyusedahammer).Anastronautdroppedafeatherandahammeratthesametimeandindeed,bothfellatthesamerateofspeedandhitthesurfaceofthemoonatthesametime.
6. Whichwillhitthegroundfirst,ifdroppedfromthesameheight,abowlingballoratennisball?Mostpeoplewillsaythebowlingball.Infact,ifyouaskedyourselfthatquestion5minutesago,wouldyouhavegottenitright?It’sconventionalwisdomtothinkthattheheavierobjectfallsfaster.
7. Unfortunately,conventionalwisdomisn’talwaysright.Gravityacceleratesallthingsequally.Inotherwords,gravitymakesallthingsspeeduporslowdownatthesamerate.
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8. Thisisagreatexampleofwhythescientificmethod(moreonthislater)issuchacoolthing.Many,manyyearsago,therewasamanofgreatknowledgeandwisdomnamedAristotle.Whateverhesaid,mostpeoplebelievedtobetrue.Thetroublewas,hedidn’ttesteverythingthathesaid.Oneofhisstatementswasthatobjectswithgreaterweightfallfasterthanobjectswithlessweight.Everyonebelievedthatthiswastrue.Hundredsofyearslater,Galileocamealongandsaid“Yaknow...thatdoesn’tseemtoworkthatway.I’mgoingtotestit”ThestorygoesthatGalileograbbedamelonandanorangeandwenttothetopoftheLeaningTowerofPisa.Hesaid,“Lookoutbelow!”anddroppedthem!Bydoingthat,heshowedthatobjectsfallatthesamerateofspeednomatterwhattheirsize.ItistruethatitwasGalileowho“proved”thatgravityacceleratesallthingsequallynomatterwhattheirweight,butthereisnorealevidencethatheactuallyusedtheLeaningTowerofPisatodoit.
9. KeyconceptsaboutGravity:a. Gravityisaforcethatattractsthingstooneanother.b. Allbodies(objects)haveagravitationalfield.c. Thelargerabodyis,thegreaterthestrengthofthegravitationalfield.d. Bodiesmustbevery,verylargebeforetheyexertanynoticeablegravitationalfield.e. Gravityacceleratesallthingsequally.Whichmeansallthingsspeedupthesameamountastheyfall.f. Gravitydoesnotcarewhatsizethingsareorwhetherthingsaremoving.Allthingsareaccelerated
towardtheEarthatthesamerateofspeed.g. Gravitydoespullonthingsdifferently.Gravityispullinggreateronobjectsthatweighmore.h. Weightisameasureofhowmuchgravityispullingonanobject.i. Massisameasureofhowmuchmatter(howmanyatoms)makeupanobject.
AbouttheComputerSimulation
1. Togetyouexperiencedwiththeforceofgravitywithoutgettinglostinthemath,there’sanexcellentcomputerprogramthatallowsyoutoseehowmulti‐objectsystemsinteract.Mosttextbooksarelimitedtotheinteractionbetweenaverylargeobject,liketheEarth,andmuchsmallerobjectsthatareveryclosetoit,liketheMoon.Thisseriouslycutsoutmostoftheinterestingsolarsystemsthatareoutthereintherealuniverse.
2. TheUniversityofColoradoatBoulderdesignedagreatsystemtodothehardmathforyou.Don’tbefooledbythesimplisticappearance–thephysicsbehindthesimulationarerock‐solid…meaningthattheresultsyougetareexactlywhatscientistswouldpredicttohappen.
3. GototheMySolarSystemsimulationonthePhETwebsiteandcarefullyfollowtheinstructionsforeachactivity.Answerthequestionsandrecordyourresultsbeforegoingontothenextactivity.Visit:http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/my‐solar‐system/my‐solar‐system.swf
4. Oncetheprogramopens,hitstart.You’llseethepurpleEarthorbitaroundtheyellowSun.DoyounoticehowtheEarthalsocausestheSuntofollowatinyorbit?That’sbecausetheEarthpullsontheSunjustastheSunpullsontheEarth.
5. Pressstop.Noticethe“V?”Thatstandsfordirectionandspeed,asin55mphnorth.Itgiveshowfastyouaregoingaswellasthedirectionyou’regoing.Orinthiscase,theplanet.Noticenearthebottomthatyoucanchangethemassoftheobject.Increasethemasssothatit’slargerthantheSun.Pressstart.
6. Reset,andchangethepurpleobject(Earth)tobethesizeoftheMoon(makeit1).Didyounoticeachangeintheorbitpath?
7. Changethepurplemassbackto10,andincreasethespeedtoalargernumber.Whathappened?8. TheEarthisataveryspecialmassandspeed,isn’tit?9. Resetandmakeyourspeed200.Diditstayinorbit?
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10. Addathirdandfourthobjectbypullingdownthemenuontheupperright.Select“Sun,planet,andmoon”andhit“Start.”
11. Whathappensifyouuncheck“showtrace?”(You’llonlyseetheobjectsthemselvesorbiting,notthepaththeytake.)
12. Whathappensifyouuncheck“systemcentered?”(Thesystemwilleventuallywanderoffthescreenastheentiresystemhasacceleration.)
13. Playwiththeprogramforabit,changingthelocationdistancetheobjectsareapart,thespeedanddirectiontheyinitiallystartoutat,andtheirmasses.
b. Whatdoestheyellowobjectrepresent?________________________________________
c. Whatisthemassoftheyellowobject?________________________________________
(Note:Nounitsaregiven,sonounitsarenecessary.)
d. Whatdoesthepurpleobjectrepresent?________________________________________
e. Whatisthemassofthepurpleobject?________________________________________
f. Whatdoestheredarrowrepresent?________________________________________
14. Completethedatatable.Noticeattheendthatyouwillpredictthenecessarymass,velocity,anddistancefromthesunofaplanetinorderforthisplanettomakeacircularorbitaroundasun.
Reading
In1666,IsaacNewtondidhisearlyworkonhisThreeLawsofMotion.Tothisday,thoselawsstillholdtrue.Therehasbeensomeallowancesforreallybigthings(likethecosmos)andforreallysmallthings(liketheatom).Otherthanthat,Newton’sLawsareprettymuchdeadon.
Newton’sLawsareallscientistsandengineersusedtogetthefirstmantothemoon.Theyareanamazinglypowerfulandwonderfulareaofphysics.Ilikethembecauseevidenceofthemiseverywhere.Ifsomethingmovesorcanbemoved,itfollowsNewton’sLaws.Youcan’tsitinacar,walkdowntheroad,drinkaglassofmilk,orkickaballwithoutusingNewton’sLaws.Ialsolikethembecausetheyarerelativelyeasytounderstandandyetopenupworldsofanswersandquestions.Theyaretrulyafoundationforunderstandingtheworldaroundyou.
WheneverIteachaclassaboutgravity,I’lldropsomething(usuallysomethinglarge).Aftertheheadswhiparound,Iaskthehardquestion:“Whydiditfall?”Youalreadyknowtheanswer–gravity.
Butwhy?Whydoesgravitypullthingsdown,notup?Andwhendidpeoplefirststartnoticingthatwesticktothesurfaceoftheplanetandnotfloatupintothesky?
Noonecantellyouwhygravityis…that’sjustthewaytheuniverseiswired.Gravitationisanaturalthingthathappenswhenyouhavemass.Galileowasactuallyoneofthefirstpeopletodoscienceexperimentsongravity.
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BuildYourOwnSolarSystemDataTable1
Usetheoriginalpresetforallvaluesforasunandplanet,exceptchangethemassofbody2(purpleobject)asshownbelow:
MassofBody2 DiameterofOrbit(measurewithruler)
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
QuestionstoAnswer:(Notethattheexercisequestionsarebeloweachdatatable)
1. Whateffectdoeschangingthemassoforbitingplanethaveonthediameteroftheorbit?
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BuildYourOwnSolarSystemDataTable2
Usetheoriginalpresetforallvaluesforasunandplanet,exceptchangethemassofbody2(purpleobject)andvelocityasshownbelow:
MassofBody2 VelocityofBody2 Describewhathappened…?
0.1 yvelocity=130
0.1 yvelocity=140
0.1 yvelocity=150
0.1 yvelocity=600
0.1 yvelocity=80
0.1 yvelocity=40
0.1 yvelocity=20
0.1 yvelocity=0
2. Whateffectdoeschangingthespeedhaveonaplanet’sorbit?
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BuildYourOwnSolarSystemDataTable3
Usetheoriginalpresetforallvaluesforasunandplanet,exceptchangethemassofbody2to50andthex‐distanceofbody2asshownbelow:
xdistanceforBody2 DiameterofOrbit(measurewithruler)
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
3. Whathappenstotheplanet'sorbitwhenyouincreasetheinitialdistancebetweentheplanetandthesun?
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BuildYourOwnSolarSystemDataTable4
Usetheoriginalpresetforabinarystarandplanet.Changeonlythemassesandrecordyourobservationsbelow.
MassofBody1
MassofBody2
MassofBody3
Istheorbitstable?
4. Findthemassvaluesneededforastableorbit.Circlethevaluesonthetablethatmakeastableorbit.
BuildYourOwnSolarSystemDataTable5
Usetheoriginalpresetforellipses.Changeonlythemassesandrecordyourobservationsbelow.
MassofBody1
MassofBody2
MassofBody3
MassofBody4
Whathappened?
250 10 1 0.1
5. Whydon’tafeatherandabrickhitthegroundatthesametime?
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Lesson#11:WatchYourWeightOverview:IfyoucouldstandontheSunwithoutbeingroasted,howmuchwouldyouweigh?Thegravitationalpullisdifferentfordifferentobjects.Let’sfindoutwhichcelestialobjectyou’dcrackthepavementon,andwhichyourlightweighttoeswouldhavetobecarefulaboutjumpingonincaseyouleaptofftheplanet.
WhattoLearn:Weightisnothingmorethanameasureofhowmuchgravityispullingonyou.Massisameasureofhowmuchstuffyou’remadeoutof.Weightcanchangedependingonthegravitationalfieldyouarestandingin.Masscanonlychangeifyouloseanarm.
Materials
Scaletoweighyourself Calculator Pencil
Experiment
1. Weneedtotalkaboutthedifferencebetweenweightandmass.Ineverydaylanguage,weightandmassareusedinterchangeably,butscientistsknowbetter.
2. Massishowmuchstuffsomethingismadeoutof.Ifyou’reholdingabowlingball,you’llnoticethatit’shardtogetstarted,andonceitgetsmoving,itneedsanotherpushtogetittostop.Ifyouleavethebowlingballonthefloor,itstaysput.Onceyoupushit,itwantstostaymoving.This“sluggishness”iscalledinertia.Massishowmuchinertiaanobjecthas.
3. Everyobjectwithmassalsohasagravitationalfield,andisattractedtoeverythingelsethathasmass.Theamountofgravitysomethinghasdependsonhowfaraparttheobjectsare.Whenyousteponabathroomscale,youarereadingyourweight,orhowmuchattractionisbetweenyouandtheEarth.
4. Ifyousteppedonascaleinaspaceshipthatisparkedfromanyplanets,moons,blackholes,orotherobjects,itwouldreadzero.Butisyourmasszero?Noway.You’restillmadeofthesamestuffyouwereonEarth,soyourmassisthesame.Butyou’dhavenoweight.
5. WhatisyourweightonEarth?Let’sfindoutnow.6. Steponthescaleandreadthenumber.Writeitdown.7. Now,whatisyourweightontheMoon?Thecorrectionfactoris0.17.Somultiplyyourweightby0.17to
findwhatthescalewouldreadontheMoon.8. Forexample,ifIweigh100poundsonEarth,thenI’dweightonly17poundsontheMoon.Ifthescalereads
10kgonEarth,thenitwouldread1.7kgontheMoon.Completethedatatable..
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WatchYourWeightDataTable
WeightonPlanet/Object=WeightonEarthxGravityCorrection
Planet/Object WeightonEarth GravityCorrectionWeighton
Planet/Object
TheSun 28
Mercury 0.38
Venus 0.91
Earth 1
Moon 0.17
Mars 0.38
Jupiter 2.14
Saturn 0.91
Uranus 0.86
Neptune 1.1
Pluto 0.08
OuterSpace 0
Betelgeuse 14,000
WhiteDwarf 1,300,000
NeutronStar(Pulsar) 140,000,000,000
BlackHole ∞
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Reading
Weightisnothingmorethanameasureofhowmuchgravityispullingonyou.Thisiswhyyoucanbe“weightless”inspace.Youarestillmadeofstuff,butthere’snogravitytopullonyousoyouhavenoweight.Thelargerabodyis,themoregravitationalpull(orinotherwordsthelargeragravitationalfield)itwillhave.
TheMoonhasafairlysmallgravitationalfield(ifyouweighed100poundsonEarth,you’donlybe17poundsontheMoon).TheEarth’sfieldisfairlylargeandtheSunhasaHUGEgravitationalfield(ifyouweighed100poundsonEarth,you’dweigh2,500poundsontheSun!).
Asamatteroffact,thedogandIbothhavegravitationalfields!Sincewearebothbodiesofmass,wehaveagravitationalfieldwhichwillpullthingstowardus.Allbodieshaveagravitationalfield.However,mymassissosmallthatthegravitationalfieldIhaveisminiscule.Somethinghastobeverymassivebeforeithasagravitationalfieldthatnoticeablyattractsanotherbody.
Sowhat’sthemeasurementforhowmuchstuffyou’remadeof?Mass.Massisbasicallyaweightlessmeasureofhowmuchmattermakesyouyou.Ahamsterismadeofafairlysmallamountofstuff,soshehasasmallmass.Iammadeofmorestuff,somymassisgreaterthanthehamster’s.Yourhouseismadeofevenmorestuff,soitsmassisgreaterstill.So,here’saquestion.Ifyouare“weightless”inspace,doyoustillhavemass?Yes,theamountofstuffyou’remadeofisthesameonEarthasitisinyourspaceship.Massdoesnotchange,butsinceweightisameasureforhowmuchgravityispullingonyou,weightwillchange.
DidyounoticethatIputweightlessinquotationmarks?Wonderwhy?
Weightlessnessisamyth!Believeitornot,oneisneverweightless.Apersoncanbeprettyclosetoweightlessinverydeepspace,buttheastronautsinaspaceshipactuallydohaveabitofweight.
Thinkaboutitforasecond.IfaspaceshipisorbitingtheEarth,whatisitdoing?It’sconstantlyfalling!Ifitwasn’tmovingforwardattensofthousandsofmilesanhouritwouldhittheEarth.It’smovingfastenoughtofallaroundthecurvatureoftheEarthasitfallsbut,indeed,it’sfallingastheEarth’sgravityispullingittous.
Otherwisetheshipwouldfloatouttospace.Sowhatistheastronautdoing?She’sfalling,too!TheastronautandthespaceshiparebothfallingtotheEarthatthesamerateofspeedandsotheastronautfeelsweightlessinspace.Ifyouwereinanelevatorandthecablesnapped,youandtheelevatorwouldfalltotheEarthatthesamerateofspeed.You’dfeelweightless!(Don’ttrythisathome!)
Eithernow,oratsomepointinthefutureyoumayaskyourselfthisquestion,“Howcangravitypullharder(putmoreforceonsomethings,likebowlingballs)andyetaccelerateallthingsequally?”WhenwegetintoNewton’slawsinafewlessons,you’llrealizethatdoesn’tmakeanysenseatall.MoreforceequalsmoreaccelerationisbasicallyNewton’sSecondLaw.
Well,Idon’twanttotaketoomuchtimeheresincethisisalittledeeperthenweneedtogobutIdofeelsomeexplanationisinordertoavoidfutureconfusion.Theexplanationforthisisinertia.WhenwegettoNewton’sFirstLawwewilldiscussinertia.Inertiaisbasicallyhowmuchforceisneededtogetsomethingtomoveorstopmoving.
Now,let’sgetbacktogravityandacceleration.Let’stakealookatabowlingballandagolfball.Gravityputsmoreforceonthebowlingballthanonthegolfball.Sothebowlingballshouldacceleratefastersincethere’smoreforceonit.However,thebowlingballisheaviersoitishardertogetitmoving.Conversely,thegolfballhaslessforce
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pullingonitbutit’seasiertogetmoving.Doyouseeit?Theforceandinertiathingequaloutsothatallthingsaccelerateduetogravityatthesamerateofspeed!
Gravityhadtobeoneofthefirstscientificdiscoveries.Whoeverthefirstguywastodroparockonhisfoot,probablyrealizedthatthingsfalldown!However,eventhoughwehaveknownaboutgravityformanyyears,itstillremainsoneofthemostelusivemysteriesofscience.Atthispoint,nobodyknowswhatmakesthingsmovetowardabodyofmass.
WhydidtherockdroptowardtheEarthandonthatguy’sfoot?Westilldon’tknow.Weknowthatitdoes,butwedon’tknowwhatcausesagravitationalattractionbetweenobjects.Gravityisalsoaveryweakforce.Comparedtomagneticforcesandelectrostaticforces,thegravitationalforceisextremelyweak.Howcome?Nooneknows.Alargeamountofamazingbrainpowerisbeingusedtodiscoverthesemysteriesofgravity.Maybeitwillbeyouwhofiguresthisout!
QuestionstoAnswer
1. Ofthefollowingobjects,whichonesareattractedtooneanotherbygravity?a)AppleandBananab)BeagleandChihuahuac)EarthandYoud)Alloftheabove
2. TrueorFalse:Gravityacceleratesallthingsdifferently
3. TrueorFalse:Gravitypullsonallthingsdifferently
4. IfIdropagolfballandagolfcartatthesametimefromthesameheight,whichhitsthegroundfirst?
5. Thereisamonkeyhangingonthebranchofatree.Awildlifebiologistwantstoshootatranquilizerdartatthemonkeytomarkandstudyhim.Thebiologistverycarefullyaimsdirectlyattheshoulderofthemonkeyandfires.However,thegunmakesaloudenoughnoisethatthemonkeygetsscared,letsgoofthebranchandfallsdirectlydownward.Doesthedarthitwherethebiologistwasaiming,ordoesitgohigherorlowerthanheaimed?(This,bytheway,isanoldthoughtproblem.)
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Lesson#12:SundialOverview:UsingthepositionoftheSun,youcantellwhattimeitusbymakingoneofthesesundials.TheSunwillcastashadowontoasurfacemarkedwiththehours,andthetime‐tellinggnomonedgewillalignwiththepropertime.
WhattoLearn:Ingeneral,sundialsaresusceptibletodifferentkindsoferrors.Ifthesundialisn’tpointednorth,it’snotgoingtowork.Ifthesundial’sgnomonisn’tperpendicular,it’sgoingtogiveerrorswhenyoureadthetime.Latitudeandlongitudecorrectionsmayalsoneedtobemade.Somedesignsneedtobealignedwiththelatitudeatwhichtheyreside(ineffect,theyneedtobetippedtowardtheSunatanangle).Tocorrectforlongitude,simplyshiftthesundialtoreadexactlynoonwhenindicatedonyourclock.Thisisespeciallyimportantforsundialsthatliebetweenlongitudinalstandardizedtimezones.Ifdaylightsavingstimeisineffect,thenthesundialtimelinemustbeshiftedtoaccommodateforthis.Mostshiftsareonehour.
Materials
SimpleSundial Indexcard Scissors TapeIntermediateSundial 2yardsticksormetersticks Protractor Chalk ClockAdvancedSundial OldCD(thiscanalsobethetransparentCDatthetopofDVD/CDspindles) EmptyCDcase Skewer Stickytape Cardboardorsmallpieceofclay Protractor Scissors Tape Hotglue
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SimpleSundial
1. Thissundialtakesonlyacoupleofminutestomake,andreadseasilyforbeginnerstudents.2. Cutoutthetemplatebelow.3. Cutyourindexcardintotwotrianglesbycuttingfromonecornertotheoppositediagonalcorner.Stackthe
twotrianglesandtapetogether.Thisiscalledyourgnomon.4. Tapethetriangletoyour12‐hourline,puttingtapeonbothsidesofthegnomonasyoustickittothepaper.5. Putthesundialinasunnyplacewhereitwon’tbedisturbed(likeinsideofasunnywindoworonatable
outdoors).6. Pointthesundialsothatthegnomonispointingnorth.Thisismosteasilydoneifyouorientyoursundialat
exactlynooninyourlocation.LineupthesundialwiththeSunsothattheshadowthegnomonmakeslinesupexactlywiththe12.
7. Tapethesundialdownsoitwon’tmoveorgetblownaway.8. Thegnomonmustbeexactlyperpendiculartothehourmarkers.Usearulerorabookedgetohelpyouline
thisup.
SimpleSundialTemplate
QuestionstoAnswer
1. Whatkindsofcorrectionsneedtobemadeforyoursundial?2. Whenwouldn’tyoursundialwork?3. Howcanyouimproveyoursundialtobemoreaccurate?
IntermediateSundial
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1. Findasunnyspotthathasconcreteandgrassyarearightnexttoeachother.You’regoingtopoketheyardstickintothegrassanddrawontheconcretewithchalk,sobesurethattheconcretegoesinanapproximatelyeast‐westdirection.
2. Firstthinginthemorning,stickoneoftheyardsticksintothedirt,rightattheedgeoftheconcrete.3. Atthetopofthehour(likeat8a.m.or9a.m.),goouttoyouryardsticktomarkaposition.4. Laythesecondyardstickdownalongtheshadowthattheuprightyardstickmakesontheground.Usechalk
todrawtheshadow,andusetheyardsticktomakeyourlinestraight.5. Labelthislinewiththehour.6. Setyourtimerandrunbackoutatthetopofthenexthour.7. Repeatsteps3‐6untilyoufinishmarkingyoursundial.8. Whenyou’vecompletedyoursundial,filloutthetable.
IntermediateDataTable
Don’tforgettolabelyourunitsforcolumns2and3!
ExactTimeofDay ShadowLength
AnglethattheSunMovedfromLastHour
QuestionstoAnswer
1. Whatkindsofcorrectionsneedtobemadeforyoursundial?2. Whenwouldn’tyoursundialwork?3. Howcanyouimproveyoursundialtobemoreaccurate?
AdvancedSundial
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Thissundialwillworkforalllongitudes,buthasalimitedrangeoflatitudes.Ifyouliveinthefarnorthorfarsouth,you’llneedtogetcreativeabouthowtomounttheCDsothatthegnomonispointedatthecorrectangle.Forexample,attheequator,theCDwilllieflat(whichiseasy!),butnearthenorthandsouthpoles,theCDwillbeupsidedown.
1. Cutoutthetimeline.2. Putalineofdouble‐sidedstickytapealongthebackofthetimeline.Extendthetapeabout¼”(onthe
bottomedge)soit’shangingoffthepaperalittle.3. FlipthetimelineoverandrolltheCDalongthisbottomedge,stickingthetimelinetotheedgeoftheCD.
ThetimelineshouldbefacinginwardtowardthecenteroftheCD,perpendiculartotheCDsurface.4. Nowit’stimetoplugupthecenterhole.YoucancutoutcirclesfromaCDandattachwithtape,orusea
smallpieceofclay.5. PushtheskewerthroughtheexactmiddleoftheCD.6. OpenuptheCDcase.7. Positionthenoonmarkeratthebottomandstickitusingapieceofdouble‐sidedstickytapeorhotglue.8. TheothersideoftheCDisgluedtotheCDcaseatthesameangleasyourlatitude.Forexample,ifIliveat
43onorth,IwouldusemyprotractoronthegroundalongthebaseoftheCDcaseandlifttheCDuntilthegnomonreadsat43o.PutadabofhotgluetoattachtheCDtothelidofthecase.
9. Gooutsideandpointthegnomonnorth(youmaywanttouseacompassforthisifit’snotnoon.)10. Thedialwillhaveashadowthatfallsonthetimeline.Youcanreadthetimerightoffthetimeline.11. Foradvancedstudents:Timelinecorrection:DoyourememberhowtheSunwasfastorslowinthe
Stargazer’sWallChartfromthelessonentitled:What’sintheSky?ThatwavylineiscalledtheEquationofTime,andyou’llneedittocorrectyoursundialifyouwanttobecompletelyaccurate.ThisisagreatdemonstrationforaScienceFairproject,especiallywhenyouaddamodeloftheSunandEarthtohelpyouexplainwhat’sgoingon.
QuestionstoAnswer
1. Whatkindsofcorrectionsneedtobemadeforyoursundial?2. Whenwouldn’tyoursundialwork?3. Howcanyouimproveyoursundialtobemoreaccurate?
Reading
SundialshavebeenusedforcenturiestokeeptrackoftheSun.Therearedifferenttypesofsundials.Someusealineoflighttoindicatewhattimeitis,whileothersuseashadow.
Hereareafewdifferentmodelsthat,althoughtheylookalotdifferentfromeachother,actuallyallworktogivethesameresults!YoursundialwillworkalldaysoftheyearwhentheSunisout.
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You’llnoticethatnorthisthedirectionthatyourshadow’slengthistheshortest.However,ifyoudon’tknowwhereeastandwestare,allyoucandoisknowwherenorthis.TheequinoxisaspecialtimeofyearbecausetheSunrisesintheexacteastandsetsintheexactwest,makingthesetwopointsexactlyperpendicularwiththenorthforyourlocation(whichtheyusuallyaren’t).Atsunset,youcanviewyourshadow(quicklybeforeitdisappears)anddrawitwithchalkontheground,makingalinethatrunseast‐west.90ocounterclockwisefromthelineisnorth.
Ingeneral,sundialsaresusceptibletodifferentkindsoferrors.Ifthesundialisn’tpointednorth,it’snotgoingtowork.Ifthesundial’sgnomonisn’tperpendicular,it’sgoingtogiveerrorswhenyoureadthetime.Latitudeandlongitudecorrectionsmayalsoneedtobemade.Somedesignsneedtobealignedwiththelatitudetheyresideat(ineffect,theyneedtobetippedtowardtheSunatanangle).Tocorrectforlongitude,simplyshiftthesundialtoreadexactlynoonwhenindicatedonyourclock.Thisisespeciallyimportantforsundialsthatliebetweenlongitudinalstandardizedtimezones.TheEquationofTimefromtheadvancedlessonentitled:What’sintheSky?canbeusedtocorrectfortheSunrunningsloworfast.Remember,thiseffectisduetoboththeEarth’sorbitnotbeingaperfectcircleandthefactthatthetiltaxisisnotperpendiculartotheorbitpath.Ifdaylightsavingstimeisineffect,thenthesundialtimelinemustbeshiftedtoaccommodateforthis.Mostshiftsareonehour.
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Lesson#13:DiffractionOverview:Whenlightpassesthroughdiffractiongratings,itsplits(diffracts)thelightintoseveralbeamstravelingindifferentdirections.Ifyou'veeverseenthe“iridescence”ofasoapbubble,aninsectshell,oronapearl,you'veseennature'sdiffractiongratings.
WhattoLearn:Everplaywithaprism?Whensunlightstrikestheprism,itgetssplitintoarainbowofcolors.Prismsun‐mixthelightintoitsdifferentwavelengths(whichyouseeasdifferentcolors).Diffractiongratingsaretinyprismsstackedtogether.Thedirectioninwhichthebeamgetssplitanddiffracteddependsonthespacingofthediffractiongratingandalsothewavelengthoftheincominglight.
Materials
Feather CDorDVD Diffractiongrating
Experiment
1. Takeafeatherandputitoveraneye.2. Stareatalightsourcethroughthefeather,likeanincandescentlight.3. YoushouldseetwoorthreelightsandarainbowX.4. AimtheCDsothelighthitstheCDandmakesrainbows.5. Lookatthelightsourcethroughthediffractiongrating.6. Drawwhatyouseeforallthree.Weretheythesame?7. Findanotherlightsourceandrepeattheexperiment,recordingyourobservationsasyougo.8. Completethetableasyouviewthedifferentlightsourcesthroughyourdiffractiongratings.
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DiffractionDataTable
LightSource DiffractiveObject(Feather,CD,orGrating?)
DrawWhatYouSee:
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Reading
Everplaywithaprism?Whensunlightstrikestheprism,itgetssplitintoarainbowofcolors.Prismsun‐mixthelightintoitsdifferentwavelengths(whichyouseeasdifferentcolors).Diffractiongratingsaretinyprismsstackedtogether.Thedirectioninwhichthebeamgetssplitanddiffracteddependsonthespacingofthediffractiongratingandalsothewavelengthoftheincominglight.Thefeatherworksbecausetherearetiny“hairs”onthefeatherthatareactingliketinyprisms.
DiffractiongratingswerefirstdiscoveredbyJamesGregory,rightaroundthetimeNewtonperformedhisfamousprismexperimentswithbirdfeathers.Thefirstdiffractiongratingstookalongtimetoconstruct,astheywereindividualhairsstrungbetweenscrews.
QuestionstoAnswer
1. Whichlightsourcegavethemostinterestingresults?
2. Whathappenswhenyouaimalaserbeamthroughthediffractiongrating?
3. HowisaCDdifferentandthesameasadiffractiongrating?
4. Whydoesthefeatherwork?
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Lesson#14:InfraredVisionOverview:Infraredlightisinthepartoftheelectromagneticspectrumthatisn’tusuallyvisibletohumaneyes,butusingthisniftytrick,youwilleasilybeabletoseetheIRsignalfromyourTVremote,remote‐controllerforanRCcar,andmore!
WhattoLearn:WhenyoupressthebuttononyourremotecontroltoyourTV,you’reusinginfraredlight(IR)tocontrolyourTV.Infraredlightisinvisibletooureyes.However,snakescandetectIRandseetheredderhuesthatwecan’t.EverywarmbodygivesofflightintheIR,sosnakesusethistofindmiceinthecoolnight.
Materials:
Youwillneedtheseitems:
Remote control for TV or stereo
Camera (video or still camera) Thisisjustasuggestedlistofobjects.Feelfreetofindyourown! Metalfryingpanorcookiesheet Plasticsheet Plasticbaggie Trashbag(whiteorblack,orboth) Woodencuttingboard
Experiment
1. Grabaremotecontrolandverifythatitisindeedworking.Turnthedeviceonandoffusingtheremote.2. Grabasheetofplastic,likeacuttingboard,andplaceitbetweenyourremoteandthedevice.Doesitturn
onwhenyouaimthebeamatit?Doestheplasticblockthebeam?3. Openupatrashbagandplaceonesideofthebagbetweenyourremoteandthedevice.Didthatblockthe
beam,ordidtheremoteturnonthedevice?4. Whatelsecanyoutry?Howaboutaclearbag?5. Aclearbagfilledwithwater?6. Asheetofpaper?7. Whataboutametalpan?Findsomethingthat’snotcoatedwithTeflon.Doesinfraredgothroughmetal?8. Whatifyoupointitatawhitewallbehindyou,pretendingthewhitewallisamirrorandaimingitsoitwill
reflectitbacktothedevice?9. Completethedatatable.10. Nowlet’smaketheinvisibleinfraredlightvisible.Takeyourcamera(eitherstillorvideocamerawillwork)
andturniton.Putitonamodewhereyoucanseethroughtheviewscreen.Aimthecamerarightattheemitterfortheremote(usuallynearthetop)andpressabutton.Pointtheremoterightatthecameraandwatchthroughthecamera.Oureyesnormallycan’tseetheinfraredlight,butthecameracan!
11. Thecameracanalsoseetheotherwisedarkendoftheremote!Doesyourcamerahaveaspecialnightvisionmode,whereit’sespeciallysensitivetoinfraredlight?Ifso,tryit!
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InfraredDataTable
Item/ObjectTested GuessFIRST!WilltheInfraredLight
PassThrough?
WhatHappened?(Diditpassthroughornot?)
Reading
Differentdetectorsaresensitivetodifferentcolors.Youreyeballsaresensitivetospecificcolorsinthe400‐700nm(nanometer)range,whichishowlongonewavelengthis.Ananometerisextremelytiny!
Thefrequencyofredlightisaround430trillionHz(Hertz,whichisonewavecyclepersecond).Ifyouweretocountthenumberofwavespassingacertainpointinonesecond,you’dcount430trillionwaves.Ifyoucounted750trillionwaves,thelightwouldbeviolet.Differentcolorshavedifferentfrequencies.
Lightenergy(alsocalledelectromagneticradiation)withthelowestamountsofenergyandlongestwavelengths(1mmto1km)areradiowaves.Theseareemittedbyradiogalaxieslikequasars,supernovaleftovers,andtheradiotoweratthetopofthehill.Radiowavesfromspacewithawavelengthgreaterthan100metersarereflectedbackintospacebyouratmosphere.RadiowavesaredetectedinspacebytheCOBEsatellite,theVLAinNewMexico,andtheAreciboObservatoryinSouthAmerica.
Thenextstepdowninwavesizeismicrowaves,whichhavemoreenergythanradiowavesbutareashorterwavelength.Thesearetheonesinsideyourmicrowavethatexcitethewatermoleculesinsideyourfoodsothatyourfoodheatsup.
Infrared(IR)hasslightlymoreenergyandanevensmallerwavelength(700nanometers,ornmto1mm),andyoucanfeelthislightaswarmthonyourskinwhenyoustepintotheSun.There’salotofinfraredradiationinspacearoundthestar‐formingcloudsandobjectswithatemperatureabove1000oC.SOFIAandtheInfraredObservatorybothdetectinfraredfromvariousstarsinspace.
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Visiblelightoropticallightwavesarethevisiblerainbowyoucanseewithyoureyesafterarainyday.Thesewavelengthshavemoreenergyandshorterwavelengths(300to700nm)thaninfrared.TheHubbleSpaceTelescopeandEarth‐boundopticaltelescopeslookatstars,galaxies,andplanets.
Ultraviolet(UV)lighthasmoreenergyandshorterwavelengths(10nmto390nm)thanvisiblelight,andyou’llfindhotstarsemitlargelyinthisregionofthespectrum.TheozonelayerprotectsusfrommostoftheUV,butnotall.That’swhyyougetasunburnifyoudon’twearsunblock,andwhycolorsfadeinsunlight.SkyLab,AstrotelescopeandSOHOallsearchforUV.SOHOlooksdirectlyattheSun’scoronatogetamazingimagesinUV.
X‐rayshaveevenmoreenergyandshortwavelengths(0.01nmto10nm)thanUVlight,andyou’llfindtheseareemittedbyactiveblackholes,supernovaremnants,andveryhotstars(we’retalking1millionto100millionoC).Fortunatelyforus,thesearequicklyabsorbedintheupperatmosphereandmostnevermakeittothesurfaceofEarth.X‐raysgeneratedonearthareemittedbyelectronsoutsidethenucleusofanatom.ROSATlookedatclustergalaxiestodetectX‐raysources.
Deadlygammarayshavethemostamountofenergyandtheshortestfrequency(lessthan0.01nm),andyou’llfindtheseinareasofsuperflaresfrompulsars,supernovas,andradioactiveatoms.GammaraysarelikeX‐rays,inthattheybothcangothroughthickmaterials,andwouldrathergothroughyourdetectorthanintoittobedetected.GammaraysonEartharegeneratedinsidethenucleusofanatom.TheComptonObservatorylookedatquasarstodetectgammarays.
QuestionstoAnswer
1. Lookoveryourdatatable.Whatkindsofobjects(plastic,metal,natural,etc.)allowinfraredlighttopassthroughthem?
2. Whydoesthecameraworkinmakingtheinfraredlightvisible?
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Lesson#15:UVLightOverview:Stars,includingourSun,produceallkindsofwavelengthsoflight,includingUV(ultra‐violet).That’sthewavelengththatgivesyousunburns.We’regoingtofindoutthebestwaytoprotectyoufromtheharmfulrays.
WhattoLearn:TheUVbeadswe’regoingtouseinourexperimentaremadefromachemicalthatreactswithlight.IttakestheUVlightfromtheSunandthenre‐emitsitinadifferentwavelengththat’svisibletous.
Materials
5UVbeads(thesechangecolorswhenexposedtotheSun) Tape(double‐sidediseasier) Sunblock Sunglasses Sunnyday Water Pieceoffabric Clearplasticbag
Experiment
1. Placeapieceoftapeonthedatatable,andstickyourbeadstothetape,oneineachbox.2. Walkoutsidewithyourdatatableandrecordyourobservations.
UVLightDataTable1
Bead ColorInside ColorWheninSunlight HowLongDidItTaketoReturntoIndoorColor?
(measureinseconds)
1
2
3
4
5
3. Walkbackindoorsandcoverthebeads,blockingoutalllight.Peekatthemeveryminuteortwotofindoutwhenthey’vereturnedtotheirunexposedcolor.
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4. NowprepareyoursecondroundoftestingbydoingthefollowingbeforeexposingthebeadstotheSun:a. Placeabeadinsideabaggie.b. Placeasecondbeadinsideabaggiefilledwithwater.c. Smearacleanbaggiewithsunblockandplaceathirdbeadinside.d. Placeapairofsunglassesoverafourthbead.e. Placeafifthbeadunderapieceoffabric.
5. Walkyour5beadsoutsideandrecordyourobservationsinthedatatable.
UVLightDataTable2
Bead ColorInside ColorWheninSunlight
1:Baggie
2:Baggie+Water
3:Sunblock
4:Sunglasses
5:Fabric
6. Bringyourbeadsbackinsideandreturnthemtotheirunexposedcolor.7. Prepareyourthirdroundoftestingbyexposingyourbeadstosomeofthefollowing:
f. Afluorescentlampg. Anincandescentlamph. Flashlighti. Glowstickj. Computerscreenk. Reflectedsunlightusingamirrorl. Candleflame(pleasebecarefulwiththis!)m. Anyotherlightsourceyouhaveaccessto
8. Recordyourobservationsinthedatatable.
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UVLightDataTable3
LightSource
ColorInside ColorWhenExposed HowLongDidItTaketoChangeColorwhenExposed?
Reading
UV‐sensitivematerialshaveapigmentinsidethatchangescolorwhenexposedtoUVlightfromeithertheSunorlightsthatemitinthe350nm–300nmwavelength.(UVAishigh‐energy:400‐320nm,andUVBislowenergy:320‐280nm).Ifyouhavefluorescentblacklights,usethem.(Doregularincandescentbulbswork?Ifnot,youknowtheyemitlightoutsidetherangeofthebeads!)
Stars,includingourSun,produceallkindsofwavelengthsoflight,evenUV.TheUVbeadswe’regoingtouseinourexperimentaremadefromachemicalthatreactswithlight.IttakestheUVlightfromtheSunandthenre‐emitsitinadifferentwavelengththat’svisibletous.WhenaparticleofUVlightsmacksintoanatom,itcollideswithanelectronandmakestheelectronjumptoahigher,moreenergeticstatethatisabitfurtherfromthecenteroftheatomthanit’scomfortablebeing.That’showenergygetsabsorbedbyanatom.Theamountofenergyanelectronhasdetermineshowfarfromtheatomithastobe.Theelectronprefersbeinginitslowerstate,soitrelaxesandjumpsbackdown,transferringablipofenergyawayasitdoes.ThisblipofenergyisthelightweseeemittedfromtheUVbeads.ThisprocesscontinuesaslongasweseeacolorcomingfromtheUVbeads.
Whenlighthitsthepigmentmolecule,itabsorbstheenergyandactuallyexpandsasymmetrically(oneendofthemoleculeexpandsmorethantheother).Differentexpansionamountswillgiveyouadifferentcolor.Althoughit’sabitmorecomplicatedthanthat,younowhavethebasicidea.Yourbeadswillchangecolorsthousandsoftimesbeforetheywearout,soenjoythesesuper‐inexpensiveUVdetectors.
Anoteaboutsunblock:YoucantestdifferentSPFlevelsofsunblock,buthere’sthemainideabehindtheratings:thenumberforSPFisthenumberofminutesittakestogetthesameSunexposurethanifyouweren’twearinganyforoneminute.Forexample,SPF30willgiveyouthesameSunexposureafter30minutesthatyouwouldnormallygetifyouweren’twearinganyafterjustoneminute.
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QuestionstoAnswer
1. Whatkindsoflightsourcesdidn’tworkwiththeUVbeads?
2. DidyoursunblockreallyblockouttheUVrays?
3. WhichwasthebestprotectionagainstUVrays?
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Lesson#16:StarWobbleOverview:Howdoastronomersfindplanetsarounddistantstars?Ifyoulookatastarthroughbinocularsoratelescope,you’llquicklynoticehowbrightthestaris,andhowdifficultitistoseeanythingotherthanthestar,especiallyasmallplanetthatdoesn’tgenerateanylightofitsown!Astronomerslookforashift,orwobble,ofthestarasitgetsgravitationally“yanked”aroundbytheorbitingplanets.Bymeasuringthiswobble,astronomerscanestimatethesizeanddistanceoflargerorbitingobjects.
WhattoLearn:Dopplerspectroscopyisonewayastronomersfindplanetsarounddistantstars.Ifyourecallthelessonwherewecreatedourownsolarsysteminacomputersimulation,yourememberhowthestarcouldbeinfluencedbyasmallerplanetenoughtohaveatinyorbitofitsown.Thistinyorbitiswhatastronomersaretryingtodetectwiththismethod.
Materials
Severalbouncyballsofdifferentsizesandweights,softenoughtostabwithatoothpick Toothpicks
Experiment
1. Doesyourballhaveanumberwrittenonit?Ifso,that’stheweight,andyoucanskipmeasuringtheweightwithascale.
2. Ifnot,weigheachoneandmakeanoteinthedatatable.3. Taketheheaviestballandspinitonthetable.Canyougetittospininplace?That’slikeaSunwithoutany
planetsaroundit.4. Insertatoothpickintotheball.Nowinserttheendofthetoothpickintothesmallestweightball.Nowspin
theoriginalball.Whathappened?5. Completethedatatable.
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StarWobbleDataTable
WeightofBall#1 WeightofBall#2 HowMuchDiditWobble?(Useascaleof1to5,
with5beingthemostwobble)
Reading
Nearlyhalfoftheextrasolar(outsideoursolarsystem)planetsdiscoveredwerefoundbyusingthismethodofdetection.It’sveryhardtodetectplanetsfromEarthbecauseplanetsaresodim,andthelighttheydoemittendstobeinfraredradiation.OurSunoutshinesalltheplanetsinoursolarsystembyonebilliontimes.
ThismethodusestheideathatanorbitingplanetexertsagravitationalforceontheSunthatyankstheSunaroundinatinyorbit.Whenthisisviewedfromadistance,thestarappearstowobble.Notonlythat,thissmallorbitalsoaffectsthecolorofthelightwereceivefromthestar.Thismethodrequiresthatscientistsmakeveryprecisemeasurementsofitspositioninthesky.
QuestionstoAnswer
1. Forhomeworktonight,findouthowmanyextrasolarplanetsscientistshavedetectedsofar.
2. Alsoforhomework,findoutthenames(theywillprobablybeastringofnumbersandletterstogether)ofthe3mostrecentextrasolarplanetdiscoveries.
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Lesson#17:SpaceTelescopesOverview:NASA’sGreatObservatoriesconsistoffourspacetelescopes,eachdesignedtolookattheuniverseinonesmallpartoftheelectromagneticspectrum:infrared,visible,X‐ray,andgammarays.EachtelescopeisasatellitethatorbitstheEarthinaveryspecificway.
WhattoLearn:There’sacommonmisconceptionaboutgravityandspace,inthatmostfolksbelievesatellitesdon’tmoveinorbit.Thetruthis,satellitesmustmaintainaveryspecificvelocityinordertomaintaintheirstableorbits.
Materials
Fivedifferentsizesofsmallballs:marbles,ping‐pong,rubberbouncy,etc. Tape Sheetofpaper
Experiment
1. Curlyourpaperintoaconeshapesooneendiswiderthantheother.Itshouldlooklikeanicecreamcone.2. Tapetheconeintoplaceusingyourtape.Youmightneedacoupleofpieces.3. Holdtheconewiththesmallenddown.4. Yourjobistoplaceyourmarbleontheinsideedgeoftheconenearthetopandrotatetheconesothatthe
marblestaysnearthetopedgewithoutfallingdowninsideorflyingoutofthetop.5. Placeyoursmallsatellitesinorderfromlightesttoheaviest.Entertheminthisorderinthedatatable.
Recordhowfastyouhadtocircletheconetokeepthesatelliteinorbitintheobservationscolumn.Didyouhavetomovethesatelliteslower,faster,orsomethinginbetween?
SpaceTelescopesDataTable
Item/Object Observations
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Reading
Manypeoplethinkthatsatellitesdon’tmoveinorbit.Nothingcouldbefurtherfromthetruth!IfyoudropaballonEarth,itfalls16feetthefirstsecondyoureleaseit.Ifyouthrowtheballhorizontally,itwillalsofall16feetinthefirstsecond,eventhoughitismovinghorizontally…itmovesbothawayfromyouanddowntotheground.
Nowconsideranotherobject,likeabulletshothorizontally.Ittravelsalotfasterthanyoucanthrow–about2,000feeteachsecond.Butitwillstillfall16feetduringthatfirstsecond.Gravitypullsonallobjects(liketheballandthebullet)thesameway,nomatterhowfasttheygo.
Whatifyoushootthebulletfasterandfaster?Gravitywillstillpullitdown16feetduringthefirstsecond.RememberthatthesurfaceoftheEarthisround.Canyouimaginehowfastwe’dneedtoshootthebulletsothatwhenthebulletfalls16feetinonesecond,theEarthcurvesawayfromthebulletatthesamerateof16feeteachsecond?
Answer–thatbulletneedstotravelnearly5milespersecond.Thisishowsatellitesstayinorbit–goingjustfastenoughtokeepfromfallinginwardandnottoofastthattheyflyoutoforbit.Satellitesneedtoconstantlycourse‐correcttokeepontrack.
IfwelauncharocketstraightintotheskytobeinorbitaroundtheEarth,unlesswegivethatrocketahorizontalvelocityaswell,it’sgoingtocrashrightbacktoEarth.EverythingthatorbitstheEarthhasaspecificspeedatwhichittravelsinordertomaintainitsstableorbit.
TheHubbleSpaceTelescopewaslaunchedbythespaceshuttlein1990,andisthebest‐knownobservatory.Hubbleorbits380milesabovethesurfaceoftheEarthandhassentthousandsofphotostoscientistsonEarthtostudy.Hubbleoperatesinthevisiblepartofthespectrum.
TheComptonObservatorywasthesecondtobelaunchedin1991,andholdstherecordforheaviestastrophysicalpayloadever(17tons).Comptoncollectedinformationinthegammaraypartofthespectrum,whichmeantitlookedatsomeofthemostviolentpartsoftheuniversetorecorditsdata.Itwassafelyde‐orbitedin2000.
TheChandraObservatorywaslaunchedin1999,andcurrentlystudiesX‐raysfromblackholes,quasars,darkmatter,supernovas,andhigh‐temperaturegases.Chandraholdstherecordforthebestmirrors:Theyarethemostaccuratelyshaped,preciselyaligned,smoothestmirrorsevercreated.Chandra’salignmentissoprecisethatyoucanuseittoreadanewspaperfromahalfmileaway.
TheSpitzerSpaceTelescopewasthefourthtobelaunchedintotheprogramin2003.Spitzerspecializesinthermalinfraredlight,mostofwhichisblockedbytheEarth’satmosphereandnevermakesittothesurfaceoftheEarth.Sothisscopeisseeingthingswe’veneverbeenabletobefore.Sinceviewingintheinfraredmeansthatyoucanseethroughdustandgasparticles,Spitzerisabletoshowusthingsthatwouldnormallybehiddentousifweweretoviewthemoptically.Spitzerlooksforcoolerspaceobjects(thermallyspeaking)suchassmallstars,extrasolarplanets,andgiantmolecularclouds.
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QuestionstoAnswer
1. Whathappenswhenyourmarblesatellitemovestooslowly?
2. Whathappenswhenthemarblesatelliteorbitstoofast?
3. Whateffectdoeschangingthemarblemasshaveonyoursatellitespeed?
4. Howisthismodelliketherealthing?
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Astronomy2Evaluation
StudentWorksheet
Overview:Today,you’regoingtotaketwodifferenttests:thequizandthelabpractical.You’regoingtotakethewrittenquizfirst,andthelabpracticalattheendofthislab.Thelabpracticalisn’tapapertest–it’swhereyougettoshowyourteacherthatyouknowhowtodosomething.
LabTest&Homework
1. Yourteacherwillaskyoutosharehowmuchyouunderstandaboutastronomy.Sincescienceissomuchmorethanjustreadingabookorcirclingtherightanswer,thisisanimportantpartofthetesttofindoutwhatyoureallyunderstand.
2. Whileyouarewaitingforyourturntoshowyourteacherhowmuchofthisstuffyoualreadyknow,yougettochoosewhichhomeworkassignmentyouwanttocomplete.Theassignmentisduetomorrow,andhalfthecreditisforcreativityandtheotherhalfisforcontent,soreallyletyourimaginationflyasyouworkthroughit.Chooseone:a. WriteashortstoryorskitaboutastronomyfromtheperspectiveoftheSunoralightparticleitself.
You’llreadthisaloudtoyourclass.b. MakeaposterthatteachesamainconceptofeithertheSun,amoon,aplanet,oraparticular
spacecraft.Whenyou’refinished,you’lluseittoteachtoaclassoyoungerstudentsanddemonstratetheprinciplesthatyou’velearned.
c. WriteandperformapoemorsongabouttheSun,amoon,aplanet,oraparticularspacecraft.Thiswillbeperformedtoyourclass.
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Astronomy2QuizStudentQuizSheet
Name__________________________________________________________
1. Nametwowaysyoucanfindablackhole.
2. Whatisagalaxy?
3. HowmanyphasesdoestheMoonhaveandwhatarethey?
4. Whichplanetsdonothaveamagneticfield?
5. CanyouseetheMoonduringthedaytime?
6. HowmanyAUsistheEarthfromtheSun?
7. WhatistheSunmadeoutof,andhowmuchofeach?
8. Canweseealllight?Ifnot,whichkindcanweseewithoureyes?
9. HowhotistheSun?
10. HowdoestheSunmakeenergy?
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11. Whicharelightsources(LS)andwhichareseenbyreflectedlight(RL)?
a. Stars__________________________________
b. TheMoon__________________________________
c. Venus__________________________________
d. Pluto__________________________________
e. Comets__________________________________
f. Asteroids__________________________________
g. TheSun__________________________________
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Astronomy2LabPracticalTeacher’sAnswerKey
Thisisyourchancetoshowhowmuchyouhavepickeduponimportantkeyconcepts,andifthereareanyholes.Youalsowillbeworkingonahomeworkassignmentasyoudothistestindividuallywithateacher.
Materials
Lamp Twoballsofdifferentsizes(likeatennisballandapingpongball) Sheetsofpaper Pencil
LabPractical:
ShowhowtheMoon'sappearancechangesduringthefour‐weeklunarcycle.
Onasheetofpaper,drawthesolarsystem.IncludetheSun,eightplanets,andtheAsteroidBelt.Approximatethescaleoftheplanetsanddistancesbetweenthem.
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AnswerstoExercisesandActivitiesLesson#1:Stars,Planets,andBlackHoles
1. IsMercurythehottestplanet?Whyorwhynot?(No,Venusisbecauseit’sgotathickatmospherethatkeepstheheattrappedinside.)
2. Whatissolarwind?Whatprotectsplanetsfromit?(Mars,EarthandVenusarebathedinaflowofplasmathatcomesfromthesun,calledsolarwind.TheEarthhasamagneticfieldwhichactslikeaninvisiblecoattoprotecttheearthbecauseitdeflectsthesolarwindawayfromus,butVenusandMarsdon’thavethisprotectionsotheygetblastedwiththissolarwind.Solarwindisn’treallywind(there’snoairinspace,soitcan’tbelikethenormalkindofwind),butit’sasteamofhighlychargedparticlescomingfromtheSun.)
3. Canasteroidshavemoons?(Yes!Idaisanasteroiddetectedin1884,andin1993theGalileospacecraftdiscovereditsmoonDactyl.)
4. WhyisIodifferentcolors?(Fromvolcanicactivity.)5. Canmoonshaveatmospheres?Doallplanetshaveatmospheres?(MoonslikeTitanhaveatmospheres.Notall
planetshaveatmospheres,becauseofaplanet’slowgravity;theatmospherecangetblownawaybystrongsolarwinds.MercuryandMarshaveverythinatmospheres.)
6. HowmanyobjectsinthePlutosystem?(Four:Pluto,Charon,Hydra,andNix.)7. Nametwowaysyoucandetectblackholes.(LookforX‐rayemissions,lookforlightbendingaroundtheblack
hole,orlookforastarwobblingororbitingsomethingthatisn’tthere.)8. Ifastarcollapseswhenitrunsoutoffuel,thenwhydosupernovasexplode?(Whenthecoreofastarcollapses,
itsmackstogethersoHARDthatitrebounds–itbouncesback.Whenitreboundsandbouncesbackout,itcollideswiththerestofthegasthatisstillfallinginward(rememberthefoilintheballoonexperiment?)Whenthereboundingcorehitsthein‐fallinggas,thecoreblastseverythingoutintospace…andthismakesagiantexplosion.)
9. Nametwoscientistswhocontributedtotheworkonblackholes.(StephenHawking,KarlSchwarzschild,RobertOppenheimer,RogerPenrose,AlbertEinstein,JohnMitchell…)
10. Whatisagalaxy,andhowisitdifferentfromaquasar?(Agalaxyisasystem,ofmillionsorbillionsofstars,togetherwithgasanddustthatisheldtogetherbygravity.Wethinkquasarsarethebrilliantcoresofagalaxy,whichispoweredbyablackhole.)
Lesson#2:SolarSystemScaleModel
1.Whatdoyounoticeaboutthepositionoftherockyterrestrialplanets?(TheyareallbuncheduptogetherclosetotheSun.)
2.Aretheicegiantsfurtherapartfromeachotherthanthegasgiantsare?(Neptune‐Uranusis9.8AUandSaturn‐Jupiteris5AUwhentheyareonthesamesideoftheSun.)
3.Mariner10took147daystoreachMercuryfromEarth.HowlongdoyouthinkitwouldtaketogettoNeptune?(Approximately12‐22years,dependingontheflightpathandthespeedchosen.)
4.IftheEarthis93millionmiles(150millionkm)fromtheSun,andCeresis413millionmiles(665millionkm)fromtheSun,wherewouldyouplaceitinyourscalemodel?(Ceresis4.4AUor3metersor9.91feetaway.Ifyour
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studentshaven’tcoveredthisyet,it’sokaytoeyeballthedistanceandapproximateCerestobeaboutfourtimesthedistancefromtheSunthattheEarthis.)
Lesson#3:Atmospheres
1.Whichatmospherereachedthehighesttemperature?(Refertodatatable,butyoushouldfindthewaxedpaperheatedupthemost.Ifthebaggiejardid,thenyoupackedittootightlyinthejar.)
2.EachofthejarsreceivedthesameamountofenergyfromtheSun.Whyisthisnotquiteliketherealsolarsystem?(EachplanetisadifferentdistancefromtheSun,andreceiveslessenergythefurtheroutit’slocated.Thisexperimentworksbecauseit’soverashortperiodoftime,andwe’refiguringoutwhichconditionstrapheatthebest.)
Lesson#4:LunarPhases
1.DoestheSunalwayslightuphalftheMoon?(Yes.Wedon’talwaysgettoseeit,whichisbecausetheMoonhasphases.)
2.HowmanyphasesdoestheMoonhave?(Eight)
3.WhatisitcalledwhentheMoonappearstogrow?(Waxing)
4.WhatisitcalledwhenyouseemorelightthandarkontheMoon?(Gibbous)
5.Howlongdoesittakeforacompletelunarcycle?(About29½days)
Lesson#5:EclipsesandTransits
1.Whatotherplanetscanhaveeclipses?(MercuryandVenusdon’thavemoons,andthemoonsofMarsaretoosmall.Jupiter,Saturn,UranusandNeptunecanhaveeclipsesastheirmoonsarelargeenoughandtheSunappearssmaller.PlutoandCharonareinaweirdorbitsothatonlyonesideofeitheronewilleverexperienceeclipses,andevenwhentheydo,it’severy120yearsorso.)
2.WhichplanetstransittheSun?(VenusandMercury)
3.Howisasolareclipsedifferentfromalunareclipse?(AlunareclipseiswhentheEarthcomesbetweentheSunandMoon.AsolareclipseiswhentheMooncomesbetweentheEarthandSun.)
4.Whatphasecanalunareclipseoccur?(Onlyonanightofafullmoon.)
5.Canasolareclipseoccuratnight?(No,becausetheSunisn’tvisibleatnight.)
Lesson#6:RustyBalloon
1.Whydidoneballoongetlargerthantherest?(Theballoonwillshowyouhowmuchgasisgenerated–thelargertheballoon,themoregaswasproduced.Therust(ironoxide)isthenameofthereactiontakingplacebetweenthesteelwoolandtheliquids.)
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2.Whichhadthehighestpressuredifference?Why?(Checkresultsfromdatatable.Inthevideo,thebottlewithjustwaternotonlysuckedintheballoon,italsosuckedinthesidesofthewaterbottleitself,showingyouthatitusedtheoxygenintheairtogeneratetherust.You’llseethismoredramaticallywhenyouaddsalttothewaterbeforeaddingthesteelwool.)
Lesson#7:Meteorites
1.Aremeteorsmembersofthesolarsystem?(Yes–theyarethesmallestmembers.)
2.Howbigaremeteors?(Theyrangefrompebblesizetosmallerthanagrainofsand,usuallyweighinglessthan2grams.)
3.Whydowehavemeteorshowersatpredictabletimesoftheyear?(Everyyear,theEarthpassesthroughthedebrisleftbehindbycomets.Theparticlesenterouratmosphereandburnup.Theonesthatmakeittothegroundaremeteorites.)
Lesson#8:Neptune’sFurnace
1.Whathappenswhenthechemicalscomeincontactwitheachother?(Whenthecalciumionsandchlorideionsinteractwiththesodiumbicarbonate,theyformcarbondioxidegasandsodiumchloride(tablesalt).)
2.Whatdidyounoticewhenyousealedthebagclosedandrolledthepelletsbetweenyourfingers?(Dissolvingcalciumchlorideishighlyexothermic,meaningthatitgivesoffalotofheatwhenmixedwithwater.)
3.Whathappenedwhenthesolutionwasplacedinthecoldwaterjug?(Thisremovesenergyfromthereactionsandcausesthetablesalttoprecipitateoutmorequickly.)
4.WhatdoesthisexperimenthavetodowithNeptune?Whydidweusethebakingsodaatall?(Asthegasinthebagincreases,itpuffsoutandincreasesthepressure.Thisstretchesthebagandsomeofthegasisreleasedouttheholesinthetopofthebag,bubblinguptothesurfaceofthemilkjug.Afterawhile,thewarmwaterwillalsoriseoutoftheholesduetothetemperaturedifferencebetweenthebagandjugand,you’llseereddriftuptothetopsurfaceofthemilkjug.TheheatgeneratedbyNeptuneisdeepinthecore,anditbubblesupandradiatesouttospace,justlikethewarmbagbubblingitscontentstothecoldwaterjug.Theentireplanetisawhirling,swirling,fast‐movingballofgasandicethatmovebecauseoftemperatureandpressuredifferences.)
Lesson#9:BinaryPlanetarySystems
1.HowisspinningthecontainerlikePlutoandCharon?(Youarealwaysfacingthesamesideofthecontainer,justlikePlutoandCharonarealwaysfacingthesamesidesofeachother.)
2.Whatwouldhappenifwecutthestringwhileyouarespinning?Whichwaywouldthecontainergo?(Inastraightlinetangenttothecurveatthemomentwecutthestring.)
3.Whathappensifwetriplethesizeofyourcontainerandwhat’sinsideofit?(Ittakesmoreenergytoswingalargerloadaround.Foroneobjecttoorbitanother,theymusthavestronggravitationalattractiontomovethatmuchmassaround.)
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Lesson#10:BuildYourOwnSolarSystem
1.Whateffectdoeschangingthemassofanorbitingplanethaveonthediameteroftheorbit?
2.Whateffectdoeschangingthespeedhaveonaplanet’sorbit?
3.Whathappenstotheplanet'sorbitwhenyouincreasetheinitialdistancebetweentheplanetandtheSun?
4.Findthemassvaluesneededforastableorbit.Circlethevaluesonthetablethatmakeastableorbit.
5.Whydon’tafeatherandabrickhitthegroundatthesametime?(Theydo…ifyou’reonthemoon!OnEarth,thefrictionbetweentheairandthefeathercausesthefeathertoslowdownandthebricktowintherace.)
Lesson#11:WatchYourWeight
1.Ofthefollowingobjects,whichonesareattractedtooneanotherbygravity?
a)AppleandBananab)BeagleandChihuahuac)EarthandYoud)Alloftheabove
2.TrueorFalse:Gravityacceleratesallthingsdifferently
3.TrueorFalse:Gravitypullsonallthingsdifferently
4.IfIdropagolfballandagolfcartatthesametimefromthesameheight,whichhitsthegroundfirst?(Theybothhitthegroundatthesametime.)
5.Thereisamonkeyhangingonthebranchofatree.Awildlifebiologistwantstoshootatranquilizerdartatthemonkeytomarkandstudyhim.Thebiologistverycarefullyaimsdirectlyattheshoulderofthemonkeyandfires.However,thegunmakesaloudenoughnoisethatthemonkeygetsscared,letsgoofthebranchandfallsdirectlydownward.Doesthedarthitwherethebiologistwasaimingordoesitgohigherorlowerthanheaimed?(Themonkeyandthedartfalldownwardatthesamerateofspeed.Sothedartwouldhitexactlywherethebiologistaimed!Infact,ifthemonkeydidn’tletgo,thedartwouldhavehitlowerthanthebiologistaimed.)
Lesson#13:Diffraction
1. Whichlightsourcegavethemostinterestingresults?(Thisvarieswithdata.)
2. Whathappenswhenyouaimalaserbeamthroughthediffractiongrating?(Itsplitsintothreebeamsoflight,asshowninthesecondvideo.)
3. HowisaCDdifferentandthesameasadiffractiongrating?(ACDhasaspiraloffinely‐spaceddatatrackswhilethediffractiongratinghasaseriesofparallellines.TheCDsplitsthelightthesamewayasthediffractiongrating.TheCDsplitsthebeamintomorethanthreebeams.)
4. Whydoesthefeatherwork?(Therearetiny“hairs”onthefeatherthatareactingliketinyprisms.)
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Lesson#14:InfraredVision
1.Whatkindsofobjectsallowinfraredlighttopassthroughthem?(Checkdata.)
2.Whydoesthecameraworkinmakingtheinfraredlightvisible?(Thecameraisaviewerthatletsusseethisspecialfrequencyoflight.Lightistechnicallywhatwecallelectromagneticradiation.Radiowaves,infrared,microwaves,X‐rays,andgammaraysareallelectromagneticradiation.Ifyoucouldseetheradiowaves,thenyoucouldseeradiotowersastheytransmit.Theywouldappeartolightup.Ifyoucouldseeallformsoflight,thennotonlycouldyouseetheradiotowers,butalsoyourcellphone,thedoctor’sX‐raycameras,andyourcarradiowouldallbelitupastheyoperated.It’sallmadeoutofthesamestuff,justnotallofitisvisibletooureyes.)
Lesson#15:UVLight
1.Whatkindsoflightsourcesdidn’tworkwiththeUVbeads?(Checkdata.)
2.DidyourSunblockreallyblockouttheUVrays?(Checkdata.)
3.WhichwasthebestprotectionagainstUVrays?(Checkdata.)
Lesson#16:StarWobble
1.Forhomeworktonight,findouthowmanyextrasolarplanetsscientistshavedetectedsofar.
2.Alsoforhomework,findoutthenames(theywillprobablybeastringofnumbersandletterstogether)ofthe3mostrecentextrasolarplanetdiscoveries.
Lesson#17:SpaceTelescopes
1.Whathappenswhenyourmarblesatellitemovestooslowly?(ItcrashesbacktoEarth.)
2.Whathappenswhenthemarblesatelliteorbitstoofast?(Thesatelliteleavesorbit.)
3.Whateffectdoeschangingthemarblemasshaveonyoursatellitespeed?(Theheavierthemarble,thefasteryouhavetomakeitmoveinordertokeepitsorbitstable.)
4.Howisthismodelliketherealthing?(YourmarbleisyoursatelliteandthetopoftheconeistheorbititmakesaroundtheEarth.)
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VocabularyfortheUnitAsteroid.ObjectinorbitaroundtheSun,intermediateinsizebetweenmeteoroidsandplanets.
Asteroidbelt.Theregionofthesolarsysteminwhichmostasteroidshavetheirorbits,betweenMarsandJupiter.
BlackholesaretheleftoversofaBIGsupernova.Whenastarexplodes,itcollapsesdownintoawhitedwarforaneutronstar.However,ifthestarislargeenough,thereisnothingtokeepitfromcollapsing,soitcontinuestocollapseforever.Itbecomessosmallanddensethatthegravitationalpullissogreatthatlightitselfcan’tescape.
Centerofmass.Meanpositionofthemassesthatcompriseasystemorlargerbody:fortwobodies,thecenterofmassisapointonthelinejoiningthem.Forabinarystarsystem,themotionofeachstarcanbecomputedaboutthecenterofmass.
Comet.Smallbodyinthesolarsystem,inorbitaroundtheSun.SomeofitsfrozenmaterialvaporizesduringthecloserpartsofitsapproachtotheSuntoproducethecharacteristictail,rightbehindthehead.
Conjunction.Closestapparentapproachoftwocelestialobjects.PlanetaryconjunctionswereonceconsideredimportantomensforeventsonEarth.
Constellation.Agroupofstarsthatseemedtosuggesttheshapeofsomegod,person,animalorobject.Nowatermusedtodesignatearegionofthesky.Thereare88constellations.
Darkmatter:Matterinthecosmosthatisundetectablebecauseitdoesn’tglow.Darkmatter,someofitintheformofas‐yet‐undiscoveredexoticparticles,isthoughttocomprisemostoftheuniverse.
Eclipse.Blockingoflightfromonebodybyanotherthatpassesinfrontofit.Eclipsescanbetotalorpartial.
Eclipsepath.NarrowpathontheEarth’ssurfacetracedbytheMoon’sshadowduringaneclipse.
Eclipsingbinarystar.Binarystarwhosemutualorbitisviewedalmostedge‐onsothatlightobservedisregularlydecreasedeachtimeonestareclipsestheother.
Ecliptic.PaththattheSunappearstofollow,againstthestarsonthecelestialsphere,duringthecourseofayear.
Eclipticplane.PlanedefinedbytheEarth’sorbitaroundtheSun.
Electromagneticwave:Astructureconsistingofelectricandmagneticfieldsinwhicheachkindoffieldgeneratestheothertokeepthestructurepropagatingthroughemptyspaceatthespeedoflight,c.ElectromagneticwavesincluderadioandTVsignals,infraredradiation,visiblelight,ultravioletlight,xrays,andgammarays.
Ellipse.Typeofclosedcurvewhoseshapeisspecifiedintermsofitsdistancefromoneortwopoints.Acircleisaspecialformofellipse.Inappearance,anellipseisoval‐shaped.
Escapespeed:Thespeedneededtoescapetoinfinitelygreatdistancefromagravitatingobject.ForEarth,escapespeedfromthesurfaceisabout7milespersecond;forablackhole,escapespeedexceedsthespeedoflight.
Equinox.TwodayseachyearwhentheSunisaboveandbelowthehorizonforequallengthsoftime.
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Eventhorizon:Asphericalsurfacesurroundingablackholeandmarkingthe“pointofnoreturn”fromwhichnothingcanescape.
Field:Awayofdescribinginteractingobjectsthatavoidsactionatadistance.Inthefieldview,oneobjectcreatesafieldthatpervadesspace;asecondobjectrespondstothefieldinitsimmediatevicinity.Examplesincludetheelectricfield,themagneticfield,andthegravitationalfield.
Galaxiesarestarsthatarepulledandheldtogetherbygravity.
Globularclustersaremassivegroupsofstarsheldtogetherbygravity,usuallyhousingbetweentensofthousandstomillionsofstars(thinkNewYorkCity).
Gravitationallensingisonewaywecan“see”ablackhole.Whenlightleavesastar,itcontinuesinastraightlineuntilyankedonbythegravityofablackhole,whichbendsthelightandchangesitscourseandshowsupasstreaksormultiple,distortedimagesonyourphotograph.
Gravitationaltimedilation:Theslowingoftimeinregionsofintensegravity(largespacetimecurvature).
Gravitationalwaves:Literally,“ripples”inthefabricofspacetime.Theypropagateatthespeedoflightandresultintransientdistortionsinspaceandtime.
Gravity:AccordingtoNewton,anattractiveforcethatactsbetweenallmatterintheuniverse.AccordingtoEinstein,ageometricalpropertyofspacetime(spacetimecurvature)thatresultsinthestraightestpathsnotbeingEuclideanstraightlines.
Latitude.Coordinateusedtomeasure(indegrees)theangulardistanceofapointorcelestialobjectsaboveorbelowanequator.
Lightyear.Distancethatlighttravelsin1year.
Longitude.Coordinateusedtospecifythepositionofapointordirectionaround(orparallelto)anequator.
TheKuiperBeltisanicyregionthatextendsfromjustbeyondNeptune(from3.7billionmilesto7.4billionmilesfromthesun).Thisiswheremostcometsandasteroidsfromoursolarsystemhangout.
NeutronstarswithHUGEmagneticfieldsareknownasmagnetars.
Magneticfield.Regionsurroundingamagnetorelectriccurrent,inwhichmagneticforcecanbedetectedinsucharegion,high‐speedelectricallychargedparticleswillgenerallymovealongcurvedpathsandradiateenergy.
Magneticpole.OneofthetworegionsonEarthtowhichacompassneedlewillpoint.Polesalsoexistonmagnets,andthemagneticfieldsofsomeelectriccurrentscanhaveanequivalentbehavior.
Magnetoshpere.Regionsurroundingstarorplanet(includingEarth)inwhichamagneticfieldexists.
Meridian.Greatcircle,onthecelestialsphereortheEarth,thatpassesthroughbothnorthandsouthpolesandanobserver’szenithorlocation.
Meteor.Glowingtrailintheupperatmosphere,producedbymeteoroidburningupasitmovesathighspeed.
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Meteorshower.NumerousmeteorsseeninashorttimespanastheEarthmovesthroughacloudofmeteoroids,probablyremnantsofacometandstillfollowingthecomet’sorbit.
Meteorite.RemnantofameteoroidthathasbeenpartiallyerodedinpassagethroughtheEarth’satmospherebeforehittingthesurface.Termnowalsoappliedtosimilarbodiesthatcollidewiththesurfacesoftheotherplanetsandtheirsatellites,producingcraters.
Meteoroid.Largerock(butmuchsmallerthanminorplanets)movinginanorbitinthesolarsystem.MeteoroidsthatenterintheEarth’satmospherearetermedmeteorsormeteorites,dependingontheirbehavior.
Neutronstarsareformedfromstarsthatgosupernova,butaren’tbigandfatenoughtoturnintoablackhole.
TheOortCloudliesjustbeyondtheKuiperbelt,housinganestimated1trillioncomets.
Orbit.Pathtracedoutbyoneobjectaroundanother.
Thevisiblesurfaceofthesuniscalledthephotosphere,andismademostlyofplasma(remembertheplasmagrapeexperiment?)thatbubblesuphotandcoldregionsofgas.
Dyingstarsblowoffshellsofheatedgasthatglowinbeautifulpatternscalledplanetarynebula.
Pulsarsareatypeofneutronstarthatspinsveryfast,spewsjetsofhigh‐energyx‐rayparticlesoutthepoles,andhaslargemagneticfields.
Oursolarsystemincludesrockyterrestrialplanets(Mercury,Venus,Earth,andMars),gasgiants(JupiterandSaturn),icegiants(UranusandNeptune),andassortedchunksoficeanddustthatmakeupvariouscomets(dustysnowballs)andasteroids(chunksofrock).
Spacetime:Thefour‐dimensionalcontinuuminwhichtheeventsoftheuniversetakeplace.Accordingtorelativity,spacetimebreaksdownintospaceandtimeindifferentwaysfordifferentobservers.
Spacetimecurvature:ThegeometricalpropertyofspacetimethatcausesitsgeometrytodifferfromordinaryEuclideangeometry.Thecurvatureiscausedbythepresenceofmassiveobjects,andotherobjectsnaturallyfollowthestraightestpossiblepathsincurvedspacetime.Thisistheessenceofgeneralrelativity’sdescriptionofgravity.
Spacetimeinterval:Afour‐dimensional“distance”inspacetime.Unlikeintervalsoftimeordistance,whicharedifferentforobserversinrelativemotion,thespacetimeintervalbetweentwoeventshasthesamevalueforallobservers.
Specialtheoryofrelativity:Einstein’sstatementthatthelawsofphysicsarethesameforallobserversinuniformmotion.