Writing Lab Writing Lab ReportsReports

To ensure that you can communicate To ensure that you can communicate findings of laboratory investigations in findings of laboratory investigations in

standard formatstandard formatContentsContents

PurposePurpose

StructureStructure

AppendicesAppendices

CitationsCitations

ReferencesReferences

Difference between a Difference between a report and an essay report and an essay

• conveys specific information such as findings to conveys specific information such as findings to reader whereas essay - a theoretical answer based reader whereas essay - a theoretical answer based on understanding of a specific questionon understanding of a specific question

• Report usually contains description of results of an Report usually contains description of results of an investigation, whereas essays usually require some investigation, whereas essays usually require some form of argument in response to questionform of argument in response to question

• Reports may often contain conclusions and Reports may often contain conclusions and recommendations, whereas essays although may recommendations, whereas essays although may contain conclusions but rarely contain contain conclusions but rarely contain recommendations.recommendations.

(Blake and Bly, 1993)(Blake and Bly, 1993)

Report Structure….Report Structure….

• Must be formal and impersonalMust be formal and impersonal• Use the third person e.g. Use the third person e.g. “ 2 grams of the “ 2 grams of the

chemicals were weighed and put in a flask”.chemicals were weighed and put in a flask”.• AVOIDAVOID writing in the first person e.g. “writing in the first person e.g. “I or I or

we, weighed 2 grams ....”we, weighed 2 grams ....”• AVOIDAVOID instructions e.g. “weigh 2 grams instructions e.g. “weigh 2 grams

of..”of..”• AVOIDAVOID slang terms and contractions slang terms and contractions

(didn’t, won’t etc)(didn’t, won’t etc)

Purpose of ReportPurpose of Report

• Record of an investigation undertakenRecord of an investigation undertaken• Communication of results or findings Communication of results or findings • Presentation of conclusions or Presentation of conclusions or

recommendationsrecommendations• Ensure investigation can be repeated by Ensure investigation can be repeated by

another person using only your reportanother person using only your report

Structure of ReportStructure of Report

• HeadingHeading• AimAim• IntroductionIntroduction• Materials, reagents and equipmentMaterials, reagents and equipment• Method/sMethod/s• ResultsResults• DiscussionDiscussion• Conclusion/RecommendationConclusion/Recommendation• ReferencesReferences• Appendices (if applicable)Appendices (if applicable)

Heading and AimHeading and Aim

Heading:Heading:• clearly indicate what the whole report is clearly indicate what the whole report is

about about • ((copycopy heading from the laboratory heading from the laboratory

practical handbook)practical handbook)

Aim:Aim:• Statement of specific goals of the practical Statement of specific goals of the practical

session i.e. the purpose of the investigation session i.e. the purpose of the investigation or the hypothesis (if applicable)or the hypothesis (if applicable)

Introduction …..Introduction …..

• theoretical background to present study / theoretical background to present study / experimentexperiment

• Start with general principles to place Start with general principles to place current study into perspectivecurrent study into perspective

• relevance theoretical principles must relevance theoretical principles must clearly come outclearly come out

• Cite appropriate referencesCite appropriate references

MaterialsMaterials

Reagents & EquipmentReagents & Equipment

• What materials were used in the What materials were used in the experiment/investigation?experiment/investigation?

• List of reagents and equipment usedList of reagents and equipment used• If list given the cite where and mention If list given the cite where and mention

only any special equipment or only any special equipment or modificationsmodifications

Methods / proceduresMethods / procedures

• If procedures provided in handbook, simply If procedures provided in handbook, simply cite the work. e.g., Basic Microbiology for cite the work. e.g., Basic Microbiology for Biomedical Science Module Handbook, Biomedical Science Module Handbook, BIOM1005/1095, page 1-3BIOM1005/1095, page 1-3

• If there were any modifications during the If there were any modifications during the practical session then these must be practical session then these must be stated.stated.

ResultsResults• presentation of findings of experiment presentation of findings of experiment • limited comments on validity of controls usedlimited comments on validity of controls used• limited comments to draw attention to limited comments to draw attention to

significant parts of the results.significant parts of the results.• usually presented as tables, graphs, figures, usually presented as tables, graphs, figures,

photographsphotographs• should have descriptive titles, for example: should have descriptive titles, for example:

Table 1: Indicates the effects of paracetamol on ratsTable 1: Indicates the effects of paracetamol on rats

Figure 1: Shows that the effects decreased in 40 minutesFigure 1: Shows that the effects decreased in 40 minutes

• Table titles written on top of the tables and Table titles written on top of the tables and figure titles just below the figure. figure titles just below the figure.

FigureFigure caption caption

Figure 1: Structure of a Gram-negative cell wallFigure 1: Structure of a Gram-negative cell wall

SourceSource: Kaiser (2005): Kaiser (2005)

Discussion Discussion

• Restate and comment on results and controlsRestate and comment on results and controls• logical and cohesivelogical and cohesive• ?unexpected results - Justify!?unexpected results - Justify!• to controls or standard valuesto controls or standard values• Compare findings with literatureCompare findings with literature• Relate to theory e.g. lecture topicsRelate to theory e.g. lecture topics• comment on suitability of method/technique comment on suitability of method/technique

used.used.• Suggest any improvements of techniques or Suggest any improvements of techniques or

experimental designexperimental design

Conclusions/RecommendationsConclusions/Recommendations

• could be part of discussion or separatecould be part of discussion or separate• Summarised discussion and provide Summarised discussion and provide

comments on success, significance, and comments on success, significance, and any implications of the experiment. any implications of the experiment.

• Suggestion of any further investigations Suggestion of any further investigations leading on fro this one..leading on fro this one..

ReferencesReferences• separate sheet listing all the articles and separate sheet listing all the articles and

books cited in report books cited in report • entries must conform to the conventions entries must conform to the conventions

of the referencing system used, example, of the referencing system used, example, the Harvard system.the Harvard system.

• arranged in alphabetical orderarranged in alphabetical order• BibliographyBibliography is a list of all reference is a list of all reference

material consulted such as articles, books, material consulted such as articles, books, journals etc, include all references cited in journals etc, include all references cited in report .report .

AppendicesAppendices• Figures, tables, graphs, charts, photographs Figures, tables, graphs, charts, photographs

that are supportive rather than essential to that are supportive rather than essential to explanation of the report placed in this explanation of the report placed in this section to avoid breaking up continuity of section to avoid breaking up continuity of the writing (Weaver and Weaver, 1977).the writing (Weaver and Weaver, 1977).

• Each separate appendix should be lettered, Each separate appendix should be lettered, e.g. Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C e.g. Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C etc. etc.

• NB: The order they are presented in is NB: The order they are presented in is dictated by the order they are referred in dictated by the order they are referred in the report (ie Discussion).the report (ie Discussion).

CitationCitation• When citing references in a report or essay, do not When citing references in a report or essay, do not

use footnotes.use footnotes.• Refer to articles, journals, books etc by author’s Refer to articles, journals, books etc by author’s

name and the published date e.g. “The immune name and the published date e.g. “The immune system has evolved to protect individuals from system has evolved to protect individuals from infectious microorganisms (Brostoff and Male, 1994)”infectious microorganisms (Brostoff and Male, 1994)”

• If the authors are more than two, the Latin If the authors are more than two, the Latin et alet al ( (et et aliaalia) meaning “and others” may be used. For ) meaning “and others” may be used. For example a paper by Grant, Tortora, Smith and Kofi in example a paper by Grant, Tortora, Smith and Kofi in 2004 would be cited in the text as:2004 would be cited in the text as:

“ “Grant et al (2004) showed that………”Grant et al (2004) showed that………”• Cited references should be at least within the Cited references should be at least within the

last five years? last five years?

Reference-Reference- BooksBooks• e.g. SAX, N.I. (1974) e.g. SAX, N.I. (1974) Industrial pollutionIndustrial pollution, 2, 2ndnd Ed, London, Ed, London,

Van Nostrand. pp. 46-50 Hilton and Robinson (1995)Van Nostrand. pp. 46-50 Hilton and Robinson (1995)• Name of author/s (surname in capitals, followed by Name of author/s (surname in capitals, followed by

initials)initials)• Date of publication (in bracket)Date of publication (in bracket)• Title of publication (Title of publication (underlinedunderlined if writing by hand or in if writing by hand or in

italics italics or or emboldenedemboldened))• Edition (if not first edition)Edition (if not first edition)• Place of publicationPlace of publication• PublisherPublisher• Page number/s (abbreviated to pp.) Page number/s (abbreviated to pp.)

Reference:- Reference:- Parts of a bookParts of a book

• e.g. JONES, J.L (1982) Acid rain in Sweden. In: TOCKWITH, A. ed. e.g. JONES, J.L (1982) Acid rain in Sweden. In: TOCKWITH, A. ed. Acid rainAcid rain reviewreview, 3, 3rdrd ed. London, Butterworths. Pp. 4-7 ed. London, Butterworths. Pp. 4-7

• author/s (surname in capitals, followed by forename)author/s (surname in capitals, followed by forename)• Year of publication (in brackets)Year of publication (in brackets)• Title of contribution (followed by ‘In:’)Title of contribution (followed by ‘In:’)• Names of author/s or editor/s of books (if editor put Names of author/s or editor/s of books (if editor put

‘ed.’ after the name)‘ed.’ after the name)• Title of book (Title of book (underlinedunderlined or or italics italics or or emboldenedemboldened))• Edition (if not first edition)Edition (if not first edition)• Place of publicationPlace of publication• PublisherPublisher• Page number/s of contribution (abbreviated pp.)Page number/s of contribution (abbreviated pp.)

Reference:-Reference:-Journal articlesJournal articles

E.g. TURNER, A.C. (1983) Airborne mercury E.g. TURNER, A.C. (1983) Airborne mercury concentration. concentration. Air pollution, Air pollution, vol. 12vol. 12 (pt. 4), pp. 13- (pt. 4), pp. 13-1717

Hilton and Robinson (1995)Hilton and Robinson (1995)• Name of author/s (surname in capitals, followed by Name of author/s (surname in capitals, followed by

forename)forename)• Year of publication (in brackets)Year of publication (in brackets)• Title of articleTitle of article• Title of periodical or journal (Title of periodical or journal (underlinedunderlined, in , in italicsitalics

or or emboldenedemboldened))• Volume number (Volume number (underlinedunderlined; may be abbreviated ; may be abbreviated

to to vol.vol.))• Part number (in brackets; may be abbreviated to Part number (in brackets; may be abbreviated to

pt.)pt.)• Page number/s (abbreviated to pp)Page number/s (abbreviated to pp)

Reference:-Reference:-Internet sourcesInternet sources

• E.g. SPURGEON, D. (2001) E.g. SPURGEON, D. (2001) Canada legalises the Canada legalises the medical use of cannabis, medical use of cannabis, [www] Available from: [www] Available from: http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/323/7304/68.html [Accessed 23rd November, 2001] [Accessed 23rd November, 2001]

• Name of author/s (surname in capitals, followed by Name of author/s (surname in capitals, followed by forename)forename)

• Date of publication/updated date indicated on siteDate of publication/updated date indicated on site• Title of article (Title of article (underlinedunderlined or or italics italics or or

emboldenedemboldened))• Give full details of the URL address/information of Give full details of the URL address/information of

the article, beginning with “[www] Available from:”the article, beginning with “[www] Available from:”• Provide date by which the article was accessed (in Provide date by which the article was accessed (in

square bracket)square bracket)