WRITING IN ENGINEERING (Source from Monash University)

Writing technical reports

In Engineering, one of the major forms of communication is the technical report. This is the conventional format for reporting the results of your research, investigations, and design projects. At university, reports are read by lecturers and tutors in order to assess your mastery of the subjects and your ability to apply your knowledge to a practical task. In the workplace, they will be read by managers, clients, and the construction engineers responsible for building from your designs. The ability to produce a clear, concise, and professionally presented report is therefore a skill you will need to develop in order to succeed both at university and in your future career.

While reports vary in the type of information they present (for example, original research, the results of an investigative study, or the solution to a design problem), all share similar features and are based on a similar structure.

Note: This document contains general engineering report-writing guidelines only. For specific departmental requirements, see your unit or study guide.

Key features of reports

Reports:

• are designed for quick and easy communication of information • are designed for selective reading • use sections with numbered headings and subheadings • use figures and diagrams to convey data.

Basic structure of a report

A report usually has these components:

• Title page <www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/technical-report/1.xml> • Summary <www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/technical-report/2.xml> • Table of Contents <www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/technical-report/3.xml> • Introduction <www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/technical-report/4.xml> • Middle sections with numbered headings

<www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/technical-report/5.xml> (i.e., the body of the report)

• Conclusions <www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/technical-report/6.xml> • References <www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/technical-report/7.xml> • Appendices <www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/technical-report/8.xml>

Title page

This page gives:

• the title of the report • the authors' names and ID numbers • the course name and number, the department, and university • the date of submission.

The title of the report should indicate exactly what the report is about. The reader should know not only the general topic, but also the aspect of the topic contained in the report. Compare the following pairs of titles:

Bridge Analysis vs. Analysis of a Prestressed Concrete Bridge

Internet-based ATIS vs. An Evaluation of Internet-based Automated Traveller Information Systems

Most of the reports you write at university will form part of the assessment for particular subjects. You will therefore often talk about Assignment 1 or the Water Project, for example, especially where several reports will be submitted in the course of the semester or as part of an ongoing project. These terms form part of the title, but the report will usually need a more specific title also. Compare the following examples:

Assignment 1 vs. Assignment 1: Water Consumption Data Collection

ATIS Project vs. ATIS Project: An Investigation of ATIS on the Monash Freeway

Sample title page

This section contains the framework sections of a first-year Civil Engineering concept design report. A good and a weak example of each section are given, along with explanatory notes or exercises to check your understanding of the requirements. To begin, choose the most informative title for the report yourself.

Engineering Context ENG1601 Engineering Faculty Monash University

[Option A] ALTERNATIVE DESIGNS REPORT

THE FUEL CELL CAR

[Option B] TWO ALTERNATIVE

CONCEPTUAL DESIGNS

Lee Binks (12647892), Penny Jinks (12993456) and Hong Links (13504733)

Date submitted: June 5, 2005

Select the best title for this report

[Option A] Alternative Designs Report: The Fuel Cell Car

[Option B] Two Alternative Conceptual Designs

Summary

The summary (sometimes referred to as the executive summary) provides a brief overview of the substance of the report; usually no more than half a page. It is not an introduction to the topic. The summary should outline all the key features of your report, including the topic, what you did and how you did it, and the main outcomes of your work. A busy manager who might not have time to read the full report should be able to get the gist of the whole report by reading the summary.

The summary:

• states the topic of the report • outlines your approach to the task if applicable • gives the most important findings of your research or investigation, or the key aspects of your

design • states the main outcomes or conclusions.

The summary does NOT:

• provide general background information • explain why you are doing the research, investigation or design • refer to later diagrams or references.

Example summary

Click on the highlighted text to see the comments.

This summary is from a report entitled Preliminary Design of a Bridge.

Summary

[1]This report presents a design for a bridge to be constructed on the Calder Freeway crossing Slaty Creek in the Shire of Macedon Ranges. [2]Two designs for the bridge were devised and then compared by considering the cost, construction and maintenance of each bridge. [3]Design 1 is a super-T beam bridge while Design 2 is a simple composite I girder bridge. [4]It is concluded that Design 1 is the better design. This design is cheaper, easier to construct, more durable and easier to maintain.

[1]

Comments

Topic

[2]

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Approach

[3]

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Key features

[4]

Comments

Conclusions

Sample summary Read the following summaries and select the best one for the report.

Summary A

The aim of this project is to design a car using fuel cell technology. The technology is investigated and an outline of two designs is given. Each design is suitable for a different market, but both are designed to the same criteria. Sketches are provided for each design.

Summary B

Two alternative designs for a fuel cell powered car are presented.

Car A, which uses hydrogen fuel, is a sedan designed for the executive market. It provides extra luxury for the driver, but is spacious enough for family use. Car B, powered by hydrogen and oxygen, is a medium sized hatchback which offers a range of features for the family. While both cars are efficient for short trips, they lack the range and speed desirable for long journeys.

Both cars incorporate similar safety features and fulfil the design criteria of having low exhaust emissions and using environmentally friendly materials; however, Car B is recommended as it has slightly lower power consumption and is more economical to manufacture.

Select the best summary.

Summary A

Summary B

Table of contents

The contents page sets out the sections and subsections of the report and their corresponding page numbers. It should clearly show the structural relationship between the sections and subsections. A reader looking for specific information should be able to locate the appropriate section easily from the table of contents. The conventions for section and page numbering are as follows:

• Number the sections by the decimal point numbering system:

1.0 Title of first main section (usually Introduction) 1.1 First subheading 1.2 Second subheading

2.0 Title of second main section 2.1 First subheading 2.2 Second subheading

2.2.1 First division in the second subheading 2.2.2 Second division in the second subheading

3.0 Title of third main section

• Number all the preliminary pages in lower-case Roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, ...). You don't have to place the number i on the title page. Just count it and put ii on the second page of your report. Preliminary pages are any which come before the introduction, including the summary and, where applicable, acknowledgements.

• Number all the remaining pages of your report with Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, ...). Thus the report proper begins on page 1 with your introduction, which is usually Section 1.

• Provide a title in your table of contents to describe the contents of each appendix (Note: one appendix, two or more appendices). Don't just call them Appendix 1 or Appendix 2.

Example:

Appendix 1: Sample Calculations

Example contents page

This contents page is from a report entitled Preliminary Design of a Bridge.

Contents

Summary ii 1.0 Introduction 1 2.0 Design 1: 33m Steel I-girder bridge 2

2.1 Superstructure 2 2.2 Abutments 3 2.3 Construction method 3

3.0 Design 2: 25m Super T-girder bridge 4 3.1 Superstructure 4 3.2 Abutments 5 3.3 Construction method 6

4.0 Comparison of designs 7 4.1 Economics 7

4.1.2 Construction costs 7 4.1.1 Long-term maintenance 8

4.2 Safety 8 4.3 Aesthetics 9

5.0 Conclusions and recommendations 9 6.0 References 10

Appendices: Appendix 1 Design 1 scale drawings Appendix 2 Design 2 scale drawings

Sample contents Look at the following tables of contents and select the best one for this report.

Contents A

Contents

Summary ii 1.0 Introduction 1 2.0 Car A 1

2.1 Design features 1 2.2 Materials selection 2 2.3 Fuel efficiency 2

3.0 Car B 3 3.1 Design features 3 3.2 Materials selection 4 3.3 Fuel efficiency 4

4.0 Comparison of designs 5 5.0 Conclusions 8 6.0 References 9

Appendices: Appendix 1 Design diagrams Appendix 2 Contribution of each group member

Contents B

Summary 1 1.0 Background 1 2.0 Car A design 2 3.0 Car B design 4 4.0 The materials we selected 5 5.0 What are the safety features? 7

5.1 Car A 7 5.2 Car B 7

6.0 Discussion 8 7.0 Conclusion 9 8.0 References 9 9.0 Appendix 1 10

Appendix 2 11

Select the best table of contents for this report.

Contents A

Contents B

Look again at Contents B. How many errors can you find?

3 4 5 6 7 8

Introduction Click on the highlighted text to see the comments.

The introduction provides the background information needed for the rest of your report to be understood. It is usually half to three-quarters of a page in length. The purpose of the introduction is to set the context for your report, provide sufficient background information for the reader to be able to follow the information presented, and inform the reader about how that information will be presented.

The introduction includes:

• the background to the topic of your report to set your work in its broad context • a clear statement of the purpose of the report, usually to present the results of your research,

investigation, or design • a clear statement of the aims of the project • technical background necessary to understand the report; e.g. theory or assumptions • a brief outline of the structure of the report if appropriate (this would not be necessary in a short

report)

Example introduction 1

Introduction from a report entitled "A Review of Greenhouse Gas Reduction Actions and Opportunities: the Current Status of the Kyoto Protocol".

1. Introduction

[1]The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that keeps the earth's surface warm. Greenhouse gases trap heat from solar radiation, analogous to the way glass panes trap heat in a greenhouse. Due to increasing greenhouse gas emissions from human activities, the greenhouse effect has been significantly augmented, causing a rise in the earth's surface temperature. This temperature rise has led to climate change, causing frequent natural disasters. This has generated increasing awareness of the importance of reducing greenhouse gas emissions through international and domestic initiatives.

[2]The aims of this project are to examine the Kyoto Protocol and the effect it would have on participating countries. Another aim is to investigate actions already taken by three industrialized countries, namely Australia, the United States, and Canada.

Example introduction 2

Introduction from a report entitled "Preliminary Design of a Bridge". In this report, two alternative designs are presented and evaluated according to the given criteria, and then the better design selected.

1. Introduction

[3]A dual carriageway bridge with two traffic lanes in each direction is to be constructed on the Calder Freeway crossing Slaty Creek in the Shire of Macedon Ranges in Victoria. [4]The bridge is to span 125 metres between man-made compacted fill embankments, and is approximately 15 metres above the river surface, with a grade of 0.056 m/m.

[5]This report presents two possible concept designs for the bridge. In evaluating these designs, the following criteria are considered: construction method, construction and maintenance costs, possible disruption to traffic during construction, the durability and the aesthetics of the bridge.

[6]The two conceptual designs are presented in the form of sketches of the elevations and cross-sections of the structures.

[1]

Comments

Contextual background

[2]

Comments

Aims

[3]

Comments

Contextual background

[4]

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Technical background (assumptions)

[5]

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Purpose of report

[6]

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Content structure

Sample introduction Read the following introductions and select the best one for this report.

Introduction A

Introduction The purpose of this project is to introduce our group's two conceptual designs. We have included the following sketches for each car: 3 dimensional view, elevation, plan, front, rear and interior view. Also, we have included a discussion of how the designs meet the criteria given in the project outline. The cars could be suitable for short trips in busy areas.

Introduction B

1.0 Introduction With the rise in global warming and increasing pollution levels, it is becoming essential to find a viable alternative to the internal combustion engine petrol powered car.

The aim of this project was to create two designs for a fuel cell powered car, the main criteria being environmental friendliness in terms of both emissions and materials.

This report presents the designs for two such cars, each of which includes the following components: engine, fuel, wheels, accessories, safety features and materials. Car A is aimed at the upper end of the market, while Car B is a mid-range vehicle suitable for family use.

A description of the design and an analysis of operational efficiency for each car are followed by a comparison of the two designs. Finally, the most cost efficient design is recommended.

Select the best introduction for this report.

Introduction A

Introduction B

Body of the report

This is main part of the report, where you present your work. The introduction and conclusions act as a frame for the body only: therefore all the details of your work (including a summarised version of material in the appendices) must be included here in the appropriate section. You will need to put some thought into the ordering of the sections; the presentation of information should flow logically so that the reader can follow the development of your project. It is also essential that you choose concise but informative headings and subheadings so that the reader knows exactly what type of information to expect in each section.

The body of the report:

• presents the information from your research, both real world and theoretical, or your design • organises information logically under appropriate headings • conveys information in the most effective way for communication:

o uses figures and tables o can use bulleted or numbered lists o can use formatting to break up large slabs of text

Headings in the body of the report Provide informative headings

As for the title, section headings should tell the reader exactly what type of information is contained in the section. They should be specific and content-focused rather than just labels. Devising informative headings as opposed to label headings right from the planning stage will help you to clarify exactly what you want to achieve in each section and subsection. Compare these pairs of headings:

Consumption patterns vs. Changes in water consumption patterns 1995-2005

Survey results vs. Results of peak hour turning movement survey

Example: Uninformative headings

• The Organization • Management

Example: Informative headings

• Overview of the Organization • Communication in the Organization • Groups in the Organization • Management Style and Methods

Make all headings consistent and parallel in structure

This means that headings should follow a similar grammatical form. In the following example, each heading is structured differently:

Example: Inconsistent headings

• The Company Structure • Do the Communication Channels Work? • Participating in Groups • How to Develop an Effective Management Style

• [ noun phrase] • [ question] • [ gerund phrase] • [ instruction heading]

Usually, it is not difficult to convert such headings to a common form. In this example, all have been changed to noun phrases. This is the most commonly used format for section headings in an informational report.

Example: Consistent headings

• Company Structure • Communication Channels • Group Participation • Development of an Effective Management Style

Sample headings

Which of the following section headings are grammatically consistent?

Option 1

• 2.0 Car A o 2.1 The Materials we selected o 2.2 Emissions o 2.3 How the safety features Work o 2.4 What Accessories are included?

Option 2

• 2.0 Car A o 2.1 Materials selection o 2.2 Emissions o 2.3 Safety features o 2.4 Accessories

Option 3

• 2.0 Car A o 2.1 The Materials Selected o 2.2 Emissions o 2.3 safety features of the car o 2.4 Accessories included

Choose the most consistent set from the three options.

Option 1

Option 2

Option 3

Incorporating figures, tables, and equations

There are conventions for using figures and tables in a report. Usually only these two categories are used; anything other than tables (maps, charts, diagrams, drawings, graphs) is called a figure. Figures and tables should be placed as close as possible to the point at which they are referred to in the text.

Give all figures and tables a number and title.

Example Table 1 Existing communication channels

Refer to each figure and table in the text of the report.

Example The communication channels in the organization are shown in Table 1.

The title of a table goes above the table, while the title of a figure goes below the figure.

Example

Table 1 Turning volume of pedal cycles

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

8:00 - 8:15am 0 0 1 0 1 0

8:15 - 8:30am 0 0 1 1 0 0

8:30 - 8:45am 0 0 3 1 0 0

8:45 - 9:00am 0 0 2 3 1 0

Total Volume 0 0 7 5 2 0

Figures that are copied from someone else's work, published or unpublished, must be correctly referenced. Give the source of the diagram or the data if you have taken them from published sources. The citation should be placed in brackets after the figure or table title, and the source included in the References list.

Example The relationship of the speed of propagation and the volumetric tissue fraction is given by:

Figure 1 Phase shift keying modulation (source: Mercator GPS Systems, 1998)

Equations

You will often have to include equations in your reports. The conventional style for presenting equations is as follows:

• Centre the equation on the page • Place the equation number in round brackets at the right-hand margin • In the text of your report, refer to the equations as either Eq. (1) or equation (1). Use whichever

format you choose consistently throughout your report.

The relationship of the speed of propagation and the volumetric tissue fraction is given by:

(1)

We can see from Eq. (1) that...

Conclusions

The conclusions section provides an effective ending to your report. The content should relate directly to the aims of the project as stated in the introduction, and sum up the essential features of your work. This section:

• states whether you have achieved your aims • gives a brief summary of the key findings or information in your report • highlights the major outcomes of your investigation and their significance.

The conclusions should relate to the aims of the work:

Example 1:

• Aim The aim of this project is to design a mobile phone tower.

• Conclusions In this report, a design for a mobile phone tower has been presented. The key features of the tower are... It was found that...

Example 2:

• Aim The aim of this investigation is to analyse the bus delays at the intersection of the bus loop and Wellington Road at Monash University.

• Conclusions In this report, bus delays were analysed. It was found that... Based on these findings, it is recommended that...

Example conclusions

Click on the highlighted text to see the comments.

Conclusions from a report entitled "Preliminary Design of a Bridge".

Conclusions

[1]Two designs for the bridge to be constructed on the Calder Freeway across Slaty Creek have been presented and discussed in this report. [2]Design 1 is a super-T beam bridge and Design 2 is a simple composite I girder bridge. Both designs incorporate round piers on piled foundations, which are used because the soil conditions are unknown and possibly unstable. Design 2 has some advantages because it is made of steel and thus has longer spans and fewer piers.

[3]However, Design 1 is clearly the better design. This design requires minimal formwork in the construction of its concrete deck, it is relatively easy to erect and it maintains stability during transportation and construction. In addition, it is cheaper to build and more durable.

[1]

Comments

Relate to aims

[2]

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Key features

[3]

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Outcome

Sample conclusions

Read the following conclusions and select the best one for this report.

Example A

5.0 Conclusions This report introduced two environmentally-friendly designs for a car. We presented information about the engine and fuel, materials, safety and accessories and provided sketches for each car. These cars would be more expensive than normal family cars, but it is important to develop cleaner technology for the future.

Example B

5.0 Conclusions Two alternative designs for an emission-free fuel cell powered car have been presented: Car A, a luxury sedan which runs on hydrogen, and Car B, a medium-sized family hatch which uses hydrogen and oxygen. Each car features recyclable materials and conforms to Australian design standards in terms of performance and safety features. However, Car B is recommended as it was found to be more economical in terms of both manufacturing and running costs.

Which is the best conclusion for this report?

Example A

Example B

Referencing

The two parts to referencing are:

• citations in the text of the report • a list of references in the final section

A citation shows that information comes from another source. The reference list gives the details of these sources. You need to use in-text citations and provide details in the references section when:

• you incorporate information from other sources; e.g.: o factual material o graphs and tables of data o pictures and diagrams

• you quote word-for-word from another work (when you do this the page number must be given in the in-text citation)

In Engineering, the most common referencing style is the author-date (Harvard) system. However, in Electrical Engineering the IEEE system is used. Full details of these referencing styles are available from LLS Online Resources <www.eng.monash.edu.au/current-students/lls/resources.html> or through the Library Online Tutorials <www.lib.monash.edu.au/tutorials/citing>

Example of in-text citation and reference list entry using the Harvard referencing style:

In-text citation

Corrosion is defined as a 'chemical action which harms the properties of a metal' (Glendinning 1973, p.12). Because corrosion reduces the life of the material and protection procedures are expensive, special corrosion-resistant metals have been developed, including Monel metals which are particularly suited to marine applications (Glendinning 1973).

Reference list entry

Glendinning, E.H. 1973 English in mechanical engineering, Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Sample reference list

Look at the following reference lists and select the best one for this report.

Reference list A

Reference list:

Electric and hybrid electric vehicles and fuel cell technology, Warrndale PA, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1999.

http://www.sae.org/fuelcells/fuelcells.htm

Jay Pukrushpan, Stefanopoulou, A.G., Peng Huei. (2004) Control of fuel cell power systems: principles, modeling, analysis and feedback design, Call number at Hargrave-Andrew Library: 621.312429 P979C2004

Reference list B

6.0 References

Pukrushpan, J.T., Stefanopoulou, A.G. & Peng, H. 2004 Control of fuel cell power systems: principles, modeling, analysis and feedback design, New York, Springer.

Society of Automotive Engineers 1999 Electric and hybrid electric vehicles and fuel cell technology, Warrndale, PA, Society of Automotive Engineers.

Society of Automotive Engineers 2005 How fuel cells work, Society of Automotive Engineers, viewed 26 August 2005, http://www.sae.org/fuelcells/fuelcells.htm

Which is the best reference list for this report?

References A

References B

Appendices

These contain material that is too detailed to include in the main report, such as raw data or detailed drawings. The conventions for appendices are as follows:

• each appendix must be given a number (or letter) and title; • each appendix must be referred to by number (or letter) at the relevant point in the text.

Example: The data obtained are summarised below. The detailed data are given in Appendix 3.

Lab reports in Electrical Engineering

Experimental work is fundamental in developing your understanding of the theoretical knowledge in Engineering. It also gives you practical experience in the use of equipment and the experimental techniques in your field.

Lab reports should follow a set format and use appropriate language. This resource explains the tasks involved in doing a lab report and covers some important points you should keep in mind. It outlines the structure of this kind of report, and what is required in each section. It also gives practical examples of how to write in an impersonal style.

Tasks involved

The lab work consists of a number of tasks:

• the preliminary work to be completed before the beginning of the lab • the questions asked by the lab supervisor at the beginning of the experiment to check that you

have understood the theory behind the calculations and the experiment • the experiment itself • a written lab report to be handed in at a later date.

Points to remember

Here are some important points to keep in mind when preparing a laboratory report.

• The purpose of any lab report is to report the rationale, procedure and results of an experiment in sufficient detail to allow someone else to replicate it.

• As part of your university studies, the laboratory report is also a means of assessing your experimentation skills and your understanding of the applications of theory.

• The presentation of the report is very important. • Results can be presented in figures or tables so that it is easy for you to compare the calculated

and the measured values.

Report structure

Your lab report should include the following sections:

• Title page <www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/lab-report/3.1.xml> • Introduction <www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/lab-report/3.2.xml>

• Aim <www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/lab-report/3.3.xml> • Method <www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/lab-report/3.4.xml> • Results and Discussion <www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/lab-report/3.5.xml> • Conclusions <www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/engineering/lab-report/3.6.xml>

Title page

The title page should include:

• the name of the unit • the name of the experiment • the date you did the experimental work • the names and ID numbers of students in the group and • the name of the lab.

Introduction

This section introduces the reader to the experiment and briefly outlines theory and background information relevant to the experiment. You need to state any relevant laws, equations and theorems you will be using or investigating, and you need to explain the different analyses used, such as nodal analysis and mesh analysis.

Aim

This section states the aims of the experiment. In any experiment, you aim to do something.

For example, you aim to verify, to investigate, to measure, to determine, to compare or to calculate.

Use the verb form starting with 'to' (eg 'to investigate'). Avoid the noun form which often ends in '-ion' (eg 'investigation'). Aims can be written either in point form or in complete sentences.

Example in point form

Aims

1. To measure the resistance of a specimen of wire. 2. To determine the resistivity of iron.

Example in a complete sentence

Aim: The aim of the experiment is to determine the resistivity of iron by measuring the resistance of a specimen of wire.

Choose the better wording from these examples of the aim section from two student reports.

1. Aim

To investigate the effects of passing electric current through water.

An investigation of the effects of passing electric current through water.

2. Aim

The aim of the experiment was to verify Kirchhoff's Voltage Law.

Verification of Kirchhoff's Voltage Law.

Method

This section briefly reports the steps that you followed in carrying out the experiment. Do not repeat word for word what is in the lab notes but concisely summarise in your own words the key steps which were taken in the experiment.

The Method section describes what was actually done and so the verbs are usually written in the past tense, passive voice (for example, were connected, was measured, was calculated).

When you carry out an experiment, you usually follow a set of instructions. Here are the instructions for an experiment to determine the density of a steel sphere.

Example Determination of the density of a steel sphere using a balance

• First find the zero reading of the balance. • Then put the sphere in the left pan and put weights into the right pan to bring the pointer to zero

and obtain the apparent mass.

If you were writing up the Method section, you would have to change these instructions to a report of what was done. These instructions might then be reported as follows.

Example Method First the zero reading of the balance was found. Then the sphere was put in the left pan and weights were added to the right pan to bring the pointer to zero. In this way the apparent mass was found.

In this Method section, the verbs are was found, was put, were added and was found which are all verbs in the past tense using the passive voice.

Change the verb in the instruction to the past tense passive form. For example: change find to was found. Choose the better of these two examples from the Method section of two student reports.

1. Method

Connect four resistors with a 10 V supply and measure the open circuit voltage, and the short circuit current between A and B. Determine the voltage and resistance of the Thevenin equivalent

circuit.

2. Method

Four resistors were connected with a 10 V supply and the open circuit voltage was measured. The short circuit current between A and B was also measured. The voltage and resistance of the

Thevenin equivalent circuit were determined.

Results and Discussion Note that sometimes in lab reports it may be more appropriate to present the results in one section, called Results, and then to discuss them in a separate Discussion section.

In the Results and Discussion section, you present your results and discuss them by:

• commenting on the results obtained • interpreting what the results mean and • explaining any results which are unexpected.

You present the measurements made in the experiment and you then compare your measurements to the calculations you made in your preliminary work or the published theoretical values.

You need to:

• identify any discrepancies and • to state them as a percentage.

You also need to:

• identify any sources of error in your measurements and • if possible, suggest how your experiment could have been performed more accurately.

What should you aim for?

• Clear comparisons made between the calculations and the measurements with the discrepancy expressed as a percentage.

• Good explanation of the possible reasons for the discrepancy and the possible sources of error in the measurements.

Example

Here are some useful expressions to use if your measurements correspond well with your calculations:

• The measurements are consistent with the preliminary calculations. • The measured values agree well with the calculated values.

Example

Here are some useful expressions if your measurements do not correspond well with your calculations:

• The measurements are significantly different from the preliminary calculations. • The measured values do not agree well with the calculated values.

Example

Here are some useful expressions for explaining the source of errors:

• The discrepancy may be due to human error. • The difference may be the result of incorrect calibrations.

Conclusions

This section states whether the aims of the experiment were achieved or not, and briefly summarises the key findings.

In the Conclusions of this kind of report you need to:

• comment on how closely your measurements and calculations agree and • summarise the main reasons for any discrepancies.

Choose the better of these two examples from the Conclusions section from two student reports.

1. Conclusions

Despite some errors, the law was verified.

2. Conclusions

Kirchhoff's current and voltage laws have been verified. The superposition theorem for a two source network has also been verified. The experimental results were always within 1.1% of the

calculated values. The discrepancies may be due to ... ... ...(provide a reason here!).

Using an impersonal style in lab reports

Since scientific writing is usually presented in an impersonal, objective manner, the personal pronouns I, we, and you are generally not used in lab reports. There are several ways of avoiding using personal pronouns.

Use passive sentences Instead of Write

We tested the specimen. The specimen was tested.

I measured the resistance. The resistance was measured. Use third person pronouns

Instead of Write

I found that... It was found that...

We concluded that... It was concluded that...

Use the report or its various sections as actor

Examples:

• This report presents... • The results show...

Other lab report resources

If you would like more information about how to write effective lab reports, this is an excellent reference:

Dudley-Evans, Tony 1985, Writing Laboratory Reports, Thomas Nelson, Melbourne. Other Engineering resources

Helpful resources for report writing

Silyn-Roberts, H 2002, Writing for Science: A practical handbook for science, engineering and technology students, 2nd edn, Longman, N.Z. Hargrave-Andrew Library 808.0666 R587W 2002

Engineering resources <www.eng.monash.edu.au/current-students/comm-learning.html> - Language and learning services for Engineering students

Helpful resources for referencing

Library Online Tutorials <www.lib.monash.edu.au/tutorials/citing> - Virtual Librarian, Monash University Library

Copyright © 2008/12/29 Language and Learning, Monash University - ABN 12 377 614 012

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