wt2013
TRANSCRIPT
2013
BLADE REINFORCEMENT TRENDS
ANALYSING CORE PROPERTIES
JEC 2013 EXHIBITION PREVIEW
WIND ENERGY MARKET UPDATE
www.corematerials.3AComposites.com
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2013 | WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING 3
© Copyright Applied Market Information. No part may be reproduced without the prior written permission of the publisher.
04 News
08 Wind market pauses for breath Wind energy experts predict the big wind markets of Europe, the US and China
will all see slowing installation rates during 2013. But the outlook remains bright for this leading renewable technology.
16 Fibre makers prepare for a big future Bigger means better for developers of wind blade reinforcements. Peter
Mapleston discovers how the leading players are responding to increasingly tough demands from blade designers.
25 SSP sets new record with 83.5m blade SSP Technology recently delivered a record-breaking 83.5m offshore prototype
turbine blade for testing. Chris Smith takes a closer look at the development and manufacturing project.
28 Understanding the core properties Resin penetration into blade core materials during infusion can provide additional
stiffness. A test programme at Gurit has attempted to quantify the mechanical improvement for blade modelling.
34 Fibre optic blade strain monitoring Operation and maintenance is a key cost in offshore wind installations. Optical
strain gauge technology can allow continuous and remote monitoring, says Luc Rademakers.
39 The forum for blade innovation Investment activity in wind energy may have slowed but technical innovations
continue apace. We report from the Wind Turbine Blade Manufacture conference.
44 Composites blow into Paris Wind energy will once again be a key element within the JEC Europe exhibition in
Paris. We take a look at some of the new products and technologies that will be on show.
48 Product update
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WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 20134
news
Alstom upgrades its ECO 100 platform
Dong to build E1bn Rough farm
Alstom has completed an upgrade of the
3MW ECO 100 turbine installed at the US
Department of Energy’s NREL centre in
Colorado to ECO 110 specification by
installing new larger 53.5m long blades.
The rotor exchange is part of a
project designed to maximise power
outputs for intermediate wind speeds
(IEC Class II).
“There is great potential for develop-
ing medium wind speed resources
throughout the US and Canada,” said
Albert Fisas, director of innovation for
Alstom’s North American wind busi-
ness. “With this upgrade complete,
Alstom and NREL will launch a
commissioning and testing program to
certify the performance of the new rotor
configuration for use in North America
and worldwide.”
Alstom claims to have 900MW of
capacity in operation or under construc-
tion worldwide based on its 3MW ECO
100 platform. Last month, it announced
an upgrade of the design to ECO 122
specification, which is said to be
suitable for IEC Class III sites and
capable of providing a net capacity
increase of 48%.
❙ www.alstom.com
Dong Energy is to build a
210MW offshore wind farm
8km off the coast of Holder-
ness in the UK using 35 6MW
turbines from Siemens.
Construction of the
Westermost Rough wind farm
will commence next year with
the facility coming on line in
the first half of 2015. According
to Dong, it will be the first
large installation to use this
of energy through the deploy-
ment of new technologies, and
Westermost Rough will provide
a tangible example of how we
are doing just that,” said Benj
Sykes, Dong Energy Wind
Power UK country manager.
The Westermost Rough
wind farm will cover 35km2.
It is wholly owned by Dong
Energy
❙ www.dongenergy.co.uk
3A invests in balsa stocksSwitzerland’s 3A Compos-
ites has announced a 20%
expansion in its balsa
plantation base in Ecuador,
taking its total ownership to
10,000 hectares.
The company, which
claims to be the global
leader in balsa core
materials, says the move
will secure supply of its
FSC-certified Baltek
product for its customers.
The investment also
includes new balsa
processing machinery.
The strength and
stiffness of balsa makes it a
preferred core option in
applications such as wind
blades.
Ecuador is the world’s
leading balsa producer.
❙ www.3acomposites.com
The CEZ Group wind park at
Dobogrea in Romania, which
came on line late last year with
600MW of generating capacity,
is claimed to be Europe’s
largest onshore scheme.
The project uses 240 2.5MW
turbines with 50m rotor blades
supplied by GE Worldwide. The
company claims its 2.5MW
design provides high levels of
efficiency and reliability under
a wide range of weather
conditions.
CEZ Group, which owns and
operates the Dobogrea park, is
Central Europe’s largest utility
firm.
GE’s general manager for
renewable energy in Europe,
Stephen Ritter said the project
represented a considerable
logistical challenge, with 12
modes of transport required to
move the component parts
from the Black Sea port of
Constanta to Dobogrea and as
many as 25 cranes in use on
the site at one time.
GE says it has supplied
more than 1,000 turbines of
this design to date.
❙ www.ge.com
GE supplies giant project in Romania
latest Siemens turbine.
The project represents an
investment of around E1bn,
including the required
transmission infrastructure of
inter-arrays, export cables and
offshore sub-station.
“We are excited about the
potential of this new technol-
ogy and deploying the 6MW
turbine on this scale. We are
committed to reducing the cost
Installation of the
larger blades
at NERL
2013 | WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING 5
news
Siemens wins E700m offshore contract
BASF will introduce its first
PET-based foam core material
for the wind energy market at
this month’s JEC Europe show
in Paris, France.
❙ Gamesa has secured a
three-year contract to
provide operation and
maintenance services at 13
wind farms owned by EDP
Renewables. The contract
covers 400MW of capacity in
France, Spain and Portugal.
It includes maintenance of
402 Gamesa turbines and
technical assistance for a
further 179 units.
www.gamesa.es
❙ Dow Formulated Systems
has opened a Global Wind
Application Centre in
Switzerland. The 800m2
facility is located at Freinen-
bach near Zurich and
includes resin formulation
and testing capabilities for
development of Dow’s
Airstone adhesive bonding,
vacuum bagging and vacuum
infusion resin systems.
www.dowwindenergy.com
❙ Siemens Energy completed
its first onshore wind project
with Shanghai Electric at the
end of last year. The Guangrao
power project has a capacity
of 50MW and includes 20
SWT-2.5-108 turbines, each
of which provides 2.5Mw
capacity and uses 108m
diameter rotors.
www.siemens.com
❙ Denmark’s DTU has
inaugurated its wind turbine
test centre at Østerild, which
is claimed to be able to
accommodate turbines up to
250m high. The site has
seven test stands; Vestas and
Siemens have each bought
two and China’s Envision
Energy is leasing one.
www.dtu.dk
news in brief
Germany’s WPD Group has awarded a E700m
contract to Siemens to supply and service 80 wind
turbines for the 288MW Butendiek offshore wind
power plant in the North Sea.
The Butendiek wind energy facility is located
around 32 km west of the island of Sylt near the
German-Danish border and is expected to come on
line in 2015. The Siemens contract includes a 10-year
maintenance element.
“By 2020, we estimate that 500GW of wind power
will be installed worldwide. Offshore wind power
plants constitute by far the fastest growing segment
of this market,” said Felix Ferlemann, CEO of
Siemens Energy’s Wind Power Division.
“Maritime wind power is playing a key role in
Germany’s energy turnaround efforts. Its broad
acceptance among the general public and signifi-
cantly higher energy capture than onshore installa-
tions are particular points in its favour,” he said.
❙ www.siemens.com
BASF launches into PET blade cores
Suzlon wins Cookhouse wind orderIndia’s Suzlon Group has
secured a contract to supply
and service 66 of its S-88
2.1MW wind turbines for the
Cookhouse Wind Farm,
which is to be constructed
in the Eastern Cape
Province of South Africa.
The Cookhouse farm is
the largest renewable
energy project to be selected
within the South African
Department of Energy’s
Renewable Energy Inde-
pendent Power Producers
Procurement Programme.
Construction started in
January of this year.
❙ www.suzlon.com
The company claims that
the Kerdyn PET foam provides
a very good combination of
light weight and mechanical
properties and is compatible
with a wide range of process-
ing technologies used in the
wind energy marketplace.
BASF will also show its
latest low viscocity Baxxodur
System 5100 epoxy resin
system for vacuum infusion
processing and the new
GL-certified Baxxodur 4100
fast bonding adhesive system.
l Turn to page 42 for details of
more new production and
technology introductions to be
unveiled at JEC Europe.
❙ www.basf.comBASF’s Kerdyn PET core foam
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 20136
news
The UK-based Energy
Technology Institute (ETI) has
announced a £15.5m project to
develop a new generation of
wind turbine blades up to
100m long with Isle of Wight
based blade designer and
manufacturer Blade Dynamics.
The project, which sees ETI
take an equity stake in Blade
Dynamics, aims to design and
manufacture a number of
prototype blades in the
80-100m size range suitable
for off-shore application. Blade
Dynamics will develop the
designs in conjunction with an
as yet unidentified turbine
manufacturer. According to
ETI, the intention is to have
prototype blades ready for
production by the end of 2014.
Structural testing will be
carried out in the UK.
“Offshore wind has the
potential to be a much larger
contributor to the UK energy
system if today’s costs can be
significantly reduced. Investing
in this project to develop
larger, more efficient blades is
a key step for the whole
industry in paving the way for
more efficient turbines, which
will in turn help bring the costs
of generating electricity down,”
said ETI offshore wind project
manager Paul Trinick.
The blades are being
designed for use on the next
generation of offshore wind
turbines, which are expected
to provide generating capaci-
ties of 8-10MW. The blades will
utilise the modular construc-
tion technology developed by
Blade Dynamics and will use
carbon fibre reinforcement to
enable weight to be kept to the
minimum.
Blade Dynamics gained GL
certification early last year for
its 49m long glass/carbon
reinforced Dynamic 49 design,
which weighs just 6,150kg.
While carbon reinforcement
is more costly than glass, the
reduced blade mass is
expected to allow turbine
designers to save money in the
remainder of the turbine
design and will contribute to a
reduced energy production
cost, according to ETI.
“Our investment strategy
here is to provide financial
support to allow [Blade
Dynamics] to develop its
technology further, to
accelerate and expand the
testing of this UK technology,
and to identify the large-scale
development opportunity of
this design approach,” said
Trinick.
The first stage of the project
will develop a blade design and
test detailed design and
manufacturing technologies.
The second stage will establish
and demonstrate the proposed
manufacturing processes on a
blade for a 6MW turbine. The
final stage will be to develop,
test and verify a blade for a
turbine in the 8-10MW range.
ETI is a private-public
partnership between BP,
Caterpillar, EDF, E.ON,
Rolls-Royce, Shell and the UK
government. Its focus is to
speed up development of
affordable and secure low-
carbon energy technologies.
❙ www.eti.co.uk❙ www.bladedynamics.com
Blade Dynamics’ 49m long Dynamic 49 blade uses
glass and carbon fibre and modular construction
techniques to keep weight to 6,150kg. The new
ETI-funded project aims to extend these
technologies to the 80-100m size range
UK-based ETI invests £15.5m inlarge offshore blade project
More fibre capacity for PPG/Nan Ya China JVChina-based PFG Fiber Glass (Kunshan),
a 50:50 joint venture between PPG
Industries and Nan Ya Plastics, has
started up a fourth furnace lifting its total
annual capacity to 144,000 tonnes.
“This furnace features innovative,
state-of-the-art technology,” said Terry
Fry, PPG general manager of global
electronics and the company’s regional
fibre glass business. “The technological
advancements of its manufacturing
operation enable us to maximise process
efficiency while saving energy and
reducing emissions.”
PFG Fiber Glass was established in
2001 to supply glass fibre yarns for
electronics applications such as PCBs but
also produces reinforcement grades. The
JV partners also operate a 90,000 tonnes/
year PFG plant in Taiwan.
❙ www.ppg.com
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 20138
feature | Market report
Wind energy experts predict Europe, the US and China will all see slowing
installation rates this year. But the outlook for this leading renewable
technology remains bright
PH
OTO
: LM
WIN
D P
OW
ER
Global wind energy capacity has expanded at an
impressive rate over the past decade, with installed
capacity building consistently year-on-year (see fi gure
1). Even in the immediate aftermath of the fi nancial
crisis, the industry saw modest year-on-year gigawatt
gains. However, activity is set to slow this year as each
of the major wind energy-producing regions - the US,
China and Europe – falls short of recent installation
rates. While most analysts predict this is a temporary
blip, 2013 will without doubt be a tough year for many.
“We are seeing a big change this year,” says Dan
Shurey, a wind industry analyst at Bloomberg New
Energy Finance (BNEF) in London. Last year, an
estimated 44GW of wind capacity was installed world-
wide, but BNEF is predicting just 39GW this year.
According to Shurey: “2013 and 2014 will represent the
low point of the industry, but it should slowly recover in
the following few years.”
Politics hits hard in the USThe biggest downturn is likely to be seen in the US,
where the wind industry has fallen victim to the
country’s large budget defi cit and the political gridlock
in its legislature. Some 13GW of wind generating
capacity was installed in 2012, but BNEF predicts this
will slump to just 3GW for 2013. Most of the blame for
this can be laid with a government that simply took too
long to renew the key federal subsidy - the production
tax credit (PTC) - which incentivises project developers
by allowing them to offset their federal income tax bill
by $22 per megawatt-hour (MWh) of energy produced.
Historically, the US Congress has only granted the
PTC for one or two-year periods and the process of
Wind market pauses for breath
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WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201310
feature | Market report
renewing it has often been delayed until the last minute,
causing havoc for developers’ planning. This year, that
situation was played out again, as the PTC for 2013 was
entwined in the fractious US budget debate and was
only fi nally confi rmed on 1 January. A boom in 2012
ahead of the deadline has now turned to bust.
“The uncertainty over renewal has put a dampener
on activity,” says Arnaud Bouillé, a director in the
renewable energy team at Ernst & Young in London.
“Some players will have kept momentum with projects,
but others will have stopped activities while awaiting
regulatory certainty.”
However, along with the one-year renewal, the
industry did secure an important change. Eligibility for
the PTC now starts when construction begins on a new
project, whereas previously it was when the scheme
began generating. This is likely to help ameliorate some
of the boom-bust tendency, according to analysts.
US renewables developers also have access to a
second federal-level subsidy – the investment tax credit
(ITC). This offers a 30% tax relief to investors and can be
used as an alternative to the PTC scheme.
Meanwhile, further incentives are available at a state
level, such as sales tax exemptions, state-level tax
credits, and renewable energy targets. More than half of
all US states have a policy – known as a renewables
portfolio standard (RPS) – that requires utilities to
deliver a certain proportion of energy from renewable
sources. California’s RPS scheme, for example, targets
generating 33% of energy from renewables by 2020 and,
in addition, has a carbon-trading programme that
penalises fossil fuel generation. Small projects of less
than 3MW capacity can access a feed-in tariff - a direct
per-MWh subsidy paid to developers - and were
previously able to receive cash grants.
States furthest from meeting their RPS targets
include Maine, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Utah and
Hawaii, according to Paul Gaynor, CEO of First Wind, a
developer based in Boston, Massachusetts.
Renewable resolve weakens in EuropeIn Europe, the EC has set a target to produce 20% of
energy from renewables by 2020 and wind will contrib-
ute the largest part of this. According to the European
Renewable Energy Council, wind turbines will supply
more than 14% of total European electricity consump-
tion in 2020, requiring over 213GW of capacity (of which
43GW will be offshore). This is double the 100GW or so
currently installed and points to a healthy combined
average annual growth rate of some 10%.
But headwinds are growing stronger. European
governments have been pulling back on some of the
most generous wind subsidies as they attempt to plug
huge budget defi cits, with the result that renewable
energy targets are at risk of being ignored. Spain,
Europe’s second-biggest wind energy market with more
than 22GW installed, last year froze its feed-in tariff so
that any projects built after the end of 2012 would not
qualify. It also slapped a new 7% tax on wind farm
(ITC). This offers a 30% tax relief to investors and can be In Europe, the EC has set a target to produce 20% of
energy from renewables by 2020 and wind will contrib-
ute the largest part of this. According to the European
Renewable Energy Council, wind turbines will supply
more than 14% of total European electricity consump-
tion in 2020, requiring over 213GW of capacity (of which
43GW will be offshore). This is double the 100GW or so
currently installed and points to a healthy combined
average annual growth rate of some 10%.
governments have been pulling back on some of the
most generous wind subsidies as they attempt to plug
huge budget defi cits, with the result that renewable
energy targets are at risk of being ignored. Spain,
Europe’s second-biggest wind energy market with more
than 22GW installed, last year froze its feed-in tariff so
that any projects built after the end of 2012 would not
qualify. It also slapped a new 7% tax on wind farm
250
200
150
100
50
01996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Figure 1: Total global installed wind energy generation capacity (GW) by year, 1996-2012 Source: Ren21
PH
OTO
: DO
NG
EN
ERG
Y
Changes to the
US PTC system
may reduce the
boom-bust
investment
tendency in
wind
2013 | WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING 11
Market report | feature
operators. Few, if any, wind farms are expected to break
ground in Spain this year, says BNEF’s Shurey.
Italy has changed its support for wind from a green
certificate system - where developers are given tradable
certificates in proportion to the energy they generate
which are then sold to utilities as evidence they have
delivered a certain amount of renewable energy to
customers - to a process where developers must bid in
a competitive auction to obtain a feed-in tariff. However,
the government is only inviting bids for 500MW of
capacity this year, about half of the country’s recent
average annual installation rate.
If the bugbear of US wind developers is the PTC, then
for their European counterparts it is the price placed on
carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. The EU’s pioneering
emissions trading system, launched in 2005, was
intended to penalise coal and gas-fired power genera-
tion and to encourage renewables. Unfortunately, too
many emissions permits were given away for free to
industry, whose output slumped with the financial
crisis, leading to a massive oversupply in the carbon
market. CO2 prices were sitting at less than €5/tonne in
mid-January, far from the E15-20/tonne analysts
estimate is needed to move generators away from coal
generation. Attempts to modify the carbon market in
favour of renewables have run into fierce opposition
from industry.
Repowering gains in GermanyGermany – Europe’s largest wind market with 30GW
installed – was looking relatively stable thanks to its
government’s decision to phase-out nuclear energy in
favour of renewables following the Fukushima disaster.
The country installed around 2GW of wind generating
capacity last year and has been a leader in “repowering”
– the process of replacing existing turbines with newer,
larger units – which already represents about 10% of the
annual capacity added in Germany. The country’s
government has operated a special repowering incentive
of E5/MWh, on top of the E48/MWh basic rate.
However, consumers have been angered by rising
electricity bills and the pressure has been felt by the poli-
ticians. With an eye on September elections, the
government in mid-February proposed changes to its
renewable energy law that would essentially halt
repowering and reduce the build-out of new projects. The
proposal “will cast a new wave of uncertainty over the
traditionally stable market,” says BNEF’s Shurey.
In any event, repowering is not always straightfor-
ward. “Turbines being developed today are much larger
and they may not sit well on the site that’s to be repow-
ered. There might be some acceptability [planning]
issues around larger turbines being installed and in
physically getting them to the site,” says E&Y’s Bouillé.
Meanwhile, the wind investment picture looks quite
bright in some other European markets. Shurey
describes the UK as “a very favourable market” with
bold targets, despite some uncertainties created by the
persistently evolving subsidy structure. Feed-in tariffs
Figure 2: Wind energy investment attractive index by country (at November 2012)Rank Previousrank Country Wind Onshore Offshore
1 1 China 76 77 69
2 2 Germany 68 65 78
3 3 India 63 69 40
3 6 Canada 63 66 46
5 3 UK 62 59 78
5 3 US* 62 64 55
7 7 France 58 59 54
8 9 Sweden 55 55 53
8 10 Poland 55 57 44
10 11 Romania 54 57 44
* represents US states with RPS and favourable renewable energy regimesIndices reflect regulatory/political risk, ease of planning and grid connection, access to finance, resource quality, growth potential, current installed base, situation for power offtake, tax Source: Ernst & Young
Figure 3: Installed wind energy capacity (GW) by country – 2012Rank Country Totalcapacity Capacityaddedin byJune2012 firsthalf2012
1 China 67.8 5.4
2 US 49.8 2.9
3 Germany 30 0.9
4 Spain 22.1 0.4
5 India 17.4 1.5
6 Italy 7.3 0.5
7 France 7.2 0.7
8 UK 6.8 0.8
9 Canada 5.5 0.2
10 Portugal 4.4 0.02
Source: WWEA. Italy figures to end of May 2012, France figures to end of April 2012
Figure 4: Operational and planned offshore wind projects and capacities by region Operational Operational Planned Planned projects capacity projects capacity (number) (GW) (number) (GW)
Europe 61 4.1 347 123
Americas 0 0 139 42.5
Asia 14 0.8 107 24.4
Source: Arthur D Little
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201312
feature | Market report
or green certificates are available to developers of
large-scale projects, but the UK government is due to
introduce a “contracts for difference” system in the
future that aims to provide stable revenues for wind
investors while not over-compensating them if energy
prices soar or turbine costs fall.
Meanwhile, emerging European markets such as
Romania, Bulgaria and Finland are, in terms of percent-
age growth figures, looking to be real hotspots. How-
ever, these countries are starting from very small base
levels and growth is unlikely to be sufficient to make up
for the decline in the bigger markets of Europe.
China retains its leading placeWorldwide, it is a similar picture, with relative newcom-
ers such as Brazil, Chile and Mexico making the biggest
gains. China, however, remains the global leader (see
figure 3), with a preliminary estimate of 14GW of new
capacity installed in 2012.
This impressive achievement just beat the US into
second place and brought China’s total wind generating
capacity to 76GW. Even so, last year’s installation rate
was a significant reduction on 2011’s 17.6GW as
financing and grid capacity issues took hold. And
although the National Energy Bureau is reportedly
eyeing 18GW of new Chinese capacity this year, analysts
expect installation figures of about 15-17GW/year in the
medium term.
China’s 12th five-year plan calls for 150GW of wind
generation capacity to be installed by 2020 - a target
that looks eminently achievable if the current installa-
tion rate continues. “The history of the wind sector in
China is they always overshoot the target,” says Liming
Qiao, China director of the Global Wind Energy Council.
“But we have some problems that started to emerge in
2011 and 2012.”
Wind energy generators are experiencing more and
more difficulty in delivering power to China’s under-
developed grid, which becomes overloaded during
windy periods. The average curtailment rate - the
proportion of energy that could not be produced
because of shut-downs demanded by the grid operator
- is currently around 16% and as high as 20% in some
regions, Qiao says, compared to less than 10% in
Europe. Major cross-provincial transmissions lines are
being built, but “projects are being held up while grid
issues are solved,” she says.
There have also been financing issues in China. The
fund that awards the feed-in tariff to wind farm develop-
ers is under-capitalised and suffering from administra-
tive problems, which has resulted in problems for wind
farm developers. “A lot of wind farms were not paid,”
Qiao says. “Sometimes [the developers] had problems
The challenge in offshore windAs a relatively new technology that has to face some very challenging
environmental conditions, offshore wind farms are having their fair share
of troubles and a number of country installation targets are unlikely to be
met.
In Europe, the only region with significant experience in building and
operating offshore wind farms (see figure 4), cost overruns and delays
are common. Immature supply chains have also led to shortages of
critical items, for example in specialist installation vessels.
Grid connections seem particularly problematic, with German
offshore sites stymied by the unavailability of high-voltage DC transmis-
sion equipment. Installation is also difficult. According to the insurance
broker Marsh, damage to cables accounts for more than half of all
insurance claims from offshore wind projects.
Given these challenges, Europe’s ambition to have more than 40MW
of offshore wind generating capacity in operation seems optimistic at the
current time.
China’s offshore target is for 3GW of offshore capacity by 2015 and
30GW by 2020, but judging by the present delays this is looking difficult
to achieve, says Liming Qiao, China director of the Global Wind Energy
Council. The particular challenge in China has been coordination
between the various government agencies involved, she notes.
Installation of offshore capacity is, however, running at around 7.5GW/
year globally. That may be small compared to the 30-40GW of onshore
wind, but offshore is growing fast. The sector also attracts a very
different type of investor due to its scale; offshore wind requires billions
of dollars of financing which puts them in the class of large infrastruc-
ture projects. “Huge utilities are throwing their balance sheets at
offshore wind, and there’s increasing interest from pension funds,” says
Dan Shurey, wind industry analyst at BNEF.
pH
oTo
: Do
NG
EN
ERG
y
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To find out more please call us today to see how we can work together to meet your needs - anywhere in the world.
Sika Schweiz AG, Tüffenwies 16CH-8048 Zürich, +41 58 436 40 [email protected]
www.sika.com/industry
COME AND VISIT US INPAVILION 1/ STAND D17
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201314
feature | Market report
paying the turbine manufacturers, and the manufactur-
ers had problems paying their suppliers.”
In acknowledgement of these problems, the feed-in
tariff in China has remained unchanged since 2009,
despite falling turbine costs. “Given the fact that
curtailment is high, it’s not fair to reduce the feed-in
tariff,” Qiao adds.
Wind closes the cost gapHow much longer wind will need government support is
a difficult question to answer. Wind power generation is
certainly becoming more competitive with conventional
power. For example, the costs of wind turbines have
fallen by about 20-25% over the last three to four years,
according to BNEF’s Shurey. Since turbines represent
60-65% of a project’s capital expenditure, this makes a
big difference to installation costs.
However, Shurey notes there is a growing divergence
between the cost of ‘old’ and ‘new’ technologies. The
newer 2MW-plus, 100m-high turbines are holding at a
price of more than E1m/MW as producers try to preserve
margins. But smaller, older turbine designs are continu-
ing to fall in cost, albeit less steeply than previously.
Fierce competition between providers has also
helped reduce the cost of operation and maintenance by
around 40% over the past three or four years, says
Shurey, and the capacity factor - the actual production
over the potential production - has also improved as
taller turbines sit in faster air.
All these changes have helped improve wind’s
competitiveness and, even though other renewables
technologies - notably solar - have also seen dramatic
falls in their per-MW cost, wind remains the cheapest
route to renewable generation.
E&Y’s Bouillé says that onshore wind is even
becoming a cost-viable solution without subsidies “in
places where the wind regime is exceptional and where
access to the grid is not too costly.” However, he points
out that such a combination of circumstances occurs
only very rarely and typically a wind farm will still cost
about 50% more than a fossil fuel power station of
similar capacity.
The challenge of shale gasWhere wind faces a very real threat is in the competition
in energy pricing resulting from the boom in production
of cheap shale gas. The slump in US natural gas prices
is putting “a whole new spin on the economic viability of
wind in the US, and the same rationale applies to the
rest of the world,” according to Bouillé.
Long-term power purchase agreements, often
necessary to obtain financing for wind farms, have
become harder to obtain as a result. However, some
observers doubt that the US shale gas revolution will be
replicated in other parts of the world and, in developing
countries where demand for power is climbing, still see
wind playing a very significant role.
It is also possible that the boom in gas could benefit
the wind sector. One of the problems with wind energy
is that its production is unpredictable, only being
available when the wind blows. In liberalised energy
markets with lots of wind farms, such as in Germany,
breezy conditions have combined with moments of low
power demand to force spot electricity prices below
zero. In such circumstances anyone delivering power to
the grid is penalised and generators are incentivized to
stop producing power.
Bouillé describes this as a “critical issue” and says it is
one with only a handful of solutions. One is much better
grid integration to enable power to be delivered further
afield. This is a solution that is being actively pursued,
with the recent link between the UK and Ireland an
example. Demand-side management is also an option
but is very complicated to achieve in reality, he says.
However, wind in combination with a cheap ‘dis-
patchable’ power source such as natural gas could
provide a very effective combination for meeting
low-carbon energy needs - assuming that markets and
incentives can be appropriately designed.
pH
OTO
: NO
rD
Ex
Low cost shale
gas could help
wind gain
ground in more
liberalised
energy
markets
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- a worldwide provider of Lightning Protection to the Wind Turbine Industry
Evaluation of Lightning Protection Systems
Conceptual Lightning Protection Layouts
Risk Assessment
Detailed Mechanical and Electrical Design Engineering
Delivery of Customized Hardware Solutions
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Delivery of Solutions for Surge Protection
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WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201316
materials | Reinforcements
Bigger means better for developers of wind blade reinforcements. Peter Mapleston hears how the leading
players are responding to increasingly tough demands from blade designers
PH
OTO
: BA
SF
Wind power fi gures large in the composites industry
with around 10% of all glass fi bre available for compos-
ites ending up in wind turbine blades. Today’s wind
blades are already among the largest parts currently
made in composites. But for wind energy to be competi-
tive with traditional energy options, turbines need to be
even bigger. And that places increasingly tough demands
on designers and on the material supply chain.
The rationale, of course, is simple - bigger blades
catch more of the wind. “Swept area is critical,” says
Cheryl Richards, global market development manager
for wind energy at glass fi bre producer PPG Industries.
“Power is proportional to the square of the radius.”
However, as the blade gets bigger, it gets heavier,
and the stresses on it increase. Blade weight rises with
the cube of the radius. So if current E-glass fi bres are
used to produce 10-20% longer blades, a 33-73%
increase in the blade weight would be expected.
Heavier blades increase the overall cost in the wind
turbine system operation. “That’s where the challenge
is,” says Richards. “There’s a lot of interest in new
materials that can make the blades longer without a
large increase in weight.”
E-glass accounts for a large part of the wind turbine
blade market. E-glass is defi ned by its chemical
composition (it is primarily composed of CaO, Al2O3, and
SiO2) and the chemical composition defi nes its perfor-
mance. Numerous glass fi bre companies are developing
grades with mechanical properties better than those of
E-glass, but always with an eye on the costs.
PPG’s work in this area has led to the development
of Innofi ber XM fi bre glass. The chemical composition of
Innofi ber XM falls outside the specifi cation for E-glass,
delivering properties associated more with higher
performance R-glass (alumino silicate glass with no
Fibre reinforcement makersprepare for a bigger future
If installation
costs can be
contained,
prospects for
offshore
turbines are
good. That will
fuel demand
for high
performance
fi bres
3-5 December 2013 –Maritim Hotel, Düsseldorf, Germany
HEADLINE SPONSOR
The international conference on MW wind blades looking at design,composites manufacturing and performance
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURE 2013
The wind power industry is expanding into new countries across the globe and new companies are moving into this marketplace. The key to viability is highly efficient electricity generation, long-term integrity and good economics. These factors are dependent on the blade design and structure.
The 4th AMI international Wind Turbine Blade Manufacture conference will again provide the forum to debate the latest designs, manufacturing technologies and performance of wind turbine blade composite structures, including causes of failure and solutions to challenges such as lightning strike, icing, and offshore sea exposure.
Wind Turbine Blade Manufacture 2013 will bring together energy companies, wind turbine producers, blade manufacturers, design engineers, composites manufacturing experts, researchers, developers, materials and equipment suppliers to discuss the technology and costs of producing reliable year-round wind energy, focusing on the key component, the rotor. ATTending, exhiBiTing And SponSoringIf you would like to attend this highly valued learning and networking event, or wish to book a tabletop exhibition space or sponsor the conference, please contact Rocio Martinez, [email protected] Tel: +44 117 924 9442.
The cAll for pAperS iS noW openWould you like to speak at this leading industry event? The call for papers is now open. If you would like to give a 25 minute presentation, please send a short summary and title for your topic to Dr Sally Humphreys, [email protected]. The deadline for submissions is 17th May 2013. It is free to attend the conference as a speaker.
Previous attendees at this event include senior specialists from across the wind power sector. click here to find out more
FOR mORE INFORmAtION AbOuttHE cONFERENcE, cLIck HERE
Organised by:Applied Market Information Ltd.
Also sponsored by: Media supporter:
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201318
materials | Reinforcements
Figure 3: 3B says it achieved its aim of developing a glass fi bre with better mechanical properties that has a forming temperature below most other speciality glass fi bres
Figure 2: Comparison of modulus values in epoxy unidirectional laminates containing different fi bres and sizing Source: 3B
MgO and CaO).
On paper, the differences between regular E-glass
and Innofi ber XM do not appear major – both are
alkaline earth aluminosilicates – but Innofi ber XM has
rather more magnesium oxide in it, less calcium and
zero boron. More importantly for turbine blade makers
is the fact there are signifi cant differences in the
mechanical properties.
Innofi ber XM has strength and modulus that are
10-15% higher than E-glass, and these improvements
are also carried through into fabrics and prepregs. PPG
has carried out various tests by substituting E-glass
with Innofi ber XM in the spar cap on 33m blades
designed by the US Department of Energy to validate its
results (see diagram). “The model shows we can
increase energy output,” Richards says, recognizing
that blade makers themselves could get even better
results.
“What’s exciting for us is that the wind energy
industry is big enough to merit the development of new
fi bres,” says Richards. “It’s large enough to support [our
investment in] their commercial production. The wind
industry is actually in a position to drive a whole new
area of composites. You will eventually see these fi bres
migrate into other high-performance composite
applications, such as automotive and aerospace.”
Richard’s colleague at PPG Hong Li, who invented
Innofi ber XM, says there are now several high modulus
fi bres available for making stiffer lightweight wind
blades. “For example, carbon fi bre has a substantially
high modulus (150 GPa) and signifi cantly lower density
(1.78 g/cm3) than glass fi bre. However, the high cost of
carbon fi bre prohibits its use as a full replacement for
glass fi bre.”
S-Glass fi bre is another potential solution, Li notes.
But he says its melting and fi bre forming temperatures
are extremely high, so manufacturing is limited to a
small scale manufacturing platform. Throughput is at
least 1000 times lower than that of a commercial E-glass
fi bre production platform, Li says.
Last year, 3B (which calls itself 3B-the fi breglass
company), followed up on its Advantex SE2020 E-glass
roving for turbine blades with an R-glass, HiPer-tex
W2020. Both are specifi cally engineered for epoxy
polymer systems used in resin infusion or prepreg
processes. 3B says HiPer-tex W2020 has signifi cantly
greater strength and strain-to-failure than traditional
E-glass. In a typical unidirectional laminate made with
HiPer-tex W2020 R-glass (average glass volume
fraction 60%), E-modulus is 54-56 GPa, transverse
tensile strength is 55-60 MPa, and fatigue resistance is
ten times better than a traditional E-glass laminate.
HiPer-tex W2020 combines an optimised glass
composition with proprietary sizing technology for epoxy
systems, says Luc Peters, 3B wind technical leader. It
is said to offer improved wet-out for a more consistent
laminate quality. “The signifi cantly improved resin
matrix adhesion provides higher shear strength and
substantially greater interfi bre strength when compared
with existing high modulus fi bre glass in the market
place, he claims.
Peters says the main objectives of the new glass
formulation development were to increase the E
modulus by 10% versus the best E glass while main-
taining the strain to failure (which means a minimum
10% increase of tensile strength) and keeping manufac-
turing costs under control by lowering the fi bre forming
temperature.
Onur Tokgoz, 3B wind energy global business leader,
says the company is “collaborating with the whole value
chain in the wind industry sector to bring to market new
cost competitive and high performance reinforcements
which further pushes the limits of glass fi bre rotor
2013 | WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING 19
Reinforcements | materials
blade designs.”
Chinese company Jushi is another glass fibre
supplier now making R-glass, in its case under the ViPro
banner. Jushi says its “398” grade made using ViPro
technology is 13% stronger than a corresponding
E-glass, while modulus is 11% higher. “The tension-
tension fatigue resistance of laminates made from
ViPro-based 398 is 16% higher than those made from
E6-based counterparts (one million cycles, stress ratio R
0.1), and the ViPro-based product has a fatigue life five
times longer under the same load,” the company claims.
Owens Corning’s WindStrand H R-glass roving family
is, not surprisingly, specifically for turbine blades. It
claims grades provide blade component weight savings
of up to 20% versus conventional E-glass blades of
similar design, depending on the size of the blade. The
company notes that the glass formulation “is designed
for excellent mechanical properties (tensile strength
and modulus) and offers significantly better thermal
and corrosion resistance properties than E-glass.”
The roving consists of continuous filaments gathered
in a single-end roving without mechanical twist and
treated with specifically developed sizings for the
weaving & knitting, prepreg and infusion processes typi-
cally used in the wind turbine industry. The first grade in
the family, WindStrand H EPW17, was developed for
composites based on epoxy resin systems. Tensile
modulus is 52.5 GPa.
AGY, which claims to have the largest portfolio of
glass chemistries of any glass fibre manufacturer (with
various types of E-Glass and S-Glass), recently added
S-1 rovings, aimed directly at demanding wind turbine
applications. It says that S-1 HM rovings are “designed
to give the highest mechanical properties while meeting
Figure 1:
Substituting
E-glass with
speciality glass
can have an
important
effect on
turbine energy
output
Source, PPG
Table 1. Summary of representative compositions, Young’s modulus, and melt properties of selected high modulus glasses (in comparison with E-glass)Glass fibre type Property
SiO2 Al2O3 MgO CaO B2O3 R2O density E modulus TL TF
content % content % content % content % content % content % g/cm2 GPa ˚C ˚C
E-glass (generic) 52-62 12-16 0-5 16-25 0-10 0 – 2 2.60–2.65 72-80 <1155 <1210
S-glass (generic) 64-66 24-25 9.5-10 0-0.1 0 0-0.3 2.46- 88-91 1470 1571
R-glass (generic) 60 25 6 9 0 - 2.55 86 1410 1330
HiPer-tex [1] 60.6 19.9 10.3 8.7 0 1.1 2.55 90 1280 1351
H-Glass [2] 60.0 15.7 8.4 13.7 0 1.3 2.61 87 1198 1268
Innofiber XM 60.8 15.2 6.8 15.5 0 0.8 2.58 88 1207 1273
M2 [2] 48-54 16-22 18-23 - 0 - 2.77 93 1300 1342
T [3] 56 16 8 14 0 < 1 2.49 88 1210 1240
PohriS [4] 62-66 14-16.4 4-6 10-12 0 0.6 2.53 84 – 1400
Source: PPG[1] Product of 3B-the fibreglass company[2] Product of Owens Corning Vetrotex[3] From “Study on Preparation and Properties of New High Strength Glass Fibers. Functional Materials 2010 41; J. Liu, J. Zhu, Q. Zu.[4] From U.S. Patent US20110236684, Thermal Resistant Glass Fibers. R. Teschner, K. Richter, H.P. Richter. S.D.R. Biotec Verfahrenstechnik GmbH
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201320
materials | Reinforcements
the economic needs for the reinforcement market.”
The S-1 HM glass fibre has a density of 2.55 g/cm3,
which is lower than typical E- and R-glass, and a tensile
modulus of 90 GPa (vs. 83 and 73 respectively). That
gives it a specific tensile modulus close to 25% higher
than that of E-glass. Specific tensile strength is said to
be 50% better, and fatigue strength is said to be ten
times better.
AGY says S-1 HM fibre is for use in specific areas of
the blade such as the root sections and spar caps,
allowing manufacturers to reduce weight in a given
design or allow a blade to be longer for any given
weight. “Obviously the reduction in weight will affect the
lifetime of other components in the wind turbine and
the turbine structure and reduce overall production
cycles of the blades as less glass into the blade requires
less time to position and may reduce misalignment of
fabrics etc. in layup processing,” the company says.
According to the AGY, the S-1 HM glass formulation
was developed as a cheaper solution than traditional S
Glass family solutions “by closely understanding which
properties the customers would like to enhance and
which properties were available to be compromised in
this effort.” It says its scientists ensured the glass was
capable of being produced in a furnace over a long
period of time. It has melting and thermal characteris-
tics much like those of E-glass products.
Johns Manville says its StarRov 086 and 076 E-glass
rovings have recently been GL approved (Germanisches
Lloyd), which is an essential requirement for materials
to be qualified for wind blade applications.
If cost was not an issue, it is quite possible that
carbon fibres would be far more prevalent in wind
turbine blades than they are today. But carbon fibres
are still too expensive to use for the entire blade. So
they are used where they have the most impact – in
structural parts such as the spar cap system.
However, even using carbon fibre only in these areas
can bring the total weight of the blade down by 15-20%,
and possibly even more, says Phil Schell, executive vice
president, wind energy, at major carbon fibre producer
Zoltek Companies.
Schell says that to get the right bending characteris-
tics in a turbine blade using glass reinforcement alone
you need a much thicker blade than with a combination
of glass and carbon. Thicker sections result in a much
less dynamically efficient blade. “Carbon fibre provides
the blade designer with more latitude to obtain the best
aerodynamics and the best weight,” he says.
Use of carbon fibre starts to make sound sense at a
blade length of around 45m. “The longer the blade, the
more compelling is the argument for carbon fibre,”
according to Zoltek.
Two of the leading users of carbon fibres in turbine
blades are Vestas Wind Systems (headquartered in
Aarhus, Denmark) and Gamesa Technology (Zamudio,
Spain). These two companies each now have more than
seven years’ experience in using carbon fibre compos-
Blade Dynamics adopts a mix of fibresThis traffic-stopping blade made by Blade
Dynamics is 49 m long and weighs 6,150
kg. It uses a mix of glass and carbon fibre
reinforcement, and has a modular
construction that the company says
further helps keep weight down.
Blade Dynamics says it has several
blades larger than this, but they are not
yet in production. The company is in
“pre-volume” production with the D49.
“We are working on blade designs up to
100m, but for most onshore applications
for current turbines, the maximum likely
size is around 70-75m,” says David
Cripps, senior technical manager at the
blade developer.
“Our approach to making blades from
smaller mouldings allows us to use quite
different types of materials in different
parts of the blade,” Cripps says. “We are
therefore always open to new fibres and
fabrics that can reduce costs or improve
performance. Since we are specialising in
low mass blades, carbon is a particularly
important material to us. Higher
cost-specific fibre properties in the
laminate (meaning lower $/modulus or
$/unit of compressive strength) are of
great interest to us.”
❙ www.bladedynamics.com
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURE 2012
International conference and exhibitionon wind blade composites design,
manufacturing and markets
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The Wind Turbine Blade Manufacture 2012conference, which took place in November last
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Presentation topics include: Blade design andperformance ● Weathering ● Lightning protection
Advanced manufacturing ● Testing andengineering ● Blade materials
Conference proceedingsPrinted copy and CD Price €335.00
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materials | Reinforcements
The US Department of Energy has obtained promising results from research into making carbon fi bres from polyethylene. Surface geometries ranging from circular to hollow gear-shaped have been achieved. It says the resulting carbon fi bre’s properties are dependent on processing conditions, “rendering them highly amenable to myriad applications.” If the technology can be commercialised, prices could fall considerably.
ites in their blades. But the number of companies
following in their wake is increasing.
Schell estimates that as many as ten leading energy
companies are now using carbon fi bres in their turbine
blades. GE started making blades containing carbon
fi bre in 2012. Even so, most turbine blades are still
made with 100% glass fi bre reinforcement. And even
some of the longest blades around – Alstom’s 70m
blade for example – have no carbon fi bre in them.
Schell says total annual wind installations amount to
around 45GW and he estimates that at least 7GW, and
possibly as much as 12GW, is generated by turbines
using blades containing carbon fi bre.
Zoltek is selling a signifi cant amount of carbon fi bre
for wind turbine blades every year, with around half of
its total revenues coming from the sector. At the
moment, Asia accounts for around 20% of carbon fi bre
consumption in wind blades and growth there is the
highest of all the world’s regions.
Chinese company GuoDian late last year installed its
fi rst 6MW turbine incorporating blades made with some
carbon fi bre. This turbine has the biggest name-plate
capacity and largest rotor swept area of any wind
turbine in mainland China. Korea is also an emerging
market for carbon fi bre.
Looking ahead, Schell says the big question is how
much the offshore wind industry will develop. He
envisages offshore turbines rated at possibly as much
as 15MW and using blades 100 m long. Most people will
agree that carbon fi bre will have to be used for such
long blades. “If the installation costs can be reduced, it
should be very big,” he predicts. “But if installation
costs stick at two to four times those of land-based
turbines, it may be a bit more diffi cult.”
But in any case, it is likely turbines will get bigger.
The norm has already shifted from under 1MW to
around 2MW and it continues to rise. At the end of
January, Gamesa announced it had begun installation of
its fi rst “G128” (128-m diameter) 5.0 MW offshore
prototype, and will start operating the turbine in the
second quarter of this year; the fi rst machines are set
to be erected at wind farms in 2014. Gamesa says it
utilises carbon fi bre in a variety of manufacturing
systems: prepreg, infusion and a mix of both.
The prototype is being installed on the island of Gran
Canaria near Spain, and Gamesa expects to start
commissioning in the second quarter, with the aim of
securing certifi cation in early 2014. The company says it
will concentrate its resources in coming years on
developing two new turbine systems, with nominal
capacity of 2.5 MW and 5.5 MW, the latter suitable for
both onshore and offshore use. It says it foresees
higher-capacity offshore turbines (7 MW-8 MW) in the
medium to long term.
Of course, Zoltek is not the only carbon fi bre supplier
with its eye on the wind turbine market. SGL is another
major player, making not only the fi bres but also, at its
SGL Rotec subsidiary, some of the biggest blades in the
world (using glass as well as carbon) for multi-mega-
watt turbines. Major chemical companies are also
increasingly involved.
Mitsubishi Rayon recently formed a business
alliance with SK Chemicals to develop and expand the
carbon fi bre prepreg business (for various applications,
not just wind) in Asian countries. Mitsubishi Rayon will
supply carbon fi bers to SK, which will use them to make
prepregs in Ulsan, Korea and Qingdao, China. Commer-
cial production of heavy-weight prepreg for wind energy
blades will begin at SK’s Ulsan plant. Other Japanese
carbon fi bre suppliers include Toho and Toray.
In 2011, Sabic took out a licence for carbon fi bre
technology from Montefi bre, which it will use it for a
new plant to be built in Saudi Arabia and scheduled to
go into commercial operation around the end of 2015.
Sabic wants to serve various fast-growing markets,
including wind energy. The two companies are also
considering a plant in Spain to be integrated into
Montefi bre’s existing acrylic fi bre production site; if
approved, this could be making product before 2015.
Last year, Dow Chemical and Turkish acrylic fi bre
company Aksa Akrilik Kimya formed DowAksa Advanced
Composites Holdings to manufacture and commercialise
PH
OTO
: OA
K R
IDG
E N
ATIO
NA
L LA
BO
RAT
OR
Y
Reinforcements | materials
carbon fi bre and derivatives. Emphasis will be on bringing
cost-effective solutions to industrial market applications
for energy, transportation, and infrastructure globally.
Aksa has been making carbon fi bre since 2009.
The cost of carbonWhat can carbon fi bre producers do to make their
products more competitive against glass? Carbon fi bre
processors are striving to reduce the price gap but they
may never close it completely. Raw material costs for
glass are measured in cents per kilo but polyacryloni-
trile for carbon fi bre costs around $2.50 per kilo. “If the
cost of acrylonitrile came down to a more reasonable
level - and we expect it to eventually – we could see a
price reduction in carbon fi bre,” says Zoltek’s Schell.
Or maybe an alternative feedstock could be found.
Last year, the US Department of Energy’s Oak Ridge
National Laboratory announced that a team of scientists
there demonstrated that, using a combination of
multi-component fi bre spinning and a sulphonation
technique they developed, they could make polyethylene-
base carbon fi bres with tunable porosity (see photos).
“Our results represent what we believe will one day
provide industry with a fl exible technique for producing
technologically innovative fi bres in myriad confi gura-
tions such as fi bre bundle or non-woven mat assem-
blies,” says team leader Amit Naskar. “In our lab we
have demonstrated 200 ksi [1.38 GPa] strength and 20
Msi [138 GPa] modulus and we know it can be improved
further.”
Naskar notes that “for wind energy application it
would require stronger fi bre or at least better compres-
sive resistance. Such analyses are being done and we
are cautiously optimistic.” He also says his team is
currently working with an industrial partner “to develop
the carbon fi bre beyond what we know today. The
process economy analysis is also underway. We have
seen the carbon yield can be 60% or higher, whereas
PAN gives carbon yield of only 50% or less.”
Click on the links for more information:
� www.ppg.com� www.jushi.com� www.owenscorning.com� www.agy.com� www.jmfi bers.com� www.zoltek.com� www.sglgroup.com� www.dowaksa.com� www.mrc.co.jp� www.sabic.com
On shore wind
installation by
LM Wind Power
PH
OTO
: LM
WIN
D P
OW
ER
AMI Strategy SeminarsThese one-day seminars are given by an AMI director and provide
invaluable insights into market trends and industry strategies.They are held in small groups and provide ample
opportunities for questions and discussions.
Contact: Katy [email protected], +44 117 924 9442
www.amiplastics.com/seminars
AMI Strategy Seminars
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2013 | WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING 25
Offshore blades | project study
SSP recently delivered an 83.5m prototype blade for testing. Developed for Samsung’s 7MW offshore wind turbine, the giant blade is the longest built to date. Chris Smith reports
In late October last year an 83.5m long wind turbine
blade left SSP Technology’s production unit at Kirkeby
in Denmark to begin its 170km journey by road to the
port of Esbjerg and then on by sea to Fraunhofer
Institut’s Wind Energy & Energy System Technology
(IWES) test facility at Bremerhaven in Germany.
The blade – the length of 10 London buses and at the
time of writing the world’s largest – is a joint develop-
ment between SSP Technology and Samsung Heavy
Industries. It is part of the South Korean company’s
project to develop a 7MW offshore wind turbine with a
171.2m diameter rotor.
Samsung is reported to have partnered with Korea
Southern Power Corporation to develop an 84MW
offshore installation off the coast of Jeju Island in the
Korea Straits using the new turbine design. The project,
which will use 12 of the 7MW units, is targeted for a
2015 start-up and will be South Korea’s fi rst offshore
wind energy installation.
Design and manufacturing of the prototype blade
took 15 months. The completed prototype is now
undergoing testing and evaluation at the Bremerhaven
IWES facility to prove the SPP-developed spar box and
root design. Opened in 2011, the IWES facility is
equipped with a test stand capable of handling blades
up to 90m long. It claims to be the only facility world-
wide to be able to test complete blades of this size to
the IEC 61400-23 specifi cation for full-scale structural
testing of wind turbine blades.
“With the fi rst blade in position for testing, we will
now use the time that follows for evaluation of the fi rst
part of the project. As soon as the testing of the blade is
successfully completed, we will start up the production
of the remaining three prototype blades,” says Flem-
ming Sørensen, co-founder and chief technology offi cer
at SSP Technology.
At the time of writing, SSP Technology said the blade
has passed the extreme fl ap and edge tests at IWES and
fatigue testing is underway. Fatigue tests are expected
to be completed before the end of the year (the lower
natural frequency of such long blades extends fatigue
testing durations).
SSP Technology is no newcomer to the large blade
arena, having completed many blade projects ranging
from 1.5 MW to 7.0MW turbines. It also has two turnkey
projects in progress requiring 58m and 59m blades for
Above: The
83.5m long SSP
rotor blade
arriving at
Bremerhaven
in Germany
SSP sets new record foroffshore blade at 83.5m
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201326
project study | Offshore blades
turbines of 2.3MW and 3.0MW capacity respectively, has
developed a prototype mould for a sectionalised 63m
blade design for a 4.5MW installation incorporating
carbon spar caps, and has produced the root design for
a 61m blade for installation on a 6.0MW turbine.
Development of any wind turbine blade involves
identifying the optimal combination of load capacity,
aerodynamics, structural performance and process/
material options. According to SSP Technology’s head of
blade design Claus Burchardt, a critically important
driver for development of very large blades is tooling
and testing.
“We don’t bring anything into a blade of this size
unless it has been tested and tested and tested,” he
says. “Today, these designs involve a lot of iterations.
There are compromises on aerodynamics and struc-
tures and materials and it may be that the final result is
not the best in terms of aerodynamics,” he says.
For the Samsung project SSP used aerodynamic and
3D CAD modelling to develop the blade geometry.
Loadings were determined and this data was employed
to determine a blade structure that would meet the
required 25-year fatigue lifetime and provide the
necessary static strength, buckling and deflection
resistance, and natural frequency.
Burchardt says pre-design work for a blade of this
size takes around 12-14 weeks but it is production of
the plug and mould and manufacturing of the prototype
that determines the overall project timeline.
The development team opted for a flat-back blade
design for the 83.5m long blade, incorporating flexible
tips and a carbon and glass fibre hybrid spar construc-
tion. The flat-back profile was selected for the simpli-
fied handling it offers during transportation.
The blade features the slim tip and thick, truncated
airfoil section that characterises large offshore blades,
which due to their location can operate with tip speeds
that would be considered too noisy in an onshore
environment. Burchardt says the higher tip speeds also
have an impact on blade chord and twist and special
considerations were made in the blade design to avoid
undue flutter.
Carbon fibre is used in the spar for its stiffness and
ability to keep the weight of the blade down. Placement
of the carbon fibre is based on a combination of
structural demands and complexity in the blade
geometry. No carbon is used in the tip section in order to
reduce the risk of damage caused by lightning strikes.
Lightning damage risk is increased with larger
turbine blades and in offshore installations. Using glass
reinforcement only in the tip section of the spar means
it is not necessary to incorporate a copper mesh and
there is no need to change the side or tip lightning
receptors in the Samsung design, says Burchardt.
The company has used some elements of its SSP
Load Carrying Spar concept in the blade design.
However, Burchardt says a number of new features
have been incorporated with the prime goal of improv-
ing quality management during production. In particu-
lar, the system adopted for the Samsung blade allows
for full checking of all bond-lines.
Each blade skin was produced in a female mould
using a combination of VARTM (vacuum assisted resin
transfer moulding) pre-preg and hand lamination. This
allows simple visual inspection of the construction and
Right: The giant
blade being
unloaded at the
port of
Bremerhaven
Below: The
83.5m blade
leaves the SSP
facility at
Kirkeby
Offshore blades | project study
achieves high repeatability and minimal weight
variation. The blade is assembled using automated glue
line control.
SSP uses its own root joint system, which integrates
threaded female bushings into the blade during manu-
facture. It claims this approach provides high levels of
reliability and repeatability. It also avoids the need to
retighten the blade fixings bolts after installation.
SSP Technology also developed a new leading edge
protection system for the Samsung blade that is better
able to cope with the higher tip velocities. This uses
paint beneath a protective tape system. The concept,
according to Burchardt, is that if the tape begins to peel
or suffers mechanical damage during operation the
underlying paint provides a second level of protection,
allowing repairs to be scheduled for a convenient time
to avoid unplanned turbine downtime.
Maintenance is a key consideration in off-shore
projects. This new protection system has successfully
completed helicopter testing at twice the predicted
blade tip velocities, says Burchardt, who says the
precise details of the testing speeds and materials used
cannot be disclosed at this stage.
Samsung hopes to begin testing a working prototype
7MW wind turbine at the Fife Energy Park in Scotland in
April this year. Work on production of the first three
blades for this test turbine installation is already
underway at SSP Technology, with the intention to
finalise the processes before the summer. Burchardt
says a manufacturer has also been appointed to take on
serial production of the blades and is already working
on the required technology transfer.
❙ www.ssptech.com
Above: On
route to the
Fraunhofer
IWES test
facility
See us at JEC – Booth P32
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201328
technical feature | Core materials
Resin penetration into blade core materials during infusion provides additional stiffness. Richard Evans details a series of tests carried out at Gurit to quantify the mechanical improvement and to determine if it can be modelled in blade designs
The construction of a typical resin-infused wind turbine
blade contains large areas of composite sandwich
panels with foam or balsa core materials. To aid
manufacture of the blades the core material contained
within these sandwich panels is normally machined with
a combination of holes, slits and slots to improve the
conformance of the core material to the curved blade
mould and also to allow the infusion resin to permeate
quickly and comprehensively throughout the structure.
For wind turbine blades the most widely used core
materials are PVC (polyvinylchloride), PET(polyethylene
terephthalate), SAN (styrene acrylonitrile) and end-grain
balsa. All are much more fl exible than infusion resins, as
can be seen from the shear modulus values in Table 1.
After infusion with resin, the core will be stiffened to
some extent. Whether the increased mechanical
properties of the core due to the infusion resin can be
used for the structural design calculations of the blade
is unclear, with some blade designers taking advantage
of the benefi t while others are doubtful whether the
local stiffening effect of the resin channels really
inhibits all the possible failure modes.
At Gurit, a programme of work was carried out to
measure the effect of infusion resin contained within the
core slits on the gross properties of the core material
and to determine whether any improvements in gross
properties translates into the anticipated increase in
failure loads that would be predicted by theory.
Simplistically looking at the structure of a wind
turbine blade, the load bearing areas such as the spar
cap and blade root (the orange sections in Figure 1)
require thick laminates for strength reasons, whereas
the remainder of the structure, such as the blade shells
and shear webs (indicated in green in Figure 1), is
relatively lightly loaded. The design of the more lightly
loaded panels is driven by the requirement for the thin
laminates to be stable and to not buckle under com-
pression or shear loading. This requires a high bending
stiffness. A very effi cient method of achieving this
within composites is to use a sandwich construction,
where a lightweight core material is inserted into the
centre of the laminate to increase the panel thickness
and consequently the bending stiffness with minimal
additional weight. This can inhibit the classical Euler
buckling mode of the panels as shown in Figure 2.
However, because the core is much weaker and less
Understanding core properties
Table 1: Typical mechanical properties of blade infusion resins and core materials Mechanical Properties
Density, Compressive Shear kg/m3 modulus, MPa modulus, MPa
Resin Matrix 1000-1300 2000-4000 800-1600
Foam core 45-135 40-180 13-70
Balsa core 100-250 3000-5200 150-220
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201330
technical feature | Core materials
Figure 3 (left) shear crimping, Figure 4 (right) skin wrinkling
stiff than the laminate skins, the design of a sandwich
panel also has to take into consideration additional
failure modes. Those normally considered during the
design of a wind turbine are shear crimping and skin
wrinkling.
� Shear crimping – If the shear stiffness of the core
material is insuffi cient a sandwich panel can buckle due
to excessive shear deformation of the core rather than
the more common Euler buckling (bending of the panel)
as can be seen in Figure 3. The shear crimping failure
load can be expressed by the following equation:
where Gc is the shear modulus of the core, tsw is the
thickness of the sandwich panel measured between the
mid planes of the skins and tc is the thickness of the
core material. It can be seen that in this failure mode
the critical property of the core is its shear modulus.
� Skin wrinkling – If the stiffness of the core is too low
there is insuffi cient lateral support for the laminate
skins which carry the bulk of the load, allowing them to
buckle independently. As the independent buckling of
the skins occurs over a relatively short length scale it is
referred to as skin wrinkling. This is shown schemati-
cally in Figure 4 and the failure stress for skin wrinkling
can be expressed as:
Where EC is the compressive modulus of the core, Esk
is the longitudinal modulus of the laminate skins and
the empirical factor C can have a value between
0.60-0.91. It can be seen that in the case of skin
wrinkling, failure is determined by the core shear
stiffness and longitudinal modulus.
The test programmeTo measure the effect of the infusion resin on the
sandwich failure modes, a number of sets of mechani-
cal tests were performed, combined with Finite Element
Analysis (FEA) and conventional engineering calcula-
tions. Firstly, the shear modulus of the infused core was
measured, using G-PET 110 (PET based) and Corecell
T400 (SAN based) cores. These two core materials have
similar mechanical properties, although the PET is
more dense. To rationalise the testing PVC was not
tested due to its relative similarity to SAN. Balsa was
excluded from the test programme because experience
shows it is generally stiff enough not to be susceptible
to shear crimping or skin wrinkling.
Secondly, test coupons were designed to fail in the
required failure mode for panels built from both plain
and slit cores. The design of the coupons was based on
theoretically derived equations, but also validated using
FEA to confi rm the anticipated failure mode. For all the
tests, a core thickness of 15mm was used with 40mm
wide specimens that contained longitudinal, full-depth
slits spaced 20mm apart (so two slits per coupon).
Coupons were designed to fail in each of the three
signifi cant failure modes.
Block shear resultsThe increase in shear strength of the core material due
to the infusion resin was quantifi ed by block shear
testing to ASTM C273. The results from the block shear
Figure 1 (left) shows high and low blade load areas
Figure 2 (right) shows a classical Euler
buckling mode
Failure Loadshear crimp = Gc. t 2
sw tc
Failure Stress, σskin wrinkling = C 3 EC GC Esk√
2013 | WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING 31
Core materials | technical feature
testing showed an increase in the shear stiffness for
both of the cores, with a remarkably similar increase of
69% in shear modulus due to the resin, as can be seen
in Figure 5.
One notable difference found from the testing was
the amount of resin absorbed by the slits in the two
cores. The G-PET 110 absorbed less resin into the core
slits than the T400, implying that it makes better use of
the resin to improve the shear modulus of the core. This
can be attributed to the anisotropy of the core (the cells
are elongated in the through-thickness direction, so
fewer cells are cut per unit area of slit). The two bars on
the right in Figure 5 show the increase in modulus that
would be expected if all of the resin absorbed into the
core was structurally benefi cial.
Once the shear stiffness of the infused cores was
characterised, the design of test coupons was completed
using the theoretical equations described earlier and FE
models. Coupon length and skin thickness were varied
for each coupon so as to favour one of the three failure
mode and inhibit the other two.
For all coupons, with plain and slit core, the
measured failure load was lower than predicted by FEA
or theory, reinforcing the need for safety factors in
design. However, even the largest difference between
test data and theory was smaller than the safety factors
commonly used in blade design (e.g. GL Guidelines for
Certifi cation of Wind Turbines 2010), which suggests
that those factors are adequate.
Bending buckling resultsFor the sandwich panel instability due to the bending
stiffness of the panel, the predicted improvement due to
the infused resin slits is relatively modest. Data shows
the improvement to amount to approximately 11% for
both core types and shows good correlation between the
theoretical and FE predicted failure loads (Figure 6). This
is not surprising as the bulk of the bending stiffness is
Figure 6: Bending buckling failure results
provided by the composite skins.
The test results showed a greater improvement due
to the infused resin slits with 24% and 29% improve-
ment measured for the GPET110 and T400 respectively.
These results were tempered by the test failure loads
generally being at a lower level than predicted, which
was found to be due to some initial curvature of the test
specimens as shown in Figure 7.
Shear crimping resultsFor shear crimping, the predicted failure loads calcu-
lated by the two different methods correlated very well
and predicted just over a 50% increase in the failure
load due to the infused resin slits (Figure 8).
This improvement in failure load is lower than the
69% increase in shear modulus found during the block
Figure 7: Some
initial curva-
ture was
evident in the
test specimens,
which has a
small effect on
failure load
results
testing showed an increase in the shear stiffness for
Figure 6:
provided by the composite skins. provided by the composite skins.
Figure 5: Block shear test results
technical feature | Core materials
shear testing due to the thick laminate skins having a
constant infl uence on the failure loads for both the plain
and infused coupons.
The measured test results were variable and
infl uenced by some of the loading faces of the coupons
not being square, but once again the testing showed
that the infused resin slits improved the failure load of
the test coupons by at least as much as the theory
predicted.
Skin wrinkling resultsFor the fi nal failure mode, skin wrinkling, FE models
predicted a higher failure load than the theoretical/
empirical equations. For the infused resin slits, FEA
predicted a 20% improvement for the infused resin slits
as well as a change in the mode shape of the failure due
to the infused resin slits restraining the defl ection of
the sandwich skins (Figure 9).
The measured improvement for the cores due to the
infused resin was found to be 23% and 88% for the
GPET 110 and T400 respectively. The much greater
improvement for the T400 was believed to be due to the
change in mode shape being more benefi cial for the
softer T400 core.
Summary and conclusionsThe testing of the two core materials showed that for
the particular core slit pattern used, a 69% improve-
ment in shear modulus was measured for both the T400
and G-PET 110 core materials. When the infused slit
core was tested, the measured improvement compared
to plain core was higher than that derived from theoreti-
cal calculations and FE models based on the increased
shear modulus. Therefore, it may well be valid to make
use of the higher tested shear modulus of infused slit
core when designing blades, allowing potential weight
and cost savings to be made providing that the usual
safety factors are applied. Gurit now plans to expand its
database to include additional core material types and
cut patterns.
Richard Evans is a design engineer at Gurit UK. Email: [email protected]� www.gurit.com
Figure 8: Shear crimping failure results Figure 9: Skin wrinkling failure results
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WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201334
technical feature | Strain measurements
Operation and maintenance (O&M) of offshore wind
turbines is one of the main cost drivers for offshore wind
energy, where site visits can be very expensive. At
present, OPEX cost contributes approximately 25% to the
Levelised Cost Of Energy (LCOE). Condition based
maintenance presents an attractive means to control the
O&M costs of wind turbines and – compared to correc-
tive maintenance – can reduce downtime, minimise the
consequences of damage, improve planning of activities,
and enable better use of resources and equipment. The
result is an overall reduction in cost.
A number of systems are already available to
monitor the condition of wind turbine components.
SCADA data, drive train monitoring, visual inspections
and oil sampling are commonly used and have all
proven their value. However, these techniques only start
to provide useful information when the components are
already exhibiting evidence of degradation or failure.
On the basis that degradation of a component is
strongly related to the loads acting on it, the Energy
Research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN) has been
developing a fibre optic system capable of accurately
monitoring the mechanical loads in the rotor blades,
where most of the loads are introduced. It has devel-
oped a low cost method that monitors blade root
bending moments and processes the data in such a way
that turbine operators can decide if and which mainte-
nance action is required. This information can be used
to prevent failures, to postpone or prioritise visits, or to
decide on extension of the turbine life.
The specifications for the fibre optic load monitoring
system are based on ECN’s previous experience in
measurement of wind turbine characteristics and its
understanding of the shortcomings of electrical strain
measurements. The procedures for data processing,
analysis and reporting are in line with IEC standards for
wind turbines.
The system consists of:
l A patented easy to install sensor assembly with fibre
Bragg gratings, that requires no calibration, and
provides reliable, accurate and reproducible strain data
over a very long period (four assemblies per blade);
Fibre optic blade strain monitoring
Operation and maintenance is a key cost in offshore wind turbine installations. Optical strain gauge technology can allow continuous and remote monitoring of blade condition, says Luc Rademakers
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WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201336
technical feature | Strain measurement
� A commercially available interrogator to read out
the data from the fi bre optic sensors;
� A measurement computer that derives load data
from strain data and combines the blade load data
with turbine PLC data;
� Wireless-LAN to enable communication between the
rotor and the turbine base;
� Software for data processing that fi lters and cleans
up the time series, categorises the data per design
load case, and provides key fi gures, statistics, and
graphs to the operator for O&M optimisation;
� Additional software that combines measured blade
root bending moments with SCADA data and also
generates loads for other main components like
drive train and tower top.
Sensor assemblyThe sensor assembly is intended to be easy to install
and replace by regular wind turbine maintenance
technicians with no special skills on fi bre optics
(plug-and-play). System installation in less than two
days was the target. Key design considerations included
the ability to accurately measure the average strain
over a well-known distance to avoid the effects of
non-homogeneities in the blade, elimination of on-site
calibration, and the ability to provide the same working
lifetime as the blade itself. The following technical
specifi cation was determined:
Strain resolution : 1 με
Strain accuracy / stability : better than 5 με
Maximum strain level : -1000 ….+1000 με
Long term drift : less than 5 µε in one year
Temperature range : -20…+40 oC
Long life time : > 107 cycles @ ±1000 µε
The resulting sensor consists of a fi bre with a Bragg
grating mounted between two studs via a carrier. The
studs are mounted at a mutual distance of 100 mm to
the inner side of the blade root. The carrier ensures
that the fi bre follows the displacements of the studs
and with this approach the strain in the blade root is
measured over a suffi cient length to avoid local effects
of the blade material.
The carrier protects the fi bre from sharp bending
and also accommodates a second Bragg grating for
temperature compensation. Since each strain sensor is
compensated by a local temperature sensor, the effects
of temperature differences over the blade can be
detected. The fi bre is manufactured with draw tower
grating technology from FBGS International and has
proven to have a very high ultimate strain (up to 6%).
The assembly can easily survive the life time of the
turbine.
Installation AspectsThe sensor is suitable for applications in both existing
turbines (retrofi t) and new blades. Since all assemblies
are calibrated after production under well-defi ned
conditions, on-site calibration after repair is not
necessary, which keeps downtime to a minimum.
Right: Strain
gauge mounted
in its protective
case.
Far right:
Detailed view
of one of the
mounting
studs.
Schematic
showing a
typical optical
strain monitor-
ing system
set-up
2013 | WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING 37
Strain measurement | technical feature
Frequency plots (av. power density). Example of APSD of edgewise and fl apwise bending
Technicians are provided with a dedicated battery
operated tool that allows quick mounting, accurate
mutual positioning and glueing of the studs on the
surface of the blade. Prior to bonding of the studs, the
specifi c areas of the blade are ground. An adhesive with
a short curing time (15 minutes at 20oC) and which can
survive the dynamic loads is used to secure the studs.
The complete mounting time takes just 20 minutes
including curing time.
A dedicated sensor housing is also mounted during
the curing of the stud connection. This includes a base
plate and removable cover and enables simple installa-
tion, inspection, and replacement of the sensor.
Finally, the technicians mount the carriers on the
studs, using only four bolts for rigid connection, and
plug-in the patch cables into the two E2000 connectors.
The protective covers are attached to the base plates to
shield the sensors from moisture and impact. After the
sensors are installed, the interrogator is mounted in the
hub, the PC is installed elsewhere in the turbine, and all
devices are connected with electrical cables and optical
fi bres.
The entire measurement system is designed to limit
the amount of onsite work – most of the preparatory
work can be done in the workshop - and fi rst runs have
shown that the tight installation schedule of less than
two days can be met.
Read-out Unit (Interrogator)Specifi cations for the read-out unit for wind turbine
applications are: a minimum wavelength range of
1520-1580 nm, strain resolution of 1 με, strain accu-
racy/stability of better than 5 με, sensor readout
frequency of greater than16 Hz, and ability to support
eight Fibre Bragg Gratings per blade (four strain and
four temperature).
Various suppliers provide interrogators that meet
these general specifi cations. At present ECN uses the
WindMeter from FibreSensing. This device is based on
WDM technology for readout of the sensors and is
especially designed for wind turbine applications. It has
three channels, is available in a robust housing and has
a minimal power consumption. The maximum frequency
readout frequency for the sensors is 100 Hz.
Software for Data Analysis and ReportingECN’s software automatically analyses the large
amounts of raw data and provides information to
operators about accumulated loads, extreme loads,
dynamic behaviour and vulnerable spots. The software
contains an algorithm that fi rst cleans and fi lters the
data and removes spikes.
The software detects the load cases (operational
modes) present in the time series, possibly splits the 10
minute time series into single mode fi les, and stores
the data with statistics of the single mode fi les into the
relevant database fi eld.
The identifi cation of the load cases is performed
based on turbine PLC signals such as power, nacelle
wind speed, rotational speed, etc. ECN has also
developed software that reads out the database
contents and generates reports, plots, and key fi gures
that the operator can use to make sound decisions for
operation and maintenance. The data processing
software contains two main processes:
� An on-line module which continuously collects and
processes the relevant data from the measurement
system and subsequently stores the results in a
database;
� A reporting module, which provides online access to
the database and generates periodic reports.
Both processes function independently with a
database as the interface between the two parts. Once
the measurement campaign is running, the software
a minimal power consumption. The maximum frequency
the measurement campaign is running, the software
Comparison of 10 minute values for optical (red) and electrical (blue) strain measurement, with difference (green)
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201338
technical feature | Strain measurement
determines every 10 minutes which load cases have
occurred (normal operation, start-up, shutdown,
emergency shutdown, etc.) and fi lters out erroneous
data. Then the software determines statistical data,
updates the load spectra plots, and analyses the
frequencies. Finally, the software is able to generate
monthly reports which provide information about
captured data, deviations with respect to the long term
statistics, and comparison with fi nger print data.
User experienceThe fi bre optic load monitoring system has been
developed as a device to measure blade root bending
moments in operating wind turbines over a long period
of time with high accuracy and long term stability. It has
been operating for several years in one of ECN’s test
turbines and many fi eld and laboratory tests have been
carried out and comparisons have been made with
strain gauge measurements.
While the ECN system can be supplied as a complete
solution, the component parts – including the software
– can also be supplied for integration into an existing
monitoring system.
The system has shown to be stable over a long
period of time and operate within the required accura-
cies. Fatigue and ultimate tests have shown that the
sensor system meets the design specifi cations. The
software for data analysis has also proven to work well.
ECN is about to install the fi rst system in a commer-
cially available turbine.
Compared to electrical strain guages and patches
with optical sensors that are glued directly onto the
blade (or are integrated with the blade), the ECN sensor
design has a number of benefi ts:
� Mounting the sensor assembly is on two studs
positioned 10 cm apart means measured strains
avoid the local infl uences of in-homogeneities, small
gaps, and/or stress concentrations that can occur in
reinforced plastics.
� Sensors installed during blade manufacturing can be
removed during blade transport and installation to
minimize the risk of damage.
� Installation of the sensors does not require any
changes to the blade manufacturing process,
allowing it to be offered as a simple option to clients.
� The optical-based solutions is insensitive to EMC and
can be used in fl ammable and explosive conditions.
Click on the links for more information:
� www.ecn.nl� www.fbgs.com� www.fi bersensing.com
About the author:Luc Rademakers is manager of operations and condition monitoring in the Wind Energy division of the Nether-lands-based research centre ECN. Tel: +31 224 56 4943, Email: [email protected]� www.ecn.nl
Equivalent loads: Example of plots with the equivalent load as a function of wind speed(10 minute average) during normal operation
Illustration
showing the
location of key
components in
ECN’s test
turbine
2013 | WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING 39
Conference report | feature
Investment activity in wind energy may have slowed but technical
innovations continue. We report from the Wind Turbine Blade Manufacture
conference, held in Germanyat the end of last year
PH
OTO
: LO
ND
ON
AR
RAY
The wind energy industry has certainly felt the impact of
the global downturn, and this has had an inevitable
impact on investment funding and government
incentives in all regions of the world. However, it was
clear from the presentations and discussion at AMI’s
third Wind Turbine Blade Manufacture conference in
Dusseldorf, Germany, last year that innovation has not
slowed. Blade manufacturers continue to develop the
new technologies and designs that will help operators
cut investment and operating costs.
LM Wind Power director of system engineering Lars
Fuglsang described the company’s latest GloBlade
concept as “a new way to do business” in the wind
energy market. The idea behind the GloBlade concept is
to offer a highly customised blade design built around a
set of standardised elements. “Parts of the blade are
standard – the structure – but parts can be customised.
In the tip we can change the design and the aerodynamic
features,” he said.
Fugslang said as much as 85% of the material and
tooling is reusable across variants, which enables
economies of scale to be realised while still allowing
considerable customisation potential.
The GloBlade concept is already available for the
1.5MW segment in the GloBlade 1 and GloBlade 2
variants. Fugslang said the company is now extending
the concept into the 3MW range. The 58.7m GloBlade 3
LM58.7P and 61.2m GloBlade 3L LM61.2P are designed
to fi t a broad range of 3.0MW turbines and are claimed
to be able to improve annual energy production by as
much as 14% over standard designs. Fugslang said
serial production of the 58.7m GloBlade 3 will com-
mence later this year.
Siemens Wind Power’s rotor design team leader
Peter Fugslang said the company’s largest installed
system to date – the 6.0MW SWP-154 – has a rotor
The forum for blade innovation
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201340
feature | Conference report
diameter of 154m, dwarfi ng the wing span of an Airbus
A380 aircraft. “There should be no doubt that it is the
growth in size that is driving our business today,” he said.
The driver for increased size is the requirement to
maximise annual energy production. Fugslang said a
10% increase in rotor area approximates to a 12%
increase in energy generation (Figure 2). However,
other factors also come into play with larger blades,
such as the potential for increased noise.
Fugslang said noise increases with rotor diameters
and tip speeds, effectively imposing limits on annual
energy production (AEP). It is a critical issue to master,
he said, as engineering a 1dB(A) reduction in noise is
worth 3-4% in AEP assuming the rotor diameter is
increased to the same rated power (Figure 1).
Developments in blade design over the past 30 years
have focused on blade shape. Solidity has reduced from
around 10% to 5% while planform design has evolved
from a linear chord to a non-linear load optimised style.
Airfoils are also now wind industry specifi c. Fugslang
said attention is now being focused on add-ons such as
tip winglets, inboard and outboard vortex generators,
modifi ed trailing edges and spoilers.
A project carried out at Sandia National Laborato-
ries in the US to develop a theoretical, publicly-availa-
ble 100m blade design was detailed by Dr Todd Griffi th,
offshore wind technical lead within the organisation’s
Wind and Water Power Technologies Department. The
SNL100-00 project is now at a stage where the develop-
ment team is beginning to look at weight optimisation
and compliance with GL and IEC certifi cations.
The current non-optimised SNL100-00 design is
based on all glass fi bre reinforcement with three shear
webs and weighs in at 114 tonnes for a three blade
rotor. Griffi th said the study has shown that fl utter could
be a real problem in the future with large blade designs,
prompting it to consider a lighter design with some
carbon fi bre content. It has modelled SNL100-01
variants with carbon in the spar cap only, in the trailing
edge only and in both spar cap and trailing edge.
Estimated rotor set weight could be reduced to as little
as 78 tonnes, he said, although more work is required
before a design can be fi nalised (Figure 3).
Gamesa Innovation’s G128 modular blade project
manager Eneko Sanz Pascual spoke about this latest
addition to the company’s G10X portfolio. The 62.5m
long G128 blade is a modular design produced in a
combination of glass and carbon fi bre and is intended
for use on the company’s latest 4.5MW turbine.
The sectionalised design is said to keep manufactur-
ing cost down while simplifying transportation. Gamesa
has selected a bolted joint over the alternative of bonding
because, while heavier, it is more robust and can be
easily assembled on site. Sanz Pascual said that the
additional cost of the connection – in the region of 10% of
the total blade cost – can be offset by transport savings.
Prototype testing of the G128 design was completed
in 2011 and the fi rst wind farm is currently under
construction. Sanz Pascual said the G128 design is
around 40% lighter than current multi-megawatt
blades, weighing in at around 15 tonnes. He said the
company expects to be producing between 50 and 60
G128 rotor sets a month once full production is
underway.
Figure 1: Annual Energy Production versus Sound Power Level
Source: Siemens Wind Power
Figure 2: Annual Energy Production versus Rotor Diameter
Source: Siemens Wind Power
Figure 3:
Design
scorecard for
different 100m
blade construc-
tions – perfor-
mance and
weight (based
on three blade
rotor set)
Source: SandiaNational Laboratories
2013 | WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING 41
Conference report | feature
Ice build up on turbine blades in cold climates is a
major issue for the industry. Nordex Energy’s deputy
head of blade system department, central engineering,
Dr Astrid Löwe spoke about the company’s experience
with electric de-icing technology, which it has been
investigating since 2010. The pro-active system
continually monitors icing conditions, using energy from
the turbine itself to heat the aerodynamically relevant
blade surfaces only as required.
In tests carried out over the winters of 2010/11 and
2011/12 at three sites in Sweden, Löwe said turbines
fi tted with anti-icing turbine technology were shown to
generate considerably more energy during the winter
months than reference turbines without any de-icing
technology. In one example, the gains in monthly energy
production for December 2010 and January and
February of 2011 were measured at 126, 43 and 83%
respectively (Figure 4).
However, Löwe pointed out that the ability to realise
these gains in practice depends on the turbine location.
The anti-icing technology does not keep the complete
blade surface free of ice, which means that falling ice
will still present a safety risk if turbines are located in
areas with nearby human activity, such as within ski
resorts.
Lightning strike presents a real risk of damage to
wind turbines and this risk is increasing with the
introduction of high performance materials such as
carbon fi bre. Manchester University knowledge
transfer fellow Dr Vidyadhar Peesapati said that a
typical 160m diameter turbine tip is likely to be hit by
lightning 1.4 times a year, even in a low lightning risk
area such as the North Sea.
Peesapati said current lightning protection systems
based on the placement of receptors (which channel
streamers to ground) are effective in glass reinforced
blades but that effectiveness reduces with the introduc-
tion of conductive materials, whether that is in the form
of carbon fi bre laminates, anti-icing systems or radar
cross section (RCS) reduction technologies.
“The addition of conductive materials within the
blade changes the electric fi eld and puts the rest of the
blade at risk as the conductive areas begin to emit
streamers,” he said. Overcoming this challenge will
require very careful design of the receptor system and
careful consideration before placing conductive
materials in the tips, he said.
Leading edge erosion is also a major contributor to
blade operating and maintenance costs. According to
3M’s business manager for wind energy Christian
Claus, leading edge damage can result in an up to 20%
decline in energy output.
The company’s latest development for the wind
market is a new PU-based coating. The two-component
brush-on W4600 product has been developed to meet
the demands of the offshore sector, where tip speeds
are increasing (tip speed is a key factor in leading edge
erosion). Claus said rain erosion tests (125-150m/s
Figure 4: Real energy production per week with and without anti-icing technology
Source: Nordex Energy
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201342
feature | Conference report
Figure 6: Estimated manufacturing cost breakdown for a typical 55m blade manufactured using current technology
Source:Fraunhofer IWES
rotational speeds and 1-2mm droplet size) have shown
no breakthrough on the W4600 after 9 hours, while
typical topcoats and leading edge coatings show
breakthrough at 60-90 mins.
TPI Composites has been part of a US Department of
Energy funded project to explore advanced automated
manufacturing processes with a target of cutting cycle
time by 35%. Principal engineer and senior director of
innovation and technology Stephen Nolet said wind
blade manufacturing did not justify the investment in
automated pattern cutting and layup technology that is
commonplace in the aerospace sector because of the
much lower value of the products – he estimated blade
values in the $5-10 per pound compared to $200-700
per pound in aerospace.
However, Nolet said there was still considerable
scope to make savings in the downstream activities. The
Advanced Manufacturing Initiative (AMI) project is
looking at prefabrication of elements such as trailing
edges, use of laser-assisted reinforcement placement
tools (developed at Iowa State University and explained
in detail by Dr Frank Peters at the conference),
improved heating technology and use of rotating carts
to simplify blade handling. To date, the team has
realised a 36% reduction in cycle time by applying these
concepts in production of 9m blades (Figure 5). Iowa
State University also contributed its expertise in
ultrasonic evaluation techniques to the AMI pro-
gramme.
Automation is also a key focus in the work carried
out at the Fraunhofer IWES research institute in
Germany. Group manager Florian Sayer presented
some IWES estimates for the cost of manufacturing a
55m blade using typical current manufacturing
methods. These show that labour accounts for more
than 40% of the estimated €157,000 total manufactur-
ing cost of the blade (Figure 6).
Sayer said IWES had come to the same conclusion as
TPI Composites that automated fi bre placement was
not an affordable option for blade surface production
but could possibly be utilised in spar cap production.
The latest fi ndings in a study of compatibility
Figure 5:
Scorecard
showing
processing
cycle time
reductions
achieved within
the US
Department of
Energy
supported
Advanced
Manufacturing
Initiative
Source: TPI Composites
2013 | WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING 43
Conference report | feature
between the component materials used in the wind
blade sector were presented by Dr Gergor Daun, global
business manager epoxy systems at BASF. In one
chemical compatibility study, it was found that the
epoxy resin coloured PVC foam core materials but had
no effect on balsa, PET or SAN. Daun says this was
attributed to formation of conjugated double bonds at
the surface. The trials also showed how the epoxy to
fi bre bond could be optimised by sizing selection and
how temperature could have a signifi cant impact on gel
coat adhesion.
As the size and mass of wind turbine blades increases
so does the loading on the root joint. Owens Corning’s
global wind energy technical marketing leader Georg
Adolphs explained how its latest Ultrablade E-glass fi bre
fabrics could be used in root designs to improve
performance and reduce cost. He cited the example of a
60m blade design study where redesigning the root
around the Ultrablade fabrics rather than the current
Advantex type had resulted in a 12% material saving.
Core systems developer 3A Composites presented
data on the low resin uptake on its latest PET foam
product. Director of product management for the
composite cores business Philipp Angst said absorption
of resin into the core during the infusion process was
essential to achieve a strong bond, but high absorption
rates mean increased material cost. He said the com-
pany’s Airex T92 SealX products provide a typical resin
uptake of around 0.5 kg/m2 compared to around 1.0 kg/m2
for PVC core foam (60 kg/m3), 1.6 kg/m2 for PET core (100
kg/m3) and around 2.4 kg/m2 for balsa (Figure 7).
The conference closed with a look at some of the
latest thinking in blade recycling. Professor Henning
Albers, institute director at the Bremen University of
Applied Science, is studying end of life options for wind
turbine blades, which include reconditioning and re-use
for intact blades and energy recovery with residual
waste in an incinerator, for example in cement kilns.
He said increasingly strict waste management regula-
tions, together with growing volumes of blades reaching
the end of their service life, would drive demand for an
effective waste solution (Figure 8). He highlighted the
ReFiber process as one option. This involves crushing
the material to 25cm pieces, pyrolysis at 600˚C, and
separation into glass fi bre and fi lling material. The
recovered glass shows a 50% loss of strength but is
suitable for use in insulation.
The Wind Turbine Blade Manufacture 2012 conference took place in Dusseldorf on 27-29 November 2012. The full conference proceedings can be purchased from the PID bookstore here.
The next Wind Turbine Blade Manufacture conference will take place on 3-5 December 2013 at the Maritim Hotel in Dusseldorf, Germany. More information can be found at the conference website.
AMI is currently inviting presentation submissions for the 2013 conference (the deadline is 17 May 2013). For more information about speaking at the event, contact Dr Sally Humphreys: [email protected].
Figure 7: Core
resin uptake
comparisons
for a 47m rotor
blade – Airex
SealX PET
against
standard
alternatives
Source: 3A
Composites
2013 | WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING 43
product. Director of product management for the contact Dr Sally Humphreys: [email protected].
Figure 8: Wind turbine material mass available for recycling in Germany (assuming 10-15 year repowering cycle)
Source: Wessels (2011), University of Applied Science, Bremen
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201344
show preview | JEC Composites Europe
The world’s biggest composites show takes place in Paris, France on 12-14 March this year. JEC Composites Europe is expected to draw more than 30,000 visitors to Pavilion 1 at the Porte de Versailles Paris Expo centre. Wind energy is a key part of the show, accounting for around 10% of exhibitors. Over the next two and a half pages we take a look at some of the innovations on show for this demanding industrial sector.
Airtechwww.airtech.luAirtech Advanced Materials Group will show its Vac-Ric
LT and HT resin infusion connectors, which are
designed to provide effective through-bag connection to
the vacuum manifold and resin feed lines for low and
high temperature applications.
The company will also show its resin infusion
adapter and Sil-Tube fl exible heat and chemical
resistant tubing products, together with the latest
additions to its Airseal sealant tape range. These
include the Airseal 2 ST cost optimised tape for use at
up to 150˚C and the Airseal 2 HT Twin tape for double
bagging applications.
Dowwww.dow.comwww.dowaksa.comDow Formulated Systems will introduce an enhanced
infusion system with a new adhesion technology as part
of its Airstone product line for wind turbine blade
composites. The company will also promote the range
of carbon fi bre products and derivatives that have come
out of the DowAksa joint venture, which the company
set up last year with Turkish acrylic fi bre producer Aksa
Akrilik Kimya Sanayii.
Duratek www.duratek.com.trTurkish resin producer Duratek will present its new
GL-approved epoxy lamination system for infusion
production of turbine blades.
The 1200 system is said to be the result of three
years of development. With a room temperature
viscosity of 300-350 mPas and low exotherm, the resin
system is said to be well suited to production of spar
caps and thicker laminates.
The system is designed for room temperature curing
applications. However, the company says it exceeds the
industry standard HDT and Tg values when post-cured
at 60-70˚C.
Extended Structured Compositeswww.escomposite.comGermany-based Extended Structured Composites (ESC)
will display its 3D-Core product line, which it claims can
help to improve resin fl ow and optimise structural
stability and weight of composite parts.
Available as an expanded PET, XPS, PUR and SAN
foam, 3D-Core foams incorporate a hexagonal module
structure that allows the materials to easily follow
contours in the mould. The company claims the struc-
tured foam core materials can provide a 50% increase in
Composites blow into Paris
2013 | WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING 45
JEC Composites Europe | show preview
The world’s biggest composites show takes place in Paris, France on 12-14 March this year. JEC Composites Europe is expected to draw more than 30,000 visitors to Pavilion 1 at the Porte de Versailles Paris Expo centre. Wind energy is a key part of the show, accounting for around 10% of exhibitors. Over the next two and a half pages we take a look at some of the innovations on show for this demanding industrial sector.
production effi ciency and 250% gain in shear strength.
Guritwww.gurit.comGurit will be promoting its latest G-PET FR fi re
retardant PET foam and its new core sealing technology
for balsa – Uvotech. This is said to signifi cantly reduce
resin uptake while retaining core-laminate adhesion
and durability. The company will also show its sealing
technology for PET.
Gurit will display its Airstream specialised prepreg,
which has been developed to enable economical
manufacturing of very high quality unidirectional carbon
spar caps without the need for a temperature controlled
factory. Other new introductions include the company’s
next generation of automotive materials for high volume
body panel production, which use rapid press moulding
techniques to produce a Class-A fi nish capable of high
temperature paint-line processing.
Hexcelwww.hexcel.comHexcel will display its HexPly M79 prepreg, which is
designed to provide wind blade manufacturers currently
using infusion techniques with a simple option to
transfer to prepreg production methods.
HexPly M79 has been developed to meet industry
demands for a lower temperature curing prepreg that
cures more quickly than products currently on the
market. A number of cure cycle options are possible
with HexPly M79. For a very low temperature cure, a
cycle of 10 hours at 70°C is recommended. This
enables lower cost tooling and associated materials to
be used and results in energy savings, creating a highly
competitive cost environment.
If a more rapid cure cycle is required then HexPly
M79 cures in 8 hours at 75°C and in only 4-6 hours at
80°C. This provides a signifi cant time-saving over
established industry prepregs, where a typical cure
cycle for an 80°C curing resin matrix is 10 hours.
According to Hexcel, using the HexPly M79 product
also means less risk of an exothermic reaction. It says
the new grade provides a 60% reduction over its
standard M9G prepregs. However, the new prepreg is
still based on the standard epoxy chemistry that has
over 20 years of proven performance in wind blade
manufacture. HexPly M79 also has a very long outlife at
room temperature of at least 2 months.
The low cure temperature of HexPly M79 also means
the system is compatible with any liquid epoxy resin
used for infusion processing, allowing prepreg and
infusion processes to be combined in the same blade.
The ultimate performance for wind blades is achieved
when HexPly M79 is reinforced with carbon fi bre. For
the next generation of super-size blades, Hexcel offers
patented carbon UD materials that allow very thick
carbon UD laminates to be manufactured by vacuum bag
technology. Hexcel’s HexPly carbon fi bre UD prepregs
with Grid Technology have been certifi ed by Germanis-
cher Lloyd for use in wind energy applications.
Johns Manvillewww.jm.comThe newest introduction on the Johns Manville stand
will be its latest glass products for reinforcement of
thermoplastic composites. StarRov RXN886 has been
developed specifi cally for in-mould caprolactum
polymerisation processes.
The company will also present its StarRov 076 glass,
which was granted GL approval for wind energy
applications last year. Manufactured by direct winding of
JEC 2013Dates: 12-14 March 2013
Venue: Pavilion 1, Paris Expo,
Place de la Porte de Versailles, 75015 Paris, France
Hours: 09:00 – 18:00 daily
Admission: Daily ticket advance purchase €20 (€35 on site).
Multi-day ticket advance purchase €35 (€55 on site)
Organiser: JEC Composites. Tel: +33 (0)1 58 36 15 01
Website: www.jeccomposites.com
PARlS MARCH l2, l3, l4,20l3
show preview | JEC Composites Europe
continuous glass fibres and carrying a silane sizing, the
roving is said to provide very good fatigue performance
in both epoxy and polyester matrix applications.
Scott Baderwww.scottbader.comScott Bader will be launching a number of new gelcoat
products at JEC Europe, including its ultralow styrene
content Crystic Ecogel S1PA spray product. This is
claimed to reduce total styrene emissions by more than
55%.
The new gelcoat has been tested by Denmark’s LM
Wind Power, which uses the system at its production
plants around the world. “We have seen a major
reduction of more than 50% in styrene emissions during
spray gelcoat application, without any loss of perfor-
mance and using the same standard spray equipment
and catalysts as with conventional gelcoats,” says LM
Wind Power global equipment engineering senior
manager Dan Lindvang.
The company will also show its Crestapol acrylic
resin range, including the 1250LV grade developed to
function well with standard sized carbon fibre reinforce-
ment. This will be shown as part of a wind blade
component.
Other new introductions include the vinyl ester
Crystic Gelcoat 15PA spray tooling gelcoat, which offers
superior gloss retention. The 15PA is the latest addition
to Scott Bader’s proven Crystic matched tooling system
and offers mould makers a brush tooling gelcoat option,
a VE skincoat and a choice of standard or rapid tooling
back up resins.
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COMPOSITE MATERIALS, DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING
COMPOSITE PERFORMANCE AND FAILURE IN SERVICE
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURING | 201348
products | Additives
Extended work time epoxy eases infusion processing
rEsin systEms
CtG to make AGy’s s-1 Hm wind rovingsrEinforCEmEnt
Epotec Infusion system
YDL590/TH7675 is a new
introduction from the epoxy
resins division of
Thailand’s Aditya Birla
Chemicals that the company
says is designed to ease
production of today’s larger
wind turbine blades.
The new system is based
on the company’s Epotec
YDL590 resin and TH7657
curing agent and is said to offer
an optimum combination of
process and performance
properties. The new system is
approved by Germanischer
Lloyd.
Benefits of the resin system
include a high degree of
latency at ambient condi-
tions, with a resulting slow
viscosity development,
extended working time and
lower exothermic heat of
reaction.
The system also provides
a faster strength build up
during cure. This opens the
way to processing cycle time
reductions, according to the
company.
Aditya Birla claims that,
due to the combination of
being able to start mould
heating immediately after
infusion is complete and the
potential to cure at higher
temperatures, manufactur-
ers can reduce cycle times by
20-25% when the new resin
system is used in conjunction
with the company’s YD1533G/
TH7257G structural adhesive.
According to the company,
the slow viscosity build up
also eases penetration of the
reinforcement, reducing the
chance of defects such as dry
areas or wrinkling.
❙ www.epotec.info
intelligentapproach tomeasuringfrom GLPs
CErtifiCAtion
Global Lightning Protection
Services (GLPS) says its
GLPS-ILMS standalone
lightning CMS system is
capable of measuring
lightning currents in up to
three positions (current
paths) and can process the
lightning current waveform
into peak current, maximum
rise time, specific energy and
charge content.
The compact system – the
processor unit measures just
400mm by 400mm by 200mm
and weighs 5kg – is simple to
integrate into the rotor blade
and provides operation over a
temperature range from
-25˚C to +55˚C.
The system measures the
entire waveform - including
first, subsequent and long
duration stroke – on each
channel independently.
Storage is provided for the
previous 100 events.
❙ www.glps.dk
US-based AGY has signed an
agreement with China’s CTG/
Taishan Fiberglass under
which the Chinese firm will
manufacture AGY’s S-1 HM
high performance glass
rovings for wind energy
applications.
The S-1 HM roving products
will be sold by both compa-
nies. AGY will focus on the US
and European markets while
CTG/Taishan Fiberglass will
sell to the Asia Pacific and
African regions.
S-1 HM rovings are said to
provide higher tensile modulus
– 90GPa - and enhanced
fatigue performance compared
to traditional E-glass products.
E-glass. The S-1 UHM ultra
high modulus glass is
manufactured using the
company’s Modular Direct
Melt technology and is
claimed to deliver enhanced
modulus without sacrificing
performance.
❙ www.agy.com❙ www.ctfg.com
According to AGY, the products
are specifically aimed at use in
areas of the blade requiring
enhanced performance, such
as spars and spar caps and
blade root sections.
l AGY also recently launched a
glass fibre with a tensile
modulus of 99GPa, some 40%
above that of traditional
3A Composites: Core productsEurope / Middle East / India / Africa:
Airex AG 5643 Sins, Switzerland Tel +41 41 789 66 00 Fax +41 41 789 66 [email protected]
North America / South America:
Baltek Inc.High Point, NC 27261, USA Tel +1 336 398 1900 Fax +1 336 398 1901 [email protected]
Asia / Australia / New Zealand:
3A Composites (China) Ltd.201201 Shanghai, China Tel +86 21 585 86 006 Fax +86 21 338 27 [email protected]
www.corematerials.3AComposites.com
New AIREX® T92 Seal Save resin to the Max!
X
Find out how Airex T92 SealX PET core foams can help you reduce resin usage during infusion. This two page brochure compares resin uptakes and penetration of conventional and SealX PET core materials.
� Click here to download
GLPS: Lightning protection
EWEA 2013 LIGHTNING PROTECTION AS A NATURAL PART OF WIND TURBINE DESIGNS
Søren Find Madsen, Kim Bertelsen & Thomas Holm Krogh
Global Lightning Protection Services A/S, HI Park 445, 7400 Herning, Denmark
E-mail: [email protected] Phone: +45 6081 5049
Summary The present paper discusses the necessity of including lightning protection of wind turbines in the early design phases, to ensure a robust and functional system throughout the lifetime of the turbine. In this sense it is important to emphasize that a modern wind turbine should withstand lightning strikes without suffering unacceptable damages. The paper presents different topics as risk assessment, engineering design tools and lightning verification tests, all to be employed in the natural and proactive wind turbine design process.
1 INTRODUCTION
Lightning damages to wind turbines are adding a significant cost to the O&M concerning blades, the nacelle, the overall control system etc. However, if the lightning protection standards as IEC 61400-24 [1] are applied correctly, and the solutions are engineered according to the most recent findings damages should not occur or be accepted.
The performance criterion is that the
turbine should be able to receive high level lightning strikes without structural damage that would impair the functioning of the system. The turbine should be continuous operational until next scheduled maintenance and inspection, meaning that a lightning strike should not require special inspection and repair.
Initially a risk assessment of the lightning
exposure and consequences to the wind turbine is conducted, which defines the baseline for the protection system. Typically lightning protection level one (LPL1) is chosen, which then sets the design inputs in terms of lightning frequency, lightning attachment points, lightning strike immunity, requirements to electronic systems, lifetime issues related to lightning damages etc.
Once the exposure rate and the overall
expectations to the turbine performance are fixed, the protection measures can be designed into the mechanical and the electrical design concept of blades, nacelle, tower installation, earthing systems, etc. This requires that the responsible lightning
protection engineers adapt the requirements and restrictions posed for mechanical and structural reasons, but also that mechanical design engineers and engineers working with traditional power and control system installations realise that lightning strikes are a real threat against safe and reliable operation.
The final step to ensure an efficient and
robust design is the verification process, where tests are required both for certification purposes and to confirm the intended design ideas and principles. The standard IEC 61400-24 [1] concerning lightning protection of wind turbines recommends a set of verification tests, comprising High Voltage strike attachment tests, High Current physical damage tests along with several others, which are all used to stress the construction in a similar manner as found during real lightning exposure.
The overall aim is of course not only to
obtain a certificate from one of the independent certifiers, but to design a rigid and efficient system that will in fact stay in operation for as many years as guaranteed by the manufacturer. Lightning occurrence can no longer be treated as force majeure, since lightning strikes are something that is to be foreseen and that should be expected to all modern wind turbines. Lightning is something governed by laws of physics and described by engineering tools, just as structural strength and fatigue for the mechanical parts of the wind turbine.
This 10-page technical article explains how to integrate effective lightning protection into wind turbine blades. It discusses risk assessment, engineering design tools and verifi cation tests.
� Click here to download
This month’s freebrochure downloads
Simply click on the brochure cover or link to download a PDF of the full publication
If you would like your brochure to be included on this page, please contact Claire Bishop. [email protected]. Tel: +44 (0)20 8686 8139
Aditya Birla: Resin systems 2013 conference update
This three-page document takes the reader through the full range of Aditya Birla Epotec resin systems for the wind energy market, including tooling, gel coat, resin infusion,adhesive and hand-lay products.
� Click here to download
The 4th Wind Turbine Blade Manufacture conference takes place in Dusseldorf, Germany, on 3-5 December 2013. Download the conference fl yer to fi nd out more about speaking at or attending the event.
� Click here to download
Epotec® epoxy systems for Wind Energy Applications are designed to meet stringent process and
application requirements and offer a unique combination of performance and cost effectivenes. The
Company offers a wide range of Germanischer Lloyd (GL) certified systems with product portfolio con-
sisting of Tooling Resin Systems, Gel Coats, Resin Infusion System, Resin Systems for Prepegs,
Expandable Epoxy Systems, Adhesive Systems and Hand-Lay up Systems.
Features:
Epotec Systems for Wind Energy Applications
Tooling Resin Systems
Epotec® Tooling Systems allow manufacturing of customized tools for specific uses and include systems suitable for hand
lamination as well as infusion process. Low curing shrinkage enables manufacturing of precise composite tools in most com-
plex shapes quickly and easily. The tools offer low thermal expansion and provide excellent strength to weight ratio.
Versatile to di�erent processes and blade designs.
Provide optimum combination of properties under static & dynamic loading conditions.
Robust systems
Designed to manage process and environmental variations.
Gel Coats
Epotec System Mixing
Ratio1
TFT2 Tg3 Features
YDGC 1651/TH 8266 100:45 2 - 3 65 - 75 Clear, moderate reactivity
YDGC 1651 / TH 8267 100:45 4 - 5 65 - 75 Clear, slow reactivity
YDGC 1652 / TH 8268
(pigmented)
100:15 1 - 2 125 - 135 Fast reactivity – designed for repair applications
YDGC 1653 / TH 8269
(pigmented)
100:40 2 - 3 80 - 90 Cycloaliphatic, moderate reactivity and temperature
resistance
Epotec System Mixing
Ratio1
TFT2 Tg3 Features
YDGC 1651/TH 8266 100:45 2 - 3 65 - 75 Clear, moderate reactivity.
YDGC 1651 / TH 8267 100:45 4 - 5 65 - 75 Clear, slow reactivity.
YDGC 1652 / TH 8268
(pigmented)
100:15 1 - 2 125 - 135 Fast reactivity – designed for repair applications.
YDGC 1653 / TH 8269
(pigmented)
100:40 2 - 3 80 - 90 Cycloaliphatic, moderate reactivity and temperature
resistance.
1Part by weight (pbw), 2Tack Free Time @ 25oC in hours, 3Glass transition temperature oC
Epotec® Surface / Gel Coat Systems are designed to provide optimum tack free time and excellent surface finish after curing
process.
1Part by weight (pbw), 2 Brookfield Viscosity @ 25oC, 3 Glass transition temperature oC
Epotec System Mixing
Ratio1
Mix viscosity2 Tg3
Features
YD595/TH7295 100:30 500 - 1000 115 - 125 Moderate reactivity and temperature resistance
YD535LV/TH7353 100:25 350 - 400 130 - 140 Moderate reactivity, high temperature resistance
YDL574/TH7363
(RI: <20m. molds)
100:30 250 - 300 115 - 125 Low viscosity, Moderate reactivity and temperature
resistance
YDL594/TH7365
(RI: >20 m. molds)
100:35 200 - 300 115 - 125 Low viscosity, Slow reactivity and moderate
temperature resistance
Epotec System Mixing
Ratio1
Mix viscosity2 Tg3
Features
YD595/TH7295 100:30 500 - 1000 115 - 125 Moderate reactivity and temperature resistance
YD535LV/TH7353 100:25 350 - 400 130 - 140 Moderate reactivity, high temperature resistance
YDL574/TH7363
(RI: <20m. molds)
100:30 250 - 300 115 - 125 Low viscosity, Moderate reactivity and temperature
resistance
YDL594/TH7365
(RI: >20 m. molds)
100:35 200 - 300 115 - 125 Low viscosity, Slow reactivity and moderate
temperature resistance
PDF processed with CutePDF evaluation edition www.CutePDF.com
3-5 December 2013 –Maritim Hotel, Düsseldorf, Germany
HEADLINE SPONSOR
The international conference on MW wind blades looking at design,composites manufacturing and performance
WIND TURBINE BLADE MANUFACTURE 2013
The wind power industry is expanding into new countries across the globe and new companies are moving into this marketplace. The key to viability is highly efficient electricity generation, long-term integrity and good economics. These factors are dependent on the blade design and structure.
The 4th AMI international Wind Turbine Blade Manufacture conference will again provide the forum to debate the latest designs, manufacturing technologies and performance of wind turbine blade composite structures, including causes of failure and solutions to challenges such as lightning strike, icing, and offshore sea exposure.
Wind Turbine Blade Manufacture 2013 will bring together energy companies, wind turbine producers, blade manufacturers, design engineers, composites manufacturing experts, researchers, developers, materials and equipment suppliers to discuss the technology and costs of producing reliable year-round wind energy, focusing on the key component, the rotor. ATTending, exhiBiTing And SponSoringIf you would like to attend this highly valued learning and networking event, or wish to book a tabletop exhibition space or sponsor the conference, please contact Rocio Martinez, [email protected] Tel: +44 117 924 9442.
The cAll for pAperS iS noW openWould you like to speak at this leading industry event? The call for papers is now open. If you would like to give a 25 minute presentation, please send a short summary and title for your topic to Dr Sally Humphreys, [email protected]. The deadline for submissions is 17th May 2013. It is free to attend the conference as a speaker.
Previous attendees at this event include senior specialists from across the wind power sector. click here to find out more
FOR mORE INFORmAtION AbOuttHE cONFERENcE, cLIck HERE
Organised by:Applied Market Information Ltd.
Also sponsored by: Media supporter:
Advertise in this magazineAMI: Plastics data specialists
Wind Turbine Blade Manufacturing is a new digital magazine fromApplied Market Information (AMI), the company behind the highly successful Wind Turbine Blade Manufacturing series of international conferences
About Wind Turbine Blade Manufacturing magazineFEBRUARY 2013
INNOVATIONS IN MATERIALS
PERFORMANCE MONITORING
TRENDS IN REINFORCEMENTS
UPDATE: BLADE PRODUCTION
Reaching a global marketThe brand new Wind Turbine Blade Manufacturing magazine is distributed electronically to a global audience of 7,394 key decision makers in the international wind turbine blade industry and supply chain. This circulation includes all participants in AMI’s 2010, 2011 and 2012 Wind Turbine Blade Manufacturing conferences, plus our extensive database of senior industry decision makers. Readers can access the magazine free-of charge and are encouraged to share it with colleagues, further enhancing this highly targeted circulation.
Anyone that has attended one of AMI’s Wind Turbine Blade Manufacturing conferences will be fully aware of the quality and international nature of the audience they attract. This international attendance underline AMI’s understanding of this marketplace and the strength of our database of key players across the entire supply chain.
Wind Turbine Blade Manufacturing magazine will provide a unique and highly cost effective means to promote your products, expertise and services to the global blade manufacturing industry. Prime advertisement places within the magazine will be sold on a strictly fi rst-come, fi rst-served basis.To book your place, contact our advertisement manager Claire Bishop:([email protected] Tel: +44 20 8686 8139).
Quality editorial contentWind Turbine Blade Manufacturing magazine is produced using the state-of-the-art on-line publishing platform developed for AMI’s highly successful portfolio of digital plastics magazines, which includes Compounding World, Injection World, and Film and Sheet Extrusion. The magazine can be viewed on a desktop or laptop computer using any web browser. Readers can also download it as a PDF to read offl ine, print or archive and can email web-links to the edition or to individual pages to colleagues or customers.
AMI is setting the standard in digital magazine publishing for the polymer sector, harnessing the opportunity provided by the web to deliver valuable and highly targeted technology information to a global audience. Wind Turbine Blade Manufacturing is produced to the same high editorial and design standards as AMI’s other digital magazines. It is edited by Chris Smith, who is a materials science graduate and a highly experienced industry journalist with more than 20 years’ experience in the plastics processing sector.
Wind Turbine Blade Manufacturing will cover the latest business and project news of relevance to this fast moving industry, it will explore new market and technology trends, and will report on the latest material and equipment innovations and product launches. This new magazine will be an essential read for senior managers throughout the industry’s supply chain.
Wind Turbine Blade Manufacturing – Features� February 2013 – Advanced blade manufacturing • Material innovation • Lifetime prediction • Recycling • JEC 2013 Preview
If you wish to submit news stories or articles for consideration for the magazine, please contact Chris Smith:[email protected]. Tel: +44 117 924 9442
See over for circulation breakdown, advertising rates and data
Published FREE on the web to 7,394 key decision makers.
2013
CATALOGUE
www.ami-publishing.com
Leaders in plastics market research and consulting
APPLIED MARKET INFORMATION LTD.
Applied Market Information Ltd. provides market information on all aspects of the thermoplastics industry
AMI DATABASES AND REPORTSEurope · America · Asia · Middle East
Top 50 players in key markets Business overviews of the 50 leaders groups in each processing sector, including key production, strategic and financial information.
Statistical analysis of the plastics markets • Capacity/demand for all commodity
and engineering polymers • End use applications and
country analysis • Review of the structure of
the industry by process
EUROPE
Market Data / Statistics
AMI’s 2013 European Plastics Industry Report Edition: 12 To be published: May 2013Book: €555 $720 PDF: €655 $850
Compounding / Masterbatch
The Thermoplastics Compounding Industry in Europe - AMI’s GuideEdition: 11.0 Published: 2011 Sites: 670Book: €255 $330Database: €650 $845 Gold database: €975 $1270
Technical Compounders in Europe- A Review of Europe’s 50 Largest Players Edition: 3.0 Published: 2011Book: €455 $590PDF: €540 $700
EuropeEuropeeditionedition
1111
Europe
edition 11
AMI’s Guide toTHETHERMOPLASTICSCOMPOUNDINGINDUSTRY INEUROPE
edition 11
PVC compounders - A Review of Europe’s 50 Largest Players Edition 4.0 Published: 2009 Book: €455 $590PDF: €540 $700
Masterbatch Producers- A Review of Europe’s 50 Largest PlayersEdition: 3.0 Published: 2012 Book: €455 $590 PDF: €540 $700
Table of contents from: AMI’s 2013 European Plastics Industry Report
AMI’s 2013 European Plastics Industry Report is considered by the industry as the most comprehensive and best value market report on the plastics industry. It provides a wealth of information with key figures and graphs on polymer capacity and demand.
AMI also provides statistical analysis of plastics markets for other regions of the world, please contact us for more details.
FormatsMost of the data is available electronically either as a PDF or as a database, typically supplied on CD. The Gold database is a superior product with extra information.
The AMI publications bring you essential market data, in three types of publications:
Directories & databasesLocation and production details of 20,000 plastics processors worldwide with information on the polymer and machinery they use as well as their full location and managerial contacts. and managerial contacts. and managerial contacts.
ESSENTIAL DATA ON KE Y PL AYERS & PL ASTICS MARKETS
NEW
Table of contents
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 13 EXPLANATORY NOTES .................................................................................................. 14 Units of measure .................................................................................................................... 14 Source of data ........................................................................................................................ 14 Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................... 14 SECTION 1 THE EUROPEAN PLASTICS INDUSTRY ............................................... 17 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 17 Market development ............................................................................................................... 18 The market in 2010-2011 ....................................................................................................... 20 End use applications .............................................................................................................. 25 Polymer supply ....................................................................................................................... 27 Structure of the processing industry ...................................................................................... 32 Future prospects .................................................................................................................... 34 SECTION 2 THE MARKET FOR LINEAR AND LOW DENSITY POLYETHYLENE ..... 37 Definition of material .............................................................................................................. 37 Market development ............................................................................................................... 37 The market in 2010-2011 ....................................................................................................... 39 End use applications .............................................................................................................. 41 Producers of LL/LDPE ........................................................................................................... 44 Future prospects .................................................................................................................... 47 SECTION 3 THE MARKET FOR HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE ....................... 49 Definition of material .............................................................................................................. 49 Market development ............................................................................................................... 49 The market in 2010-2011 ....................................................................................................... 51 End use applications .............................................................................................................. 53 Producers of HDPE ................................................................................................................ 55 Future prospects .................................................................................................................... 58 SECTION 4 THE MARKET FOR POLYPROPYLENE. ................................................ 60 Definition of material .............................................................................................................. 60 Market development ............................................................................................................... 60 The market in 2010-2011 ....................................................................................................... 62 End use applications .............................................................................................................. 64 Producers of polypropylene ................................................................................................... 67 Future prospects .................................................................................................................... 70 SECTION 5 THE MARKET FOR PVC ............................................................................ 72 Definition of material .............................................................................................................. 72 Market development ............................................................................................................... 72 The market in 2010-2011 ....................................................................................................... 75 End use applications .............................................................................................................. 77 Producers of PVC .................................................................................................................. 79 Future prospects .................................................................................................................... 82 SECTION 6 THE MARKET FOR GP-HI POLYSTYRENE ........................................... 84 Definition of material .............................................................................................................. 84 Market development ............................................................................................................... 84 The market in 2010-2011 ....................................................................................................... 87 End use applications .............................................................................................................. 89 Producers of GP-HI polystyrene ............................................................................................ 92 Future prospects .................................................................................................................... 93
................................................................................................................. 13
.................................................................................................. 14 Units of measure ..............................................................................................................
data ................................................................................................................tions .................................................................................................................
............................................... 17 Introduction ..................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................... 18 in 2010-2011 .......................................................................................................ications ..........................................................................................................
pply ................................................................................................................sing industry ...................................................................................... 32
Future prospects ..............................................................................................................
SECTION 2 THE MARKET FOR LINEAR AND LOW DENSITY POLYETHYLENEmaterial ........................................................................................................
............................................................................................................... 37 in 2010-2011 .......................................................................................................ications .......................................................................................................... LL/LDPE ..........................................................................................................
Future prospects ..............................................................................................................
SECTION 3 THE MARKET FOR HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE ....................... 49 material ........................................................................................................
............................................................................................................... 49 in 2010-2011 .......................................................................................................ications ..........................................................................................................
of HDPE .............................................................................................................Future prospects ..............................................................................................................
................................................ 60 material ........................................................................................................
............................................................................................................... 60 in 2010-2011 .......................................................................................................ications ..........................................................................................................
ypropylene ................................................................................................... Future prospects ..............................................................................................................
............................................................................ 72 material ........................................................................................................
............................................................................................................... 72 in 2010-2011 .......................................................................................................ications ..........................................................................................................
of PVC ..............................................................................................................Future prospects ..............................................................................................................
........................................... 84 material ........................................................................................................
............................................................................................................... 84 in 2010-2011 .......................................................................................................ications ..........................................................................................................
polystyrene ............................................................................................ 92 Future prospects ..............................................................................................................
SECTION 7 THE MARKET FOR EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE ................................ 96 Definition of material .............................................................................................................. 96 Market development ............................................................................................................... 96 The market in 2010-2011 ....................................................................................................... 99 End use applications ............................................................................................................ 101 Producers of EPS ................................................................................................................. 102 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 105 SECTION 8 THE MARKET FOR PET ........................................................................... 105 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 105 Definition of material ............................................................................................................ 105 Market development ............................................................................................................. 105 The market in 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 108 End use applications ............................................................................................................ 109 Producers of PET ................................................................................................................. 112 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 115 SECTION 9 THE MARKET FOR ABS/SAN ................................................................. 117 Definition of material ............................................................................................................ 119 Market development ............................................................................................................. 119 The market in 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 121 End use applications ............................................................................................................ 123 Producers of ABS/SAN ........................................................................................................ 125 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 127 SECTION 10 THE MARKET FOR POLYAMIDE ......................................................... 129 Definition of material ............................................................................................................ 129 Market development ............................................................................................................. 129 The market in 2010-11 ......................................................................................................... 131 End use applications ............................................................................................................ 133 Producers of polyamide ....................................................................................................... 136 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 139 SECTION 11 THE MARKET FOR PBT ........................................................................ 139 Definition of material ............................................................................................................ 141 Market development ............................................................................................................. 141 The market in 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 142 End use applications ............................................................................................................ 143 Producers of PBT ................................................................................................................. 145 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 146 SECTION 12 THE MARKET FOR POLYCARBONATE ............................................ 149 Definition of material ............................................................................................................ 149 Market development ............................................................................................................. 149 The market in 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 151 End use applications ............................................................................................................ 152 Producers of polycarbonate ................................................................................................. 156 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 157 SECTION 13 THE MARKET FOR PMMA .................................................................... 159 Definition of material ............................................................................................................ 159 Market development ............................................................................................................. 159 The market in 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 160 End use applications ............................................................................................................ 161 Producers of pmma .............................................................................................................. 163 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 166 SECTION 14 THE MARKET FOR ACETAL ............................................................... 168 Definition of material ............................................................................................................ 168 Market development ............................................................................................................. 168 The market in 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 170 End use applications ............................................................................................................ 171 Producers of acetal .............................................................................................................. 173 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 174
............................................................................................................... 96 in 2010-2011 ....................................................................................................... 99 ications ............................................................................................................ 101
of EPS ................................................................................................................. 102 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 105
........................................................................... 105 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 105
material ............................................................................................................ 105 ............................................................................................................. 105
2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 108 ications ............................................................................................................ 109
of PET ................................................................................................................. 112 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 115
................................................................. 117 material ............................................................................................................ 119
............................................................................................................. 119 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 121 ications ............................................................................................................ 123 ABS/SAN ........................................................................................................ 125
Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 127
......................................................... 129 material ............................................................................................................ 129
............................................................................................................. 129 in 2010-11 ......................................................................................................... 131 ications ............................................................................................................ 133 polyamide ....................................................................................................... 136
Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 139
........................................................................ 139 material ............................................................................................................ 141
............................................................................................................. 141 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 142 ications ............................................................................................................ 143
of PBT ................................................................................................................. 145 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 146
SECTION 12 THE MARKET FOR POLYCARBONATE ............................................ 149 material ............................................................................................................ 149
............................................................................................................. 149 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 151 ications ............................................................................................................ 152
ycarbonate ................................................................................................. 156 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 157
.................................................................... 159 material ............................................................................................................ 159
............................................................................................................. 159 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 160 ications ............................................................................................................ 161 pmma .............................................................................................................. 163
Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 166
............................................................... 168 material ............................................................................................................ 168
............................................................................................................. 168 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 170 ications ............................................................................................................ 171 acetal .............................................................................................................. 173
Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 174
SECTION 15 THE THERMOPLASTICS COMPOUNDING INDUSTRY .................. 176 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 176 The production of thermoplastics compounds ..................................................................... 176 Colour compounds ............................................................................................................... 177 Masterbatch ......................................................................................................................... 178 PVC compounds .................................................................................................................. 179 Technical polyolefins ............................................................................................................ 180 Engineering compounds ...................................................................................................... 181 Industry structure ................................................................................................................. 181 SECTION 16 THE FILM EXTRUSION INDUSTRY ..................................................... 185 Definition of process ............................................................................................................. 185 Market development ............................................................................................................. 185 The market in 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 187 Polymer demand .................................................................................................................. 188 End use applications ............................................................................................................ 191 Structure of the industry ....................................................................................................... 193 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 196 SECTION 17 THE PIPE AND PROFILE EXTRUSION INDUSTRY ......................... 198 Definition of process ............................................................................................................. 198 Market development ............................................................................................................. 198 The market in 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 202 Polymer demand .................................................................................................................. 203 End use applications ............................................................................................................ 206 Structure of the industry ....................................................................................................... 209 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 213 SECTION 18 THE RIGID FILM AND SHEET INDUSTRY ......................................... 215 Definition of process ............................................................................................................. 215 Market development ............................................................................................................. 215 The market in 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 216 Polymer demand .................................................................................................................. 217 End use applications ............................................................................................................ 220 Structure of the industry ....................................................................................................... 221 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 224 SECTION 19 THE INJECTION MOULDING INDUSTRY .......................................... 226 Definition of process ............................................................................................................. 226 Market development ............................................................................................................. 226 The market in 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 229 Polymer demand .................................................................................................................. 230 End use applications ............................................................................................................ 232 Structure of the industry ....................................................................................................... 235 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 241 SECTION 20 THE BLOW MOULDING INDUSTRY .................................................... 243 Definition of process ............................................................................................................. 243 Market development ............................................................................................................. 243 The market in 2010-2011 ..................................................................................................... 246 Polymer demand .................................................................................................................. 247 End use applications ............................................................................................................ 250 Structure of the industry ....................................................................................................... 252 Future prospects .................................................................................................................. 255 APPENDIX ......................................................................................................................... 257 Data coverage ...................................................................................................................... 257 Country coverage ................................................................................................................. 257 The plastics industry in France ............................................................................................ 258 The plastics industry in Germany ............................................................................................... The plastics industry in Italy ....................................................................................................... The plastics industry in the United Kingdom .............................................................................. The plastics industry in Belgium ................................................................................................
AMI’s b est sel ler
Wind Turbine Blade Manufacturing provides a low cost means to market your products and services to the global blade manufacturing industry. Find out about the publication and advertising rates in our media pack.
� Click here to download
AMI publishes a wide range of databases and reports for the worldwide plastics industry, including Europe, North and South America, and Asia . Find out about our current products in this six-page catalogue.
� Click here to download
AMI is a leading organiser of conferences for the plastics
industry around the world. We run more than 30 events in
Europe, America, The Middle East and Asia each year,
featuring more than 500 expert presentations and attracting
well over 3,000 plastics industry professionals.
Focused on specific subjects, our conferences bring
together international audiences including influential play-
ers from throughout the supply chain. In particular, the events
typically attract a high proportion of processors and end-users.
Our events provide a perfect environment for attendees to
learn about the latest market and technology trends in their
chosen subject. They also offer excellent opportunities
for making new contacts with plenty of time set aside
for networking.
AMI’s conferences also provide highly effective marketing
opportunities. We have a range of sponsorship packages
available for each event as well as table-top exhibitions.
Click here for details of these packages.
Our highly experienced conference teams ensure that
our events run professionally and smoothly. All delegates
receive comprehensive documentation including printed and
electronic proceedings featuring the presentations given at
the event.
To find out more about AMI’s Conferences, contact:
Adele Brown ([email protected]) +44 117 924 9442).
www.amiconferences.com
AMI’s conferences – making the right connections
These are just some of the topics covered by our international conferences and we are adding new events all the time....
Agricultural film
Artificial grass
BOPP film
Cable applications
End of life plastics
Fire retardants
Flexible packaging
Green chemistry
Masterbatch
Medical applications
Minerals in compounding
Multi-Layer packaging films
Oilfield engineering with polymers
Photovoltaics
Pipeline coating
Plastic closure innovations
Plastic pipes
Polymer foam
Polymer sourcing and distribution
Polyolefin additives
Profiles
PVC formulation
Stretch and shrink film
Thin wall packaging
Waterproof membranes
Wind turbine blade manufacture
Wood-plastic composites
We hold our conferences in the
following regions:
- Europe
- Asia
- Middle East
- United States
For an up-to-date list of our
forthcoming conferences visit
www.amiconferences.com
AMI CONFERENCES APP AVAILABLE TO DOWNLOAD FOR FREE:
AMI’s European Conference Team