Where is Vietnam?

WhyDidtheUnitedStatesFightaWarinVietnam?

• BasicallytoholdthelineagainstthespreadofworldCommunism.AmericapaidforthewartheFrenchfoughtagainstCommunistVietnamasapartoftheTrumanDoctrine(1947)“tohelpfreepeoplestomaintaintheirfreeinstitutionsandtheirnationalintegrityagainst…totalitarianregimes.”Inthe1950ʼs,Americabecameinvolvedagain.

LongestandMostUnpopularWar• TheVietnamWarwasthelongestandmostunpopularwarinAmericanhistory.Duringthewar:• 58,000Americanslosttheirlives.• Theoldestmankilledwas62yearsold;theyoungest,16.• 61%ofthemenkilledwere21oryounger.

• 304,000werewounded.• 75,000wereseverelydisabled.• TheUnitedStatesspentover$200billiondollarsonthewar.

ConflictBetweenFrance&Vietnam• TheVietnamWargrewoutofthelongconflictbetweenFranceandVietnam.• InJuly1954,afteronehundredyearsofcolonialrule,adefeatedFrancewasforcedtoleaveVietnam.• NationalistforcesunderthedirectionofGeneralVoNguyenGiap defeatedthealliedFrenchtroopsattheremotemountainoutpostofDien BienPhu inthenorthwestcornerofVietnam.

TheGenevaPeaceAccords• TheGenevaPeaceAccords,signedbyFranceandVietnaminthesummerof1954,providedforthetemporarypartitionofVietnamatthe17thparallel,withnationalelectionsin1956toreunifythecountry.• IntheNorth,acommunistregime,supportedbytheSovietUnionandthePeople'sRepublicofChina,setupitsheadquartersinHanoiundertheleadershipofHoChiMinh.

OppositiontoGenevaAccords• TheUnitedStatespreventedtheelectionsthatwerepromisedundertheGenevaconferencebecauseitknewthattheCommunistswouldwin.• SecretaryofStateJohnFosterDullesthoughttheGenevaAccordsgrantedtoomuchpowertotheCommunistPartyofVietnam.

– HeandPresidentDwightD.Eisenhowersupportedthecreationofacounter-revolutionaryalternativesouthofthe17thparallel.

• ThiswasaccomplishedthroughformationoftheSoutheastAsiaTreatyOrganization(SEATO).

ANewNationintheSouth• UsingSEATOforpoliticalcover,theEisenhoweradministrationhelpedcreateanewnationinsouthernVietnam.• In1955,withthehelpofmassiveamountsofAmericanmilitary,political,andeconomicaid,thegovernmentoftheRepublicofVietnam(SouthVietnam)wasborn.• Thefollowingyear,NgoDinh Diem,astaunchlyanti-CommunistfigurefromtheSouth,wonadubiouselectionthatmadehimpresidentofSouthVietnam

TheDominoTheory•Americanpolicymakersdevelopedthe“DominoTheory” asajustificationfortheinvolvement.Thistheorystated,“IfSouthVietnamfallstotheCommunist,Laos,Cambodia,Thailand,Burma,IndiaandPakistanwouldalsofalllikedominos.ThePacificIslandsandevenAustraliacouldbeatrisk”.

SouthVietnamUnderDiem• DiemclaimedthathisnewlycreatedgovernmentwasunderattackfromCommunistsinthenorth.• Inlate1957,withAmericanmilitaryaid,Diembegantocounterattack.• HeusedthehelpoftheCIA(throughOperationPhoenix)toidentifythosewhosoughttobringhisgovernmentdownandarrestedthousands.

• HepassedarepressiveseriesofactsknownasLaw10/59thatmadeitlegaltoholdsuspectedCommunistsinjailwithoutbringingformalcharges.

OppositiontoDiem• TheoutcryagainstDiem'sharshandoppressiveactionswasimmediate.• Buddhistmonksandnunswerejoinedbystudents,businesspeople,intellectuals,andpeasantsinoppositiontoDiem’scorruptrule.

• ThemoretheseforcesattackedDiem'stroopsandsecretpolice,themoreDiemcomplainedthattheCommunistsweretryingtotakeSouthVietnambyforce.Thiswas"ahostileactofaggressionbyNorthVietnamagainstpeace-lovinganddemocraticSouthVietnam."

TheNationalLiberationFront• TheCommunistssupportedthecreationofabroad-basedunitedfronttohelpmobilizesouthernersinoppositiontothegovernmentinSouthVietnam.

• On December 20, 1960, the National Liberation Front (NLF) was born.– It brought together Communists and non-Communists in an umbrella

organization that had limited, but important goals – Anyone could join as long as they opposed Ngo Dinh Diem and wanted to

unify Vietnam.

WashingtonWhitePapers• Inaseriesofgovernment"WhitePapers,"WashingtoninsidersdenouncedtheNLF,claimingthatitwasmerelyapuppetofHanoi.Theycalleditthe"VietCong,"aderogatoryandslangtermmeaningVietnameseCommunist.• TheNLF,ontheotherhand,arguedthatitwasautonomousandindependentoftheCommunistsinHanoiandthatitwasmadeupmostlyofnon-Communists.Manyanti-waractivistssupportedtheNLF'sclaims.

December1961WhitePaper

• In1961,PresidentKennedysentateamtoVietnamtoreportonconditionsintheSouthandtoassessfutureAmericanaidrequirements.• Thereport,knownasthe"December1961WhitePaper,"arguedfor:

– An increase in military, technical, and economic aid– The introduction of large-scale American "advisers"

to help stabilize the Diem regime and crush the NLF.

TheKennedyResponse• AsKennedyweighedthemeritsoftheserecommendations,someofhisotheradvisersurgedthepresidenttowithdrawfromVietnamaltogether.• IntypicalKennedyfashion,thepresidentchoseamiddleroute.• Insteadofalarge-scalemilitarybuilduporanegotiatedsettlement,theUnitedStateswouldincreasethelevelofitsmilitaryinvolvementinSouthVietnamthroughmoremachineryandadvisers,butnomilitarytroops.

TheStrategicHamletProgram

• TocounteracttheNLF'ssuccessinthecountryside,WashingtonandSaigonlaunchedanambitiousmilitaryeffortintheruralareas.• CalledtheStrategicHamletProgram,thenewcounterinsurgencyplanroundedupvillagersandplacedthemin"safehamlets"controlledbythegovernmentofSouthVietnam.

• TheideawastoisolatetheNLFfromvillagers,itsbaseofsupport

NLFSuccesses

• Thisculturally-insensitiveplanfurtheralienatedthepeasantsfromtheSaigonregimeandproducedmorerecruitsfortheNLF.• Bythesummerof1963,becauseofNLFsuccessesanditsownfailures,itwasclearthatthegovernmentofSouthVietnamwasonthevergeofpoliticalcollapse.

BuddhistSelf-Immolations

• Diem'sbrother,NgoDinhNhu,hadraidedtheBuddhistpagodasofSouthVietnam,claimingthattheyhadharboredtheCommuniststhatwerecreatingthepoliticalinstability.• TheresultwasmassiveprotestsonthestreetsofSaigonthatledBuddhistmonkstoself-immolation.• ThepicturesofthemonksengulfedinflamesmadeworldheadlinesandcausedconsiderableconsternationinWashington.

MilitaryCoup

• BylateSeptember,theBuddhistprotesthadcreatedsuchdisloca-tioninthesouththattheKennedyadministrationsupportedacoup.• In1963,someofDiem'sowngeneralsapproachedtheAmericanEmbassyinSaigonwithplanstooverthrowDiem.• WithWashington'stacitapproval,Diemandhisbrotherwerecapturedandlaterkilled.• Threeweekslater,PresidentKennedywasassassinatedonthestreetsofDallas.

EscalationoftheConflict• AtthetimeoftheKennedyandDiemassassinations,therewere16,000militaryadvisersinVietnam.• TheKennedyadministrationhadmanagedtorunthewarfromWashingtonwithoutthelarge-scaleintroductionofAmericancombattroops.• ThecontinuingpoliticalproblemsinSaigon,however,convincedthenewpresident,LyndonBainesJohnson,thatmoreaggressiveactionwasneeded.

• After a dubious North Vietnamese raid on two U.S. ships in the Gulf of Tonkin, the Johnson administration argued for expansive war powers for the president.

AttackonAmericanShips• InAugust1964,inresponsetoAmericanandSouthVietnameseespionagealongitscoast,NorthVietnamlaunchedanattackagainsttheC.TurnerJoyandtheU.S.S.Maddox,twoAmericanshipsoncallintheGulfofTonkin.• ThefirstattackoccurredonAugust2,1964.

• AsecondattackwassupposedtohavetakenplaceonAugust4,butauthoritieshaverecentlyconcludedthatnosecondattackevertookplace.

TheGulfofTonkinResolution• TheJohnsonadministrationusedtheAugust4attacktoobtainaCongressionalresolution,nowknownastheGulfofTonkinResolution,thatgavethepresidentbroadwarpowers.• TheResolutionwasfollowedbylimitedreprisalairattacksagainstNorthVietnam.

OperationRollingThunder• Inearly1965,theNLFattackedtwoU.S.armyinstallationsinSouthVietnam,andasaresult,JohnsonorderedsustainedbombingmissionsoverNorthVietnam.• Thebombingmissions,knownas“OperationRollingThunder,” causedtheCommunistPartytoreassessitsownwarstrategy

Phosphorous&NapalmBombs

• “OperationRollingThunder” wasbackedupbyphosphorousandnapalmbombs– thelattercausingdreadfulburnstothousandofinnocentcivilians.

OperationRanchHand• WhenthisfailedtobreakdownthejunglecovertheUSAFstarted“OperationRanchHand” – thedefoliationprogram,usingAgentOrange.• Thisdeadlychemicalcocktail,containingdioxin,killedoffmillionsofacresofjungletotrytoweakentheVietcong– butleftahorrendouslegacyinVietnam.• Thedioxingotintothefoodchaincausingchromosomedamagetohumans.Therewerehundredsofcasesofchildrenbornwithdeformities.

Helicopters

• Ofallaircraft,thehelicopterwasthemostuseful,droppingplatoonsinthejungleclearingsandoutagain.Theywereexcellentairambulances.

HowdidtheNorthVietnameseFightBackAgainsttheU.S.Invaders?

• TheNorthVietnameseusedclassicMaoistguerrillatactics.“Guerrillasmustmovethroughthepeasantslikefishthroughsea,” i.e.,thepeasantswillsupportthemasmuchastheycanwithshelter,food,weapons,storage,intelligence,recruits.

NorthVietnameseTactics• InareasheldbytheNLF,theCommunistsdistributedthelandtothepeasants.(By1973,theNLFheldabouthalfofSouthVietnam.)• Theirweaponswerecheapandreliable.

– The AK47 assault rifle out-performed the American M16

– The portable rocket launcher took out many US vehicles & aircraft.– They recycled dud bombs dropped by the Americans. Deadly

booby-traps could inflict huge damage on young American conscripts!

TunnelComplexes

• TheVietnamesebuiltlargetunnelcomplexessuchastheonesatCuChinearSaigon.ThisprotectedthemfromthebombingraidsbytheAmericansandgavethemcoverforattackingtheinvaders.

Search&DestroyTactics• TheUnitedStatescounteredwith“SearchandDestroy”tactics.InareaswheretheNLFwerethoughttobeoperating,troopswentinandcheckedforweapons.Iftheyfoundthem,

they rounded up the villagers and burned the villages down. • This often alienated the peasants from the American/South

Vietnamese cause. – As one marine said – “If they weren’t Vietcong before we got there,

they sure as hell were by the time we left”. – The NFL often helped the villager’s re-build their homes and bury

their dead.

ProtractedWarStrategy

• After“OperationRollingThunder,” theCommunistPartymovedtoaprotractedwarstrategy:theideawastogettheUnitedStatesboggeddowninawarthatitcouldnotwinmilitarilyandcreateunfavorableconditionsforpoliticalvictory.

TheWarinAmerica

• TheVietnamWarhadamajorimpactoneverydaylifeinAmerica,andtheJohnsonadministrationwasforcedtoconsiderdomesticconsequencesofitsdecisionsdaily.• Sincetherewerenotenoughvolunteerstocontinuetofightaprotractedwar,thegovernmentinstitutedadraft.

Anti-WarSentiments

• AsthedeathsmountedandAmericanscontinuedtoleaveforSoutheastAsia,theJohnsonadministrationwasmetwiththefullweightofAmericananti-warsentiments.

Anti-WarProtests

• Protestseruptedoncollegecampusesandinmajorcitiesatfirst,butby1968everycornerofthecountryseemedtohavefeltthewar'simpact.

1968DemocraticConvention• Oneofthemostfamousincidentsintheanti-warmovementwasthepoliceriotinChicagoduringthe1968DemocraticNationalConvention.• HundredsofthousandsofpeoplecametoChicagoinAugust1968toprotestAmericaninterventioninVietnamandtheleadersoftheDemocraticPartywhocontinuedtoprosecutethewar.

TheTetOffensive• By1968,thingshadgonefrombadtoworsefortheJohnsonadministration.InlateJanuary,NorthVietnamandtheNLFlaunchedcoordinatedattacksagainstmajorsoutherncities.• Theseattacks,knownastheTetOffensive,weredesignedtoforcetheJohnsonadministrationtothebargainingtable.

TheMyLaiMassacre• AseriousblowtoU.S.credibilitycamewiththeexposureoftheMyLaimassacre(March1968).• Hushedupatthetimeandonlydiscoveredbyatenaciousjournalist,thisinvolvedthekillingof400men,womenandchildrenbyUStroops.

ASecretPlantoEndtheWar• InlateMarch1968,adisgracedLyndonJohnsonannouncedthathewouldnotseektheDemocraticParty'sre-nominationforpresidentandhintedthathewouldgotothebargainingtablewiththeCommuniststoendthewar.• Negotiationsbeganinthespringof1968,buttheDemocraticPartycouldnotrescuethepresidencyfromRepublicanchallengerRichardNixonwhoclaimedhehadasecretplantoendthewar.

Vietnamization

• Nixon'ssecretplaninvolvedaprocesscalled“Vietnamization.”ThisstrategybroughtAmericantroopshomewhileincreasingtheairwaroverNorthVietnamandrelyingmoreontheSouthVietnamesearmyforgroundattacks.

ExpansiontoLaos&Cambodia

• TheNixonyearsalsosawtheexpansionofthewarintoneighboringLaosandCambodia,violatingtheinternationalrightsofthesecountriesinsecretcampaigns,astheWhiteHousetrieddesperatelytoroutoutCommunistsanctuariesandsupplyroutes.

CampusProtests&Shootings

• TheintensebombingcampaignsandinterventioninCambodiainlateApril1970sparkedintensecampusprotestsallacrossAmerica.

KentState

• AtKentStateinOhio,fourstudentswerekilledbyNationalGuardsmenwhowerecalledouttopreserveorderoncampusafterdaysofanti-Nixonprotest.

JacksonState

• ShockwavescrossedthenationasstudentsatJacksonStateinMississippiwerealsoshotandkilledforpoliticalreasons,promptingonemothertocry,"TheyarekillingourbabiesinVietnamandinourownbackyard."

TheChristmasBombings• InDecember1972,theNixonadministrationunleashedaseriesofdeadlybombingraidsagainsttargetsinNorthVietnamʼslargestcities,HanoiandHaiphong.• Theseattacks,nowknownastheChristmasbombings,broughtimmediatecondemnationfromtheinternationalcommunityandforcedtheNixonadministrationtoreconsideritstacticsandnegotiationstrategy.

TheParisPeaceAgreement• InearlyJanuary1973,theNixonWhiteHouseconvincedSaigonthattheywouldnotabandontheSouthVietnamesearmyiftheysignedthepeaceaccord.• OnJanuary23,therefore,thefinaldraftwasinitialed,endingopenhostilitiesbetweentheUnitedStatesandNorthVietnam.• TheParisPeaceAgreementdidnotendtheconflictinVietnam,however,asSaigoncontinuedtobattleCommunistforces.

TheFalltoCommunism• FromMarch1973untilthefallofSaigononApril30,1975,theSouthVietnamesearmytrieddesperatelytosavetheSouthfrompoliticalandmilitarycollapse.• TheendfinallycamewhenNorthVietnamesetanksrolledsouthalongNationalHighwayOne.• OnthemorningofApril30,CommunistforcescapturedthepresidentialpalaceinSaigon,endingtheVietnamWar.

WhyDidtheUnitedStatesLosetheVietnamWar?

1. TheyunderestimatedthetenacityandorganizationoftheNorthVietnameseandtheNationalLiberationFront.

2. DespitedroppingmoretonnageofhighexplosiveonVietnamthanthewholeofWorldWarII,theAmericanscouldnotstopthemovementoftroopsorsuppliestothesouthalongtheHoChiMinhTrail.

3. TheNorthVietnameseconducteda“Peopleswar” inwhicheveryoneplayedapart.

4. Atfirst,mostAmericanssupportedthewar.Butby1970,thePeaceMovementhadsupportfromallpartsofsocietyandnogovernmentcouldignoreit.

5. After1969,thereweredeepquestionsabouttheefficiencyofUStroops.Therewasaseriousdrugproblem;desertionrateswerehighandmoralelow.Manytroopswere“time-servers,” i.e.,countedthedaysuntilthetourwasover.

6. TheUSneverreallyunderstoodthecultureoftheVietnamesepeople.CocaCola,chewinggum,ballpointpens,andicecreamconescouldnotdislodgetheirancientbeliefs.

7. Americawasnotpreparedtokeeplosinghighnumbersofcasualtiesforsuchlimitedprogressinadifficultjunglewar,forwhichtheywerenotsuited.

8. ThestrengthandresourcefulnessoftheNLF.Forexample,thehighlycomplexCuChitunnelsystemtheU.S.nevershutdown.

Sources

• BattlefieldVietnam:ABriefHistoryhttp://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/history/index.html• VietnamRevisionGuidehttp://www.learnhistory.org.uk/vietnam/ustactics.htm