Work, Institutions and Sustainable Livelihood

Virginius Xaxa • Debdulal Saha • Rajdeep SinghaEditors

Work, Institutionsand Sustainable

LivelihoodIssues and Challengesof Transformation

EditorsVirginius XaxaSociology/Social WorkTezpur UniversityTezpur, Assam, India

Debdulal SahaCentre for Labour Studies &Social ProtectionTata Institute of Social SciencesGuwahati, Assam, India

Rajdeep SinghaCentre for Labour Studies and Social ProtectionTata Institute of Social SciencesGuwahati, Assam, India

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Preface

This book evolved from the annual thematic conference of the Interna-tional Center for Development and Decent Work (ICDD), University ofKassel, Germany. The conference, organized by the Centre for LabourStudies and Social Protection (CLSSP) of Tata Institute of Social Sciences(TISS), Guwahati campus, was held on 19–20 February 2016. ‘DecentWork and Sustainable Development along Rural-Urban Gradients’ wasthe theme of the conference. In all, 52 scholars from Europe, LatinAmerica, Africa and Asia attended the conference and deliberated uponaspects of work and sustainable development. The issues that had emergedfrom the discussion were ‘conditions of employment’, ‘future of work’and ‘questions of sustainability’. We decided to focus on the institutionswithin rural and urban economies which have important roles intransforming work and livelihood and making it sustainable using pro-gressive instruments and innovations. Of all the papers, we identified11 which raised the issues and challenges of transformation in the contextof Asia and Africa. The volume is an outcome of that exercise. Contribu-tions are based on both theoretical and empirical studies from these twocontinents. The 11 chapters are presented across 3 sections—rural econ-omy and its transformation, urbanization and sustainable livelihood, and

v

innovations and instruments in transformation. We will address thesetheoretical discourse and empirical issues against the backdrop of currentdevelopment trajectories in the context of the Global South.Without the support, encouragement and generosity of various indi-

viduals and institutions, this volume would not have been completed. Tostart with, we thank the faculty, staff and students of the TISS Guwahaticampus who made the conference possible. We express our sinceregratitude to all the contributing authors of this book who had earlierpresented their papers in conference and later agreed to collaborate withus. Without their support, we could not have brought this volume topublication within the stipulated time. We thank Christoph Scherrer andChristian M€ollmann from ICDD for helping us while conceptualizing theconference theme. We thank ICDD for its financial support and inparticular Birgit Felmeden and Antje Bracht from Kassel for their untiringsupport in guiding in the organization of the conference. Our specialthanks to Madhuparna Banerjee who copy edited this volume. We thankthe anonymous referees for their useful inputs and suggestions. We wouldlike to thank the Palgrave team, in particular Sagarika Ghosh (ExecutiveEditor), Nupoor Singh (Associate Editor) and Sandeep Kaur (AssistantEditor), for their support and cooperation at every stage to see the projectthrough to fruition.

Tezpur UniversityTezpur, Assam, India

Virginius Xaxa

Tata Institute of Social SciencesGuwahati, Assam, India

Debdulal Saha

Tata Institute of Social SciencesGuwahati, Assam, India

Rajdeep Singha

vi Preface

Contents

1 Introduction 1Debdulal Saha, Rajdeep Singha, and Virginius Xaxa

Part I Rural Economy and Its Transformation 15

2 Rural Transformation and Indigenous Peoples in India 17Virginius Xaxa

3 Ghana’s Gold Boom and Multinational Corporations:Resource Nationalism or Countervailing Force? 35Patrick K. Agbesinyale

4 Augmenting Small Farmers’ Income Through RuralNon-farm Sector in India: Role of Informationand Institutions 73Meenakshi Rajeev and Manojit Bhattacharjee

vii

5 Social Welfare, Unemployment and Public Worksin Rural Southern Mozambique 101Ruth Castel-Branco

6 Understanding Social Reality(ies) of Rural Livelihoods:Insights from a Comprehensive Study in Two Villagesin Mozambique 125Claudia Levy

Part II Urbanization and Sustainable Livelihood 151

7 A New Approach to Rural Labour Mobility in the LabourSurplus Economy: A Tripartite Labour Supply Model 153Cheng Li

8 Urbanization, Land Alienation and Proletarianization:A Study of Rajbansis in North Bengal 193Hemantika Basu

9 Street Food, Food Safety and Sustainabilityin an Emerging Mega City: Insights from an EmpiricalStudy in Hyderabad, India 227Christoph Dittrich

Part III Innovations and Instruments in Transformation 249

10 The Promises of New Instruments for the Promotionof Decent Work 251Christoph Scherrer and Stefan Beck

viii Contents

11 Microcredits, Returns and Gender: Of Reliable PoorWomen and Financial Inclusion in South Asia 275Christa Wichterich

12 Organizing the Informal Economy in Senegal 303Thomas Greven

Index 323

Contents ix

Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Debdulal Saha is Assistant Professor at Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS),Guwahati Campus, Assam, India. Prior to joining TISS, he was post-doctoralfellow and guest lecturer at the International Center for Development andDecent Work (ICDD), University of Kassel, Germany. He obtained MA inEconomics from the University of North Bengal and PhD from TISS Mumbai.He is the author of Informal Markets, Livelihood and Politics: Street Vendors inUrban India (2017), co-author of Financial Inclusion of the Marginalised: StreetVendors in the Urban Economy (2013) and co-editor of Food Crisis and ItsImplications for Labor (2013). He has been engaged in various research projectson issues related to work, employment, inequality, labour and poverty supportedby the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), International Centerfor Development and Decent Work (ICDD), International Centre for IntegratedMountain Development (ICIMOD), Ministry of Housing and Poverty Allevia-tion (MoHUPA), National Alliance for Street Vendors in India (NASVI),Municipal Corporation for Greater Mumbai (MCGM), Hans B€ocklerFoundation-Germany and the International Labour Organisation (ILO).

Rajdeep Singha is Assistant Professor and Centre Chairperson of Labour Stud-ies at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Guwahati Campus, Assam,

xi

India. Prior to joining TISS, he taught in the Department of Economics atSt. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Bengaluru, and was a Research Associate atthe Indian Institute of Management Bangalore. He holds an M.Sc. in Economicsfrom Vidyasagar University, West Bengal, and a PhD in Economics from theInstitute for Social and Economic Change, Bengaluru. He has published severalarticles in peer-reviewed journals and chapters in edited books. His areas ofresearch and teaching interest include poverty, industrial economics, agrarianstudies and labour economics. He has been engaged in various research projectson issues related to development, employment, inequality, environment andpoverty supported by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP),International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Inter-national Water Management Institute (IWMI), ActionAid, North Eastern Elec-tric Power Corporation Limited (NEEPCO) and Government of Assam.

Virginius Xaxa is at present Professor of Eminence and Bharat Ratna LokapriyaGopinath Bordoloi Chair at Tezpur University, Assam, India. Prior to joiningTezpur University, he was Professor and Deputy Director of the Tata Institute ofSocial Sciences, Guwahati Campus (2011–2016).He taught sociology at theDelhiSchool of Economics, University of Delhi (1990–2011), and North-Eastern HillUniversity, Shillong (1978–1990). He obtained his MA in Sociology from PuneUniversity and PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur. He isthe author of Economic Dualism and Structure of Class: A Study in Plantation andPeasant Settings in North Bengal (1997) and State, Society and Tribes: Issues in Post-Colonial India (2008). He is also co-author of Plantation Labour in India (1996)and co-editor of Social Exclusion and Adverse Inclusion: Adivasis in India (2012). Heis in the Editorial Advisory Board of journals, namely, Asian Ethnicity,History andSociology of South Asia, Social Change, Contribution to Indian Sociology andSociological Bulletin. He is a former member of the National Advisory Committee(NAC) and chairman of the Virginius Xaxa Committee on Tribal Affairs.

About the Contributors

Patrick K. Agbesinyale is the Director of the Institute for Development Studies(IDS), University of Cape Coast. He studied at the University of Ghana, wherehe earned his BA in Social Sciences (Geography and Political Science), and at theUniversity of Dortmund/Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technol-ogy, Kumasi, Ghana, where he earned his MSc in Development Planning andManagement. He holds a Post-graduate Diploma in Education from the

xii Editors and Contributors

University of Cape Coast, Ghana. He obtained his PhD in DevelopmentPlanning and Management at the University of Dortmund in 2003. ProfessorAgbesinyale teaches and conducts research in Development Studies. His researchinterest lies in the areas of the extractive sector, development and the environ-ment, and labour. He has several publications to his credit including editedbooks, book chapters, journal articles, technical reports and occasional/confer-ence papers. He serves as a reviewer for a number of journals. Prof. Agbesinyaleprovides services to many universities in Ghana and abroad as both internal andexternal assessor for graduate (PhD, MPhil, MA/MSc) theses and assessment ofpromotion papers for lecturers. He also serves on a number of committees at theUniversity of Cape Coast and other similar institutions in Ghana. He consults forseveral international and local development agencies and organizations, includingthe World Bank, UNICEF, Oxfam and local non-governmental organizations.

Hemantika Basu is a PhD scholar at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences,Off-Campus, Guwahati, and doctoral fellow of the International Center forDevelopment and Decent Work (ICDD), University of Kassel, Germany. Sheobtained her MA and MPhil in Economics from the University of North Bengal.Her research interests include development, labour and employment, land andurban development, informal economy, and economics of indigenouscommunities.

Stefan Beck is an adjunct professor at the University of Kassel. He holds a PhDin Political Science from the University of Kassel. His focus is on politicaleconomy and comparative research on capitalism. He recently published “Vari-eties of Capitalism: Beyond Simple Dichotomies”, in B. Jessop, B.Young,C. Scherrer (eds.), Financial Cultures and Crisis Dynamics, Oxford, Routledge,162–175 (2014; co-authored with C. Scherrer); “TTIP: Possible NegotiatingOutcomes and Consequences”, in Scherrer (ed.), The Transatlantic Trade andInvestment Partnership: Implications for Labor, Hampp Verlag, 10–40 (2014),„Vom Fordistischen zum Kompetitiven Merkantilismus. Die Exportorientierungder Bundesrepublik Deutschland zwischenWirtschaftswunder und EuropäischerKrise“, Metropolis (2014).

Manojit Bhattacharjee is presently working as Assistant Professor of Economicsat St. Joseph’s College (Autonomous), Bangalore. He completed his PhD at theInstitute for Social and Economic Change (ISEC), Bangalore. He has a numberof publications to his credit in both national and international journals. His areasof interest include credit markets and farm and rural non-farm sectors.

Editors and Contributors xiii

Ruth Castel-Branco is a PhD candidate at the University of the Witwatersrandand a fellow of the International Centre for Development and Decent Work. Sheholds an MA in Development Studies from the University of Kwa-Zulu Nataland a BA in Geography and African Studies from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Previously she was the project coordinator for social protection inMozambique at the International Labour Office. Her research interests includelabour process, workers’ organizations, social protection and linkages betweenthe formal and informal economies.

Christoph Dittrich is professor and head of the Department of Human Geog-raphy at the University of G€ottingen/Germany. His research focuses on agri-foodsystems and livelihood security in urban-rural India (Bangalore, Hyderabad)and conflict-ridden land-use transformation in rural Southeast Asia (Sumatra/Indonesia). He is an advisory board member for Indo-German Cooperation(Indo-German Consultative Group).

Thomas Greven is Associated Professor (Privatdozent) of political science atFreie Universität Berlin, Senior Research Fellow of the German Institute forInternational Relations, Berlin, associated researcher at the Institute for Devel-opment and Decent Work (University of Kassel), and an independent politicalconsultant. He teaches at the John F. Kennedy Institute for North AmericanStudies at FU Berlin. Dr. Greven has been visiting scholar and researcher at theUniversity of British-Columbia, the Economic Policy Institute, the University ofCalifornia-Berkeley, York University, Johns Hopkins University, and the MaxPlanck Institute for the Study of Societies.

Claudia Levy obtained a Master’s in (Human) Geography at the UniversidadeEstadual de Campinas (UNICAMP) in 2006. While working with protected-area fringe communities and management strategies, she concluded a JointInternational MSc on Regional Development Planning and Management(2008) from the University of Dortmund in Germany and the Kwame NkrumahUniversity of Kumasi, Ghana, under a DAAD scholarship. From 2009 to 2013she was a researcher associated with the German Institute for Tropical andSubtropical Agriculture (DITSL), joining the International Center for Develop-ment and Decent Work (ICDD) at the University of Kassel in Germany. Withinthis international network her PhD was concluded in 2016 on rural livelihoodsand farmer groups in Mozambique. Claudia has started her career in a govern-ment agency in Sao Paulo for development and tourism and worked on consul-tancy projects in Brazil, linking research and practice and sociological andecological issues.

xiv Editors and Contributors

Cheng Li is currently a PhD student at the Institute of Economics of the StateUniversity of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil; fellow of the International Centerfor Development and Decent Work (ICDD), University of Kassel, Germany;and researcher of the Ifeng International Think Tank, Hong Kong. He holds twomaster’s degrees in Globalization and Labour at the Tata Institute of SocialSciences (TISS), India, and Social Economy and Labour at UNICAMP. Previ-ously, he was a research writer at the UNI Global Union Asia & Pacific RegionalOffice (UNI-Apro), Singapore, and a labour specialist at the China ElectronicsCorporation (Smart Card Ltd), Beijing. His research fields include developmentstudies, development economics, heterodox economics, labour surplus, rural-urban migration, labour mobility, workers’ organizing, trade unions, collectivebargaining, and social and labour movements.

Meenakshi Rajeev is the Reserve Bank of India Chair Professor in the Institutefor Social and Economic Change (ISEC), Bangalore, India. She graduated fromIndian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur, and received her PhD from theIndian Statistical Institute, Kolkata. She has published on a variety of researchtopics from both theoretical and empirical perspectives in national and interna-tional journals. Her recent publications include her book Emerging Issues inEconomic Development published by Oxford University Press. She has also visitedand taught in many universities in Asia, Europe and the USA. Her areas ofinterest include game-theoretic modelling of development issues, banking andcredit, and industrial economics.

Christoph Scherrer is professor of globalization and politics, Executive Directorof the International Center for Development and Decent Work at the Universityof Kassel, and a member of the Steering Committee of the Global LabourUniversity. He holds PhDs in political science from FU Berlin (Dr. habil.) andthe University of Frankfurt (Dr. phil.) and an MA in economics (University ofFrankfurt). He has received the Excellency in Teaching Award of the State ofHessia and the Excellence in Development Cooperation Award from the GermanAcademic Exchange Service (DAAD). Recent English language publicationsinclude “The Political Economy of Prison Labor: From Penal Welfarism to thePenal State”, in Global Labour Journal, 8(1) 32–48 (2017, co-authored withA. Shah); “The Covert Assault on Labor by Mega-Regional Trade Agreements”,in Giornale di diritto del lavoro e di relazioni industriali n. 150, 343–363;Combating Inequality: The Global North and South, London: Routledge (2015,co-edited with A. Gallas, H. Herr, and F. Hoffer), The Transatlantic Trade andInvestment Partnership: Implications for Labor, Hampp Verlag (2014, ed.).

Editors and Contributors xv

Christa Wichterich obtained her PhD in sociology, was a guest professor ofgender politics at Kassel(Germany) and Basel (Switzerland) University and nowworks as a university lecturer, free-lance author and scholar-activist. Earlier shehad worked as a lecturer at Gilan University in Iran, Jawarhal Nehru Universityin India and as guest lecturer at various German, Austrian and Swiss universities.As a researcher her main topics are gender perspectives on globalization, women’swork and economy, women’s movements and international women’s policies.Her methodological approach is interdisciplinary and intersectional from aperspective of feminist international political economy and feminist politicalecology. She has published extensively on the aforementioned issues.

Virginius Xaxa is at present Professor of Eminence and Bharat Ratna LokapriyaGopinath Bordoloi Chair at Tezpur University, Assam, India.

xvi Editors and Contributors

Abbreviations

BIG Basic Income GrantCEPIL Centre for Public Interest LawCGAP Consultative Group to Assist the PoorCGTIS Confédération Générale des Travailleurs de l’Économie Informelle

au SénégalCPP Nkrumah-led Convention People’s PartyCRPF Central Reserve Police ForceDfID UK’s Department for International DevelopmentEICC Electronic Industry Citizenship CoalitionEITI Extractive Industries Transparency InitiativeFAMATS Fédération des Associations des Marchands Tabliers du SénégalFDI Foreign Direct InvestmentFIAN Food First International Action NetworkFSSAI Food Safety and Standards Authority of IndiaGATT General Agreement on Tariffs and TradeGDP Gross Domestic ProductGEAR Growth, Employment and RedistributionGMWU Ghana Mineworkers UnionGP Gram PanchayatGUFs Global Union Federations

xvii

IFC International Finance CorporationIHDS India Human Development SurveyILO International Labour OrganizationINSS National Institute for Social SecurityISODEC Integrated Social Development CentreITUC International Trade Union ConfederationKfW Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (Germany)L&LR Land and Land Reforms DepartmentMFIs Microfinance InstitutionsMGNREGA Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee ActMNC Multinational CorporationMPCE Monthly Per Capita ExpenditureMPP Marginal Physical Productivity of LabourNAALC North American Agreement on Labor CooperationNAFTA North American Free Trade AgreementNAO National Administrative OfficeNBS National Bureau of StatisticsNFHS National Family Health SurveyNIN National Institute of Nutrition (Hyderabad, India)OAE Own Account EnterprisesPASP Productive Social Action ProgrammeRNFS Rural Non-Farm SectorROSCA Rotating Savings and Credit AssociationRS Revisional SettlementSC Scheduled CasteSDLLRO Sub-Divisional Land and Land Reforms OfficerSGMC State Gold Mining CorporationSMC Siliguri Municipal CorporationSMU Small and Medium-sized EnterpriseSRL Sustainable Rural LivelihoodSYMAD Synergie des Marchands dits Ambulants pour le DéveloppementTiSA Trade in Services AgreementTNC Transnational CorporationTPP Trans-Pacific PartnershipTPPL Total Physical Productivity of LabourTTIP Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership

xviii Abbreviations

TWN Third World NetworkUDTS Union Démocratique des Travailleurs du SénégalUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeWTO World Trade Organization

Abbreviations xix

List of Figures

Fig. 5.1 Budget allocation to INAS programmes (MZN ^3), 2008–17(Source: ILO et al. 2016) 109

Fig. 5.2 Households covered by INAS programmes, 2008–16(Source: ILO et al. 2016) 110

Fig. 5.3 Per capita monthly consumption (in MZN, by quintile,2014/15) (Source: INE 2015) 113

Fig. 5.4 Number of beneficiaries by social action programme inInhassoro District, 2016 (Source: Compiled by the author basedon unpublished data provided by the INAS DelegationVilankulos 2016) 120

Fig. 6.1 Symbolic elements of everyday life. (a) Father and son in frontof muti’s GandzElo tree. (b) Under a nkanye tree the kubikanguva ceremony is carried out in Mungazi, inaugurating theharvest season. (c) Mhamba in Mabomo, to ask for ancestralapproval of the newly elected community leader(Source: Fieldwork May 2010–October 2011) 129

Fig. 6.2 Mabomo: scaled resource groups (Source: own elaboration) 137Fig. 6.3 Mungazi: scaled resource groups (Source: own elaboration) 138

xxi

Fig. 7.1 Lewis model (Source: Lewis 1954) 157Fig. 7.2 Ranis–Fei model in agricultural sector (Note: Based on the

original model, the modification is simply combined by theauthor with both the MPP curve and the TPP curve togetherinto one figure. Source: Modified based on Ranis and Fei1961, 1964) 160

Fig. 7.3 Ranis–Fei model in industrial sector (Source: Ranis and Fei1961, 1964) 161

Fig. 7.4 Jorgenson dual economy model (Source: Compiled based onJorgenson theory) 162

Fig. 7.5 Harris–Todaro model (Source: Compiled based on Harris andTodaro 1970) 164

Fig. 7.6 Labour market triple divisions (Source: Self-compiled) 168Fig. 7.7 Tripartite labour supply model (Note: Migrant net earning ¼

migrant wage � migrant living costs. Source: Self-compiled) 171Fig. 7.8 Tripartite labour supply model in 3D (Source: Self-compiled) 175Fig. 7.9 Tripartite labour supply model with a demonstration of

balanced development (Source: Self-compiled) 177Fig. 7.10 Migrant workers in China 1978–2012 (Note: 1. The data

were collected from incomplete statistics because of the limitsof statistical discontinuities and methodologicalinconsistencies. 2. The absolute changes in both the decreasein rural residence and increase in migrant workers do notnecessarily need to be equal, given the consideration ofstatistical methodology with respect to students, militarypersonnel and refluxed migrant workers. Source: Various yearsfrom the China Statistical Yearbook, China PopulationStatistics Yearbook, China Population Census, NationalMonitoring Survey Report of Migrant Workers, statisticaldata released by the national relevant authorities, and theexisting researches and studies, calculated by Yang and Li(2009) in their studies on migrant workers) 179

Fig. 7.11 Average monthly wages (RMB) of migrant workers and itsgrowth rate (%), 2009–2013 (Source: Data of 2004 to 2009are from the study conducted by Lu (2012), combined withfour methodologies, and data of 2010 to 2013 are from theNational Bureau of Statistics) 180

xxii List of Figures

Fig. 7.12 Monthly real wages (RMB) of migrant workers, 1978–2013(Note: All the relevant data were calculated by the author.Source: National Bureau of Statistics, China Labour StatisticalYearbook, Population Census, and Economic Census) 180

Fig. 7.13 Monthly real wage (RMB) in comparison between migrantworkers and agricultural producers, 1978–2013 (Note: All therelevant data were calculated by the author. Source: NationalBureau of Statistics, China Labour Statistical Yearbook,Population Census, and Economic Census, various years) 182

Fig. 7.14 Tripartite labour supply in China, 1978–2013 (Note: All therelevant data were calculated by the author. The rural laboursupply curve covers the period from 1957 to 2013.Source: National Bureau of Statistics, China Labour StatisticalYearbook, Population Census, and Economic Census) 183

Fig. 7.15 Wage and employment evolution in China under thetripartite labour supply model, 1978–2013 (Note: All therelevant data were calculated by the author. Note that therural labour supply curve covers the period from 1957 to2013. Source: National Bureau of Statistics, China LabourStatistical Yearbook, Population Census, and EconomicCensus) 184

Fig. 7.16 Model verification, 1978–2013 184Fig. 9.1 Conceptual frame of the ‘Sustainable Street Food Plan’ for

Hyderabad 239Fig. 10.1 Increase in number of labour provisions in bilateral and

regional trade agreements, 1990–2013 (Source: IILS 2015: 19) 255

List of Figures xxiii

List of Tables

Table 4.1 Notations and explanations of variables used in the analysis 86Table 4.2 Mean and standard deviations of variables used in regression 87Table 4.3 Regression results with non-farm business income of

household as dependent variable (Tobit model) 90Table 4.4 Distribution of farmer households (small and marginal) on

the basis of main occupation (rows add up to 100) 95Table 4.5 Percentage of small and marginal farmer households having

first business, second business and third business 96Table 4.6 Distribution of small and marginal farmers in terms of the

nature of returns from non-farm business activities (rows addup to 100) 96

Table 4.7 Percentage of small and marginal farmer households havingdebt in last five years (%) 97

Table 4.8 Percentage of small and marginal farmer households havingdebt from formal institutions in last five years 97

Table 5.1 Projected coverage and costs in 2024 110Table 5.2 Components of World Bank social protection loan 111Table 5.3 Price tables, basic goods in the market of Nhacolo, locality of

Maimelane, district of Inhassoro. November 2016 115Table 6.1 Three-period fieldwork approach using a range of interview

categories 135Table 6.2 Summary of resource group assessment 139

xxv

Table 8.1 Population of Rajbansis, early census report 199Table 8.2 Percentage of Rajbansi population to total SC population in

different districts of Bengal (2011) 200Table 8.3 Occupational distribution of Rajbansis in Bengal, percentage

change over the last censuses 213

xxvi List of Tables