writing development –beginning writers implementing...

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Implementing Effective Writing Instruction for

Students with Developmental Disabilities:

Curriculum, Measurement, and

Accommodations

Janet M. Sturm, PhD, CCC-SLP

Central Michigan University

Presentation for the Pennsylvania Training and Technical Assistance Network (PaTTAN), February 6, 2014

b

Writing Development – Beginning Writers

• move from drawing to scribbling to inventive spelling

• are single session writers

• naturally choose a variety of genres & topics

• may not yet have a sense of audience

• use spoken and written skills to convey meaning

• use pictures to convey meaning

• develop conventional spelling over time (after lots of opportunities)

In early writing development students -In early writing development students -

Writing In General Education First Grade Classrooms(180 day school year)

Include drawings or pictures with writing

• 148 times per year

Include drawings or pictures with writing


Choose Own Writing Topics


Choose Own Writing Topics


Start a new piece of writing


Start a new piece of writing


Write independently


Write independently


(Richards, Sturm, & Cali, 2012)

Students...

Text Types Naturally Chosen by

Kindergarten & 1st Grade Students

Kindergarten

• Labels

• Opinions

1st Grade

• Personal Stories

• Plans

• Descriptions

(Cali & Sturm, Manuscript in Preparation)

Text Types & Genres of Beginning Writers

• Label• LabelEmergent

• Opinion

• Persuasion

• Opinion

• PersuasionArgument

• Description

• Report

• Procedure

• Description

• Report

• Procedure

Informative/Explanatory

• Personal Narrative

• Plan

• Story

• Personal Narrative

• Plan

• Story

Narrative

• Poetry• PoetryLiterary

(Cali & Sturm, 2012)

Who are these beginning writers?

Kraz Anems

I like kraz anems. My favoertanem is a meke. I like to wach

thm sweg.

I LIKE LA BKSISN

Per brid

Like

tre

eat wor

I have a to dogs

Darnames Luke and Prekss

Day are my frends

and I play with vam.

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Assumptions About Emergent Beginning

Writers With Complex Instructional Needs

Need

prerequisite literacy skills

Conventional

writing is not possible

Early writing

should be conventional

Teach simple,

isolated tasks

Spoken

communication isn’t needed

during writing

Symbol writing

leads to conventional

writing

Work on fine

motor skills leads to

conventional

writing skills

Assumptions About Conventional Beginning

Writers With Complex Instructional Needs (CIN)

Language development is

complete

First-draft writing products are

sufficient

Sophisticated writing skills are

acquired through assignments

Students with CIN need writing

prompts

High-Quality Differentiated Instruction:

The Enriched Writers’ Workshop

The Enriched Writers’ Workshop is

based on scientifically derived, best practices of instruction.

Effective Writing Intervention for Elementary School

Children: The Baker’s Dozen (Graham, 2011)

1. Strategy instruction

2. Self-regulation added to strategy instruction

3. Peer assistance (peers working together)

4. Teacher transcription skills (e.g., spelling & handwriting)

5. Teaching text structure

6. Product goals (assigned goals for the written product they

are to complete)

Effective Writing Intervention for Elementary School

Children: The Baker’s Dozen (Graham, 2011)

7. Word processing (word processing with assistive features –

Great potential!)

8. Process approaches

9. Pre-writing

10. Composing (increasing how much students wrote)

11. Imagery/creativity instruction (taught how to form images or

received instruction designed to increase creativity)

12. Assessment (including adult or peer feedback to students)

Evidence of Effective Writing Instruction & Students

with Complex Instructional Needs

Intellectual &

Developmental

Disabilities (IDD)

• Joseph & Konrad(2009) reviewed 9 writing intervention studies with students who have IDD

• Overall results showed that they can learn strategies to improve writing quantity and quality

• Strategy instruction is the most frequently investigated approach

Complex

Communication Needs

• Koppenhaver & Williams (2010) reviewed 8 writing intervention students for students with CCN

• Results showed that improvement in writing occurs with systematic instruction

Autism Spectrum

Disorders

• Asaro-Saddler (2010) improved planning and self-regulation strategies & story writing ability

• Asaro-Saddler & Bak(2012) improved planning and self-regulation strategies & persuasive essays

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Students in the Enriched Writers’ Workshop

Intellectual DDAutism Spectrum

Disorders

Complex Communication

Needs

Students With Complex Instructional Needs:

Language, Communication, and Writing Skills

• Range from a beginning communicator to a relatively sophisticated communicator

• Beginning communicators: Beginning communicators who vocalize, use gestures, symbols, or very limited manual signs or words

• Sophisticated communicators: Active communicators who use words and sentences

Language, Communication, and Social ProfilesLanguage, Communication, and Social Profiles

• Present as beginning writers who range from scribbling to coherent and cohesive paragraph-level writing

• Many demonstrate fine motor needs

Writing ProfilesWriting Profiles

Emergent Writer Emergent Writer

Emerging Conventional Writer Emerging Conventional Writer

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Conventional Writer Beginning Writers

“…beginning writing skills are defined as starting with emergent writing (drawing, scribbling, and writing letters)

and ending with conventional writing abilities, usually acquired by second or third grade for typically developing children. More generally, a beginning writer is one who is

learning to use written language to express communicative intent.”

Sturm, Cali, Nelson, & Staskowski (2012) p. 299

A Framework for Writing Instruction

© Sturm (2012)

National Standards, Models, and Policies

The Enriched Writers’ Workshop aligns with

the Elementary and Secondary

Education Act definition of evidence-

based instructional practices.

Enriched Writers’ Workshop

Anyone who can choose a

topic to share can participate inthe Enriched Writers’ Workshop

The ability to make a clearchoice is not a prerequisite!

Enriched Writers’ Workshop

• Social-interactive learning environment

• Writing is communication

• Everyone is an author

• Students own their writing

• Students publish their work

• Social-interactive learning environment

• Writing is communication

• Everyone is an author

• Students own their writing

• Students publish their work

Writers’ Workshop

• Targets increases in:

• assertiveness and responsiveness

• range of communication functions

• vocabulary diversity

• eye contact

• Targets increases in:

• assertiveness and responsiveness

• range of communication functions

• vocabulary diversity

• eye contact

Social Communication Training

• Teaches students how to set goals, engage in

self-regulation, and evaluate performance

• Teaches meta-cognitive problem solving

• Provides scaffold, showing what good writers do

• Teaches students how to set goals, engage in

self-regulation, and evaluate performance

• Teaches meta-cognitive problem solving

• Provides scaffold, showing what good writers do

Cognitive Strategy Instruction

Atwell, 1987; Calkins, 1983, 1991,

1994, 2002; Graves, 1994; Harris &

Graham, 1996; Reif, 1992

Harris & Graham, 1996; Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995

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Components of Enriched Writers’ Workshop

Mini-Lesson

(5–10 min)

Independent Writing

(25–30 min)

Author’s Chair

(20–35 min)

Mini-Lesson Framework

Introduction and purpose of

activity

Communication activity

(modeling and guided practice)

Small group conference (on special occasions)

Sturm (2012)

Mini-Lesson: “Say More”

Introduction and Purpose of Activity

• Start by asking, “Who in here is an author?” (Encourage

students to raise their hands or indicate in some way)

• “The purpose of today’s lesson is to talk about ‘saying more’

in our writing. When we say more, it means that we are

writing more letters, words, and sentences in our writing. We

are making our writing longer when we say more!”

© Sturm (2010)

Mini-Lesson: Say More


Communication Activity (modeling and guided practice)

• Ask, “How many of you like to fill the page with your writing?”

(Encourage students to raise their hands or indicate in some

way)

• Say, “Sometimes authors don’t write very much at all. When

we listen to an author whose writing is very short we really

wish the author would say more.” (Show a photo with a very

brief sample you’ve written; i.e., a single word label, phrase,

or sentence)

• Say, “Let’s look at our tip sheet to get some ideas about how

we can say more in our writing.” (Show the students the “Say

More” tip sheet)

© Sturm (2010)


• Model how to “Say More” in writing by using the short sample

you used earlier in the lesson

• Talk about the photo and the interesting content in the

photo (Post a photo on the writing area—a large paper, dry

erase board, SmartBoard, or chalkboard)

• Read your written text aloud

• Ask students, “What else could I tell in my writing?” (Offer

ideas the students can choose if they struggle with sharing

new ideas to add)

• Say, “Let’s add your ideas to my writing” (Model, out loud,

how you would turn the students’ ideas into sentences)

• Say, “Let’s read everything we have added. (Read entire

sample aloud.) We really said a lot more in our writing.”

© Sturm (2010)

Strategy Tip Sheet: “Say More”

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Mini-Lesson Component

INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITY

• MINI-LESSON

Example Instructional Goals

• Build self-confidence and intrinsic motivation

• Contribute during the mini-

lesson

Example Targeted Student Skills

•Improve attitude and perception of self as a writer

•Raise hand to contribute

•Make eye contact

•Participate in choosing a group writing topic

•Provide content related to the lesson or to the writing being

produced as a group

Example Individual Supports

•Use a gesture to cue student to raise hand

•Provide verbal reminder to use eye contact

•Offer 3 photo choices for student to vote on topic for writing sample produced during mini-lesson

•Ask yes/no questions about

content

•for group writing sample

© Sturm (2012)

Independent Writing Framework

Students choose a topic

Students tell what they want

to share in writing

Students get ready to share

their writing with others

© Sturm (2012)

Author’s Chair Framework

Each author shares his or her

writing

The author then asks, “Any

questions or comments?”

Peers and instructors praise, ask a question, or make a comment

© Sturm (2012)

Providing Individual Supports: Adult Scaffolds and

Communication and Writing Tools

Author’s Toolkits

Toolkit content & sections -

• Some contain letter tiles & letter boards

• Lesson Tip Sheets

• Communication Boards

• Photos for Topics

• Writing Products

• Some contain schedule boards

Individual Student Tip Sheets

• Each student has an individual tip sheet

• Helps any adult (or peer) know the student’s core goal during a specific part of the Writers’ Workshop

• Helps any adult know what he or she should do to scaffold the student

• Goal is to provide the least amount of support then add support as needed

• Goal is to work yourself out of a job!

About the Tip Sheet:About the Tip Sheet:

Sturm (2012)

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Accommodations: Instructor Scaffolds

• Locate and manipulate materials (e.g., Authors’ toolkits)

• Use communication tools

• Review and choose topic choices

• Alternate among writing tools

• Share comments with peers

• Encourage students’ active participation in communication and writing

Verbal and physical cues may be used to:Verbal and physical cues may be used to:

Accommodations: Communication Tools and

Strategies

• Yes/no responses

• Making a choice from a set of 2–4 items

• No-tech communication boards

• Digitized micro-switches (e.g., BIGmac)

• Speech-generating devices (SGD)

• Microphone

Examples:Examples:

Accommodations: Conventional, Adapted, and

Alternative Writing Tools

• Photos/images

• Standard pencil

• Alphabet board or alphabet tiles

• Standard, alternate, or enlarged keyboards

• Assistive software (e.g., word banks, word prediction, organizational tools)

• Dry erase board (offered single or two-word combinations)

• AAC device and no-tech AAC books

• Access hardware (e.g., joystick, trackball, infrared sensor)

• Alternative pencils (Center for Literacy & Disability Studies)

• Color encoded eye-gaze frame

• Print alphabet flipcharts

Examples:Examples:

Existing Assessments of Beginning Writing

“…no measure currently exists to bridge single-letter writing and spelling and

beginning composition abilities.” (Coker & Ritchie, 2010, p. 178)

Challenges with Existing Measures

of Beginning Writers

Not

comprehensive

& may miss stages

Lacks sensitivity

Assesses only a

specific construct

Assesses vague,

absent, or unrelated traits

Lacks

instructional relevance

Uses time limits

Text type

specific

Progress Monitoring

In writing, you’ll need assessments that will let

you see the visible progress students are

making as writers along the way, so that you be able to track the success of your teaching.

Calkins, Ehrenworth, & Lehman, 2012

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Five Purposes for the Writing Quantity and

Quality Outcome Measures – They will:

quantify evidence of small but significant changes so that educators can celebrate growth with students and their parents.

serve as a functional outcome measure for periodic assessment probes and classroom-produced writing artifacts

offer instructionally relevant information about what to target next

be easy for educators to learn and use reliably

identify small differences in beginning writing skills

Sturm, Cali, Nelson, & Staskowski, 2012

Outcome Measures as a Tool for Assessing

Teacher Efficacy

Evaluations must be based on multiple reliable

measures and indicators that support valid measurement of special education teacher

effectiveness

Excerpt from the CEC Position on Teacher Evaluation

Formative & Summative Measures of

Beginning Writers

Measure Purpose Directions

Total Intelligible Words To quantify number of

intelligible words produced by

a beginning writer.

Count the total intelligible words

written. A second reviewer may

do the same.

Total Unique Words To quantify number of unique

words produced by a

beginning writer.

Count the number of unique

(different) words written).

Total Number of Letters To quantify the number of

letters written or selected (on

an alphabet board, choosing

letter tiles, or on a keyboard)

by a student writer).

Count the number of letters

written or selected during a

single writing session. This

measure used for students who

are not yet writing words.

Topic Diversity To quantify the variations in

self-selected topics chosen by

beginning writers.

Review the picture and text and

assign each writing sample a

topic (based on overall gist)

using key words.

Formative & Summative Measures of

Beginning Writers

Measure Purpose Directions

Developmental Writing

Scale

To identify the overall

developmental writing level of

the beginning writer.

Review the writing sample and

use the descriptions above to

assign a single level to the

sample. If you are debating

between two levels, assign the

lower level.

Text Type Diversity To quantify the types of texts

used by beginning writers.

Each writing sample will be

assigned a type of genre.

The genre assigned will be the

predominate genre used in the

sample (greater than 50%).

Measures for Emergent Beginning Writers

Developmental Writing Scale

Total Number of Letters

Topic Diversity

Unique Letters

Identifiable Topic

Emergent Writer

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Measures for Conventional Beginning Writers

Developmental Writing Scale

Genre Diversity

Topic Diversity

Total Intelligible

Words

Total Unique Words

Developmental Writing Scale for Beginning

Writers (Sturm, Cali, Nelson, & Staskowski, 2012)

Level

1 Drawing only

2 Scribble writing which may include letter-like forms but with the majority of shapes not

recognizable as letters

3 Some recognizable letters in strings but not grouped into words

4 Strings of letters grouped into “words” (i.e., with spaces between at least two groups of

letters) but with no intelligible words

5 Strings of letters grouped into “words,” with only one possible real word (i.e., two or more

letters in length) set apart, written repeatedly (e.g., dog, dog, dog), or embedded in a string

of letters

6 Two to three different intelligible words embedded in strings, separated by spaces, or in a

list format

7 More than three different intelligible words in a list format

8 More than three different intelligible words, with at least two of them in a partially formed

sentence (i.e., grammatically related parts of a phrase, clause or sentence)

Developmental Writing Scale for Beginning

Writers (Sturm, Cali, Nelson, & Staskowski, 2012)

Level

9 One to two complete sentences with a subject phrase and a verb phrase

10 A minimum of three sentences, but with no coherent topic (i.e., most sentences are not

related)

11 Organized writing with three or more sentences on a coherent topic but with limited

cohesion between sentences (i.e., sentences can be reordered without changing meaning)

12 Organized writing with a coherent topic (i.e., on a consistent theme) and use of cohesive

devices (e.g., pronoun or synonym replacement, logical connectors, subordinating

conjunctions, conclusions that refer to prior content) across three or more sentences, so that

sentences cannot be reordered without changing meaning

13 Organized writing with a coherent main topic and 2 cohesive subsections (sub-topics or story

parts) with at least two sentences elaborating the meaning of each

14 Organized writing with a coherent main topic and at least 3 cohesive subsections (sub-topics

or story parts) with at least two sentences elaborating the meaning of each

Level 2: Scribble writing with the majority of shapes not

recognizable as letters

Typically Developing Beginning

Writer

Writer with Developmental

Disabilities

Level 4: Strings of letters grouped into “words” but with no

intelligible words


Writer


Disabilities

iLCR6a iLKVKC CPRSB WRKeBRKe

Hya L kirio s pDriD

Level 9: Level 9: Level 9: Level 9: One to two complete sentences with

a subject phrase and a verb phrase


Writer


Disabilities

We Ro gowg to The Big SLiDe To

SLiDon A FASD onthefewtrrep

Me And My Daddy R Play with

Mounika.

Alvin and the Chimpmuks

They sing and dance

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Level 11: Organized writing with three or more sentences on a

coherent topic but with limited cohesion between sentences (i.e.,

can reorder sentences)


Writer


Disabilities

Frogs are eggs. Frog are cool. I

no how a frog grows egg then

grow mory. Frog eat lot of things

that we don’t eat like bugs. I

want a frog to play with. I thak

frogs are mumloss because thae

swim.

I love to watch the garbageman

to pick up our trash can to. I

don’t watch the garman out to my

window to. I love to watch the

recycling person to get my

recycling from my house to.

Kristen I went on a pane

so did I wish I was sleeping

flying,

My Mom was with me

Text Type Diversity Measure

Text Type Genre Function

Emergent Emergent Graphic expression using drawings, pencil marks, scribbles,

a string of letters, or letter-like forms.

Label Describe elements of a drawing.

Argument Opinion Express an opinion about a thing or event.

Persuasive Explain reasons for an opinion.

Informative Description Describe a specific thing or entity.

Report Describe a group or category of things.

Procedure Explain how an event happens.

Explanation Explain why an event happened or happens.

Narrative Recount Recount a past event.

Plan Plan a future event.

Story Create an imaginary event.

Poetry Poetry Use carefully chosen words to create meaning or share emotion

(May employ word order, connotation, imagery, figures of speech,

sound, or rhythm.)

© Sturm (2010). Permission may be granted for educational application, with an email to [email protected]

Narrative Genres

Genre Typically Developing Writer Writer with Developmental

Disabilities

Recount On monday my frid came over my house. We played and we had fun. She lath. She what houm I clin up my mas

We went camping. My Grandpa and Grandma were there . my Mom and Dad were there. My brother was there WE slept in tents and had a camp fire and we had a picnic.

Expository Genres

Genre Typically Developing Writer Writer with Developmental

Disabilities

Opinion I do not like school. I am glad we got 5 mor days in school. onley I like part of the school.

I like birds Like a canary. Canaryssing pretty. Canarys are tellow and they fly very good. I thank bridsare very good pets to have in your house. Birds stat to be a egg then they crate then little birds.Humming birds bon't jumteat flerow they eat one flerow.

I like catCat are niceI want a cat

I love to watch the garbagemanto pick up our trash can to. I don’t watch the garman out to my window to. I love to watch the recycling person to get my recycling from my house to.

Goal for Writing Accommodations

The instructional emphasis is writing using

orthography and moving students up the Developmental Writing Scale. Do not spend a lot of

time accommodating for drawing skills - Have students choose a photograph for their topic

and start writing.

Sturm, Peartree, Cali, Nelson, Staskowski, 2013

Accommodations for Writing

Essential Accommodations

• Difficulty drawing a drawing

• Cannot generate recognizable text with ease

• Difficulty spelling and generating complete words

Specialized

Accommodations

• Difficulty holding and using writing tools

• Severe motor difficulties and cannot generate text

• Have severe vision needs impacting ability to see and produce text

Essential as well as specialized accommodations assist students

with additional motor or sensory needs in moving up the DWS

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Antonio’s Story Baseline Writing – Paper & Pencil

Level = 7

Total Words = 4

Unique Words = 4

Topic = Unclear

Text Type = Emergent

First Author Software - Spring 2012 First Author Software - Spring 2012

Level = 8

Total Words = 12

Unique Words = 12

Topic = Author’s Chair

Text Type = Label

First Author - Spring 2013

Level = 8

Total Words = 25

Unique Words = 16

Topic = Fireman

Text Type = Plan

First Author Software - Spring 2013

Level = 11

Total Words = 12

Unique Words = 9

Topic = Prom

Genre = Opinion

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Antonio’s Positive Change

Develops as a writer and

communicator

Positive change in self-concept

Reduced Negative behavior

Increased time spent reading

Other’s perceptions of Antonio change

First Author – A Writing Process Software Tool for

Beginning Writers

This tool was designed to be an integrated

writing software tool, that supports beginning

writers across the writing process -- planning,

composing, revising, and publishing – and is

accessible to students with severe speech and

physical impairments (SSPI).

First Author – Software Goals – It will:

provide functional outcome measures for periodic assessment probes and classroom-produced writing artifacts

provide access to the general education writing curriculum by reflecting, and operating in parallel with, an exemplary model of writing instruction

use research on the development of beginning writers

target simple and efficient interface design for both direct selection and scanning

provide ease of access to planning, composing, and revising processes, & offer ease of movement among the processes

How Does First Author Impact Students with

Complex Instructional Needs?

First Author – Phase I Research

• Five primary and secondary special education classrooms

• Mild cognitive impairments (3 classrooms)

• Moderate cognitive impairments (2 classrooms)

• 44 total student participants (Age 5-19)

Participants

• Repeated measures between-subjects design

• Control group = Paper and pencil

• Treatment group = First Author software

• Teachers utilized standard instructional practices

• Measured:

• student independence

• writing quantity and quality

• time writing

Research Design

FirstAuthor vs. Paper and Pencil – Research Results on the

DWS for 44 Students with Mild-Moderate IDD

DWS Level (Assumed Interval) Minus Baseline Level by Group

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First Author – Phase II Research

• Eight primary and secondary special education classrooms

• Physical or Otherwise Health Impaired (1 classroom - 35 participants)

• Moderate cognitive impairments (4 classrooms – 34 participants)

• Autism spectrum disorders (4 classrooms – 38 participants)

• 107 total student participants

Participants

• Repeated measures between-subjects design

• Control group = Paper and pencil

• Treatment group = First Author software

• All participants received high-quality writing instruction (Enriched Writers’ Workshop

• Measured writing quantity and quality

Research Design

First Author vs. Paper and Pencil (MOCI) – Total Intelligible

Words

First Author vs. Paper and Pencil (MOCI) – Developmental

Writing ScaleMichael’s Story

Baseline Writing – Paper & Pencil

Level = 3

Total Words = 0

Unique Words = 0

Topic = Unclear

Text Type = Emergent

First Day on First Author – Fall 2012

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First Day on First Author – Fall 2012

Level = 8

Total Words = 14

Unique Words = 12

Topic = Miley Cyrus

Text Type = Label

Michael’s Excitement on Day 1

“Hey Mrs. K! I just wrote

a short story about Miley Cyrus!”

Current Writing – Spring 2013 Current Writing – Spring 2013

Level = 11

Total Words = 13

Unique Words = 10

Topic = Acting

Text Type = Plan

Current Writing – Spring 2013

Level = 9

Total Words = 7

Unique Words = 6

Topic = Gravedigger

Text Type = Persuasion

Recognize Possibility – The Future

I had these kids that really couldn’t write even….they could not write a word, they didn’t know letters. Now I

have these same kids. I have Michael [who] would

actually write backwards. He’d start on the right and write to the left. But he couldn’t do it. Now he’s writing

sentences on paper as well as the computer. It’s amazing!

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Celebrate Authorship: The “Meet the Author” Event

Principles for Working on Writing & Communication

with Students with Complex Instructional Needs

• Believe that each student is an author who has something to communicate

• Eliminate pre-requisites for membership in the writing community

• Believe that each student is an author who has something to communicate

• Eliminate pre-requisites for membership in the writing community

Attitudes and Beliefs

• Set up a social interactive learning environment

• Challenge each student and keep them safe

• Offer choices across the learning environment to foster intrinsic motivation and respect student choices

• Communicate in ways that inspire students to do more

• Celebrate all accomplishments, big and small!

• Set up a social interactive learning environment

• Challenge each student and keep them safe

• Offer choices across the learning environment to foster intrinsic motivation and respect student choices

• Communicate in ways that inspire students to do more

• Celebrate all accomplishments, big and small!

Learning Environment

• Provide cognitive strategies, scaffolds, and tools that support individual success

• Identify abilities and needs

• Find out what each student loves

• Provide cognitive strategies, scaffolds, and tools that support individual success

• Identify abilities and needs

• Find out what each student loves

Student Centered

The Power of Writing

“When I write I feel free!”

Comment from an adolescent with severe speech and physical impairments who was one of the first students who used the First

Author software. As she developed as an author she enjoyed writing fictional narratives with herself as the central character.

References

Asaro-Saddler, K. & Bak, N. (2012). Teaching children with high

functioning autism spectrum disorders to write persuasive

essays. Topics in Language Disorders.

Asaro-Saddler, K. & Saddler, B. (2010). Planning instruction and

self-regulation training: Effects on writers with autism

spectrum disorders, Council for Exceptional Children, 77(1),

107-124.

Atwell, N. (1987). In the middle: Writing, reading, and learning

with adolescents. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook Publishers,

Inc.

Calkins, L.M. (1983). Lessons from a child: On the teaching and

learning of writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

References

Calkins, L. M. (1986). The art of teaching writing (1st). Portsmouth,

NH: Heinemann Educational Books, Inc.

Calkins, L.M. (1991). Living between the lines. Portsmouth, NH:

Heinemann.

Calkins, L. M. (1994). The art of teaching writing (New edition).

Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books, Inc.

Calkins, L., Ehrenworth, M. & Lehman, C. (2012). Pathways to the

Common Core: Accelerating Achievement. Portsmouth, NH:

Heinemann Educational Books, Inc.

Clendon, S. A. & Erickson, K. (2008). The vocabulary of beginning

writers: Implications for children with complex communication

needs. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 24, 281-293.

Clendon, S. A., Sturm, J. M., & Cali, K. S. (2013). Vocabulary use across

genres: Implications for students with complex communication

needs. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 44, 61-72.

References

Common Core State Standards Initiative (2010). Common core

state standards for English language arts & literacy in

history/social studies, science, and technical subjects.

Washington, DC: National Governors Association Center for

Best Practices and the Council of Chief State School Officers.

Graham, S., Kiuhara, S., McKeown, D. & Harris, K. (2012). A meta-

analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary

grades. Manuscript submitted for publication.

Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (1996). Making the writing process

work: Strategies for composition and self-regulation.

Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

International Reading Association (2002). What is evidence-

based reading instruction? Retrieved from

http://www.reading.org/General/AboutIRA/PositionState

ments/EvidencedBasedPosition.aspx

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References

Koppenhaver , D. & Williams, A. (2010). A Conceptual Review of

Writing Research in Augmentative and Alternative

Communication, Augmentative and Alternative

Communication, 26 (3), pp. 158–176.

National Institute for Literacy (2012). What is scientifically-based

research: A guide for teachers. Retrieved from

http://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/science_research.pdf.

Joseph, L. M. & Conrad (2009), Teaching students with

intellectual or developmental disabilities to write: A review of

the literature, Research in Developmental Disabilities, 30, 1–

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References

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