when values compete: reconciling the tension between
TRANSCRIPT
Trinity College Trinity College
Trinity College Digital Repository Trinity College Digital Repository
Senior Theses and Projects Student Scholarship
Spring 2017
When Values Compete: Reconciling the Tension Between National When Values Compete: Reconciling the Tension Between National
Security, Religious Freedom, National Identity and Islam in the Security, Religious Freedom, National Identity and Islam in the
U.S. and France U.S. and France
Clara Abramson Trinity College, Hartford Connecticut, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses
Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Abramson, Clara, "When Values Compete: Reconciling the Tension Between National Security, Religious Freedom, National Identity and Islam in the U.S. and France". Senior Theses, Trinity College, Hartford, CT 2017. Trinity College Digital Repository, https://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses/646
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WhenValuesCompete:ReconcilingtheTensionBetweenNationalSecurity,
ReligiousFreedom,NationalIdentityAndIslamintheU.S.andFrance
ClaraAbramsonClassof2017
PublicPolicyandLawHonorsThesisTrinityCollege2016-2017
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Acknowledgments
Iwouldliketothankeveryonewhoencouragedandsupportedmeinwritingthis
thesis.AbigthankyoutoProfessorMarkSilkforthenumerousdiscussionsandforasking
thehardquestionsthatpromptedmetodigdeeperanddevelopthisthesis.Icouldnothave
donethiswithoutyourguidanceandadvice.ThankyoutoProfessorKarenHumphrey’sfor
convincingmetomajorinFrench,itisnotwithoutmystudyofFrancethatIwouldhave
developedthisinterest,andofcoursethankyoufortakingontheroleofasecondreader.I
wouldalsoliketothankProfessorAdrienneFulcoforencouragingme,forsharingyour
zestforpoliticswithallofus,andforyourdedicationtothePublicPolicyandLawprogram
thathastaughtmesomuchandhelpedmegrowasawriter,thinkerandperson.Andlastly
thankstomyfamily,friendsandroommatesformotivatingmeandforalwaystellingme
howproudtheyareofme.Ihopethisthesisshedsnewlightonthistimelyissueandthat
bothcountriescanreconcilethetensionstoachievegreatersafety,equalityandhappiness
foralltheirresidents.
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TableofContentsAcknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………2Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….4Chapter1:LaïcitéandTheEvolutionofReligioninFrance…………………………………………………….6
1.1 The1905lawontheSeparationsoftheChurchesandtheState………………………….....…..11
1.2 DefiningandInterpretingModernLaïcité………………………………………………………………....15
1.3 TheLegacyofImmigrationinFrance……………………………………………………………….............16
Chapter2:FoundationsofAmericanReligionandImmigration…………………………………..…….....21
2.1TheConstitutionandtheRighttoFreedomofReligion.……………………………………………….23
2.2PopularReactionsandPolicyAgainstReligionandImmigrants…………………………………...29
2.3U.S.ReligiousJurisprudence:SupremeCourtCases……………………………………………………..31
Chapter3:FreedomofReligionV.LaïcitéinModernDayFrance…………..........................................36
3.1TheStartofUnfairApplicationofLaïcité………………………………………………………………….....36
3.2The2004ActonReligiousSymbolsa.k.a.TheHeadscarfBan…………………………………....…39
3.3RationalizingtheBan…………………………………………………………………………………………….….42
3.4S.A.S.v.France…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..43
Chapter4:CombattingIslamintheU.S.andDisputesOverReligiousFreedom……………………..49
4.1InstillingFear:TerrorandConflictintheMiddleEast………………………………………………….49
4.2Effectsof9/11:AnAttackonCivilLiberties………………………………………………………………..50
4.3LimitsonReligiousFreedom……………………………………………………………………………………..53
4.4AnEraofReligiousbasedLegislation…………………………………………………………………………56
4.5The2010PolicyShift:OpenHostilityTowardsMuslims……………………………………..………59
Chapter5:TheClashofFrenchValuesandIslam………………………………………………………………….65
5.1TheBurkiniDebateBegins:August2016……………………………………………………………………65
5.2France’sHighestCourtRulesAgainsttheBurkiniBan………………………………………………....69
5.3TheNeedforIntegration:BalancingIslamandLaïcité………………..………………………………70
Chapter6:OurFuture:ReligiousFreedomUndertheTrumpAdministration……………………….75
6.1TheMuslimBan…………………………………………………………………………………………………………79
6.2IslamInU.S.Politics:IstheU.S.Obsessed?.............................................................................................83
6.3HowAreMuslimsFaringintheU.S.?.........................................................................................................84
6.4TheMedia:TheCulpritofMisplacedFears……………………………………………………..………….89
Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...91Appendix………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...101Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………103
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Introduction TheUnitedStatesandFrancearebothstrugglingwithapolicydilemmaofnational
andinternationalsignificancearisingfromthetensionbetweenprinciplesofreligious
freedomandtheneedtoprotecttheirnationalidentity.Manyresidentsofbothcountries
believethatMuslimsthreatentheirnationalsecurity.ThiswidespreadfearofMuslimsis
evidentinbothcountries,onthelocalandfederallevel.States,countiesandtownsaswell
asfederallegislativebodiesinthetwocountrieshaveattemptedtolimitthereligious
freedomsofMuslimcitizens,residentsandimmigrants.Politicalpartiesanddemographic
groupsfromacrossthepoliticalspectrum,fromlefttoright,viewthispolicydilemmaasan
existentialchallengetotheirrespectivecountries.Ontheonehand,someMuslims’non-
acceptanceoftheiradoptedcountry’smainstreamsocialnormsandmores,andeventheir
legalsystems,makessomeAmericanandFrenchgroupsarguethattheessenceoftheir
societiesisatrisk.TheparticipationofevenaverysmallnumberofMuslimsinterrorist
acts,attimeswithtiesordeclaredallegiancetoforeignterrororganizations,generates
fearsanddemandsforasecuritypolicythattreatsanentireimmigrantpopulationasa
threat.Conversely,thedemandforpoliciesthatimposean“American”or“French”wayof
lifeorcultureandforcereligiousexpressionoutraisesconcernsamongmanyAmerican
andFrenchcitizensandpoliticians.Theyfearthattheircountries’fundamental
commitmenttoreligiousfreedom,civillibertiesandtraditionofsanctuary,akeypartof
theirnationalvaluesystem,couldbesacrificed.Withpredictionsthatthenumberof
MuslimsworldwidewillbeequaltothatofChristiansby2050,thetensionbetweenthese
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principleswillonlybecomemoresalient.1
Thisthesisseekstoexplorehowreligiousfreedom,controlledthroughU.S.and
Frenchlegislationandjurisprudence,hasconflictedwithnationalidentity.National
identityhasbenmeasuredbyconformingornottosocial,politicalandculturalnorms.This
thesiswillalsodemonstratehowreligiousfreedomhasconflictedwithnationalsecurity
policy,resultinginpoliciesthatreflectAmericansuspicionofMuslimsandinspirebacklash
fromtheMuslimworld.ChaptersoneandtwowillanalyzehowFranceandtheUnited
Stateshaveeachfacedthechallengeofprotectingreligiousfreedom,absorbingimmigrants
intotheirnationsandmaintainingnationalidentityandsecurityovertheirlonghistories.
Next,Chaptersthreeandfourwillmovetothemorecontemporarychallengesofbalancing
religionandnationalidentity,raisedinFranceprimarilybyitspopulationofNorthAfrican
immigrantsandintheUnitedStatesbyamorediverserangeofimmigrantgroupsfrom
Muslim-majoritycountries.ThenChaptersfiveandsixwillexplorethespecificcurrentday
concernsandpolicychallengessuchastheburkiniinFranceandtheanti-Muslimpolicies
ofPresidentTrump,andwillprovideacritiqueofthepolicyoptionsforeachcountryand
thestrengthsandweaknessesofvariousapproaches.
Finally,theconclusionwillassessthecurrentpoliticalplayersandhowtheiractions
mayinfluencefuturereligiousandimmigrationpolicy,anddrawonthestrengthsand
weaknessesofeachcountry’spoliciestodevelopnewpolicyalternatives.
1“Nones”ontheRise:One-in-FiveAdultsHaveNoReligiousAffiliation.”PewForumonReligion&PublicLife.PewResearchCenter,9Oct.2012.Web.27Apr.2017.
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CHAPTER1:LAICITÉANDTHEEVOLUTIONOFRELIGIONINFRANCE Whileallcountriesviewtheroleofreligiondifferently,France’snotionoflaïcité2
separatesitfromthemajorityofwesterncountries.MostoftheFrenchembracelaïcité;
forthemitisaliberalandtolerantconceptthatpreventsreligionfromintrudingintothe
civicspace.Sowhatistheproblem?Thisprincipleofstrictsecularismhasevolved
throughoutthecountry’slonghistoryandhasdevelopedintoamechanismusedtocurb
religionandreligiouspracticeratherthansafeguardreligiousliberty,namelythatof
Muslims.AsthepercentageofMuslimsinFrancerisesandFrancebecomesincreasingly
diverse,thetensionbetweenlaïcitéandfreedomofreligionhasbecomeapoliticalcrisis
thatremainslargelyunsolved.France’srootsintraditionhaveledthecountrytodevelop
arigidnationalidentityandcreateapolicyoflaïcitéthatmostareunwillingtoadaptto
solvethecurrentwoes.ThestoryofthisideologicaldevelopmentbeginswiththeFrench
Revolution.
In1789Francefounditselfinaprecariousplace.Themonarchyandchurchwere
thecenterofpowerinacountrythatnolongersupportedeitherinstitution.Economic,
politicalandreligiouscrisesledtothepopularrevoltknownastheFrenchRevolution.
Throughviolencethepeoplerebelledagainstthemonarchy,aristocracyandclergy.
Priestswereguillotined,NotreDamewastakenover,politicaldissidentswere
imprisoned,andbattlesbrokeoutinthestreetsofParis,markingwhathadbeenthemost
radicalpersecutionofChristiansinEuropesinceendoftheRomanEmpire.3TheKingat
thetime,LouisXVI,wasforcedtoswitchhisrulefromthatofanabsolutemonarchtoa
2Laïcitéistranslatedtosecularism,butalsocallsforseparationofchurchandstate,libertyofconscienceandstateneutralityinreligiousmatters.3Jones,Colin.Paris:TheBiographyofaCity.NewYork.PenguinBooks.Print.2006.Ch6.
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constitutionalmonarch.WhenLouisXVIfacedtheguillotinetheconstitutionalmonarchy
eventuallygavewaytoarepublic.Theendofthemonarchyandtherebellionagainstthe
Churchsignaledashifttowardsrepublicanism,andawayfromreligion.
WiththedestructionoftheancienregimeandtheConstitutionasthenewbasisfor
ruling,religionnolongerplayedanimportantroleinFrenchlifeasithadsinceit’s
foundingwhenreligionandpoliticsweretightlyintertwined.Thisshiftawayfrom
religionoccurredforseveralreasons.ThephilosophesoftheEnlightenmentcriticizedthe
Churchandsystematicallyquestionedthecredibilityofreligion.Theirfocusonprogress
andreasonasthebasisforbeingerodedfaithinreligionanddepictedtheclergyas
uselessmembersofsocietywho,bypledgingallegiancetothereligiousstatesacrificed
civilliberties.4Inaddition,theFrenchpeoplesawCatholicismasathreattodemocracy
foritshostilitytoindividuallibertiesanditshegemonicpresence.TheCatholicChurch,as
partoftheState,exercisedconsiderablepoweroverthecountrythroughlandholdings
andrevenues.Thiscausedastronghostilitytowardsthereligiouspowersandclergywho
fordecadespriortotheRevolutionhadbecomerichofftheFrenchpeople.Their
disregardforFrenchcitizensandtheusurpationofCatholicpowerledtheNational
Assemblytonationalizeallchurchland,puttingthepowerintothehandsofthe
government.5Thispoliticalmovesignaledaweakeningofchurchpowerandwas
reflectiveofadiminishingreligiosityinFrenchsociety.
Thenextsignificantstateactionwastherequirementofallclergytotakeapublic
oathofloyaltytothestate.ThispledgeofloyaltytothestatecametocharacterizeFrench
4Betros,Gemma.HistoryReview68.2010.Print.TheFrenchRevolutionandtheCatholicChurch.Web.22Nov.2016.5Prélot,Pierre-Henri."AmericanCivilReligionAsSeenFromFrance:ACommentarytoFredGedick'spaper."TheGeorgeWashingtonLawReview41.2011.Print.914.
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nationalvalues,andledtodevelopmentoftheconceptoflaïcité.Laïcitéisoftentranslated
intoEnglishassecularism,butitalsosuggeststhesamepledgeofloyaltytheclergywere
forcedtotake.Theideawasandcontinuestobe,thattheFrencharefirstandforemost
membersofthenationofFrance.Religionshouldcomesecondtocitizenship.Despite
effortstoridthenationofCatholicism,throughthenationalizationoflandandthepledge
ofloyalty,theFrenchpeoplecontinuedtopracticeintheirhomes.Ratherthanforce
Catholicismout,thegovernmenthadforcedreligionintoprivatelife.Theneedto
separateChurchandStatewhileallowingprivatepracticebecamemoreapparentandit
wasintheRepublics’firstConstitution,the1791DéclarationdesDroitsdel’Hommeetdu
Citoyen,thattheconceptoffreedomofreligionwasoutlined.6Ratherthangrantingthe
peopleprotectionofthestateagainstreligiousinfluenceinsociety,theDéclaration
emancipatedthepeoplefromtheCatholicChurch.Itprovidedthatnooneshallbe
disturbedforhisorheropinions,evenreligiousones,aslongastheirmanifestationdoes
notdisturbthepublicorderestablishedbylaw.Theprescriptionofmaintaining“public
order”beforeallelsehasbecomeafoundationalFrenchconcept.ThisperiodinFrench
historywascharacterizedbythedemandthatthepeopleputthestateorpublicorder
beforethechurchandreligion,thoughthewaytoensurethisremainunresolved.
ThoughtheConstitutionof1791emancipatedtheStatefromtheCatholicChurch,
additionallegislationwaspassedin1795tofurtherseparatethetwo.The1795law
formallyseparatedChurchandState,andprohibitedthewearingof“religiousornaments
orclothing”inpublic.7However,thepoliticalclimatechangedwhenjustafewyearslater
Napoleoncameintopower.ThoughhehimselfwasnotanadherentoftheCatholic
6BrittonD.Davis,117.7BrittonD.Davis,117.
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Church,herecognizedthatarelationshipwiththeCatholicChurchcouldprovidehim
withtheeconomicandmoralbenefits.NapoleonsoughttousetheChurchtohis
advantageandattemptedtonegotiatewiththepope.8However,thisfailedwhenin1802
NapoleonintroducedtheConcordat,alawthatrequiredallactionsfromRometobe
approvedbytheFrenchgovernment.9RelationsbetweenRomeandFrancequickly
deteriorated.FrancebecameincreasinglydividedamongthosewhosupportedNapoleon
andthosewhoremainedloyaltotheCatholicChurchandpapalauthority.
Thepoliticalinstabilityandclassconflictcontinuedintothenineteenthcentury.The
revolutionof1848ensued,andendedwiththedevelopmentofanewconstitutionand
thecreationoftheSecondRepublic.Intheconstitutionof1848thecitizensweregranted
therighttopersonalliberty,freedomofassociation,peacefulandunarmedassembly,
petitionandfreedomofexpression.Theselibertiesdid,however,havelimits.AsKarl
Marxnotes,libertiescame“alwayswiththemarginalnotethatitisunlimitedsofarasit
isnotlimitedbytheequalrightsofothersandthepublicsafetyorbylaws.”10The
bourgeois,asdraftersoftheconstitutionandthewieldersofpoliticalpower,soughtto
servetheirinterestsandtheirsalone:limitingCatholicisminthecivicsphere.Asaresult,
publicsafetyonlyreferredtothesafetyofthebourgeoisie.Resistancetothechurchwas
furtheremphasizedintheaftermathoftheanti-clericalParisCommuneof1870.The
eventsofthecommuneinclinedJulesFerry,MinisterofEducationfrom1879to1882,to
reducetheinfluenceoftheCatholicChurch.In1881theLoiFerrywaspassedmaking
publiceducationcompulsory,freeandlaïc(freefromreligiousteachings).Educationwas
8Betros,Gemma.“TheFrenchRevolutionandtheCatholicChurch.”9Betros,Gemma.“TheFrenchRevolutionandtheCatholicChurch.”10Marx,Karl."TheEighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte."ZodiacandBrianBagginsforMarx/EngelsInternetArchive1995,1999.Web.(13).
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andissacredtorepublicanism,andrepublicanismembracesaseparationofChurchand
State.Marxmadetheobservationthat“eachparagraphoftheconstitutioncontainsits
ownantithesis…solongasthenameoffreedomwasrespectedandonlyitsactual
realizationprevented,ofcourseinalegalway,theconstitutionalexistenceofliberty
remainedintact,inviolate,howevermortaltheblowsdealttoitsexistenceinactuallife.”11
Inshort,theconstitutionalprotectionsdidnotguaranteethepeopleabsoluteliberties,
becausehistoryhadrevealedthatpublicorderhadtocomefirst.Thesamedisruptionof
politicalpoweroccursinFrancetoday.Thepoliticiansenactlawsthatprivilegeorder
overindividualliberties,andwhentheysenseasmallthreattopublicordertheyjustify
thesuspensionofthoseliberties.Thiswasthecaseduringthelatenineteenthcentury.
Franceexperiencedasurgeinnationalismandimmigrants,perceivedasathreat,were
targetedinlegislation.
OnemaincauseforthesurgeinnationalismwastheDreyfusAffair.Francewasin
themidstofawaroverlanddisputeswithGermanywhenayoungFrenchartilleryofficer
ofJewishdecentwasconvictedoftreasoninaclosedtrialin1894.L’AffaireDreyfus
fueledtheriseinnationalismandfurtherdiscreditedtheChurchbysplittingthenation
intotwocamps:thepro-army,Catholic“anti-Dreyfusards”andtheanti-clerical,pro-
republican“Dreyfusards”.12AsaJewfromAlsace,Dreyfusembodiedeverythingthe
nationalistrightloathed.TheconflictwithGermanyandtheinternaldivisioncreated
concernaboutFrance’spower,causingtheFrenchtoviewanyindependentinstitution
thatinfluencedsocietyasalimitonthenationalgovernments’abilitytoexertcontrol
11Marx,Karl."TheEighteenthBrumaireofLouisBonaparte."ZodiacandBrianBagginsforMarx/EngelsInternetArchive1995,1999.Webpdf.(13).12"ACountryDivided:DreyfusardsandAnti-Dreyfusards."The National Library of Israel. The National Library of Israel,n.d.Web.01Feb.2017.
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overitscitizensandtheirloyalties.13Thefearthatradicalswouldoverpowerthe
governmentledtheFrenchtocreateagovernmentthatwouldimposethepeople’swill
throughlegislationratherthancheckandbalancesasdoestheAmericansystem.Aware
ofthecountry’sfraughtreligioushistory,legislatorsproceededwithcaution,passing
legislationthatwouldlimitthereligioninthepublicspherewiththebeliefthatlegislation
couldcurethecountry’ssocialills.
Throughoutthetwentiethcentury,thegovernment,dissatisfiedwiththelegal
religiousframework,continuedtopasslegislationthatwouldbuildawallofseparation
betweenchurchandstate.In1901FrancepassedtheLawonAssociationsrequiring
parliamentaryapprovalofallreligiouscongregationsandprovisionsonfreedomof
association.14Nevertheless,the1901lawwasnotsufficientinendingtheadversarial
relationshipbetweentheCatholicChurchandtheState.Thisbackandforthbetweenthe
increasinglysecularFrenchgovernmentandtheCatholicauthoritypointedtoone
conclusion--theneedtoseparatetheChurchandStateonceandforall.
1.1The1905lawontheSeparationsoftheChurchesandtheState
The1905LawofSeparationofChurchesandtheStateofficiallyresolvedtheconflict
betweenthetwoinstitutionsanddevelopedprinciplesfundamentaltothenations’
character.The1905Lawisbasedonthreepillars,“freedomofconscience,separationof
StateandChurches,andtheequalrespectofallfaithsandbeliefs.”15First,thelaw,by
endingofficialrecognitionoftheCatholicChurch,grantsthepeoplefreedomofbeliefand
practice,withthecaveatthatreligiouspracticemaynotdisturbpublicorder,anideathat13Harrigan,P.J."TheSocialAppealsofCatholicSecondaryEducationinFranceinthe1870s."JournalofSocialHistory8.3(1975):(135).Print.14BrittonD.Davis,121.15BrittonD.Davis,122.
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datesbacktotheConstitutionoftheSecondRepublic.Second,thelawprotectsfrom
discriminationonthebasisofreligionbyendingpublicsubsidizationofreligious
institutions.Third,thelawrespectstherulesofeveryreligionandthereforeprovides
occasionalexemptionstosomereligiousgroups.Forexamplethestatehasfundedthe
buildingofafewchurchesandmosques.Nonetheless,thethreepillarsinstitutedapolicy
ofstateneutralitytowardreligiousbeliefsinthepublicspheremeanttoinstilltolerance.
ThelawhighlightedanevolutioninFrenchpolitics,asitwasafarmorepeaceful
approachtocurbingtheperceivedthreatoftheCatholicChurchthantherevolutionary
responsesacenturyearlier.Itfurthermarkedthedeclineofreligion,thoughCatholicism
intheculturalsensehasremainedaconstantinFrenchsociety.
ThisstruggleforpowerbetweentheFrenchstateandtheCatholicChurch
characterizedtheroleofreligioninFrance.AlthoughFrancehaslongembracedreligious
freedominitsconstitutionaldocuments,ithascreatedlegislationthatunfairlytargets
certainpopulations.ThenatureofFrenchreligiousfreedom,definedbythesingular
threatofonereligiousbody,explainswhycomparedtotheU.S.,whichsimultaneously
affirmedtheprincipleoffreedomofreligioninitsrespectiveConstitutionof1789,France
founditselfwithaquitedifferentconceptionofthemeaningandimplementationof
religiousliberty.ProfessorofConstitutionalLawandCivilLibertiesatL’Universitéde
Ceris-Pontoise,Pierre-HenriPrélotobservesthattheFrenchperceptionoffreedomof
religionisuncommon.Hesays,“InFrance,freedomofreligionemancipatedthepeople
fromCatholicismandgrantsthemtheprotectionofthestateagainstreligiousinfluencein
society.”16ThissuggeststhatFrenchfreedomofreligionshouldinfactbeinterpretedas
16Prélot,Pierre-Henri,914.
13
freedomfromreligionmeaningthat“mancanonlybelongtothenationalcommunity
regardlessofreligiousbeliefs.”17ThedifferencebetweenthistheologyandtheAmerican
pointofviewisclear.ThethreatintheUnitedStateswasnotareligiousbodybutthe
governmentitself.Thisdirectedthefederalgovernmenttoguaranteethepeoplefreedom
topracticewithoutgovernmentinterference,ratherthanenforceapolicyofnon-practice
(atleastinthepublicsphere)aswasdoneinFrance.
Politicians,historians,anthropologistsandFrenchcitizensalikecontinuetodebate
theintentofthe1905lawandwhatitsapplicationshouldlooklike.Theyaskthemselves,
isitalawoflibertyorrestriction?Pierre-HenriPrélotarguesthattheLawof1905isa
lawofrestriction.Hebelievesthatitsfocusonsecularismisnecessaryformaintaining
publicorder,datingbacktotheneedtomaintainpublicorderinlightofthepoliticalwar
withtheChurch.
JeanBaubérot,ChairofHistoryandSociologyofLaïcitéattheSchoolofAdvanced
Studies,disagrees.Baubérotsaysofthelawof1905:“itisnotalawthatseekstochase
religionoutofpubliclife:tothecontraryit’saliberaltextabouttolerance.”18Baubérot
useshistorytoadvancehisposition.Hestatesthatatthebeginningofthetwentieth
century,theparliamentarycommissiondirectedtoworkonthelawof1905wasajoint
appointmentofJulesFerry,FerdinandBuissonandAristideBriand,allliberalstatesmen.
Themendidnotwanttosuppressreligion,butmitigatethepolitical-religiouscrisisthat
haddevastatedthenationsincetheseventeenthcentury.AccordingtoBaubérot,the
threemenengagedinacampaignoflaïcitéthatwassecular,butnotanti-religiousnor
17Prélot,Pierre-Henri,914.18Chemin,Anne."«Laloide1905,étapefondamentaledelalaïcisationdelaRépubliquefrançaise,estlibéraleettolérante»."LeMonde.fr.LeMonde,15Nov.2016.Web.4Feb.2017.
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anti-clerical.Theysawthe1905Lawasameanstoprotectfreedomofbeliefandpractice,
whileatthesametimeensuringanon-religiousState.
Thepoliticaldecisionsandactionsofthetwentiethcenturycontinuedtoshapehow
theFrenchviewedtherighttofreedomofreligion,whichbyinlargewascloserto
Prélot’sview.Thoughitmayappearunrelated,the1971decisionoftheConseil
Constitutionel(theFrenchequivalentoftheU.S.SupremeCourt)toincorporatethe
FrenchpreambleoftheConstitutionof1946totheConstitutionof1958hadasignificant
effectonreligiousfreedom.19Thepreambleofthe1946constitutionproclaimedthat
womenhaveequalrightstothoseofmeninallspheres.Thisinclusionbecamethebasis
fortherighttogenderequality,whichdecadeslatertheFrenchgovernmentandfeminists
wouldcallontoimposethe2004,2010and2016lawsbanningreligioussymbols,veils
andburkinisinpublic.Inadditiontothecallforequalityofthepreamble,articleIofthe
FrenchConstitutionof1958states:“Franceshallbeanindivisible,secular,democratic,
andsocialrepublic.Itshallensuretheequalityofallcitizensbeforethelaw,without
distinctionoforigin,raceorreligion.Itshallrespectallbeliefs.”20Despitethecallfor
equalityirrespectiveofreligionintheConstitution,politicianscontinuetoreferbackto
theLawof1905whenestablishingfreedomofreligion.Theissuewithusingthelawas
thebasisforreligioninmodernlifeisthatfirst,socialanddemographicconditionsand
themakeupofFrancehavechangedimmensely,andsecond,theFrenchpoliticianswho
draftedthe1905lawdisagreedoverthemeaningofseparationofChurchandState.One
campargueditmeantallowingeveryonetopracticehisorherownreligion(softlaïcité),
theotherarguedthatfreepracticeofreligionmustnotbepublic,statesanctionedand
19BrittonD.Davis,125.20BrittonD.Davis,125.
15
confinedtotheprivatedomain(strictlaïcité).Whenexaminedmoreclosely,thetextof
thelawof1905echoestheformerdefinitionoffreedomofreligion.Theprincipleof
laïcitéhowever,echoesthesecondmorerestrictivevision.
1.2DefiningandinterpretingmodernLaïcité
InmodernFrancelaïcitéisseenasthecornerstoneofFrenchsociety,areflectionof
Frenchidentity,aruleofFrenchlife.Historytellusthatthemoderncharacterizationof
laïcitéhasgrownoutoftheneedoftheFrenchgovernmenttoseparateitselffromthe
CatholicChurchandregaincontrolofthepeople.Asaresultoftheseparation,religious
practiceandsymbolsareseenasastepbackinthewrongdirectionandasathreattothe
establisheddemocracyoftheFifthRepublic.Hence,theFifthRepubliccontinuesto
grapplewithnotionsofreligiousfreedomandpracticeofitbyitsMuslimresidents.This
isinpartbecausethecurrentinterpretationoftheprincipleoflaïcitépermeatesstate
lines.Itseekstocontroltheinternalorganizationofareligion.BrittonDavisrecognizes
laïcitéasapoliticaltool.Shepointsoutthatlaïcitéisanundefinedconceptwith“no
officialagreementastowhatitmeansorwhatitrequiresoftheFrenchRepublic.”21This
allowsfortheprincipletobeadaptedtoeitherattackorprotectareligiousaction.
Beginningin1989withtheHeadscarfDilemma,principlesoflaïcitéwereeffectedin
Frenchpolicyinwaysthatthreatenedlibertyinsteadofprotectingit.Byanalyzingthe
strifereligiouspastofFrance,characterizedbyreligiousconflictbetweentheCatholic
ChurchandtheState,thecausesofthecurrenttensionsbecomeclearer.However,one
shapingfactorismissing--immigration.
21BrittonD.Davis,125.
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1.3ImmigrationinFrance
InordertounderstandhowFrenchviewsofMuslimshaveevolved,itisnecessaryto
reviewimmigrationinFrance.Lowratesofforeignimmigrationandlaterlarge-scale
immigrationfromitsformercolonieshaveplayedintothecurrentconceptionoflaïcitéand
whatitmeanstobeFrench.TheFrench22havebeenforthemostpartwhiteandcatholic,
givingwaytoarigidnationalidentity.TheFrançaisdesouche,(Frenchwithroots)those
withfourgrandparentsborninFranceconsiderthemselvestobethetrueFrenchcitizens.
In1851only1.1percentoftheFrenchpopulationwasforeignborn,whileintheU.S.9.7
percentofthepopulationwasforeignborn.23Thepercentpointdifferencewasquite
significantindefiningthecharacterofeachnation.Twodecadeslaterin1911aftertheLaw
ofSeparationofChurchesandState,theforeignbornpopulationinFranceremainedlowat
2.9percent,24meanwhiletheU.S.theforeignbornpopulationhadreached14.7percent.25
Thesedifferencesinimmigrationledtoaverydifferentdevelopmentofnationalidentity
foreachnation.TheU.S.wasamulti-religiousandmulti-culturalnationandthereforeit
wasnotemancipationfromreligionthatthecountryneeded,butprotectiontopractice.
Franceremainedfairlyhomogenous,whiteandcatholicandthustheredevelopedastrong
FrenchnationalidentitythatcontinuestobecentraltoFrenchlife.Anyonewhodidnotfit
theFrenchmoldwassupposedtosuppresshisorherownforeignidentityforthesakeof
thenation.ForthisreasonweseethatFrancefavorsapolicyofassimilationratherthan
accommodation.
22Throughoutthisthesismyuseoftheterm“theFrench”referstothewhite,catholicmajority.23Bureau,USCensus."ForeignBorn."USCensusBureau.N.p.,n.d.Web.22Jan.2017.24Schain,Martin.ThePoliticsofImmigrationinFrance,BritainandtheUnitedStates:AcomparativeStudy.NewYork.PalgraveMacmillan;ch2,40.2008.
25"TheForeignBornPopulationintheU.S."USCensusBureau.USCensusBureau.,2010.Web.22Jan.2017.
17
ThisdatesbacktothenineteenthcenturywhenFrenchcolonialpowerruledover
manyMuslim-majoritycountries.Franceerecteditsfirstimmigrationandnaturalization
lawin1889.Thelaw,JusSolis,establishedcitizenshipforanyoneborninaFrenchterritory,
andthusappearedtobeaninvitationtojoinFrenchsociety.Tothedisappointmentof
theseMuslimpeoples,lawswereenactedthatlimitedtheirrights.Manycategoriesof
peoplesuchastheAlgerianMuslimswereFrenchnationalsyetdidnothavethesame
politicalorsocialrightsasfullFrenchcitizens.ThiswasduetotheCrémieuxdecreein
placefrom1830to1870.26ThelawplacedhandicapsontheabilityofcertainFrench
nationalstovote,assembleandserveascivilservants,institutionalizingdiscrimination
betweenFrenchnationalsandFrenchcitizens.Yetinspiteofthisdiscriminationand
culturalizedconceptionofintegration,Frenchnationalityillustratessomesenseof
inclusivenessinitswillingnesstoextendlimitedcitizenshiptoitsformerethnically
differentterritories.ThetheoryperhapsbeingthatthestrongerthelinkwithFrench
societythemorelikelytheimmigrantcommunitywouldintegratewiththetraditional
republicanFrenchpeople.TheFrenchplaceextremeemphasisontheimportanceof
assimilationandoftenperceiveanyonewhochallengesFrenchidentityasathreattoor
burdenonFrenchsociety.
Tothisend,throughoutthetwentiethandtwenty-firstcenturythegovernment
passedimmigrationlawsinabackandforthpatternofrestrictingandthenloosening
legislationinanefforttoreduceimmigrationandintegratenewarrivals.Thoughseveral
lawsincludeddiscriminatorymeasuresonthebasisofrace,theimmigrationlaws,withthe26Hajjat,Abdellali,andChristopheBertossi."EUDOCitizenshipObservatory,CountryReport:France."EuropeanUniversityInstitute,FlorenceRobertSchumanCentreforAdvancedStudies.EUDOCitizenshipObservatory,Jan2013.Web.AccessedMar.2017.
18
exceptionofCrémieux,didnottargetreligiousgroupsbecausereligionwasalargely
privatematter.TheFrenchwereinsteadconcernedwithcontrollingthebehaviorofthe
immigrantswhohadmadeittoFrenchsoil.Todothisthegovernmenttightened
immigrationlawsinthenameofnationalsecurity.Onesuchlawwasthatof1912requiring
immigrantstocarryidentitydocumentswithdetaileddescriptionsandpictures,andgiving
administrativeauthoritiestheabilitytodenyentrytopeoplewhose“presenceappeared
dangerous”.27
Instarkcontrasttothelawof1912,thewarandpostwarperiodwelcomed
immigrants.Thestateitselfbecameinvolvedintherecruitmentofimmigrantmanpower.
However,theFrenchpeoplewerelessenthusiasticoftheriseinimmigrationwhenthey
experiencedadepressionofwages.Anunfavorablebiastowardsimmigrantsdevelopedin
the1930’s,andasthedepressiongrewworselegislationwaspassedauthorizingquotason
employmentinseveralindustries.ThisendedastheSecondWorldWarbegan.
Theimmigrationpolicyofthepostwarperiodwasbasedonthesameprinciples.
Postwarreconstructionhadrevitalizedtheeconomyandproducedalabormarket.The
needforimmigrantswasfurtheredbythepopulationreductioncausedbywartimedeaths
andlowfertilityrates.Promptedbytheboomingeconomyandjobopportunities,large
numbersofMuslimcitizenshailingfromformercoloniesbegantoimmigratetoFrance.
ThisshiftfromnunstoMuslimswasquitejarringfortheFrenchwhostilllivedina
majoritycatholiccountry28.TheNorthAfricanscontinuedtobeviewedastheleast
desirable,especiallytheAlgerianswhohadjustfoughtabrutalwarofindependence
againsttheFrenchin1954ledbyaradicalIslamicgroupattemptingtooverthrowthe27Schain,Martin,42.28Bell,DavidA."VeilofTears:AReviewof"WhytheFrenchDon'tLikeHeadscarves:Islam,theStateandPublicSpace"."Review-A-Day.Powells.com,8Mar.2007.Web.01Mar.2017.
19
seculargovernment.29Themethodsofwarfaresuchasguerrillafighting,torturetactics
andterrorismdrewinternationalattentionandcausedtheAlgerianstobeseenasviolent
peoplewhoposedathreattointernalsecurity.Despitetheirundesirablestandinglarge
numbersofAlgerianworkerswereabletomigratetoFrancethroughfamilyreunification,
guestworkerpoliciesandanincreaseinasylumdesignations.
AsthesizeandpermanenceoftheMuslimcommunitygrewmoreapparentinthe
1960’sand1970’s,thegovernmenttriedtobothreducethenumberofimmigrantsentering
thecountryandsendthemhometotheircountriesoforigin.Inthe1960’stheFrench
AdministrationattemptedtolimitAlgerianimmigration,whichrepresentedthelargest
groupofMaghrebimmigrantswithapopulationof800,000,throughaseriesof
negotiationsandcontractswiththeAlgeriangovernment.30Tenyearslater,theFrench
governmentattemptedtosendonemillionofthelegalMuslimimmigrantshome,first
throughinformalencouragementandthenwithpoliciesthatwouldsubsidizethereturn
triphome.31Whentheefforttosendtheimmigrantshomefailed,thegovernmentreverted
toanewtactic:encouragingintegrationbysupportingMuslimorganizations.Scaredthata
lackofintegrationandemploymentcouldleadtheMuslimpopulationtorebel,the
governmentsupportedIslam,encouragingthecreationofMuslimorganizations.This
accountedfortheincreasingvisibilityofIslaminFranceandtheensuingchangeinpolicy.
Bythe1990s,manyoftheMuslimimmigrantshadestablishedpatternsof
settlement.Bylivinginonegeographicareaandcultivatingtheircollectiveidentity,they
inadvertentlymadetheirownassimilationandintegrationmoredifficult.Nationhood
29Hitchens,Christopher."AChronologyoftheAlgerianWarofIndependence."TheAtlantic.AtlanticMediaCompany,01Nov.2006.Web.06Mar.2017.30Schain,Martin.47.31Schain,Martin,51.
20
scholarWilliamBrubackerexplainstheconflictsovertheimmigrationandintegrationof
NorthAfricansthroughahistoricalframework.Hebelievesthat“theinfluxofimmigrants
fromnon-white,non-Christiancountriesandthoseimmigrants’expressioninthe1980sof
theirdesiretoretaintheirowncultureandreligioninevitablyranupagainstthebrickwall
oftheFrenchideaofcitizenship.”32TheFrenchfeltthreatenedbytheMaghrebpopulation
resultinginyetanotherpolicyshift.Politiciansseekingtoremedythelackofintegration
introducedtherequirementofproofof“goodintegration”intheLoiChevenementof
1998.33ThelawreflectsthecornerstoneofFrenchsociety:therequirementofbelongingto
thecountryfirstandanyothergroupsecond.TodaytheriseofIslaminFrancehasonce
againcalledintoquestiontheemphasisthenationplacesonitsvaluesnamely,respectfor
tolerance,willingnesstoprotectcivillibertiesandhowfaritwillgotosafeguardwhatit
regardsasitstrueidentity.
Thischapterhasprovidedthehistoricalfoundationofreligionandimmigrationin
Francenecessarytoexaminethecurrenttensionsbetweenlaïcité,Islam,nationalsecurity,
andFrenchpolicy.ThenextchapterwillprovidethehistoricalcontextintheUnitedStates
tosetupthelatercomparativeanalysis.
32Bellar,ElisaT.,TheHeadscarfAffair:TheConseild’ÉtatontheRoleofReligionandCultureinFrenchSociety,39TexasInternationalLawJournal:586(2004).33Schain,Martin,55.
21
CHAPTER2:FOUNDATIONSOFAMERICANRELIGIONANDIMMIGRATION
AlthoughtheUnitedStatesisamulti-religiousnationtoday,thatwasnotalwaysthe
case.TheUnitedStateshasgonethroughofreligiousevolutionofsorts.Itbeganasa
religioushavenbutverysoonseveralcoloniesbecameintolerantofminorityreligions.The
coloniesprogressedduringtheeraoftheConstitutionandtheEnlightenmentresultingin
anexpansionoffreedomofreligion.Butthen,Pan-Protestantismtookholdearlyinthe
nineteenthcenturycreatingaclimateintolerantofotherreligiousgroups.This,coupled
withtheSecondAwakeningandaninfluxofCatholicsandMormonswhoarrivedinthemid
nineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,causedthecountrytorespondwithafearofaliensand
minorityreligions.SincethenU.S.hascontinuedtostruggletocomeupwithasound
principleandapplicationoffreedomofreligionthatallowsforreligiousliberty,andatthe
sametimeminimizesthreatsbothperceivedandactualfromforeign-bornpopulationsand
religiousminorities,today,namelyMuslims.
ThewidelyheldnotionthatAmericahasalwaysbeenawelcomingnationtolerantof
allreligionsisuntrue.Whilethemajorityofearly-generationAmericanswereChristian,
therewassignificantreligiousconflictamongtheProtestantsects.Thecoloniststookthe
newlandforaProtestantcountry.ThehomogeneityofchieflyPuritancoloniesinNew
Englandcreatedaclimateintolerantofotherreligions.Fewwerespared,Puritandissidents
andCatholicswereseenasabhorrentandwerediscriminatedagainst,killedorbanished.
FourQuakerswerehangedinBostonbetween1661and1695forstandingupfortheir
beliefs.34IntheMassachusettsBayColonyintolerancewasparticularlystrong.Itquickly
becameclearthatreligioustolerancewasatermunknowntothecolonists.
34Davis,KennethC.“America’sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."
22
Therewerefewandverysmallreligiousminorities,ahandfulofCatholics,ahandful
ofJewsandahandfulofMuslims35.Thoughthehomogeneitybegantolessenasnew
immigrantgroupsarrived,theintoleranceremainedhigh.SmallnumbersofIrishbegan
immigratingtothecoloniesasearlyasthe1600’s.Havingobservedthedisastrouseffects
ofCatholicisminEurope,theEnglishsoughttokeepthemout.StillunderBritishcontrol,
coloniallawlimitedthenumberofCatholicsauthorizedtoenterthecolonies.
Consequently,themajorityofIrishcomingtothenewlandwereProtestant.Thisfostered
religiousintolerancethatwouldcontinuethroughoutthecolonialera,withastrongtarget
ontheCatholics.CottonMather,aMassachusettspreacher,condemnedCatholicsinhis
sermonsandcreatedstatutesthatdiscriminatedagainstCatholicsbylimitingtheirability
tovoteandownproperty.36DespiteagrowingseparationfromBritain,Britishrule
continuedtoimpactthepoliticsofthecolonies,causingthecoloniststograppleovertheir
positiononreligioustolerance.
Asmoreandmoreimmigrantscametothecolonies,thestrugglebecamegreater
andreligiousdifferencesdividedthecolonies.Thefirstbigwaveofnon-Protestant
immigrantscamein1718.37ThisfirstmajormigrationwasagroupofIrishPresbyterians,
Catholics,AnglicansandQuakers.38Promptedbyreligiouspersecution,lackofpolitical
autonomyanddireeconomicconditionsbackhometheIrishsoughtrefugeinthecolonies.
Aftertheirarrivalmoregroupssoughtrefugeinthenewnation.Marylandwasfoundedasa
religioushavenforRomanCatholicsbutstillwelcomedpersonsofallfaithstopractice
35ThesmallnumberofMuslimswasduetotheAfricanslaves.ThepresenceofIslamwasunknowntomanycolonists.36Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."37ColonialScots-IrishImmigrants:TheIrishRecords."ColonialScots-IrishImmigrants:TheIrishRecords.N.p.,n.d.Web.20Jan.2017.38"ColonialScots-IrishImmigrants:TheIrishRecords."ColonialScots-IrishImmigrants:TheIrishRecords.N.p.,n.d.Web.20Jan.2017.
23
withoutpersecution,discriminationorexclusionfrompoliticallife.39Theinclusivespiritof
itsfoundingdidnotlastverylong.By1750tensionsbetweentheCatholicandProtestant
Marylanderswerehigh.HistorianTimothyW.Bosworthwrote,“Protestant’sreferencesto
CatholicsofprovincialMarylandappearedquitesimilartoviewsexpressedabout
“subversive”minoritygroupsthroughoutAmericanHistory.”40Thearrivalofmore
religiousgroupscreatedanewuncertaintyamongthecolonistswhodidnotanticipate
suchreligiousdiversity.SoonitwasnolongerjustBritishlawthattriedtoprevent
immigrantswithfaithsotherthanProtestantismfromimmigratingtothecoloniesand
participatinginpoliticallife,butAmericanlawandpolicybegantodosoaswell.
2.1TheConstitutionandtheRighttoFreedomofReligion
WhentheRevolutionarywarendedandKingGeorgetheIIIextendedanolive
branchtoCatholicsinCanadain1774,anti-Catholicsentimentsgrewstrongerin
America.41Theincreasingintolerancedidnotstopatdisdain;lawswereenactedtokeep
non-Protestantsfromwieldingpoliticalpower.InMassachusettsonlyChristianswereable
toholdoffice,whileCatholicscouldholdofficeiftheyrenouncedallegiancetothePope.
NewYork’sStateConstitutionin1777bannedCatholicsfrompublicoffice.Marylandand
SouthCarolinaformedProtestantstatechurches.42Thenachangeoccurred;spurredby
Enlightenmentthought,politicians,acknowledgingtheyhadcometoAmericatoescape
religiouspersecution,begantoquestiontheethicsoftheserestrictiveanddiscriminatory
lawsmanyhadoncetriedtoescapewhenfleeingEngland.
39Chapelle,SuzanneElleryGreene.Maryland:AHistoryofitsPeople.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUPress,1986.Print.40Bosworth,TimothyW.“Anti-CatholicismasaPoliticalToolinMid-Eighteenth-CenturyMaryland.”TheCatholicHistoricalReview.Vol.61,No.4(Oct.,1975),pp.540.Web.7Apr.2017.41"Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."42Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."
24
ItwasaroundthistimethatThomasJeffersonbeganadialogueabouttherightto
freedomofreligion.AsgovernorofVirginia,Jeffersondraftedabillthatwouldcallforlegal
equalityforallcitizensirrespectiveofreligionorlackofreligion.WhenJeffersonwas
unabletomustersupportforthebill,Madisoncametohisaidandbeganacampaign
againstreligioningovernmentwithanessaytitled,“MemorialandRemonstranceAgainst
ReligiousAssessments.”43OneofthemostimportantpointsMadisonmadewasthata
religiousstatewouldbe“adeparturefromthatgenerouspolicy,whichofferinganAsylum
tothepersecutedandoppressedofeveryNationandReligion,promisedalustretoour
country.”44ThatistosaytheUnitedStateswasfoundedasanationforthepersecutedand
toattempttolimitfreedomofreligionwouldhavebeentogoagainsttheveryvaluesthat
promptedthecreationofthenewnation.
EventuallyJeffersonwasabletogathersupportfortheVirginiaActforEstablishing
ReligiousFreedom.Afterthebillwaspassed,Jeffersonfamouslywrotethat“withinthe
mantleofitsprotection,[were]theJew,theGentile,theChristianandtheMahometan,the
HindooandInfidelofeverydenomination.”45Aschampionsoffreedomofreligionand
separationofChurchandState,JeffersonandMadisonslowlychangedAmericanattitudes.
AsymboloftheattitudinalchangewastheAmericanConstitutionof1787.InArticle
VI,theConstitutionestablishedthattherewouldbenoreligioustestforoffice,thefirstof
futureprotectionsoffreedomofreligion.Itstatedthat,federallyelectedandappointed
officials“shallbeboundbyOathorAffirmation,tosupportthisConstitution,butno
religiousTestshalleverberequiredasaQualificationtoanyOfficeorpublicTrustunder
43Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."44Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."45Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."
25
theUnitedStates.”46Knowingalltoowellthedangersofacountrydividedbyreligionand
runbytheheadofthechurch,Washington,Madison,JeffersonandAdamsfoughttoensure
thatAmericawouldbeatolerantrepublicbyincludingprinciplesofreligiousfreedomin
thefoundingdocumentofthenation.
However,notallweresatisfiedwiththeConstitution’sabilitytoprotectindividual
libertiesofthepeople.Theanti-federalistsdemandedmore.Inanefforttoappealtothe
anti-federalists,Madisonintroducedanumberofamendmentsthatcametobeknownas
theBillofRights.ItwastheBillofRightsthatgrantedthepeopleoftheUnitedStates
fundamentalrightsandprotectionsbythegovernment,includingtherighttopractice
religionfreely.ItwasincongressionaldebatesthatMadison’sideasweredevelopedinto
thereligionclausesoftheFirstAmendment.InJuneof1789Madisonoutlinedhisproposed
amendments,“Thecivilrightsofnoneshallbeabridgedonaccountofreligiousbeliefor
worship,norshallanynationalreligionbeestablished,norshallthefullandequalrightsof
consciencebeinanymanner,oronanypretext,infringed…”47Hisfellowcongressmendid
notimmediatelyaccepthisproposedamendments.Mr.Sylvester,oneofthecongressmen
presentatthedebateinAugustof1789fearedtheamendmentwouldabolishreligionall
together.MadisoncounteredthatthepurposewastopreventCongressfrommakinglaws
thatwouldenforcetheobservationofreligion,createanationalreligionor“compelmento
worshipgodinanymannercontrarytotheirconscience.”48Thechiefconcernduringthe
periodwasprotectingthepeoplefromgovernmentimpositionofreligion.Theideaof
restrictingpracticeofreligionwasnotpartofthediscussion,becausenooneimaginedthe
46Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."47Wilson,JohnFrederick.,andDonaldL.Drakeman.ChurchandStateinAmericanHistory:TheBurdenofReligiousPluralism.Seconded.Boston:BeaconPress,1987.Print.(76).48Wilson,JohnFrederick.,andDonaldL.Drakeman,76.
26
complexityofamulti-religiouscountry.Thisdistinctionbetweentheneedtoprotectthe
peoplefromthegovernment,versustheneedtoprotectpeoplefromtheChurch,ashad
beenthecaseinEnglandandinFrance,isoneofthemostsignificantfactorsineach
countriesnotionofseparationofchurchandstateandfreedomofreligion.
UltimatelyCongressrecognizedtheimportanceoffreedomofreligionandreacheda
compromise.TheBillofRightswasratifiedin1791guaranteeingthepeopleperhapstheir
mostimportantright,therighttofreedomofreligion.49InadditiontotheBillofRights,
PresidentWashington,inalettertotheHebrewCongregationinNewport,RhodeIsland,
promisedthecountryfulllibertyofconscience.Theletterreads:
“TheGovernmentoftheUnitedStatesgivestobigotrynosanction,to
persecutionnoassistance,requiresonlythattheywholiveunderits
protectionshoulddemeanthemselvesasgoodcitizens,ingivingitonall
occasionstheireffectualsupport.Everyoneshallsitinsafetyunderhisown
vineandfigtree,andthereshallbenonetomakehimafraid.”50
ThisletterisconsideredbyAmericanhistorianMelvinUrofskytobea“treasureofthe
nation”foritsstrongcallforreligiousliberty.51FrenchpoliticianAlexisdeTocqueville
wrotethatAmericahadbeen“bornfree,unfetteredbythereligiousandsocialbigotriesof
medievalEurope.”52Tocquevilleiscorrectinhighlightingthestarkdifferencesbetweenthe
nations.ThoughtheUnitedStateswasfoundedbyagroupofBritishProtestants,bythe
timeoftheRevolutionthenationhadbecomeareligiousandpoliticalhavenformany
Europeans.Comparatively,inEurope,theanti-clericalFrenchRevolutionwasjust49"TheStoryBehindtheGeorgeWashingtonLettertotheHebrewCongregationinNewport,RI,August21,1790."BillofRightsInstitute.N.p.,n.d.Web.3Feb.2017.50TheStoryBehindtheGeorgeWashingtonLettertotheHebrewCongregation…”51TheStoryBehindtheGeorgeWashingtonLettertotheHebrewCongregation…”52TheStoryBehindtheGeorgeWashingtonLettertotheHebrewCongregation...”
27
beginning.Washingtonrecognizedthediversityofthenationanditwasinthisveinthatthe
Americanmotto,EPluribusUnion-OutofMany,One,becameasymbolofAmerican
toleranceanddiversity.
TodayAmericacontinuestoknownasthelandofreligiousliberty,withthereligion
clausesoftheFirstAmendmentbeingacornerstoneofthisfreedom.TheFirstAmendment
grantsthepeopletherighttofreedomofreligion,protectsindividualsfromstate
restrictionofreligionandprotectsreligionsintheirownright.Thisprotectionisnot
unique;mostWesterncountriessharethisconceptionofreligion,howeverinterpretations
differ.53IntheUnitedStates,civilreligionisacommonfaith.54Moreprecisely,American
civilreligionhasbeendefinedas,“asetofreligiousbeliefs…sharedbymostAmericansand
consistentwiththeparticulartheologiesof[mostAmericanreligions]”55.Essentially,
Americancivilreligionisamixtureofreligiousandsecularbeliefsthatdatesbacktothe
country’sfounding.CivilreligionismeanttounitetheAmericanpeoplethroughashared
butseparatepartnershipbetweentheStateandtheChurch.DespitethenameAmerican
civilreligionisnotfundamentallyreligious.Infact,Americancivilreligiondevelopedasthe
U.S.becamelessreligious,influencedbyenlightenment.
Asenlightenmentideasdisseminatedthroughoutthecountrytheideaofseparating
ChurchandStatebecamemorepalatable.Tenofthefourteenstateseitherdisbandedtheir
establishmentsorstoppedenactingpoliciesthatsupportedastatereligious
establishment.56Thisincludedlooseningpoliticallimitsondissentinggroups.Atthe
nationallevelthefirstCongresshadintroducedanamendmentthateliminatedreligious53Prélot,Pieree-Henry,914.54Prélot,Pieree-Henry,918.55Prélot,Pieree-Henry,918.56Green,StevenK."TheSeparationofChurchandStateintheUnitedStates."OxfordResearchEncyclopediaofAmericanHistory(2014):n.pag.OxfordResearchEncyclopedias.Web.12Jan.2017.
28
testsforpublicofficeandestablishedseparationofChurchandState.TheSupremeCourt
firstusedthetermseparationofChurchandStatein1879,howeveritwasnotuntilthe
incorporationoftheFourteenthAmendmentthatthetermbecameaconstitutional
promise.IntheCourt’sfirstEstablishmentClauseholdingJusticeBlackwrotethatthe
amendmentmeant:
“Neither a state nor the Federal Government can set up a church.
Neithercanpasslawswhichaidonereligion,aidallreligions,orprefer
onereligionoveranother[…]Notaxinanyamount, largeorsmall,can
be levied to support any religious activities or institutions, whatever
they may be called, or whatever form they may adopt to teach or
practice religion […] In the words of Jefferson, the clause against
establishment of religion by law was intended to erect “a wall of
separationbetweenChurchandState.”57
Therhetoricofthe1946Eversonv.BoardofEducationdecisiondidnotreflecttheultimate
holdinginwhichthecourtruledinfavorofthestate,allowingstatereimbursementof
religiousbussing.58Conservativesandliberalsagreedontheprincipleofseparationof
churchandstate,howevertheyhaddifferingviewsandunderstandingswhenitcameinto
practice.Liberalsunderstoodtheseparationtomeanthatthegovernmentcouldnot
maintainastatereligion,financereligiousactivitiesorcoerceactiononbehalforagainst
religion.Conservativesunderstoodittomeanthatthegovernmenthadleewaytorecognize
religioustraditionsandcustomsandusetheminnon-denominationalwaysaswellas
57Green,StevenK."TheSeparationofChurchandStateintheUnitedStates."58Ultimatelythecourtheldthatserviceslikebussingthatare“separateandsoindisputablymarkedofffromthereligiousfunction”anddonotviolatetheFirstAmendment.("Eversonv.BoardofEducationoftheTownshipofEwing."LII/LegalInformationInstitute.CornellUniversityLawSchool,n.d.Web.3Feb.2017.)
29
financiallyassistreligiousbodieswhenitbenefittedtheState.Thepoliticians,whowere
amongtheeliteAmericans,favoredthefirstview,upholdingthevaluesoftheConstitution.
However,subsequentbehaviordidnotechotheprinciplesoftheConstitution.The
Foundersdidnotanticipate,in1792,howdiversetheU.S.wouldbecome.Thelawsofthe
ConstitutionwerecreatedwiththebeliefthattheU.S.wouldremainafairlyhomogenous
society.Whenameretwentyyearslaterthepopulationbegantodiversify,therealitywas
notthatoftheConstitution.Nooneexpectedthechangeinreligiousdiversitythatwould
resultfromsurgesofimmigrationofMormons,Catholics,andJews,andtherefore,whenit
beganthepeoplefeltlittleobligationtoupholdthevaluesofthelegalframework.
2.2PopularReactionsandPolicyAgainstReligionandImmigrants
AtthebeginningofthenineteenthcenturyAmericanswerenolongercommittedto
preventingdiscriminationonthebasisofreligion.TheAmericanpublicdidnotsharethe
sameviewasthepoliticalelitewhobelievedfreedomofreligionwasaprotectedright.The
countrysawareturnofintoleranceasimmigrationincreased.Violenceeruptedinthe
1830’swhenasecondwaveofIrishCatholicimmigrantsarrivedandagaininthe1840’s
followingtheIrishPotatofamine.TheIrishthatcameduringthisperiodwerepoorby
Americanstandardsandwerewillingtoworkforlowwages.ManyAmericansgrewto
resentthemandtheirunsanitarylivingconditionsthatpollutedneighborhoods.Age-old
tensionsbetweenProtestantsandCatholicswereexacerbated.Protestantsburneddown
SaintMary’sCatholicChurchinNewYorkCityin1831.Theviolencecontinuedacrossthe
nation.The1844BibleRiotsinPhiladelphialefttwentydead,twochurchesburnedtothe
30
ground,andhomesdestroyed.59Bythe1850’stherewasafarmorechallenging
demographicmixthananyoneexpected,whichopenedthedoortostronganti-immigrant
andanti-Catholicsentiments.ThesetensionsultimatelyledtothefoundingoftheNativist
AmericanpartyandtheKnow-Nothingparty.
TheKnow-Nothingpartygainedtractioninthe1850’sasananti-immigrant,and
anti-Catholicpartythattargetednon-responsivepoliticians.ThepartydislikedCatholicism
becauseofitsromanhierarchicalstructure,anti-republicanvaluesanditsaimtosubvert
governmentandcurbindividualfreedom.60TheKnow-Nothings,liketheFrench
revolutionaries,feltCatholicvaluesposedathreattothenation.TheKnow-Nothingswere
describedasapartythat“sprangfromthepeople,notprofessionalpoliticians”andasa
creationofapartyof“menoutsidepolitics.”61Thepeople,guidedbybigotryandnotfact,
feltthreatenedbyCatholicism.By1850TheCatholicChurchwasthesinglelargestreligious
bodyinAmerica.Thepresenceofthechurchcoupledwithfactthat40percentofsecond
waveimmigrantshailedfromIrelandincitedangerandresentmentamongnativists.62The
nativistsstressedthedisproportionatepresenceofIrishCatholicswhowerepoorand
criminalsandsoughttolimittheirpoliticalpowerbyspreadinganti-immigrant
propaganda.TheKnow-Nothingswonseveralelectionsonthisnativistplatformandgained
reasonablepopularity.WhentheRepublicanPartyfinallysupersededthemin1856,they
hadalreadyincorporatedsomeoftheKnow-Nothing’santi-immigrantrhetoric.By
absorbingtheanti-immigrantgeneintheRepublicanParty,theRepublicanswere
59"Irish-ReligiousConflictandDiscrimination."Immigration:Irish.LibraryofCongress.LibraryofCongress,n.d.Web.15Jan.2017.60Levine,Bruce.“Conservatism,Nativism,andSlavery:ThomasR.WhitneyandtheOriginsoftheKnow-NothingParty.”TheJournalofAmericanHistory,vol.88,no.2,2001,pp.455.Print.61Levine,Bruce,456.62"WavesofImmigrationinAmerica."WavesOfImmigrationInAmericaTimeline.Preceden,n.d.Web.18Jan.2017.
31
eventuallybrandedasthewhiteProtestantparty,atleastintheSouth.
Tothedetrimentofthenation,theRepublicanshadadoptedtheanti-immigrant
rhetoric.Thediscriminationbegantoextendtoseveralothergroups.In1924theU.S.
governmentimposedapolicythatwouldconstrainimmigrationthroughaquotasystem
andcompletebanofAsianimmigration.TheActsetatwopercentnationaloriginsquota
basedonthe1890U.S.censusdataandincludedaprovisionthatexcludedentryforany
alienbasedonraceornationality.Drivenbythefearthatimmigrantswouldnotassimilate,
politiciansimposedthesediscriminatorylaws.Themajorityoftheimmigrantstargeted
throughthequotawerethosewhopracticedareligionotherthanProtestantChristianity,
suchastheJews,theChinese,andtheIrishCatholic.Religiousdiscriminationwasbrought
totheforefrontintheimmigrationpoliciesofthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcentury,
andwasnotcorrecteduntilitwaschallengedinthecourtsandoutlawedbythe1965
ImmigrationandNationalityAct.63
2.3U.S.ReligiousJurisprudence:SupremeCourtCases
Duringthelatterhalfofthenineteenthcenturytherearoseatensionbetween
officiallegalprinciplesandpopularandpoliticalmanifestationsofbigotryculminatingin
anefforttohavepopularimpulseembodiedinlaw.Simplyput,therighttofreedomof
religiondidnothavethefullweightoftheAmericanpeoplebehindit.InadditiontheBillof
Rightsdidnotyetapplytostatelaw,andasaresultseveralreligiousminoritieslostcases
intheCourts.
63The1965ImmigrationandNationalityActbarreddiscriminationonthebasisofnationaloriginandabolishedthe1924nationaloriginsquota.(source:"USimmigrationlegislationonline."U.S.ImmigrationLegislation:1965ImmigrationandNationalityAct(Hart-CellarAct).TheUniversityofWashington-BothellLibrary,n.d.Web.3Apr.2017.)
32
TheMormonswereonesuchgroup.TheMormonsfaceddisapprovalofbecause
theirvalueswereindirectoppositiontothoseofthefoundingnation.In1862theMorrill
ActmadetheMormonpracticeofpluralmarriageillegal.Thisactwouldprovidethebasis
toconvictReynoldsin1878.InReynoldsv.US,theSupremeCourtruledthatthefree
exerciseclausedidnotguaranteearighttopartakeinanillegalreligiouspractice.64In
sum,thecourtruledthatreligiousdutyisnotasufficientcriminaldefense.Inthecase,
Reynolds,aMormonman,waschargedwithviolatingtheanti-bigamyact.Inthislandmark
decisiontheCourtdistinguishedbetweenbeliefandpractice,holdingthatReynoldshadthe
righttobelievewhathewanted,buthecouldnotpracticeashepleasedifthatpractice
violatedacriminallawcreatedtoprotectthepublicgood.TheSupremeCourtestablished
thatthefederalgovernmentcouldinsomecircumstancesrestrictthereligiouslibertyof
thepeople.TheMormonscameunderattackbecausethecountryfelttheirvalueswere
hostiletothenation,justastheMuslimshavetoday.Thoughtheprohibitionofplural
marriagewasafairlyminorlimitoncivilliberties,itforeshadowedthefuture.Thiswasthe
firstofmanydecisionsthatgavethestategreatercontrolandimposedlimitsonthecivil
libertiesofthepeople.
AnotherindicationofthenewdirectionofU.S.jurisprudencewasthe1875Anti-
CatholicBlaineAmendment.Thoughtheamendmentwasshortafewvotes,itunderscored
thatthemajorityofCongresswasinfavorofstricterseparationofChurchandState.The
Amendment,whichtargetedCatholicparochialschools,statedthatnofederalfundswould
beallocatedtofundreligiousschoolsandthatnostatecouldestablishastatereligion.65
Thecourtscontinuedtoruleinfavorofstatesoftencitingpublicsafetyasabasisfortheir64Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."Stanford.2003.Web.14Jan.2017.65"WhatIsaBlaineAmendment?"Findlaw.FindLawLLCN.p.,n.d.Web.19Jan.2017.
33
decision.OnesuchexamplewasJacobsonv.Massachusetts(1905).InJacobson,theCourt
allowedthestatetoenforcetherequirementofthesmallpoxvaccinedespiteclaimsthat
thevaccineviolatedsomepeople’sreligiousbeliefs.66InBradfordv.Roberts(1899)the
DistrictofColombiaenteredintoacontractwithahospitalrunbyCatholicnuns.67The
contractwasupheldbecausethehospitalhadnoreligiouspurposeandservedtoprovide
allpeopleinthecommunitywithmedicalcare.Thecommonthemeinthesecaseswas
deferencetothestate.Congresscontinuedtoenactlawsthatdiscriminatedonthebasisof
religionandthecourtsdeferredtothestates,evadingthepromisesoftheFirstand
FourteenthAmendments.
Howevertheredidbeginamovementtoreconcilethetwofacetsoffreedomof
religion.InJacobsontheargumentmadebytheplaintiffwasdiscriminationonthebasisof
religion,inBradford,preferenceofonereligiontoanother.Toreconciletheseprinciplesthe
courtsbeganevaluatingapolicyofstrictseparation.The1946Eversonv.Boardof
Educationcasecoinedtheterm“strictseparationist”todescribeafavoringofnon-
establishmentofreligion.68Criticsofthetermchargethat“aseparationistperspective
imposesaregimeofsecularism,onethatisnotneutraltowardreligiousmattersbutthat
privatizesandmarginalizesreligion.”69ThemajorityinEversondisagreed.InEversonthe
courtappliedtheEstablishmentClausetostatelawthroughtheDueProcessClauseofthe
FourteenthAmendment.Bynarrowlyapplyingthelaw,thecourtfoundthatthestate’s
66Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."Stanford,2003.Web.14Jan.2017.67Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."Stanford,2003.Web.14Jan.2017.68Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."StanfordUniversity,2003.Web.14Jan.2017.69Green,StevenK."TheSeparationofChurchandStateintheUnitedStates."OxfordResearchEncyclopediaofAmericanHistory(2014):n.pag.OxfordResearchEncyclopedias.Web.12Jan.2017.)
34
fundingofCatholicschoolbussesdidnotviolatetheFirstAmendment.Thecriticsofstrict
separationwon,andsotheurgencyforanexplicitpolicyofstrictseparationdiminished.
Strictseparationsoughttoestablishsecularism.Butsecularismdidnotandhasnot
prevailedinournation.OnereasonforthiswastheColdWar.Inthewaragainstthe
communistsoviets,theAmericanpeoplebannedtogetherregardlessofindividualreligion
tofightatheisticcommunism.DianeKirbystatedthattheColdWarwas“aglobalconflict
betweenthegod-fearingandthegodless.”70ThethreattoAmericannationalsecuritywas
nolongerdomestic,andconsequentlythefocusshiftedfromimmigrantsandinternal
religiousminoritiestoforeignthreats.Theneedtodestroytheenemyandallthatitstood
forenhancedreligiouspluralismandmulticulturalismwithintheUnitedStates.
Themovetowardsreligioustolerancewasfurtheremphasizedbytheresponseto
theholocaust.AsareactiontotheNazigenocideandtheAmericans’guiltforintervening
toolate,therebeganadeclineinanti-Semitisminthe1940’s.Thiscombinedwith
invocationsof“Judeo-Christian”partnershipminimizedthedifferencesbetweenthetwo
religionsandhelpedtoincludeJudaismaspartofthecommonfaithofAmericans.71In
1963theSupremeCourtruledinfavoraJewishwomanwhohadarguedthatherplaceof
workhadviolatedtheFirstAmendmentbydenyingherunemploymentbenefitsfor
refusingtoworkontheSabbath.Inthiscase,Sherbertv.Vernerthecourtruledforthe
individualandforreligiousliberty.72Thisperiodofreligiouspluralismcultivatedanew
Americanspiritmoreinclusiveofreligion,atleastonthesurface.
70Kirby,Dianne.ReligionandtheColdWar.London:PalgraveMacmillan,2003.Print.(1).71“Religion-Thecoldwarandthefifthgreatawakening”EncyclopediaoftheNewAmerica.Web6Feb.2017.72Kulchycki,Scott,andRogerWang."ReligioninUnitedStatesDomesticPolicy."StanfordUniversity,2003.Web.14Jan.2017.
35
Theinclusivespiritdidnotlastlong.The1980’sand1990’ssawaneruptionof
conflictbetweentheU.S.andIslammarkedbyU.S.involvementintheIran-Iraqwar,the
riseoftheNationofIslamandactsofterrorcommittedbyMuslimradicals.Theseevents
ledtheU.S.tobecautiousofIslamandthosewhoidentifiedasMuslim.Thisperiodfrom
1980to2010willbeexploredatlengthinchapterfourandwillanalyzehowtheU.S.dealt
withthethreatofIslamandtheneedtoprotecttherighttoreligiousfreedom.
TheUnitedStatesandFrance,asdetailedinthefirsttwochapters,placedifferent
emphasisonfreedomofreligionandreligiousexpression.Theparadoxbeingwhileboth
countrieshaveestablishedfreedomofreligionasafoundingprinciple,theoutcomehas
beendissimilarateveryturn.TheUnitedStatesdidnotencounterthesamedifficultyasthe
Frenchdidofclashingwithonealreadyestablishedreligiousinstitution,insteadreligious
groupswithinthecountryclashed,exacerbatedbyhighratesofimmigration.Franceon
theotherhandwentthroughananti-clericalrevolutionand,strugglingtoemancipate
governmentandreligion,developedaregimeofsecularism.Whatbothcountriesdoshare,
though,isthisthreattotheirnationalidentityandpublicorderthatcausesthemtotighten
lawsagainstreligiousfreedom.TheFrenchmanifestationofthisfearismorepronounced
todaythoughithasonlybeenrealizedinthepolicyofthelastfiftyyears,whereasanti-
religiouspolicyhaspervadedAmericansocietysinceitsfounding,butwasthoughttohave
beenreconciledaftertheissueswiththeCatholics.
ThenextchapterwillexploretheFrenchconceptoflaïcitéandhowithasbeenused
tomanipulateFrenchpolicyandlimitreligiouspracticesthatthenon-MuslimFrench
identifyasathreat.
36
CHAPTER3:FREEDOMOFRELGIONV.LAICITÉINMODERNDAYFRANCE Aswehavenowseen,theFrenchandtheAmericansviewfreedomofreligionin
differentifnotopposingways.WhiletheFrenchsetouttocreateasecularnation,America
wasintheprocessofcreatingamulti-religiousone.Thischapterwillattempttoreconcile
lawsenactedandactionstakenbytheFrenchgovernmentthatappeartoprivilege
ChristianityoverIslam,andtargetthereligiousfreedomofthegrowingMuslim
population.73
3.1TheStartofUnfairApplicationofLaïcité
Thereisawidespreadbelief,ontheleft,amongMuslimsandamongadvocatesof
civillibertiesthatthelawsoflaïcitéhavebeenunfairlyappliedtotheMuslimpopulation.
Thisnotionisnotunsupported.Severaleventsinrecenthistoryprovideevidenceofunfair
application.In1996PopeJohnPaulIIvisitedthecityofTourstocommemoratethe
baptismofthefounderofFrance,theFrankishKingClovis.74Thestatefinancedhistrip
despitethedirectorderofthe1905lawthatthegovernmentshallnotfundreligious
events.PresidentChiracjustifiedtheactionarguingthatthePopewastheleaderofthe
VaticanstateandthespiritualleaderoftheFrenchpeople.Thegovernment’snonchalance
inmakingexemptionsforCatholicleaderscontradictstheprincipleoflaïcité,andisoneof
manygovernmentactionsthatshoweddeferencetoChristianreligions.
ThefrenzieddebateoverIslamandreligioussymbolsbeganaround1990.
Between1950and1989manyofFrance’scoloniesgainedindependence,whichdrovea
flowofMuslimimmigrationtoFrance.By1989,theMuslimpopulationofFrancehad
73RefertotheAppendix(pg102)fordataontheMuslimpopulationofFrance.74Bohlen,Celestine."PopeIsShowingStaminaonHisFrenchVisit."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,22Sept.1996.Web.06Mar.2017.
37
grownconsiderably,producingstrongeranti-Muslimsentiments.In1950therewasa
Muslimpopulationof230,000andby1980thenumberhadgrownto2.5million.75In
additiontothesignificantgrowth,MuslimshadsettleddisproportionatelyaroundParis
makingtheirpresencefarmoreapparentandstimulatingadebateabouttheirplacein
Frenchsociety.76
Itwasduringthistimethatperhapsthebest-knownexampletodateofunfair
applicationoftheprinciplesoflaïcitéoccurred.InwhatbecameknownasL’Affairedu
foulard,alsooftenreferredtoasthe1989headscarfcase,theprincipalofamiddleschoolin
Creil,asuburbofParis,expelledthreeteenagegirlsforrefusingtotakeofftheir
headscarves.Thoughhejustifiedtheactionbystatingtheexpulsionwasdone“inthename
ofrespectforlaïcité,”77hiscommentsafterthefactarefarmoretellingofhismotivations.
Theprincipalsaid,“theveilsareastrategytoIslamifytheyoungArabsofCreil.”78His
remarksarticulatedthestrongIslamophobiabeginningtospreadacrossFrance.Left-wing
opponentspointedout“itiscuriousindeedtoexpelgirlsfrompublicschoolsinthenameof
“integrating”themmorefullyintoFrenchsociety,”79highlightingtheduplicityofthe
expulsion.
Thecasegarnerednationalmediaattentionandsplitthecountrybetweenthe
supportersof“openlaïcité”andthefierceguardiansof“French”identity.Supportersofthe
expulsionarguedthattheveilsviolatedtherulesofsecularismandimposedreligiousideas
75Kettani,Houssain."MuslimPopulationinEurope:1950–2020."InternationalJournalofEnvironmentalScienceandDevelopment(2010):157.Web.76Taylor,Adam."Map:France’sgrowingMuslimpopulation."TheWashingtonPost.WPCompany,09Jan.2015.Web.14Apr.2017.77Dryef,Zineb."LejouroùlaFrances'estdiviséesurlefoulard."LeMonde.fr.LeMonde,03Feb.2017.Web.01Mar.2017.78Dryef,Zineb."LejouroùlaFrances'estdiviséesurlefoulard."79Dryef,Zineb."LejouroùlaFrances'estdiviséesurlefoulard."
38
onthestudentsattheschool.Theyalsomadetheargumentthatfromafeministperceptive
thebanwasbeneficialpolicythatwouldprotectgirlsfrombeingforcedtoweartheveilsby
thepatriarchalreligionofIslam.Thisargumentwasinvalidatedwhenthefatheroftwo
expelledsistersassuredthepressthathedidnotrequirethegirlstobeveiled,andwhen
thegirlsthemselvesreiteratedthattheyhadmadethedecisiontobeveiledontheirown.
Then,afterweeksofmediafrenzy,agovernmentofficialfinallyspokeup.Lionel
Jospin,thenMinisterofEducation,statedthatwhilestudentsmust“respectlaïcitébynot
wearingostentatiousreligioussymbols,”educationcomesfirst,and“schoolsexistto
welcomestudentsnottoexcludethem.”80Hiscommentsgeneratedafirestormofcriticism
fromhisownparty,theright,andthemedia,allofwhichaccusedhimoffavoringthe
Muslimcommunity.ThroughouttheaffairePresidentMitterrandremainedsilent,passing
thedecisionontotheConseild’État,thehighestadministrativejurisdictioninFrancethat
advisesandjudgestheexecutive.Threemonthslater,onNovember27,theConseild’État
presenteditsopinion:Studentswhowearreligioussymbolsarenotautomaticallyviolating
theprincipleoflaïcité,andthereforethedirectorsofschoolscanmakedecisionsonacase
bycasebasis.Therulingseemedtofavorthegirls,butbecausethecaselefttheultimate
interpretationandimplementationtoprincipalsandlocalschoolsboards,itleftroomfor
individualprejudice.ThemostimportantoutcomeofthecasewasthattheCourthad
determinedthepolicyitselfwasvalid.Itsconstitutionalitywoulddependonthesituation.
Intheyearsafterthedecision,theConseilConstitutionel(SupremeCourt)heard
manysimilarcases,oftenrulinginfavorofstudents’righttowearthereligiousgarb.In
fact,between1992and1999thecourtupheldstudents’rightstowearheadscarvesin84
80Dryef,Zineb."LejouroùlaFrances'estdiviséesurlefoulard."
39
percentofcases.81Thecaseswereaboutmorethanreligiousrights,theybroughtfourmain
issuestotheforefront:“theroleofsecularisminthepublicschoolsystem;women’srights;
thespectreofafundamentalist,aggressiveIslamproselytisingFrance;andtheintegration
ofNorthAfricansandothernon-Europeanimmigrants.”82DanielleMitterrand,wifeof
PresidentMitterrand,reprimandedthecountryforbeingunwillingtoacceptreligions
otherthanChristianity200yearsaftertheRevolution.83ThepoliticalclimateofFrancedid
playasignificantroleintheFrenchreluctancetoaccepttheMuslimimmigrantcommunity.
SeveraleventscausedtheFrenchpeopletobewaryofMuslims.Awaveofterrorist
bombingshitParisinSeptemberof1986;threeFrenchhostagesweretakeninBeirut,
Lebanonin1986,andrelationswithIranwerefarfromamiable.84Theheadscarfcameto
beasymbolofIslamicdangertotheFrenchRepublic.Thesetensionsthoughtemporarily
resolvedwiththejudgmentoftheConseild’État,werefarfromlaidtorest.
3.2The2004ActonReligiousSymbolsa.k.a.TheHeadscarfBan
ThedebateonheadscarvesandIslamhasremainedasalienttopicinFrenchpolitics,
complicatedbyagrowingawarenessoftheMuslimpopulation.Inthenameoflaïcitéand
neutralityFrancedoesnotgatherreligiousdataonitspopulation.Howevermanyestimates
havebeenmadethat7to8percentoftheFrenchpopulationisMuslim,makingFrance
hometothelargestMuslimpopulationinEurope.85ThesizeoftheMuslimpopulationhas
notgoneunnoticed;in1999asurveyfoundthat51percentoftheFrenchpopulationfelt
81Bellar,ElisaT.,584.82Bellar,ElisaT.,586.83Bellar,ElisaT.,583.84"FrenchHostagesFreedinBeirut;BoonforChirac."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,04May1988.Web.03Mar.2017.85Bell,DavidA."VeilofTears:AReviewof"WhytheFrenchDon'tLikeHeadscarves:Islam,theStateandPublicSpace"."Review-A-Day.Powells.com,8Mar.2007.Web.01Mar.2017.
40
thereweretoomanyArabsinthecountry.Thissentimentnotonlycontinuedinto2003,
butgrewandre-emergedmoreopenlytowardsIslam,with73percentsupportingthe
headscarfban.86Inresponsetorisinganti-Muslimsentiment,PresidentChiracappointed
theStasiCommissiontoinvestigatehowtoadaptlaïcitétothemodernanddrastically
differentFrenchnation,andaddressbestpracticesconcerningtheheadscarfinschools.
In2003theStasiCommissionrecommendedaheadscarfbaninschools;thiswas
passedbyparliamentin2004byavoteof593-36with31abstentions.87Thelawprohibits
thewearingof“ostentatious”religioussymbolsinschoolsandifviolatedleaves
disciplinarydecisionsuptolocalschoolboards.Thevaguenessoftheterm“ostentatious”
wasnotaccidental.TheFrenchParliamentknewthattheEuropeanCourtofHumanRights
wouldrulethatacompletebanonreligioussymbolswasrestrictivetoreligiousfreedom.
TheFrenchParliamentthereforemadeacalculateddecisionwhenchoosingthelanguage
(particularlytheword“ostentatious”)ofthebanthatwouldenablethemtotargetwearers
oftheIslamicveil.
Anotherproblem,amongmany,wastheeasewithwhichParliamentwasableto
enactalawthatonitsfaceappeareddiscriminatory.Theproblemwasinstitutional.Prior
to2008theonlypartiesabletorequestaconstitutionalreviewofalawwerehigh-ranking
partymemberssuchasthepresidentoftherepublic,theprimeminister,thepresidentof
thenationalassemblyortheoneofthesixtysenators.Thepeoplehadnooutlettoprotest
nortocallintoquestionwhattheyfeltwasunjustlegislation,andnogovernmentofficial
feltinclinedtorefertheActof2004totheConseild’Étattohaveitsconstitutionality
determined.TheduplicityisunsurprisingconsideringthattherewasnotasingleMuslim86Bell,DavidA."VeilofTears:AReviewof"WhytheFrenchDon'tLikeHeadscarves:Islam,theStateandPublicSpace"."87BrittonD.Davis,124.
41
governmentofficialin2004,andthatthemajorityofparliamentconsistedofwhite
Christianmales.88Thegovernmentseemstoforgetthatlaïcitéwasdevelopedtoprotectthe
statefromreligiousconflict,yetthebanhasinsteadentrenchedthedivisionbetweenthe
Muslimsandthe“French.”
TheheadscarfaffairwasformanyFrenchMuslimsaconfirmationoftheirstatusas
outsiders,“pushingthemtowardsamoreradicalIslamthatislessaccommodatingwithlife
inthelatetwentiethcentury.”89AfterthelawpassedmanyMuslimgirlsbeganwearing
blackheadscarvesinplaceofthemorecommoncolorfulscarves,andjournalistsfacetiously
askedwhetherschoolswouldsoonbansilkscarvesfromHermès.
Alesswell-knownoutcomeofthelawwastheeffectithadonturbanwearingSikh
boysandthegovernment’sresponse.ThesmallSikhminorityofFrancehadneverbeen
viewedasathreattolaïcitéandasaresultthegovernmentdidnotconsiderimplicationsof
thelawonnon-threateningSikhs.WhentheMinistryofEducationeventuallyrealizedthat
thewearingofSikhturbansalsoviolatedthelaw,itquietlyofferedtopayfulltuitionforthe
Sikhsatprivateschools.TheMinistryofEducation’sdeviousactionstoaidonlytheSikhs
madetheultimatepurposeofthebanblatantlyobvious:thebanwascreatedtoassuagethe
publicandsendthesymbolicmessagethatFrancewouldfightagainstthedangersofIslam.
Inconclusion,theheadscarvesformanyofthenon-MuslimFrenchrepresentthe
generalrefusalofMuslimimmigrantstointegrateintosociety,aswellastheirparticipation
ininternationalterrorism,urbanviolence,andtheoppressionofwomen.Ultimately,the
FrenchpublicsawthebanasaprotectionagainstthegrowinginfluenceofIslam.
88"MuslimsinEuropeanPolitics."EuroIslamNewsandAnalysisonIslaminEuropeandNorthAmerica.N.p.,n.d.Web.03Mar.2017.89Malik,IftikharHaider.“IslamandModernity:MuslimsinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.”London:PlutoPress,2004.
42
Unfortunately,thegovernmentfailedtoacknowledgethecasualtiesoftheban.The
majorityofthegirlsaffectedwereFrenchbornandrelativelynon-religious.Oneexampleis
Schérazade,ayoungMuslimgirlwhodidnotregularlyweartheveil,butdecidedtorisk
expulsionanddontheveilhersenioryearofhighschool.Forherthiswasanactofprotest
againsttherestrictive,discriminatory,andracistFrenchgovernmentwhowaslimitingher
righttoreligiousfreedom.Thisisonegirlbutthelargerpicturepaintsthesamestory.The
banhascausedover60,000studentstodropoutofpublicschoolseachyear.90Ittells
MuslimgirlswhohavegrownupinFranceandconsiderthemselvesFrenchthattheir
religionconflictswiththeirabilitytoeverbefullyFrench.IttellsthemFrenchsociety
rejectsthem.Andyet,thegovernmenthasattemptedtorationalizethebaninthenameof
neutralityandrespectforallreligions.
3.3RationalizingtheBan
DespiteworldwideagreementthattheheadscarfbanunjustlyaffectsMuslims,the
Frenchgovernmenthastriedtoarguethatitsimplementationwasdoneinthenameof
respectforallreligions.NicolasSarkozy,Frenchpresidentfrom2007to2012,addressed
thedisputeonlaïcitéina2009speech,assertingthat,“theproblemoftheburkaisnot
religiousproblem,it’saproblemofliberty.Itisnotareligioussymbol,it’sasymbolof
enslavement,it’sasymbolofhumiliation.”Hethencontinued,“Iwanttosaysolemnly,it
willnotbewelcomeonFrenchsoil.”91Sarkozybelievesthatalaïcbanisthesolution,
claimingthatlaïcité“istherespectofall[religious]opinionsandallbeliefs.”92His
commentswhenanalyzedinconjunctionarealmostcomical.Sarkozy’sstatementsare
90Malik,IftikharHaider.“IslamandModernity:MuslimsinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.”91“UneLaïcitéSansVoile.”EspritÉditorialno.295.EspritPresse,Juin2003.Web.27Apr.2017.92“UneLaïcitéSansVoile.”EspritÉditorialno.295.EspritPresse,Juin2003.Web.27Apr.2017.
43
contradictory:thebandoesnottargetonereligionbutalsotheburkaisnotwelcomeon
Frenchsoil.Thoughtheburka,thefullbodyveilwithameshcoverfortheeyesandthe
niqabthefull-faceveilwhichleavesaslitfortheeyes,doformuchoftheworldsymbolize
theoppressionofwomen,itishardtounderstandhowabanofitisnotreligious
discrimination.Nevertheless,themajorityoftheFrenchagreedwithSarkozy’sstatements,
foroneoftworeasons.AteacherinaMuslimbanlieueofParisdiscussedthearguments
madeinthelawsthateliminatedreligiousteachinginschoolsin1881withherclass.The
classfoundthesameargumentsweremaderegardingthe2004debateontheveil.Shesaid
herstudentsweremovedwhentheyrealizedit“wasn’tjustsomethingagainstIslam,thatit
comesoutofatradition.”93ManyFrenchpeoplebelievethattheheadscarfbanisnecessary
topromotelaïcitéandequality.TheothergroupagreeswithSarkozyforalessnoble
reason:becausetheyseeheadscarvesasbeingjustastepremovedfromsuicidebombs,
especiallyafterSeptember11andthebombingsinMadridandLondon.Thedangerof
violentradicalIslammayexist,butitisnotclearhowtheheadscarfbaninschoolsandthe
limitonreligiouslibertywillhaveanyeffectinreducinganylegitimatethreat.Nonetheless,
theFrenchcontinuedtoexpandtheban,in2011banningfull-faceveilsinpublicspaces
placingarestrictiononattirethatmanyMuslimsconsiderareligiousobligation.
3.4S.A.S.V.FRANCE Theheadscarfcasescametoepitomizethenationaldebateonimmigration,security
andreligiousidentity.AstheMuslimpopulationgrew,especiallyaroundthecountry’s
capitalwherethepercentofMuslimshadreachedfifteencomparedtothenationalaverage
ofsevenpercent,theFrenchfeltincreasinglythreatened.Theperceivedchangecausedby
93Packer,George."TheOtherParis."TheNewYorker.TheNewYorker,31Aug.2015.Web.28Mar.2017.
44
thenewandgrowingMuslimpopulationcausedtheFrenchtofeelasthoughtheywere
losingapartoftheirnationalidentityandthattheirnationalsecuritywasatrisk.94
PresidentSarkozy’s2009remarksreflectedthisfearandsparkedParliamenttodive
deeperintotheburkadilemma.
In2010,aparliamentarycommissioncomprisedofthirty-twomembersreachedthe
conclusionthattheburkawasincompatiblewithsecularism,andaskedparliamentto
adoptaresolutionthatwouldrequirewomentokeeptheirfacesuncoveredwhenreceiving
publicservices.Withinayearparliamentpassedalawthatbannedthecoveringoftheface
(outlawingthewearingoftheniqabandburka)inallpublicplaces,withsupportfromthe
FrenchgovernmentandmanymainstreamMuslimorganizations.Francewasthefirst
Europeancountrytooutlawfull-faceveils.Onegroupthatstoodinstrongoppositiontothe
lawwasFrenchpolice.Policeunionsdidnotsupportthebanarguingitwouldbevery
difficulttoenforceandcouldcreateriots.95Othercriticssoughttopointoutthelaw’s
unproductiveness.Whenthelawwentintoeffectitwasestimatedtherewereaboutfive
millionMuslimsinFranceandthatabout2,000worethefull-faceveil.OliverRoy,anexpert
onpoliticalIslam,questioned,“Whytargetsomethingwhichinfactisanexceptionandonly
concernshundredsofwomen-mostofthemconvertsinFrance?It'snotamovementof
supportfortheburka,butafeelingofdiscrimination."96Thediscriminatoryaspectishard
toignore.Furthermore,thepenaltiesofthelawseektopunishthemenwhotheFrench
Governmentsaysforcewomentobeveiled.Ingeneraltermsthelawstatesthataperson
94Taylor,Adam."Map:France’sgrowingMuslimpopulation."TheWashingtonPost.WPCompany,09Jan.2015.Web.14Apr.2017.95Erlanger,Steven."FranceEnforcesBanonFull-FaceVeilsinPublic."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,11Apr.2011.Web.05Feb.2017.96Cigainero,Jake."FiveYearsintoBan,BurqaDivideWidensinFrance."DW.com.DeutscheWelle,4Oct.2016.Web.12Apr.2017.
45
maynotwearaveilinpublicspace,andthatifwornshemaybeaskedtoremoveit.Ifthe
weareroftheveildoesnotcomplyshewillbefinedapproximately130eurosorjailed,and
evenifshecompliesandremovestheveilshewillbesubjecttoapublichearing.For
anyonewhoforcesanotherpersontowearaveilthepenaltyisfarharsher,resultinginone
yearofjailtimeanda30,000eurofine.97Thedifferenceintheseverityofpunishment
betweenmenandwomenwhoviolatethelawreflectstheopinionoftheFrench
policymakerswhobelievetheyaresavingMuslimwomenfromoppression.However,not
everyoneagreedwiththisviewortheconstitutionalityofthelaw,whichledtothefamous
2011S.A.S.v.Francecase.
Thelawoutlawingfull-facecoveringswasquicklycalledintoquestionforviolating
therighttofreedomofreligionandfreeexpression.Muslimsandsupportersofreligious
freedomresistedthepolicy.ThesamedaythelawwentintoforceinAprilof2011,a24-
year-olddevoutMuslimFrenchwomanfiledanapplicationwiththeEuropeanCourtof
HumanRights(ECtHR)declaringthatthelawwasaviolationofherrights.Thewoman
whoallowedthecourttodiscloseonlyherinitialsisknownasS.A.S..Inherapplication
S.A.S.emphasizedthatfreefrompressureshehadchosentoweartheveilandthatshedid
notweartheveilatalltimes,onlywhenshefeltitwasnecessarytoexpressherreligion
andherpersonalandculturalfaith,forexampleduringRamadan.Plainlyput,thebanon
veilsinpublicplacesconstrainsthefreedomofwomenwhowearveilsorwhomaywantto
wearveilsinthefuture.WiththosedetailsinmindS.A.S.arguedthatthelawviolated:
article9(freedomofreligion),article10(freedomofexpression),article8(privacy),article
97Guepratte,Étienne."LaRépubliqueSeVitàVisageDécouvert."LaRépubliqueSeVitÃVisageDécouvert.LeServiceD’informationDuGouvernement.Web.02Feb.2016.
46
14(freedomfromdiscrimination),article3(non-subjectiontodegradingtreatment)and
article11(freedomofassembly)oftheEuropeanDeclarationofHumanRights.
Thecourtfoundseveraloftheclaimsinadmissibleanddecidedtoinvestigatesolely
onthebasisoftherighttofreedomofreligionandtherighttoprivacy.Thelawwasupheld
withfifteenofseventeenjudgesfindingtheburkabannecessaryinademocraticsocietyto
protecttherightsandfreedomofothers.TheFrenchattributegreatimportancetothe
decidingprincipleof“vivreensemble”(livingtogether).Thisargumentof“livingtogether”is
inherentlybiased.Itfavorsassimilationinthetugofwarbetweenassimilationand
multiculturalism.Thetwodissentingjudgesinthecasefoundtheconceptof“living
together”problematic,statingthatthebanmakesa“mockeryoffreedomofexpression…
andtherighttoidentityorpersonality.”98Theiropinionsechothoseofadvocatesofcivil
libertieswhoagreethatthebanleadsFranceandtheECtHRdownaslipperyslopewhere
themajorityhastheabilitytorejectformsofexpressionitdoesnotidentifywith.The
courtitselfsaidtherewasa“resultingriskofabuse.”99Thedangersseemdifficultto
reconcile,butasJoshA.Bowenexplains,“TheRepublicisbasednotonasharedfaith,but
onafaithinthepossibilitiesofsharingalifetogether,despitevastdifferencesin
appearance,history,andreligiousideas.”100Evenifthisistrue,therecomesapointwhen
theFrenchmustevaluateiftheyhavetippedthebalancebetweenthevaluesofliving
togetherandthoseofademocraticsocietysuchaspluralism,individualismand
98Marshall,J."S.A.S.vFrance:BurqaBansandtheControlorEmpowermentofIdentities."HumanRightsLawReview15.2(2015):378.Print.99Marshall,J,378.100Bowen,JohnRichard.WhytheFrenchDon'tlikeHeadscarves:Islam,theState,andPublicSpace.Princeton:PrincetonUP,2007.Print.
47
multiculturalism.TheS.A.S.decisiontippedthescaleagaininthewrongdirection
threateningthereligiouslibertiesoftheFrenchpeople,primarilythoseofMuslims.
ThedecisionalsohighlightedthedifferencesbetweentheFrenchandU.S.legal
frameworks.InS.A.S.v.FrancethecourtsaiditwasunabletofindaEuropeanconsensusas
towhetherthereshouldbeablanketbanofthefull-faceveilinFrance.Thiswasdespitethe
factthatonlytwooutof47countrieshavechosentoimposeaban,suggestingthereisin
factconsensus.ThisledthecourttoadoptawidemarginofappreciationtoFrench
authoritiesandthereforefindanon-violationofArticle9[righttoreligiousfreedom].
WhendeterminingifthebanviolatedArticle9’s,theECtHRconsideredfourquestions:
1)Wastherealimitationofthefreedomtomanifestreligion?
2)Wasthelimitationprescribedbylaw?
3)Wasitnecessaryinademocraticsocietytoprotectthepublic?
4)Wasthelimitproportionaltothegoal?
Thesequestionsfavorthegovernmentandputanemphasisontheburdentosociety.In
theU.S.claimsofviolationofreligiousfreedomareweightedagainstthreequestions:
1)Isthereasubstantialburdenimposedontheplaintiff?
2)Wastheburdeninthegovernment’scompellinginterest?
3)Wastheburdentheleastrestrictivemeans?101
Thesethreequestions,thoughsimilartotheFrenchstandard,projectastricterviewofa
reasonableburdenandfavortheindividualmakingtheclaim.Thedifferenceinlegal
frameworkbetweentheU.S.andtheECtHR,whichdeferstopolicyofthecountryagainst
101Cismas,IonaandCammarano,Stacy.“WhoseRightandWho’sRight?TheU.S.SupremeCourtv.TheEuropeanCourtofHumanRightsonCorporateExerciseofReligion.”TheBostonUniversityInternationalLawJournal.Vol.34,No.1.2016.Print.
48
whoaclaimismade,explainswhyFrancehaspassedalawthatwouldbyU.S.standardsbe
consideredaformofreligiousdiscrimination.
LuckilyfortheMuslimpopulationandforthemoreopen-mindedFrenchpeople,the
reversalofthe2016burkinibanmarkedawelcomeshift,tippingthebalanceinfavorof
religiousrightsfortheindividual.Italsomarkedthenewfoundpolicyofthecourtthat
acknowledgedanddecidedthatanxietiesoverterrorismshouldnotmotivate
policymaking.Thosecaseswillbeexaminedindetailinchapter5toprovideacomparative
analysis.ThenextchapterwillexaminehowtheUnitedStateshashandleddiscrepanciesof
therighttoreligiousfreedominthelastfiftyyears.
49
CHAPTER4:COMBATINGISLAMINTHEUNITEDSTATESANDDISPUTESOVERTHERIGHTTORELIGIOUSFREEDOM InFrancethechallengeofbalancingIslamandreligiousfreedomhasbeen
manifestedprimarilythroughthedebateonlegislationoutlawingheadscarves.Inthe
UnitedStatestheapproachtoregulatingIslamanddisplaysofIslamhasbeenfarmore
varied.ThesecondchaptersetuptheparadigmofreligiousfreedomfromEnglish
settlementtothe1980’s.ThischapterwillcovertheperiodintheU.S.(1980to2009)that
sawariseofIslamophobia.Thisperiodwascharacterizedbyhostagecrises,terrorist
bombings,andconflictintheMiddleEast,whichresultedinthedemandbyAmericansfor
policiesthatrestrictcivillibertiesandtreattheMuslimpopulationasathreat.Next,the
chapterwillexaminetheperiodfrom2010to2015,duringwhichtherewasashiftinthe
AmericanpoliticalregimeofopenhostilitytowardsMuslimsandexaminetheensuing
limitsonreligiousfreedom.Finally,thischapterwillanalyzehowtheU.S.hasdealtwiththe
challengeofmaintainingpublicsafetyornationalsecuritywhilebalancingtherightto
religiousliberty.102
4.1InstillingFear:TerrorandConflictintheMiddleEast
AnAmericanin1979turnsontheradioandhearsabouttheanti-westernIslamic
revolutioninIranandthecaptureinIranof52Americanhostages.Theviolencecontinues
into1983whenU.S.embassyinKuwait,andMarinebarracksinBeirut,arebombed,allof
theseactscarriedoutbyIslamicmilitantgroups.Throughoutthecountrythisraisedanti-
IslamicsentimentsandfearofMuslimsthathadlaindormantforyears.103Closertohome,
102RefertotheAppendix(pg102)fordataontheMuslimpopulationoftheU.S.103Islamophobiahasbeenpresentsincethecountry’sfounding.TheOttomanWarscreatedfearofMuslimsbackthen.Thoughthefearhaslaindormant,feelingsofislamophobiahaveremainedintheculturalbackground.SowhentheIranianrevolutionbrokeout,Americans,whoknewnothingaboutIranbutdid
50
theNationofIslamwascrumblingasresultofitsreputationasaviolentBlackNationalist
organization.ThoughmostMuslimsdonotconsidertheNationofIslamtobe
representativeoftrueIslam,andinsteadconsidertheNation’sbeliefscontrarytothoseof
Islam,theAmericanpublicfoundanotherreasontodisapproveofthereligion.Adecade
laterin1993agroupofIslamicextremistsattemptedtobombtheWorldTradeCenter.
Theseeventsstirredanti-Muslimsentiments.
4.2Effectsof9/11:AnattackonCivilLiberties
Iftheanti-Muslimsentimentofthe1980’sand90’sseemedstrong,after2001it
grewexponentiallyinpublicopinion.TheSeptember11,2001,terrorattackswerethe
eventthatmostdrasticallychangedthecourseforMuslimsinAmerica.Thebombings,
carriedoutbyextremistsinthenameofIslam,createdafierceanti-Muslimcampaign
acrossAmerica.Thiscampaignofanti-Muslimsentiment,unlikeafter2010,wasnot
evidencedinreligiouspolicybutinprivacypolicy.ItcausedmanyAmericansthroughout
thenationtoquestion,hateandfearMuslims.Onemeasurablemanifestationofthefear
wasthe1600percentincrease(28to481)inanti-Muslimhatecrimesfollowingthe
September11,attacksasreportedbytheFBI.104MuslimAmericanassociationsdenounced
theattacksandtriedtoreassuretheirAmericanfriendsandneighborsthatthe
perpetratorsofthehorrificattackwerenottrueMuslimsbutwereradicalextremistswho
hadpervertedtheirreligion.TheyflewAmericanflagsasasignofsupportandinvited
AmericatolearnmoreaboutIslam.SomeMuslimsandAmericanstooktheopportunityto
knowabouttheviolenthistoryoftheMuslims,onceagainbecameIslamophobic.(Source:PeterGottschalk-ProfessorofReligionatWesleyanUniversity.LectureatTrinityApr.112017.)104"Data:HatecrimesagainstMuslimsincreasedafter9/11."PublicRadioInternational.PRI,12Sept.2016.Web.07Feb.2017.
51
learnandwriteaboutIslam,butunfortunatelymanymoreanti-Muslimindividuals
distortedthetruthandspreadmythsandbigotryvilifyingallMuslims.
Theculminationoftheanxietybroughtonby9/11wasthe2001PatriotAct.Passed
just45daysaftertheSeptember11thattacks,thePatriotActmadechangestosurveillance
lawsallowingthegovernmenttospyonAmericans,listentophonecalls,monitoremail,
collectbankinformation,andtrackinternetmovement.Itspassagebeggedanimportant
policyquestion:wereAmericanswillingtogiveuptheircivillibertiesinthenameof
nationalsecurity?Theanswerwasyes,64percentpolledapprovedofthelaw.105In
Washington,politiciansagreed.ThePatriotActpassedbyavoteof98to1intheSenate
and357to66intheHouse.106The67constitutionaldefendershadlostout.Many
Americanssawthislegislationasanappropriatereactiontotheworstterrorattackto
happenonU.S.soil.Otherssawthisasadangerousrestrictionofcivillibertiesthatwould
allowthegovernmenttoencroachonthelivesofmillionsofinnocentAmericans.One
purposeoftheActwastoallowtheFBItograntNationalSecurityLettersinplaceof
traditionalsearchwarrantsissuedbyjudges.TheseNSL’swerefareasiertoobtainwith
lessevidencethanneededforatraditionalwarrant,promptingmiscarriagesofjustice.The
FBIissued192,499NSL’sbetween2003and2005withonlyoneleadingtoaterrorrelated
conviction.107
Anotheraspectofthelawwasthe“sneakandsearch”componentthatenabled
federallawenforcementagenciestosearchpropertywithoutgivingnoticetotheowner
untilweekslater.Ofthesesearcheslessthanonepercentendedupbeingterrorrelated.It105Saad,Lydia."AmericansGenerallyComfortableWithPatriotAct."Gallup.com.Gallup,02Mar.2004.Web.07Apr.2017.106"WhoStoodforConstitutionalLibertiesandVotedAgainsttheUSAPATRIOTActin2001?"DailyKos.N.p.,7June2013.Web.07Apr.2017.107"SurveillanceUnderthePatriotAct."AmericanCivilLibertiesUnion.ACLU..n.d.Web.07Feb.2017.
52
alsohappenedthatalargeportionofAmericansmonitoredwereofMuslimfaithorhadties
toMuslimmajorityArabcountries.TakeforexampleBenKahla,anAmericanwith
aspirationsofbeingadiplomatwhowasstudyingatUniversityinSaudiArabiawhenthe
FBIarrestedhim.TheFBIhadKahla“shackled,blindfoldedanddressedinaGuantanamo-
orangejumpsuitbeforebeingdriventojailinWashingtonunderfullpoliceescort”where
theyheldhimforamonth,accusedofhavinglinkstothe“Virginiajihad”andindictedhim
onthreeseparateoccasionsevenafterreceivingthefirstnot-guiltyverdict.108The
GovernmentandFBImadetheargumentthatinordertoprotectAmericancitizensthey
neededtobeabletomonitorthemmoreclosely.Theyalsoarguedthatthistemporary
infringementontherightsofAmericancitizenswouldhelpfederallawenforcementto
catchterrorists.Thedatashowsthiswasuntrue.InsteadtheUnitedStatescompromisedits
corevaluesandunfairlyappliedthelawonitsMuslimpopulation.ThetacticsofthePatriot
ActandthetortureofMuslimprisonersatAbuGhraibandGuantanamoincluding
intentionalmishandlingsoftheQuran,notonlytarnishedthereputationofAmericaabroad
butinflamedanti-Americansentimentscreatingthepotentialformoreterrorattackson
U.S.soil.
TheactionsbroughtbythePatriotAct,thoughinvasiveandcontrarytoAmerican
valuesandpromisesofindividualfreedom,werenotillegal.TheactionstakenbytheNYPD
tosurveyMuslimcommunities,includingstudentassociations,mosques,businesses,
communityleadersandindividuals,were.TheintelligencedivisionoftheNYPDillegally
monitoredandwatchedMuslimcommunitiesintheNewYorkAreaandevencommunities
morethan100milesawayinPennsylvania,ConnecticutandNewJersey.Justreadingthe
108Cuffe,Jenny."USMuslims'alienatedbyPatriotAct'"BBCNews.BBC,04July2006.Web.3Jan.2017.
53
nameofthereport,“RadicalizationintheWest:TheHomegrownThreat,”109itbecomes
clearthattheinvestigationwascreatedunderthepretensethatMuslimsposearisktoU.S.
nationalsecurity.ThereporttreatsanyonewithtiestoIslamassuspiciousandmonitors
peopleinMuslimcommunitiesregardlessofanywrongdoingorprobablecause.Thisillegal
investigationbeganin2002butcontinuedinto2006and2007whenofficersevenwentto
collegeanduniversitycampuseswheretheyinfiltratedMuslimStudentAssociations
hopingtofindstudentswithtiestoterrorcells.110Theycameupemptyhanded.Thisillegal
practicehasbeengoingonsincethe1980’s.Thoughthis2006breachofcivillibertiesdid
notconstitutearestrictionofreligiousfreedom,thestudentsandcommunitiesmonitored
felttheeffectsintheirabilitytopracticefreelyandfreefromworry.Thewitch-huntfor
terroristsinMuslimcommunitiesbasedontheunfoundedrelationshipbetweenthosewho
practicedIslamandthosewhowerepotentialterroristshadsignificantconsequencesfor
AmericanMuslims.Manynolongerfeltsafeorwelcomedintheirowncountry.Thespiral
ofIslamophobiadidnotendthere.
4.3LimitsonReligiousFreedom
TheSeptember11thattackshadanothereffectonMuslimsinAmerica;itbeganthe
short-liveddebateonheadscarves.SeveralofthehijackershadobtainedFloridadriver’s
licensespromptingtheFloridaDepartmentofHighwaySafetytoreviewitsdriver’slicense
system.TheMiamiHeraldreportedontheissueinanarticleentitled“TighterSecurityMay
109"Factsheet:TheNYPDMuslimSurveillanceProgram."AmericanCivilLibertiesUnion.ACLU.,n.d.Web.21Jan.2017.110Hawley,Chris."NYPDMonitoredStudentMuslimStudentsalloverNortheast.”AssociatedPress.AP,18Feb.2016.Web.2Mar.2017.
54
MeanMoreStrictDriver’sLicenseRules.”111Therequirementtoremoveheadscarvesfor
photoidentificationappearedtohavebeenimplementedingoodfaith.Therewasa
legitimatesecuritythreatandthemostpracticalsolutionwastoimplementapolicythat
wouldallowformorecarefulandpreciseidentification.However,SultaanaFreemandid
notagree,andwiththehelpoftheACLUshefiledaclaiminJanuaryof2002expressing
thatFloridahadviolatedherrighttoreligiousfreeexercise.Thesuitwasheardbefore
JudgeThorpeinFlorida’scircuitcourt.JudgeThorperuledthatthedemandtolifttheveil
didnotposeasubstantialburdentoFreeman’sreligiousliberty,andfurthermorethatthe
State’sneedtoidentifydriversoutweighedherneedtoweartheveil.Themediawerenot
shyinvoicingsupportfortheState.JournalistsinsultedFreemanlabelingherasan
extremistwhowasactingfoolishly.Themediaignoredthefactthatseveralsimilarcases
hadbeendecidedinfavoroftheplaintiffandhisorherrighttoreligiousexercise.Thislimit
onthecivillibertiesofoneMuslimwomanwasonecaseofmanythathighlightedthe
newfoundsenseofanxietytowardsMuslimswhowerethoughttothreatennational
security.However,unlikeinFrancetheheadscarfissuedidnotsurpassthequestionof
drivers’licensesandidentificationphotos.
Thiscaseisfascinatingforanotherreason:itisoneofthefewdecidedinasimilar
veintotheFrenchheadscarfcases.JudgeThorpefoundthatFlorida’sdemandthat
Freemanremovetheveildidnotposeasignificantburdentoherrightreligiousexercise.
Furthermore,JayVailaFloridaAssistantAttorneyGeneral,inastatementthatcouldhave
beentakenrightoutoftheFrenchheadscarfdecisions,said,“Whenthereisamatterof
commoninterestthatpromotespublicsafety,thenwemustyieldonourrighttofree
111Rothstein,Adam."JihadforJournalists."ReligionintheNews.TrinityCollege,Spring2003.Web.3Jan.2017.
55
exercisetotheextentthatit’snecessarytosecurethatpublicsafetyinterest.”112This
decisionpicksupontheFrenchidealsof“livingtogether”whichwereusedtojustifythe
headscarfbaninSASv.France.ThisrhetoricdidnotgaintractionintheU.S.buthasgained
tractionEurope.InaMarch2017articlepublishedintheUKSpectator,aEuropeanMuslim
woman,QantaAhmed,advocatedforabanonveils.Shebelievesthatthebanisactually
goodforeveryone,includingMuslims.Shepointedoutthat“There’snothingfromtheearly
Islamicperiodaboutwhatthekhimar—orveil—shouldcover,whetherface,bodyorhair.
TheQuran,inSura24:31,remindsMuslimwomensimplyoftheneedto‘draw…[it]over
theirbosoms’.”113Whilethisinformationisimportant,shemissesthepoint.Itdoesnot
matterwhethertheQuranexplicitlyrequireswearingoftheveil,whatmattersisthatifa
personfeelsastrongcommitmenttoadoptacertainreligiouspracticetheyfeeliscentralto
theirreligion,theyshouldhavetherighttodoso.Howeverthishasnotalwaysbeenthe
case.
TheU.S.hasnotalwayssupportedreligiousexemptionandaccommodation.Infact
inthe1990SmithdecisiontheSupremeCourtheldthatalthoughthegovernmenthasthe
powertoaccommodatereligiouspracticeandbeliefs,itisnotrequiredtowhenthe
practiceorbeliefisinbreachofthelaw.Inthe1990landmarkSupremeCourtdecision,the
CourtheardtheargumentsoftheEmploymentDivisionofOregon,whoargueditdidnot
havetopaytheunemploymentbenefitsofSmithwhohadbeenfiredforsmokingpeyote
duringareligiousceremony.114Thecourtruledthatbecausepeyotewasillegalevenfor
112Rothstein,Adam."JihadforJournalists."ReligionintheNews.TrinityCollege,Spring2003.Web.3Jan.2017.113Ahmed,Qanta."AsaMuslim,Istronglysupporttherighttobantheveil."TheSpectator.TheSpectator,16Mar.2017.Web.18Mar.2017.114"EmploymentDivisionv.Smith."LII/LegalInformationInstitute.CornellUniversityLawSchool,n.d.Web.22Mar.2017.
56
sacramentaluseunderstatelaw,theUnemploymentDivisionwasjustifiedindenyingthe
benefits.TheCourtexplainedthatithasneverheldthatanindividuals’religiousbeliefs
excusehim/herfromcomplyingwithanotherwisevalidlaw.Thecourtexplainedthata
rulinglikethatcouldleadtoaprivaterighttoignoregenerallyapplicablelawscreatinga
constitutionalanomalythatwouldbehardtouphold.Bygrantingdeferencetothestate
thisdecisionmarkedamoveawayfromapolicyofmoreopenreligiousfreedomtoamore
restrictivepolicyofreligiousfreedom.Nevertheless,theprecedentestablishedinSmithdid
notlastverylong.
4.4AnEraofReligiousBasedLegislation
InresponsetotheSmithdecision,Congressnearlyunanimouslypassedthe
ReligiousFreedomRestorationAct,whichPresidentClintonsignedintolawin1993.RFRA
statesthat“governmentshallnotsubstantiallyburdenaperson’sexerciseofreligioneven
iftheburdenresultsfromaruleofgeneralapplicability,”unlesstherestrictionis“in
furtheranceofacompellinggovernmentalinterest”andis“theleastrestrictivemeansof
furtheringthatcompellinginterest.”115Thecreatorofthelawfeltthat“thecompelling
interesttestassetforthinpriorFederalcourtrulingsisaworkabletestforstriking
sensiblebalancesbetweenreligiouslibertyandcompetingpriorgovernmental
interests.”116ThecompellinginteresttestcomesfromSherbertv.Verner(1963).Thetest
wasdescribedas:“ifapersonclaimedasincerereligiousbelief,andagovernmentaction
placedasubstantialburdenonthatbelief,thegovernmentneededtoproveacompelling
115Cismas,Ioana,andStacyN.Cammarano.116Bomboy,Scott."WhatisRFRAandwhydowecare?"ConstitutionDaily.NationalConstitutionCenter,30June2013.Web.18Mar.2017.
57
stateinterest,andthatitpursuedthatactionintheleastburdensomeway.”117WithRFRA
inplaceCongresshopedtheAmericanpeoplewouldbesecureintheirrighttoreligious
freedomandpractice.
ThevictorygrantedbythepassageofRFRAwasinsomewaysshortlived.InBoerne
v.Flores(1997)theSupremeCourtstruckdownRFRAasunconstitutionalarguingthat
congresshadoversteppeditsbounds.ArchbishopFloreshadbroughtsuitagainstthecity
ofBoerne,Texasforrefusingtogivehimapermittobuildachurch.Thefactsofthecase
areinsignificant;thebasisforrulingwastheconstitutionalityofRFRA,andtheCourtstated
CongressdidnothavethepowerundertheFourteenthAmendmenttoapplyRFRAtothe
statesandtheirlocalordinances.118Thisledin2000tothecreationofyetanotherlaw:The
ReligiousLandUseandIncarceratedPersonsAct(RLUIPA).LikeRFRA,RLUIPAwaspassed
unanimouslyandwiththefullsupportofPresidentClinton.In2000,thecountrywas
committedtoprotectingreligiousfreedomforeveryone.TheActwasdesignedtoprotect
religiousorganizationsfromdiscriminatoryzoningandlanduselaws.Itbars
discriminationbasedonreligion,requiresallreligiousgroupstobetreatedequaltonon-
religiousplacesofassembly,andobligesthestatetoprovideproofofcompellinginterestif
anyzoningorlandmarkactionsimpartasubstantialburdenonareligiousgroup.119
Overthelast14yearsRLUIPAhashelpedmanyMuslimssafeguardtheirrightto
religiousfreedom,howeverwhentheactwaswrittenitwasnotespeciallyintendedtoaid
Muslims;mosqueswerehardlymentioned.Priorto9/11levelsofdiscriminationtowards
Muslimsremainedfairlylow.Therewasnopressingneedtocreatelegislationthatwould
protectMuslims.Post9/11therewasastarkcontrastastensionsrose.In2001the117Bomboy,Scott."WhatisRFRAandwhydowecare?"118"CityofBoernev.Flores."Oyez.Oyez,n.d.Web.22Mar.2017119Cismas,Ioana,andStacyN.Cammarano.
58
DepartmentofJusticeinvestigated421hatecrimesagainstMuslimsascomparedto28the
yearbefore.120FormanyAmericanMuslimsRLUIPAcameatacrucialtime.
AfterthepassageofRFRAandRLUIPA,religiouszoningissuesappearedtobefor
themostpartreconciledbetweencitiesandreligiousgroups.InBoston,theBoston
RedevelopmentAuthoritywithsupportfromMayorMeninoandotherCityofBoston
officialssoldtheIslamicSocietyaparceloflandtobeusedtobuildamosque.Thoughthe
salewasmetwithhostilityduetothewellunder-marketpricethecityhadgiventhe
IslamicSociety,thesalewentthrough.121However,resentmentgrewprovokingone
RoxburyresidenttofileasuitagainsttheCityandtheIslamicSocietyforviolatingthe
constitutionalprincipleofseparationofChurchandState.Toaddtothefire,theownership
ofthemosquewastransferredfromanAfrican-AmericanMuslimgrouptoasuburban-
basedMuslimgroupwithtiestoSaudiArabiaandotherMiddleEasterncountries.Thisnew
group,theIslamicSocietyofBoston,wasknownforitsbaseofconservativeMiddleEastern
MuslimsandwassuspectedofhavingtiestoIslamicextremists.Infactmultiplemembers,
includingISB’sfounderAbdulrahmanAlamoudiwhowasconvictedforbeinganAlQaeda
financier,andtheTsarnaevbrotherswhocarriedouttheBostonMarathonBombing,had
beenfoundtohavetieswithAlQaedaandotherIslamicextremistOrganizations.122
Nonetheless,theCity,perhapsoutoffearofappearingIslamophobicorviolatingRLUIPA,
allowedthemosquetobebuilt.TheresultofthecontroversyoverthemosqueofBoston
120Treene,EricW."UnderstandingtheImpactoftheReligiousLandUseandInstitutionalizedPersonsAct."ZoningandMosques-AmericanBarAssociation.ThePublicLawyer,Winter2015.Web.23Mar.2017.121Estes,Andrea."Councilorsurgeprobeoflandsaleformosque."Boston.com.TheBostonGlobe,06Oct.2004.Web.13Feb.2017.122"TheIslamicSocietyofBoston'sBuildingControversy."CounterJihad.Counterjihad.,11Aug.2015.Web.03Mar.2017.
59
pointstothegrowingdeferencetoreligiousorganizationsafterthepassageoftheRFRA
andRLUIPA.
Asidefromtheresidualeffectsof9/11,the2000’ssawfewattacksonthereligious
freedomofMuslimsinlargepartbecausePresidentBushkepttheMuslimdilemmafrom
becomingapartisanissue.Tothecontrary,in2007theUnitedStateselecteditsfirst
MuslimCongressman,DemocratKeithEllisonofMichigan.Ayearlaterin2008Andre
CarsonaDemocratfromIndianawassworninonJefferson’sQuran.123Unfortunately,this
periodofreligiousacceptancecametoahaltwhenPresidentBushlefttheWhiteHousein
2009.BushhadmadeaconsciousefforttokeepIslamophobiaatbay,butwithhis
departureandtheelectionofaDemocraticPresident,theRepublicanPartywasfreedofthe
responsibilitytomaintainawelcomingandopenfronttowardsIslam.Instead,the
RepublicanPartyexplicitlyexpressedhostilitytowardsIslamandframeditasapartisan
issue.Theyear2010markedasadruptureintheAmericanpoliticalregime:nolonger
wouldbothpartiesbeunitedinprotectingreligiouslibertyforallcitizens.
4.5The2010PolicyShift:OpenHostilityTowardsMuslims
After2010itbecameclearthatitwasnotjusttheRepublicanswhofeltastrong
needtocontrolandlimitthepoweroftheMuslimpopulation,butsodidmuchofthe
generalpopulation.Thelatentanti-Muslimsentimentthathadsurgedinthemonthsafter
9/11hadre-merged.TheshiftinpoliticswasreflectedintheattitudesoftheAmerican
peoplewhobroughtsuitsagainstMuslims,burnedQuransandattemptedtobanSharia
law.Andthere’ssignificantempiricaldatatosupporttheclaimthatanideologicaland
123Karim,TalibI."SecondMuslimTakesHisSeatintheHouseofRepresentatives."TheMuslimLink.TheMuslimLink,01Apr.2008.Web.20Mar.2017.
60
attitudinalshiftoccurred.PewreportsthatMuslimshadahigherapprovalratingshortly
after9/11thanin2010.124DataonhatecrimesandRLUIPAcasesshowadramaticincrease
inhostilitytowardsMuslimsafter2010.OfthefortyRLUIPAcasesinvolvingmosquesor
Islamicschoolstwenty-onewereopenedafter2010.TheEqualEmploymentOpportunity
Commissionreceivedarecord803complaintsfromMuslimworkersin2009,afigurethat
isuptwentypercentfromthepreviousyear.125Inadditiontotheincreaseinsheer
number,areportbytheInstituteforSocialPolicyandUnderstandingfoundthatthe
mannerofprotesthadchanged.126NolongerwasoppositiontoMuslimsbeingvoicedinthe
controlledenvironmentsofpublicsessionsandtownhallmeetings,anti-Islamicgroups
tooktheirprotesttothestreets.
ThehostilitytowardsMuslimswasmanifestedinthestreetsofNewYork.The
displayofanti-Muslimsentimentsexpressedinlandusecontroversyoverthebuildingof
mosquesdrewnationalattention,mostnotablyfortheso-calledGroundZeroMosquein
LowerManhattanandtheMurfreesboroIslamicCenterinTennessee.Inbothofthesecases
theoppositionresortedtodrasticmeasures.Whenplanswereannouncedtobuilda
MuslimCommunitycenterfourblocksfromtheGroundZerositetenyearsafter9/11there
begananemotionallychargeddebate.Attheoutsetthecommunityboardoflower
ManhattanapprovedtheconstructionofthePark51centeragreeingwithDaisyKhan,the
PresidentoftheAmericanSocietyforMuslimAdvancement,thattheIslamiccentercould
providetheopportunitytocelebratepluralismandcountertheextremistmovement.But,
astheprojectattractedmediaattention,itsproponentswereaccusedofbeinginsensitive,124Rashid,Qasim."TheWarOverMuslimsinAmerica."TheHuffingtonPost.TheHuffingtonPost.com,31Dec.2010.Web.20Mar.2017.125Greenhouse,Steven."MuslimsReportRisingDiscriminationatWork."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,23Sept.2010.Web.23Mar.2017.126Treene,EricW.
61
disrespectfulandintoleranttowardsMuslims.PresidentObamawadedintothe
controversydeclaring,“ThisisAmerica.Andourcommitmenttoreligiousfreedommustbe
unshakeable.Theprinciplethatpeopleofallfaithsarewelcomeinthiscountryandthat
theywillnotbetreateddifferentlybytheirgovernmentisessentialtowhoweare.”127
Ultimately,hiswordsmadeatributetothepoliticiansandpreachersofourcountrywho
forcenturieshavesoughttocreateanAmericathatisreligiouslytolerant.Hiscomments
werenotenoughtoconvinceNewYorkerstoallowtheprojecttomoveforwardinthe
nameofreligioustolerance,andtheprojectwasdefeated.
AsimilarsituationensuedinMurfreesboro,Tennessee,butinsteadresultedin
triumph.Proposalstobuildthemosqueweremetwithvehementdisapprovalandviolence.
TheMuslimcommunityofMurfreesboropurchasedlandinanareaofRutherfordCounty
zonedforchurchandmosquebuilding,andplacedasignonthenewlandthatread“Future
SiteoftheIslamicCenterofMurfreesboro.”Thesignwasvandalizedwiththewords“Not
Welcome.”128Afewmonthslatersizableoppositionhadassembledandagroupofseveral
hundredopponentsralliedintheMurfreesboroSquaretoprotesttheconstruction.Two
monthslateroneoftheirconstructiontruckswassetonfireinwhatremainsanunsolved
arsoncase.TheoppositionarguedthattheIslamicCenterhadtiestoterrorismandthat
Islamwasnotareligionbutapoliticalideology.TheirmostvalidclaimwasthattheCenter
hadfailedtoprovidesufficientnoticeundertheTennesseeOpenMeetingsAct.The
ChanceryCourtruledinfavoroftheoppositionandorderedthecountynottoissuea
certificateofoccupancy.TheU.S.thenfiledaclaimunderRLUIPAthatthedenialofthe
certificateofoccupancyviolatedtheIslamicCenter’srighttopracticetheirreligionand
127"Davis,KennethC."America'sTrueHistoryofReligiousTolerance."128Treene,EricW.
62
thusposedasubstantialburden.ThefederalcourtruledinfavoroftheIslamicCenterand
theopposition’ssubsequentattemptstoappealandreversethedecisionwere
unsuccessful.129ThecaserepresentedavictorybothfortheIslamiccenterandforRLUIPA,
whichhadsuccessfullyprotectedaminorityreligiousgroupfromdiscriminatoryzoning
laws.
Thissmallvictoryforreligiousfreedomwassetbackbyanewdebate:thebanning
ofShariaLawinU.S.courts.ThecommentsmadeintheMurfreesborocaseaboutIslam
beinganideologyorcultandnotareligioninspiredseveralpoliticianstoclaimthat
MuslimshadnoprotectionsundertheFirstAmendment.LieutenantGovernorof
TennesseeRonRamseysaid,"It'stimeforAmericanMuslimswholovethiscountryto
publiclyrenounceviolentjihadismandtodrumthosewhoseektodoAmericaharmoutof
theirfaithcommunity.”130HiscommentacknowledgesthatthereareAmericanMuslims
wholovetheUS,andyethisproposaltreatsallMuslimsasunpatrioticthreatstonational
security.RamseywasnotaloneinthequesttobanSharialaw.Over32statelegislatures
havesinceproposedbillsthatwouldlimitconsiderationofreligiouslawincourtcases,
essentiallybanningShariaLaw.131From2010to2012sixstates,Arizona,Kansas,
Louisiana,Oklahoma,SouthDakotaandTennessee,passedsuchlaws,andanotherfivehad
restrictionsonconsideringreligiouslawincourt.Oklahomaattractedthemostattention
foritslaw,whichspecificallymentionedoutlawingShariaLawinareferendumtoamend
thestateconstitution.Afederaljudgestruckdowntheamendmentasunconstitutionalon
severalgrounds,fordiscriminatingamongreligionswithoutcompellingstateinterest,and129Treene,EricW.130McMorris-Santoro,Evan."TennesseeLt.Gov:ReligiousFreedomMayNotCountForMuslims(VIDEO)."TPM(TalkingPointsMemo).N.p.,26July2010.Web.24Mar.2017.131Kirckland,Michael."UndertheU.S.SupremeCourt:IslamiclawinU.S.courts."UndertheU.S.SupremeCourt:IslamicLaw,ShariainU.S.CourtsUPI.com.UPI,19May2013.Web.20Feb.2017.
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becausetheamendmentdidnotremedyanyidentifiableproblem.Furthermore,supporters
ofthelawadmittedatapublichearingthat,“theydidnotknowofevenasingleinstance
whereanOklahomacourthadappliedSharialaworusedthelegalpreceptsofother
nationsorcultures,letalonethatsuchapplicationsoruseshadresultedinconcrete
problemsinOklahoma.”132Thelackofknowledgeandevidencesuggeststheobvious;the
lawwasgeneratedbyprejudiceandfear,andnotfact.Despitethevictoryincourt,itwas
clearthatopenIslamophobiahadbeeninstitutionalized.
Publichostilityonlygrewinproceedingyears.Ontheanniversaryof9/11in2013
anevangelicalpastorinFloridasetplansinmotiontoburn2,998Quransinapublicpark.
ThiswasnotPastorTerryJones’firstQuranburning.In2010hehadmadeplanstoburn
QuransbutwasstoppedbyaphonecallfromtheDepartmentofJustice.In2011he
watchedwhilehiscongregationsetfiretoQurans,andin2012hehimselfpartookinthe
burning.133UndertheFirstAmendmentJoneshastherighttosymbolicfreespeech,
meaningthatthoughreminiscentofahatecrime,hecanburnaQuran.But,Joneswas
arrestedonfelonychargesforbreakingstatelawsthatprohibittheopentransportationof
fuel.Jones’sactionsweredetrimentalfortheirroleinperpetuatinganti-Muslimviolence
andforthethreathisactionsposedtoU.S.foreignpolicyandnationalsecurity.
ThecountryisstillstrugglingtodeterminewhetherAmericanscontinuetouse
nationalsecurityasaguisefordiscriminatingagainstMuslims.RFRAandRLUIPAsoughtto
surmounttheseproblemsbysecuringreligiousfreedomforminoritygroups,andtoan
extenttheyhave.TheyhaveprotectedtherightsofMuslims.StillnegativeviewsofMuslims
continuetorise.In2001only39percentofAmericanshadunfavorableviewsofIslam,in132Kirckland,Michael."UndertheU.S.SupremeCourt:IslamicLawinU.S.Courts."133Peralta,Eyder."PastorTerryJonesArrestedBeforePlannedQuranBurning."NPR.NPR,11Sept.2013.Web.20Mar.2017.
64
2011and2015thisnumberwas61percent.Thisincreaseinnegativeperceptionssuggests
itisimperativeforthegovernmentandthecourtstoprotecttherighttoreligiousfreedom
andfightreligiousdiscrimination.134
ChaptersixwillexplorewhetherTrumpiscommittedtodoingsoandwillexplore
whathispolicyonIslamandNationalSecuritymaymeanforthefuture.Butfirst,thenext
chapterwillexaminetheBurkinidebateinFranceanddrawoutthetensionbetween
religiousfreedom,nationalidentityandnationalsecurity.
134Bailey,Brian."Section1:ADemographicPortraitofMuslimAmericans."PewResearchCenterforthePeopleandthePress.N.p.,29Aug.2011.Web.13Apr.2017.
65
CHAPTER5:THECLASHOFFRENCHVALUESANDISLAM
(MissRayyan.Digitalimage.BurkiniBanDefiesHumanRights.TheHill,17Aug.2016.Web.)
Aboveisapictureofaburkini,thegarmentthatcreatedanoutpourofcommotionand
reproachthesummerof2016incoastalFrance.Butwhatisaburkiniandwheredidit
comefrom?AhedaZanetti,a48-year-oldAustraliandesignercreatedtheburkiniin2004in
thenameofintegrationandasawaytomakeMuslimwomenfeelmorecomfortableonthe
beach.Sinceitscreationishasbecomesynonymouswithanyfullbodybeachwearwornby
MuslimwomenincitinganimpassioneddebateinFranceonreligiousfreedom.
5.1TheBurkiniDebateBegins:August2016
WhenayoungMuslimgirlsteppedontothebeachinCannes,Franceinahijabona
warmAugustdaysheexpectedtohavearelaxeddayenjoyinghervacationwithherfamily
inherhomecountryofFrance.Apoliceofficerapproachedherandtoldherthatshehadto
removeherhijabbecauseperlawitwasrequiredallpeoplewear“properdress”atthe
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beach.135ThisconfrontationbetweenaMuslimwomanandFrenchpolicewasoneofmany
thatoccurredduringthesummerof2016.Canneswasthefirstofover30Frenchcostal
townstooutlawtheburkiniinaspanofthreemonths.
Themadeupwordburkiniquicklybecamecommonplaceallovertheworldasnews
stationafternewsstationbeganreportingonthebanofthefullbodyswimsuitworn
primarilybyMuslimwomeninFrance.Theburkinibanattractedthepublics’attentionsfor
severalreasons;itwasaboutfeminismandthepresenceofIslam;itwasfarreachingand
invasive,andbecauseofthetiming.Theburkinidebatecameaboutatwoweeksafterthe
BastilleDayterrorattackinNiceduringwhichamanclaimingallegiancetotheIslamic
Statedroveatruckdownthemainboulevardkillingandinjuringover80men,womenand
children,andcameaboutthreeweeksafterthemurderofapriestbytwoarmedMuslim
menSt.-Étienne-du-Rouvray,Normandy.
Supportfortheban,unlikewiththeearlierheadscarfcases,wasnotuniversalin
France.FormerPresidentNicolasSarkozycalledtheburkinia“’provocation,”asymbolof
radicalIslaminacountrystillreelingfromtheterroristattacksinParislastfallandinNice
thisJuly.”136PrimeMinsterManuelVallssupportedtheban,justashehadsupported
previouslegislationrestrictingreligiousattire.However,Valls’clashedwithfellowsocialist
educationminsterNajatVallaud-Belkacem,avocalsupporterofwomen’srightsandcritic
oftheburkinibanwhosaidtheban“letlooseverbalracism.”137Comparedtothe2011law
135“Cannes:unefemmeverbaliséepourleportd'unvoilemusulman."LeMonde.LeMonde,23Aug.2016.Web.23Oct.2016.136McAuley,James."France'sBurkiniDebate:AboutaBathingSuitandaCountry'sPeculiarSecularism."TheWashingtonPost.26Aug.2016.Web.5Sept.2016.137Chrisafis,Angelique."France'sBurkiniBanRowDividesGovernmentasCourtMullsLegality."TheGuardian.GuardianNewsandMedia,25Aug.2016.Web.27Feb.2017.
67
banningveils,which82percentoftheFrenchsupported,supportfortheburkinibanwas
farlowerwithonly60percentinsupportoftheban.138
ThedramabeganwhenCannesoutlawedtheburkini.Canneswasthefirstcityto
implementanordinance.DavidLisnard,MayorofCannes,helpedwritethebanonthe
burkinienactedJuly28th.Theordinancestated,“Accesstobeachesandswimmingis
prohibitedfromthesigningofthisdecreeuntil31August2016toanypersonwhoisnotin
properdress,respectfulofgoodmoralsandlaïcité,Hygieneandbathingsafetyadaptedto
themaritimepublicdomain.”139Thephrase“respectfulofgoodmoralsandlaïcité”takesa
legalprincipleandnarrowsitsapplicationsothatreligiousattirebecomesimproperdress.
Lisnardtriedtopersuadethepressthatthelawwasnotcreatedwiththeintentionof
discriminatingagainstMuslims,butfewbelievedhismeekattempttodefendthe
ordinance.Lisnardsaid,“"WhetherawomanisMuslim,Catholic,JewishorBuddhist,she
canofcoursecomeandbathe!(...)TherearealsomanyMuslimwomenonthebeachesof
Cannes.Buttheycannotwearostentatiousattire."140Weseeherethatjustaswiththe
headscarfcasesthetermostentatiousbecomesproblematic,anditiseasytoquestionthe
trueintentofthelaw.
Lisnardthenattemptedanotherrouteofdefense,feminism.Heclaimed,“Itis
preciselytoprotectthesewomenthatItookthisdecision.Theburkiniistheuniformof
extremistIslamism,notoftheMuslimreligion.”141EntrenchedinFrenchsocietyistheneed
138Heimlich,Russell."FrenchSupportforBanonFullIslamicVeil."PewResearchCenter.PewResearchCenter,13July2010.Web.27Mar.2017.139“Cannes:unefemmeverbaliséepourleportd'unvoilemusulman."140«Qu’unefemmesoitmusulmane,catholique,juiveoubouddhiste,ellepeutbiensûrvenirsebaigner!(...)Ilyad’ailleursbeaucoupdefemmesmusulmanessurlesplagesdeCannes.Maisellesnepeuventpasporterdetenueostentatoire.”….Directquotationfrom:"Cannes:unefemmeverbaliséepourleportd'unvoilemusulman."LeMonde.fr.LeMonde,23Aug.2016.Web.23Oct.2016.141Blaise,AurelienBreedenandLilia."Cannes,CitingSecurityRisks,BansFull-Body'Burkinis'FromItsBeaches."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimes,12Aug.2016.Web.25Sept.2016.
68
tocontrolwoman’s’dressandthenecessitytophysicallydemonstratethedifference
betweenmenandwomenwhiledeclaringtheirequality.Theevidenceofthisdatesbackto
theFrenchRevolution.EugèneDelacroix’sfamouspainting“LibertyLeadingthePeople”
showsabarebreastedMarianneleadingtheFrenchpeople.142Thepaintingdemonstrates
thetensioninFrenchrepublicanismbetweenthepromiseofequalityandthenatural
differentiationbetweenthesexes.Frenchsociety’sdemandthatwomenundressresults
fromitscivilreligionofsecularism.Muslimsocietyessentiallyrejectsthisideabyrequiring
womentobecovered,andtheFrenchfindthatintolerable.
Anotherfacetofthedebatederivedfromsecurityconcerns.Lisnardmakesmention
oftheneedtomaintainpublicorder“whileFranceandplacesofworshiparethetargetof
terroristacts.”143BecausethelawparticularlytargetsMuslimwomen,Lisnardwas
paradoxicallycaughtclaimingthatthelawbothprotectswomenandtreatsthemas
securitythreats.
Severalanti-Islamophobicorganizationstriedtodrawoutthisparadox.The
politiciansinsupportofthebanleftoutafewessentialfacts.TheCollectiveAgainst
Islamophobiaaskedinastatement,“Mustweremindthismayorthatabout30ofthe
victimsoftheattackinNicewereMuslims,becauseterrorismtargetsusall
indiscriminately?”144Theburkiniban,likethebansbeforeit,waswhatFeizaBen
Mohamed,aspokeswomanforaMuslimassociationinthesouthofFrance,calleda
haphazardwayfor“politicianstohidetheirinabilitytohandlesecurityinthefaceof
142Rubin,AlissaJ."FromBikinistoBurkinis,RegulatingWhatWomenWear."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimes,27Aug.2016.Web.30Sept.2017.143Blaise,AurelienBreedenandLilia."Cannes,CitingSecurityRisks,BansFull-Body.”144Blaise,AurelienBreedenandLilia."Cannes,CitingSecurityRisks,BansFull-Body.”
69
terrorism.”145AnotherperceptiveyoungMuslimwomanarticulatedthedangerofthe
burkiniandframedthebanasaquestionofindividualfreedombeggingthequestionhow
farwilltheFrenchgotocheckwhetheranoutfitconformsto“goodmanners”.She
expressedthatthebanshadunleashedawaveofverbalracism.Whilesheacknowledged
increasedtensionasaconsequenceoftherecentterrorattacksclaimedbytheIslamic
State,shebelieves“weshouldn’taddoiltothefire’bybanningburkinis”.146TheFrench
Courtsagreed.
5.2France’sHighestCourtRulesAgainsttheBurkiniBan
OnAugust25,2016France’shighestadministrativecourtheardthecaseofthe
burkiniban.ThiscameafteranappealbytheHumanRightsLeaguechallengingthecourts
decisioninthetownofVilleneuve-LoubetlocatedjustWestofNicetoupholdtheban.The
lowercourtjudgehadagreedthatthebanwas“necessary,appropriateandproportionate”
toprotectpreventpublicdisorderbecausetheburkiniwas“liabletooffendthereligious
convictionsor(religious)non-convictionsofotherusersofthebeach.”147Apparentlymany
oftheFrenchagreed.BBCreportedthatrecentpollsindicatethat64percentoftheFrench
publicsupportedthebanandthatanother30percenthadnoopinion.148Sowhatledthe
highercourttoreachadifferentconclusion?Andwasitadeparturefrompreviousrulings?
TheConseild’Étatfoundthat"Thecontesteddecreehas...inflictedaseriousandmanifestly
unlawfulinterferencewiththefundamentalfreedomsoffreedomofmovement,freedomof
145Blaise,AurelienBreedenandLilia."Cannes,CitingSecurityRisks,BansFull-Body."146Chrisafis,Angelique."France'sBurkiniBanRowDividesGovernmentasCourtMullsLegality."TheGuardian.GuardianNewsandMedia,25Aug.2016.Web.27Feb.2017.147Quinn,Ben."FrenchPoliceMakeWomanRemoveClothingonNiceBeachFollowingBurkiniBan."TheGuardian.GuardianNewsandMedia,23Aug.2016.Web.27Feb.2017.148Micallef,JosephV."IsFranceRighttoBantheBurkini?"TheHuffingtonPost.TheHuffingtonPost,03Sept.2016.Web.16Feb.2017.
70
conscienceandpersonalliberty"andfurthermorethat"theemotionandthefearsresulting
fromtheterroristattacks,andinparticularthosecommittedinNiceonlastJuly14,cannot
sufficetolegallyjustifythecontestedprohibitionmeasure."149Itisinterestingand
surprisingthatthecourtfoundthislawtointerferewithindividualfreedomwhilethe
headscarfbansdidnot.Perhapsitisbecausetheburkinireassemblesafullbodyswimsuit
andisnotclearlyassociatedwithIslam.Anotherexplanation:inlightoftherecentterror
attackthecourtwasabletodistinguishbetweenaperceivedthreattopublicorderandan
actualsecuritythreat.
5.3TheNeedforIntegration:BalancingIslamandlaïcité
Theoutburstsurroundingtheburkinihighlightsthebiggerissueofbalancing
religiousfreedominalaïccountry.ThefactisFrenchrepublicanvaluesclashwiththoseof
Muslimimmigrants,exacerbatingrelationsbetweenthemajoritywhite,nominallyCatholic
FrenchmenandtheMuslimimmigrantcommunity.TodaytheFrenchfindtheyhave
createdaviciouscycle:thelackofintegrationandperceivedthreatoftheMuslim
communitybroughtonbyterrorismleadstheFrenchgovernmenttorestrictthereligious
libertyofMuslimresidentsofFrance,andinturncausesthemtoturnawayandisolate
themselves.Further,thispatternledMuslimimmigrantstosettleinhomogenous
communitiesoftenassociatedwithhigherratesofpovertyandviolence.
149Originalquotes:«l’arrêtélitigieuxa(…)portéuneatteintegraveetmanifestementillégaleauxlibertésfondamentalesquesontlalibertéd’alleretvenir,lalibertédeconscienceetlalibertépersonnelle».«l’émotionetlesinquiétudesrésultantdesattentatsterroristes,etnotammentdeceluicommisàNicele14juilletdernier,nesauraientsuffireàjustifierlégalementlamesured’interdictioncontestée». Source:"LeConseild'Etatmetuntermeauxarrêtés«anti-burkini»."LeMonde.LeMonde,26Aug.2016.Web.25Feb.2017.
71
ThelackofintegrationofMuslimimmigrantcommunitiesisadirectresponsetothe
hostilitytheyencounterfromthenativeFrench.Thehostilityisevidentnotonlyinthe
legislationaimedatrestrictingthereligiousexpressionofMuslims,butitisalsoevidenton
amicroorindividuallevel.The1990’sshowedmuchhigherunemploymentratesamong
youngArabsthantherestofthepopulation.TheNationalAcademyofSciencesfoundthata
candidatewithaMuslim-soundinglastnameis2.5timeslesslikelytobeofferedan
interviewthanacandidatewithaChristian-soundingfamilyname.150Thisdiscrimination
preventsMuslimsfromearninganincomeequaltothatoftheirnativeFrench
counterparts,andforcesMuslimstoliveinpoorerneighborhoodswherecrimeismore
prevalent.ThereissolidevidenceoftheincomedisparityinFrance,withonestudyfinding
thataChristianhouseholdmakes400eurosmorepermonththanaMuslimone.151These
socio-economicfactorspavethewayforaseparationbetweenthetwogroups.TheFrench
majorityhasfarmoreaccesstojobs,educationandsafeneighborhoods.
Thebuildupofinjusticefinallyledtoaseriesofriotsin2005.TwoyoungArab
youthswereontheirwayhomefromasoccergamewhentheyspottedpolicepatrollingthe
areaforaroutineinspection.Inanattempttofleethepoliceandavoidthelengthy
questioningandaccusationscommonintherundownsuburbofClichy-Sous-Bois,thetwo
boysjumpedintoabushanddiedofaccidentalelectrocution.152Theincidentpromptedan
outburstofriotsacrossFranceinmorethan300communitiesresultinginatleastthree
deathsanddozensofinjuries.Injustthefirstthreeweekstheriotscausedaquarterofa
150Adida,ClaireL.,DavidD.Laitin,andMarie-AnneValfort."IdentifyingbarrierstoMuslimintegrationinFrance."ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.NationalAcademyofSciences,28Dec.2010.Web.02Feb.2017.151Adida,ClaireL.,DavidD.Laitin,andMarie-AnneValfort.152Crampton,Thomas."BehindtheFuror,theLastMomentsofTwoYouths."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,07Nov.2005.Web.02Mar.2017.
72
billiondollarsindamageasaresultoftorchedcars,buildingsandbusinesses,andcostsof
increasedpolicepatrols.Bytheendofthosethreeweeks,over2,900arrestsweremade
andtheNationalAssemblyvotedtodeclareathree-monthstateofemergency.Theriots
hadmadeitclear:theMuslimsofFrancehadreachedtheirboilingpoint.
IslamalreadyhadabadimagewithinFrance,andtheseriotsdidnothingbut
inflamethestereotypethatmostMuslimsrejectedFrenchvaluesandhadtiesto
fundamentalism.Apollconductedayearaftertheriots“foundthattwothirdsoftheFrench
associateIslamwithreligiousfanaticism.”153Thoughitisaminorityratherthanamajority
thatendsupjoiningextremistmovements,theMuslimyoutharecertainlynotfreefromthe
influenceofextremistmilitantgroups.Sincethe1980’sgroupsofIslamichardlinerssuch
asthesalafists,wahabisandtheMuslimrenewalassociationknownasTablighihave
recruitednewmembersinthebanlieueofParis,oftenatriots.154Oneexampleistheman
behindtheJune2016killingoftwopoliceofficersduringwhichhesworeallegiancetoISIS.
LaroussiAbballa,25,hadpreviouslystated“Ineededrecognition,”and“alocalgroupof
jihadistsofferedasenseofpurposeinanotherwisedirectionlesslifethatincludedboutsof
unemployment.”155TheserecruitersusetheunfortunatesocialconditionsoftheMuslim
youth(theirpositionasoutsiders,thestigmabystateinstitutionsandthemedia)as
leverageandpersuadeyoungMuslimmentojointheirradicalmovements,whichcan
sometimesleadtoinvolvementinterrorism.Thisisagrowingproblem.In2014therewere
fourcrimesofjihadterrorism.In2015thisnumberjumpedsignificantlyto17,indicating
153Viorst,Milton."TheMuslimsofFrance:IslamAbroad."ForeignAffairs.ForeignAffairs,Sept.1996.Web.02Feb.2017.154Khedimellah,Moussa."Liberté,Egalité,Islam."ReligionintheNews.TrinityCollege,Vol.8,No.3.,Winter2006,Web.02Mar.2017.155Malsin,Jared."NiceAttack:WhyFranceisaMajorTargetforISIS."Time.Time,15July2016.Web.28Mar.2017.
73
Islaminspiredterrorismisifanythingontherise.156Thiscannotbeblamedonlackof
integrationalonebuttreatingMuslimsasasecuritythreatdoessendthemessagethat
MuslimswillneverbetrulyFrench,incitinginthemfeelingsofanimositythatcanleadto
higherratesofhomegrownterrorism.
Thebarrierstointegrationpersistentinthebanlieuehaveremainedlargely
unsolved.HuguesLagrange,aFrenchsociologistanddirectorofresearchattheCentre
NationaldelaRechercheScientifique(CNRS),blamestheboththeleftandtherightfor
ignoringthekeyculturalfactors.Theright,ratherthanrecognizetheculturaldifferencesin
familystructure,blamesthefamiliesofyoungMuslimdelinquentsfortheiractionsand
thereunchangingstatus.Theleft,hesays,makesthemistakeoffocusingonlyon
unemploymentandignoringfamilyconflictandstructure.157LagrangebelievesthatFrance
mustundertakeanideologicalchange.Theymuststoptryingtobalancethexenophobic
securitydiscourseandthemistakenanalysisbythepoliticallycorrectandinsteadputan
endtoformalegalitarianismandstoptreatingeveryoneequally.TheFrenchmust
recognizethatthereexistirreconcilableculturaldifferencesthatcanonlybealleviatedby
embracingmulticulturalismandaccommodation.
SeveraltheoristshavecontendedthattherigidFrenchidentityshapedby
republicanismandlaïcitéistoblameforFrance’sculturalclash.RobertBrubacker,an
Americansociologistwhowritesaboutnationalism,observed,“TheFrenchunderstanding
156"EuropeanUnionTerrorismSituationandTrendReport2015."EuropolEuropeanLawEnforcementAgencyTE-SAT2015.EuropeanPoliceAgency,2015.Web.19Apr.2017.157Méritens,PatriceDe."Lagrange:«Ledénidesculturesestuneerreurpartagéeparlesdeuxcamps»."LeFigaro.LeFiagro,16Oct.2010.Web.24Mar.2017.
74
ofnationhoodhasbeenstate-centeredandassimilationist.”158Theresultisanattackon
thosewhodonotfitthemold,whotodayareMuslims.
TheFrenchshouldsoonrealizethatthisapproachmighthurtthecountrymorethan
helpcreateamutualrespectandunity.Theconnectionbetweentheburkiniandthreatsto
nationalsecurityislackinginproof.Butithasbeenproventhatalackofintegration,high
ratesofdiscriminationandariseinanti-FrenchsentimentsamongtheMuslimpopulation,
canleadtohomegrownterrorism.ForthisreasontheFrenchneedtoembrace
multiculturalismandcompromise.Thiscouldmeankeepingthe2004lawbanningveilsin
schoolsbutrepealingthe2011lawthatbansveilsinpublicplaces.ThoughFrench
politiciansinsistthoselawshavebeencreatedinthenameofrespectforlaïcité,their
commentssuggestsotherwise.Thoselawshavehadnegativeconsequences.
TheNationalObservatoryAgainstIslamophobiafoundthatfrom2013to2015,80
percentofviolentanti-Muslimactsweredirectedatwomen,mostofthemveiled.159When
theU.S.JudgesruledonPresidentTrump’sMuslimsbantheystatedthattheytookhisanti-
Muslimrhetoricintoconsiderationwhendeterminingthetrueintentbehindtheban.Ifthe
courtsinFrancehaddonethisin2004and2011theoutcomemighthavebeendifferent.
FranceneedstoloosenitsdefinitionofwhatitmeanstobeFrenchandinvite
diversity.TheU.S.ontheotherhandalreadyembracesdiversityandhasstronganti-
discriminationlawsbutmustprotectitinthefaceofanewpresidentwhodoesnotsee
thesevaluesasstrengthsofthecountry.ThelastchapterwillcritiqueDonaldTrump’s
policies,evaluatethetruethreatoftheMuslimpopulationoftheU.S.,andmakepredictions
forthefuture.158Schain,Martin,60.159Daley,Suzanne,andAlissaJ.Rubin."FrenchMuslimsSayVeilBansGiveCovertoBias."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimes,26May2015.Web.10Apr.2017.
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CHAPTER6:OURFUTURE:RELIGIOUSFREEDOMUNDERTHETRUMPADMINISTRATION
TheelectionofDonaldTrumpappearstohaveusheredinaneweraofnativism.
Thisneweraduringwhichimmigrationandnationalsecuritypolicyareafocalpoint,has
demonstratedthetensionbetweentheneedtocombatforeignthreatsandsafeguardthe
rightsofAmericancitizens.PresidentTrumpthinksthatthebiggestthreattonational
securityis“radicalIslam”.Duetothegovernment’sinabilitytoadequatelydistinguishthe
“badguys”fromordinaryMuslimrefugeesandimmigrants,Trumphaslauncheda
campaignagainstradicalIslam,advocatingforapolicythatdiscriminatesonthebasisof
religionandthreatenstorestrictreligiousliberty.ThepoliciesTrumpdevelopsand
implementsinthenextfouryearshavethepotentialtochangethecourseofAmerican
policybyredefiningtheappropriatebalancebetweenreligiousfreedom,nationalidentity
andnationalsecurity.
PresidentTrump’scampaignandelectionhave,inadditiontoawakeningalatent
nativism,augmentedpopularfearsofIslam.Someprominentpoliticians,mostlyonthefar
rightoftheRepublicanParty,andconservativetalkshowhostsandjournalistshavebeen
railingagainstthethreatofIslamforyears,claimingwithoutevidencethatMuslimsinthe
U.SwanttoimposeSharialawandIslamonAmerica.Inlightofarecentsurgeofterrorism
perpetratedbyMuslims,thesegroupsandTrumphavebeenabletoattractconsiderable
supportforpoliciesthatthreatentherightsandlibertiesofMuslimsbyframingthepolicies
asnecessarytoprotectingAmericans.Trumphasdaredtoimplementhispolicyof“a
completeandtotalban”ofMuslimimmigrationanddeclarethattheU.S.mustcombat
radicalIslambecausemillionsofAmericans,thoughperhapsnotamajority,agreed.
SincethenmillionsofAmericanswithnotiestoIslamhavesharplycriticizedhis
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rhetoriconIslam,includingtopGovernmentOfficialssuchasPresidentBush,andSenate
MinorityLeaderCharlesSchumer.ManyAmericanshadhopedTrumpwouldretreatfrom
hispromiseofa“totalandcompleteban”ofMuslimsandmaintainAmerica’sreputation
andtraditionasacountrythathasalwayspromotedfreedomofreligionanddiversity.
Unfortunately,thisdidnothappen.SincetheofficialstartoftheU.S.presidentialcampaign
inJune2015therehasbeenariseinbothIslamophobiaandlegislationaimedtocurbIslam
inAmerica,forinstancetheattemptbyseveralstatestobansharialaw.
TheriseinterrorattackscoincidedwiththebeginningoftheU.S.presidential
campaignbringinganti-Muslimsentimentstotheforefrontonceagain.InDecember2015
duringtheSanBernardinoattackaradicalizedIslamiccouplekilled14co-workersata
officeholidayparty.TheninJune2016aMuslimmanopenedfireonagaynightclubin
Orlando,Floridathatleft49peopledead.InJuly,justdaysafterTrumpgainedhis
nominationattheRepublicanConvention,theworldfeltthepainoftheNiceterrorattack,in
whichaFrenchTunisianmanplowedhistruckthroughcrowdsofFrenchandforeigners
celebratingBastilleDayintheMediterraneanresortcity.Justweekslater,millionsof
AmericanwatchedwithwideeyesthenewsoftheslayingofaFrenchpriestbyaman
claimingallegiancetoISIS.160Theseattacks,localandforeign,leftanimprintonthenation,
reinforcingfearanddistrustofMuslimsthatwasreflectedinattitudesandmore
importantlyinpolicy.
The2015attackinSanBernardinowasthemostdecisiveeventofTrump’s
campaign;itwasinthedaysafterthatTrumpcementedhispolicyofexclusionandhostility
towardsMuslims.FivedaysaftertheterrorattackonDecember7,2015,Trumpannounced
160Barrett,James."ACompleteListofRadicalIslamicTerrorAttacksonU.S.SoilUnderObama."DailyWire.N.p.,07Dec.2016.Web.01Apr.2017.
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hisplanfora“totalandcomplete”Muslimban.161Hehassincestatednumeroustimesthat
Islammustnotbe“allowedtoresideorspreadwithinourowncommunities.”162Atarallyin
Raleigh,NorthCarolina,Trumpwasaskedhowhewouldhandleterrorattacks.He
responded,“Iwouldgetmyselfinsomuchtroublewiththem,wearegoingtohandleitso
tough."163Trumpthenfollowedupwithastatementcriticalofpoliticalcorrectness,hesaid,
"Howaboutthepersonwhoknewwhatwasgoingonsaidtheydidn'twanttoreportthem
becausetheythinkitmightberacialprofiling,didyouseethat?Wehavebecomeso
politicallycorrectthatwedon'tknowwhatthehellwe'redoing."164Trumppickedupon
thefrustrationofmanyAmericanswhofeltthathispredecessorignoredtheseissues.
Consequently,severalmillionAmericansapplaudedhimfortakingastrongapproachto
fightingterrorism.
MeanwhileanothergroupofAmericanswasdisappointedbywhattheycalled
Trump’sbigotedresponse.PresidentObamaandadvocatesofcivillibertieswarnedthat
creatingdiscriminatorylawsthatblameallMuslims(worldwide)fortheactionsofafew
(letsnotforget-U.S.Citizens)violatestheFirstAmendment,andhasthepotentialto
alienatemanyMuslimAmericans.EvensomeofthevictimsoftheSanBernardinoterror
attacksdisagreedwithTrump’sapproach.JohnRamos,whowasinjuredintheattack,was
abletoseethefaultinTrump’sban,hesaid,“Thepersonwhocarriedout[theDec.2]attack
wasbornintheU.S.andonlywentoverseastogetawife,it’sill-conceived.”165Afamily
161Kopan,Tal."DonaldTrumponSanBernardinoresponse:'Iwouldbesotough'"CNN.CableNewsNetwork,05Dec.2015.Web.31Mar.2017.162Shane,Scott,MatthewRosenberg,andEricLipton."TrumpPushesDarkViewofIslamtoCenterofU.S.Policy-Making."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,01Feb.2017.Web.12Feb.2017.163Kopan,Tal."DonaldTrumponSanBernardinoresponse…”164Kopan,Tal."DonaldTrumponSanBernardinoresponse...”165Branson-Potts,Hayley,SarahParvini,andPalomaEsquivel."ForvictimsofSanBernardinoterroristattack,conflictingviewsaboutTrumppolicyintheirname."LosAngelesTimes.LosAngelesTimes,1Feb.2017.Web.31Mar.2017.
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friendofanothervictimvoicedsupportforU.S.policiesthatwillkeepAmericaand
Americanssafebutadded,“WehopeAmericaandPresidentTrumpcandothiswithout
violatingourcorevalues.”166Fornow,Trumphasletthesepeopledown.
SeveralstatesandVicePresidentMikePenceappeartohaveletfearandprejudice
influencetheirpolicy-making.Theirperceptionofathreatmaybecoloredbytheirincorrect
assumptionsaboutMuslims.Asof2010,55percentknowlittleornothingaboutIslam
accordingtoPewResearchCenter.Another35percentsaytheyknowsomethingandonly
ninepercentsaytheyknowagreatdeal.167Thelackofinformationandthewidecirculation
ofmisinformationhaveledmillionsofAmericanstobemisinformedaboutIslam.When
policymakersaretaskedwithassessingrisk,theirlimitedknowledgeandmuddledviewof
Islampresentsasignificantproblem.
ConvincedthatIslamisahegemonicreligionpreachingviolence,severalstateshave
attemptedtoshuttheirdoorstoMuslimrefugees.InordertoreachPresidentObama’s
statedgoalofwelcoming10,000refugeesintothecountryallstateshavehadtosharethe
burden.Indianaadmitted174Syrianrefugeesduringthefiscalyearof2016,thoughnot
withopenarms.168GovernorMikePence,nowVicePresidentoftheU.S.,declaredtheSyrian
refugeesasecuritythreatandannouncedthatthestatewouldsuspendtheSyrianrefugee
programandwouldnotreimbursethenon-profitExodus,whichhelpssettlenewrefugees,
forcostsincurredonbehalfoftherefugees.Exodussuedandthecasewasheardbeforethe
SeventhCircuitU.S.CourtofAppealsinSeptemberof2016.Thejudgeswonderedwhether
barringrefugeeswasaneffectiveanti-terrorismstrategy.Awareofthediscriminatory166Branson-Potts,Hayley,SarahParvini,andPalomaEsquivel."ForvictimsofSanBernardino...”167Liu,Joseph."PublicRemainsConflictedOverIslam."PewResearchCenter'sReligion&PublicLifeProject.N.p.,23Aug.2010.Web.3Apr.2017.168Sanneh,Kelefa."UntanglingtheImmigrationDebate."TheNewYorker.TheNewYorker,31Oct.2016.Web.02Apr.2017.
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undertonesandfear-basedmotivation,thecourtaskedthestate:“AreSyrianstheonly
MuslimsIndianafears?”169SeveralotherGovernorsfollowedPence’sleadandresponded
withpoliciesthatbarredrefugeesfromenteringtheirstates.170Thecourtestablishedthat
statescouldn’tdiscriminateagainstimmigrantsbecauseonlytheFederalgovernmenthas
therighttodecidewhocanandcannotcomeintothecountry.Assumingthatthemost
powerfulmembersofthegovernmentwillexecutethelawswithgreatcareandintegrity,
thisshouldhavebeenavictory,butsuchwasnotthecase.
6.1The“Muslim”Ban
JustweeksafterhisinaugurationPresidentTrumpsignedanExecutiveOrder
stickingtohispromiseofbanningMuslimsfromthecountry.OnJanuary27,2017he
revealedhispolicywhichdeclaredasuspensionofallimmigrationfor90daysandofnew
refugeeentriesfor120daysfromsevenMuslim-majoritycountries:Iraq,Syria,Iran,
Somalia,Yemen,SudanandLibya.Ironically,thecouplebehindtheSanBernardinoterror
attack,theeventthatinitiallypromptedTrump’sproposalforaMuslimban(orgavehiman
excusetoexecuteit),hadtiestotwoMuslim-majoritycountries,SaudiArabiaandPakistan--
yetthosecountrieswereleftoffthelist.Wecanspeculateastowhy:perhapsitwasdueto
U.S.oilinterests,ortheneedtomaintainsomealliesintheMiddleEast,ormaybeitwas
becauseofTrump’spersonalbusinessinterests.Butregardlessofthereason,SaudiArabia,
thelargestbreederofradicalextremistIslamintheworld,wasnotonthelist.171The
169Sanneh,Kelefa."UntanglingtheImmigrationDebate."170TheGovernorsofMichigan,Alabama,Texas,Arkansas,andLouisianaalsoissuedexecutiveordersbarringtheentryofSyrianrefugeestotheirstates. Shen,Aviva."FearmongeringAgainstRefugeesInTheU.S.Begins–ThinkProgress."ThinkProgress.ThinkProgress,16Nov.2015.Web.03Apr.2017.171Severalsourcesaffirmtheclaim:1."IraqiVPNourial-Maliki:SaudiArabiaIstheBreedingGroundforTerrorismintheMiddleEast."AmericanHeraldTribune.AHTribuneN.p.,23Jan.2017.Web.02Apr.2017.2.
80
methodologybehindtheselectionofcountriesisnotclear,leadingmuchofthepopulation
toquestiontheabilityofthebantoaidincounter-terrorism.TheCourtfoundthat,“the
Governmenthasnotofferedanyevidenceorevenanexplanationofhowthenational
securityconcernsthatjustifiedthosedesignations.”172PoliticiansinTrump’sownparty
haveexpressedtheirshockanddisappointmentaswell.
Reactiontothetravelbanhashighlightedadivideonbothpolicyandprinciple.
SenateMinorityLeaderChuckSchumereloquentlyarticulatedthesentimentsofmany
Americans.Hesaid,“TearsarerunningdownthecheeksoftheStatueofLibertytonightasa
grandtraditionofAmerica,welcomingimmigrants,thathasexistedsinceAmericawas
foundedhasbeenstompedupon."173PresidentBushwentoutofhiswaytourgetolerance
afterbeingaskedaboutTrump’sMuslimban.BushemphasizedAmerica’sstrengthasa
countryinwhichpeoplearefreetoworshipastheyplease.174TheAmericanpublicwassplit
ontheissue.ApollconductedforReutersattheendofJanuaryfoundthat48percentof
AmericansagreedwithTrump’sexecutiveorder,while41percentdisagreed.Whenaskedif
theOrdersetagoodexampleofhowtobestconfrontterrorismthenumberdeclinedto38
percent.175OftheAmericanspolled,34percentsaidtheyhadheardofitbutdidnotknow
anydetailsorwereunfamiliar,reducingthevalidityofthepoll’ssuggestionthatamajority
ofAmericanssupporttheban.NonethelessafairlysignificantpercentofAmericanswere
foundtobeinfavoroftheban.Connolly,Amanda."SaudiArabiaa‘BreedingGround’forTerrorism,ImamTellsCommittee."IPolitics.N.p.,02Feb.2015.Web.02Apr.2017.3.VanderGalien,Michael."SaudiArabiaIstheMainCulpritofJihadism:2.000SaudisJoinedTerroristGroupsAbroad."Trending.N.p.,27Dec.2016.Web.02Apr.2017.172"TheStateofWashingtonV.DonaldJ.Trump."ForPublicationinUnitedStatesCourtofAppeals…”173Merica,Dan."TrumpSignsExecutiveOrdertoKeepout'RadicalIslamicTerrorists'"CNN.CableNewsNetwork,28Jan.2017.Web.28Jan.2017.174Baker,Peter."FormerPresidentGeorgeW.BushLevelsTacitCriticismatTrump."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,27Feb.2017.Web.30Mar.2017.175"IpsosPollConductedforReuters–ImmigrationBan1.31.17."Ispsos/ReutersThomson,31Jan.2017.Web.1Apr.2017.
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Severalstatesfeltdifferentlyandwerepropelledtoactionbythebeliefthatthebanwas
morallyandconstitutionallywrong.Anumberofstatesfiledsuitschallengingthe
constitutionalityofPresidentTrump’stravelban.OnFebruary3,U.S.FederaldistrictJudge
JamesRobartoftheNinthCircuitCourtissuedarestrainingordertohaltTrump’sorder
nationwide.Inthecase,theStateofWashingtonandMinnesotasuedthePresidentandThe
DepartmentofJusticeallegingthat“theExecutiveOrderwasnottrulymeanttoprotect
againstterrorattacksbyforeignnationalsbutratherwasintendedtoenacta“Muslimban”
asthePresidenthadstatedduringhispresidentialcampaign…”176TheDOJfiledanappeal,
butthecourtaffirmedtheearlierrulinganddeniedtherequest.ThethreeJudgeCourtdid
notruleontheconstitutionalityofthebandecidingitwastooearlytomakeadecisionon
claimsofreligiousdiscrimination,butfoundthegovernmenthadnotshownalikelihoodof
successorthatfailuretoenterastaywouldcauseirreparableharm.Trumprespondedby
revisingthetravelbantosixcountries,andallowingthosewithpermanentresidence,such
asstudents,engineers,tourists,andrelativestoenterthecountry.Followingthesecond
revisedorder,ajudgeinHawaiiarguedthatbecauseTrumphadassertedthathewanteda
“Muslimban”andhadsaidtoformerNewYorkMayorRudyGiuliani“showmetherightway
todoitlegally,”theorderestablishedreligiouspreferenceviolatingtheEstablishment
Clause.177FederaljudgeTheodoreD.ChuangofMarylandagreedinanarrowerrulingand
calledforanindefiniteinjunctionarguingthatthebancontinuedtodiscriminateagainst
MuslimseventhoughthePresidenthadtakenoutstipulationonpreferencefor“minority
religions.”JudgeChuangwaswillingtoestablishtheobvious.InthecontextofTrump’s
176"TheStateofWashingtonV.DonaldJ.Trump."ForPublicationinUnitedStatesCourtofAppealsforthe...U.S.Courts,n.d.Web.02Apr.2017.177Wang,AmyB."Trumpaskedfora‘Muslimban,’Giulianisays-andorderedacommissiontodoit‘legally’."TheWashingtonPost.WPCompany,29Jan.2017.Web.04Apr.2017.
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statementtheMuslimbanwasclearlyaformofreligiousdiscrimination.Hestated,“The
historyofpublicstatementscontinuestoprovideaconvincingcasethatthepurposeofthe
SecondExecutiveOrderremainstherealizationofthelong-envisionedMuslimban.”178 The directoroftheACLUDavidColebelievedChuangstatementstobetrueandsaidtherevised
orderisstill“religiousdiscriminationinthepre-textualguiseofnationalsecurity.Andit’s
stillunconstitutional.”179FornowthecourtshavespokenandruledTrump’sorderis
unconstitutional.
TheMuslimbanorExecutiveOrdercaseisalsonoteworthyforitsfuture
implications.Inlightofreasonablepublicsupportfortheban,thejudges’rulingwasa
reminderofthecountry’scommitmenttoupholditsconstitutionalvalues.Itisalsolikelyto
endupintheSupremeCourtandwithanewlyappointedconservativejudgethereisa
possibilitythatthecasemaybedecidedinTrump’sfavor.Therulingwillbealandmarkcase
establishingthelimitsofreligiouspolicyforthefuture.Itwillsetprecedentforfuture
immigrationbansandwilldefinethescopeoftheCourtsabilitytolimitthepresident’s
power.Onlytimewilltellwhowillprevail,Trumpandthosewhofeelthereiscausefor
limitingreligiousfreedom,orchampionsofU.S.multiculturalismwhowanttopromote
religiousfreedom.
6.2IslaminU.S.politics:IstheU.S.Obsessed?
ManyAmericans,politiciansandciviliansalike,havebeenscratchingtheirheads
tryingtofigureoutwhysince2016thereisanewfoundandprominentfocusonIslamand
MuslimsinAmericanmainstreampolitics.Thereareseveralsoundexplanationsforthis.178Zapotosky,Matt."SecondfederaljudgeblocksrevisedTrumptravelban."TheWashingtonPost.WPCompany,16Mar.2017.Web.13Apr.2017.179Savage,David."Trump'snewtravelbanwillbehardertochallengeincourt,butcriticssayitstilltargetsMuslims."LosAngelesTimes.LosAngelesTimes,6Mar.2017.Web.02Apr.2017.
83
Thefirstisthatmultiplesectorsofgovernmenthavebecomeinvolvedinmaintaining
nationalsecurity.TheU.S.haslongconsideredradicalextremistIslamtobeathreattoU.S.
nationalsecurity,evenpriortothepresidentialcampaignandPresidentTrump’selection.In
thepast,theneedtocreatepolicytocombatthethreatof“radicalIslam”waslefttonational
securityexperts,thedepartmentofhomelandsecurity,themilitaryandsoon.Morerecently
securitypolicyhaspermeatedmultiplepolicyareas.Americanimmigration,religiousand
discriminationpolicyalsoseektoplayaroleincombattingthethreat,bringingtheseissues
tothemainstreamandintothemindsofmillionsofAmericans.
Theotherexplanationsareconditionalratherthaninstitutional.TheAmericanpublic
hasonceagaingrownconcernedbecauseofacombinationoffactors.Theformationofa
newMuslimterroristgroupISIS,whichstandsfortheIslamicStateofIraqandSyria,as
opposedtoAlQaeda.AlQaeda,whichisalsoaradicalIslamicterroristgroupdoesnothave
thekeypiercingword‘Islamic’init,nordoesitrefertoaspecificcountry.Asecondfactoris
theriseinIslamicinspiredterrorismandariseinthereportingofthatterrorism.Nextisthe
impactoftheSyrianrefugeecrisis,whichhascausedmajordebateinEuropeafteritwas
discoveredthatoneoftheNovember13ParisattackershadenteredthecountryasaSyrian
refugee.AmericancitizensareinformedbytheactionsofouralliesinEuropewhoare
dealingwiththeseissues.Trump’sproposaltobantravelfromsixMuslimMajority
countriesresemblesFrance’sreactiontocloseitsdoorstorefugeesafterwhattheycalledan
intelligencefailure.Bothactionsstemfromthesamerationale;thedifferenceisthatFrance
claimedresponsibilityforitsintelligencefailure,whileTrumphasputtheonusonMuslims.
6.3HowAreMuslimsFaringintheU.S.?
FromapolicyperspectiveitisinterestingtorecognizethatAmericanshavedifferent
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attitudestowards“Islam”and“Muslims.”Americanshavedistinguishedbetweentheir
viewsonIslam(thereligioninabstractform)andtheirviewsofMuslims(apeople)leading
themtoacceptapolicythattargetsIslambutlesssopolicythatblocksMuslims.ABrookings
pollfoundthatin2011,39percentofAmericanshadfavorableviewsofIslam.When
AmericanswereaskedabouttheirviewsonMuslims,alargerpercentage(50percent)
expressedfavorableviews.180ThepollresultsshowthatAmericanshavemorefavorable
viewsofMuslimsthantheydoofIslam.TheresearchersuggestedthatAmericansassociate
MuslimwiththeMuslimpopulationinthecountry,andIslamwiththeforeignthreatofthe
religion.ThedifferingpollresultsareunsurprisingbecauseAmericanshavebeenprimedto
differentiatebetweenMuslimsandIslam.Stronganti-discriminationlawshavemadeit
harderforAmericanstoexpressprejudicetowardsapeople.Islamhoweverismore
abstractmakingitmoreacceptabletoreject.Furthermore,favorableviewsofMuslimshave
increasedfrom50percentexpressingfavorableviewsin2011to53percentin2015.181
PrejudicetowardsMuslims,orminoritiesofanykindhadnotbeenacceptableinthe
country’spoliticallandscapefordecades,untilnow,untilTrump.UnfavorableviewsofIslam
haveincreasedsignificantlyfrom2001(37percent)to2015(61percent).Thismeansthe
countryhasaproblemwithIslamthatstandstogetworseunderTrump’sadministration.
ItisinterestingthatAmericanshaveamorenegativeviewandaheightenedconcern
aboutforeignthreatsofIslam,whenthegreatestrecentthreatstotheU.S.havebeen
homegrownterrorists.Basedonriskassessment,theU.S.shouldbemoreconcernedwith
potentialattacksfromdomesticterroriststhanforeignones.OftheU.S.attacksbyMuslims
180Telhami,Shibley."WhatAmericansreallythinkaboutMuslimsandIslam."Brookings.Brookings,16Aug.2016.Web.3Apr.2017.181Telhami,Shibley."WhatAmericansreallythinkaboutMuslimsandIslam."
85
inthelast15years,Americanresidentsorcitizenshaveperpetratedthemajority.182That
beingsaidthepercentageofAmericanMuslimswhoparticipateinterrorattacksisvery
small.OverallMuslimsinAmericahaveproventhemselvesloyaltotheU.S..
Dearborn,Michigan,hometothreetimesthepercentofMuslimsasthenational
average,isoneexampleofproofofloyaltyandpatriotism.Sometimescalledthe“Arab
capitalofNorthAmerica”DearbornishometothelargestmosqueintheU.S.,theArab
Museum,halalMcDonald’sandnumerousMiddleEasterncafes,andhasneverposeda
threattothecountryorcommunity.Residentsofthetowninteractwithoneanother
unafraidoftheirneighbors.ThisisbecausetheDearbornPoliceDepartmenthas
implementedsmartpoliciesthatbuildtrustbetweentheMuslimcommunityandthe
officers.Inthepastseveralyearsfathershaveturnedinsonstheysuspectedofsuccumbing
toradicalonlinepropaganda,studentshaveturnedinpeersandMuslimshavereportedFBI
informantssentintoinfiltratecommunitiesforbeingsuspicious.
ThehighlevelsofcooperationbetweenpoliceandAmericanMuslimsarenotunique
toDearborn.AmemberofamosqueinVirginiaturnedinafellowPakistaniAmericanwhen
helearnedofhisplanstoblowupaMetrorailin2010.AnotherinformantalertedtheFBIof
theplansofthreeMuslimteenstomovetoSyriatojoinISISin2014.183Furthermore,Pew
reportsthat76percentofMuslimAmericansareveryorsomewhatconcernedwiththerise
ofIslamicextremismaroundtheworld,comparedwithaclose81percentofthegeneralU.S.
population.ContrarytostatementsmadebyGOPleadersthattheU.S.cannottrustand
thereforemustbanallMuslims,theDearbornMuslimcommunityhasbeenhighly182Barrett,James."ACompleteListofRadicalIslamicTerrorAttacksonU.S.SoilUnderObama."DailyWire.DailyWire,07Dec.2016.Web.01Apr.2017.183Hirsh,Michael,MalcolmNance,DanielBenjamin,MikeRoss,AndrésMiguelRondón,AronLund,andVirginiaHeffernan."InsidetheFBI’sSecretMuslimNetwork."POLITICOMagazine.PolitcoLLC,24Mar.2016.Web.06Apr.2017.
86
cooperativeandpatriotic.184Thosestatementsarewrong,butworsetheydiminishtrust,
offsetpriorsuccessofprogramsandpromoteexclusion.AymanTaleb,a31-year-oldborn
andraisedinDallas,Texas,said,"InAmerica,ifyou'reanythingotherthanaWASP,then
you'redefinedasthe'other,'andwheneverafewselectindividualsdosomethingoutside
thelaw,theentirecommunityisassociated.Nocommunityshouldhavetobearthe
responsibility,nocommunityshouldhavetoapologizeorbeaskedtoapologize."185
DearbornChiefofPoliceRonaldHaddadaddsthat,“statementsthattendtoignitefear,
adversityinourcommunity,justdivertsusfromwhatwenormallydotokeepour
communitysafe.”186Americahasnotyetsolveditsproblem,butDearbornshouldserveas
anexampleofsoundprocedureandpolicy-making,notjustfortheU.S.butforFranceas
well.
Thisone-thirdArabcityhasoftenbeencomparedtomanyofthebanlieueofParis,
buttheyaredifferentinseveralveryimportantways.UnlikeFrance,theMuslimArab
communityofDearbornisnotisolatedfromtherestofthecity.Theyareconnectedtothe
community,theyparticipateinpolitics,andtheymakeupamajorityofthecitycouncil.187
ThesameistrueoftheAmericanMuslimpopulationasawhole.Themajorityformpartof
themiddle-classand71percentbelieveintheAmericandream.FurthermoreAmerican
Muslimssharethesameanxietiesoverterrorism.Pewfoundthat51percentarevery
184Hirsh,Michael,MalcolmNance,DanielBenjamin,MikeRoss,AndrésMiguelRondón,AronLund,andVirginiaHeffernan."InsidetheFBI’sSecretMuslimNetwork."185O'Connor,Tom."DonaldTrumpMuslimPlan:WhatSanBernardinoTerrorAttackSurvivorsSayAboutHisRegistry,TravelBanProposal."InternationalBusinessTimes.InternationalBusinessTimes,03Dec.2016.Web.31Mar.2017.186Raj,Roop."DearborncommunityrespondstoTrump'sproposedMuslimban."WJBK.FoxNews,8Dec.2015.Web.02Apr.2017.187Warikoo,Niraj."ArabAmericansbecomemajorityonDearborncouncil."USAToday.GannettSatelliteInformationNetwork,06Nov.2013.Web.01Apr.2017.
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concernedaboutIslamicextremism,comparedtojust35percentoftheMuslimpopulation
inFrance.188
TheFrenchcouldlearnafewlessonsfromU.S.policyandstrategyregardingIslam
andMuslims.Forone,theOutreach-and-InformantProgramworksfarbetterthanthe
policepatrollinginFrance.Additionally,U.S.Discriminationandfreedomofreligionlaws
protectMuslimsbysendingthemessagethattheyarejustasmuchmembersofthecountry
asanyoneelse.ProofofthisisthatAmericanMuslimsarefarmoreassimilatedand
patrioticthantheMuslimsinthebanlieue.Theaddedaspectofwhatmaybeinterpretedby
manyFrenchMuslimsasreligiouspersecutionleadstheresidentsofthebanlieuetofeela
strongersenseofexclusionandnon-acceptance.Therearehoweversomeinstancesof
attemptstoenactexclusionarypolicyintheU.S.,buttherearefarfewerexamplesofthis
thaninFrance.
UnbeknownsttomanyAmericans,severalstateshavelawssimilartothe2004
FrenchLawthatbarsreligiousgarbatschools.Pennsylvania,OregonandNebraskaare
threesuchstates.InPennsylvaniaandOregonthecourtshaveupheldchallengesbrought
undertheFirstAmendmentandTitleVIItothereligiousgarblawthatforbidsteachers
fromwearingreligiouscostumeatschool.ThecourtruledinthecaseinPennsylvania,U.S.
V.BoardofEducation(1990)thattheschoolhadactedpursuanttoits“GarbStatute”when
itinformedafemaleMuslimteachershecouldnotworkifsheworeaherveil.When
reviewedafteranappeal,thecourtuphelditsinitialrulingdeterminingthat“the
188Bailey,Brian."Section3:TerrorismandNationalSecurity."PewResearchCenterforthePeopleandthePress.PewResearchCenter,14Jan.2010.Web.01Apr.2017.
88
preservationofreligiousneutralityisacompellingstateinterest.”189Inthesimilar1986
Oregoncasethecourtruledonparallelgroundsinfavorofthestate.
Morerecentlyhoweverthestateshaveattemptedtocorrectdiscriminatory
legislationofitspastandcourtshaveruledinfavorofreligiousrights.ThisMarch,
Nebraskalawmakerspassedabilltoliftthestate’sbanonpublicschoolteacherswearing
religiousgarbsuchashijabs,yarmulkesandhabits.Thenewlegislationsoughttocorrect
thediscriminatorybanpassedin1919underpressurefromtheKuKluxKlan.Pennsylvania
hasalsopassedlegislationrepealingtheirsimilarban.Therehasalsobeenarisein
individualclaimstoreligiousfreedom.Muslims,whomakeupaminorityreligiousgroupin
theU.S.,havebroughtmoresuitsastheytrytogainacceptancefortheirreligion.In2015a
youngMuslimwomansuedAbercrombieandFitchfordiscriminatingagainstherand
denyingherajobforwearingahijab.ItwasthesecondcasethattermthattheSupreme
CourtruledinfavorofaMuslimandreligiousfreedom.190Thesecasesareevidenceofthe
factthattheUnitedStatesandFrancegrapplewiththesameissues,butsolvethemin
differentways.
Eachcountry’ssenseofnationalidentityandnationalvalueshasledtoadifferent
outcomeandpolicyresponse.TheU.S.prioritizestheindividualwhileFranceprioritizes
thestate.Inaddition,state-levelreligiousmotivatedlegislationandregulationintheU.S.
hasnotcreatedthesameoutcrythatthenationallawshavegeneratedinFrance.
RepressionofthereligiouslibertiesoftheMuslimsinFranceaccountsforlowerlevelsof
integration.Contrarily,higherlevelsofassimilationandemploymentamongtheU.S.189"CanaTeacherWearReligiousGarbtoSchool,ProvidedtheTeacherDoesNotProselytizetotheStudents?"NewseumInstitute.NewseumInstitute,2017.Web.01Apr.2017.190Hurley,Lawrence."U.S.topcourtbacksMuslimwomandeniedjoboverheadscarf."Reuters.ThomsonReuters,01June2015.Web.02Apr.2017.
89
MuslimminoritysuggesttheyarebetteroffthantheirFrenchcounterparts.Trump’s
rhetorichasalreadythreatenedthis,buthispolicieshavethepotentialtocreatelastingand
disastrouschange.
6.4TheMedia:TheCulpritofMisplacedFears
PresidentTrumpcannotbeblamedalone.HemayperpetuatetheideathatMuslims
aredangerousbutthemediahasskewedAmericanopinionfordecades.Onlyahandfulof
Muslimshavecommittedterroristattacks,yetitseemsasthoughithasbecomecommon
practice,why?Becausethemediahasdisproportionatelyspentmoretimereportingonthe
attacksperpetratedbyMuslims.ResearchersattheGeorgiaStateUniversitydidastudyon
terrorismandtheeffectsofmediaskewfrom2011to2015.Theyfoundthatforthosefive
yearsMuslimscarriedout11ofthe89attacksintheU.S.,yettheattacksbyMuslims
received44percentofthemediacoverage.TheexaggeratedmediafocusonIslaminspired
terrorismhasskewedAmerican’sandTrump’sperceptionofthetruedangerofforeign
Muslimterrorists.Theresearchersfoundthattheriskofbeingkilledinajihadistterror
attackintheU.S.inthelast15yearsamountedtoroughly1in2,640,000.191Animportant
stepinmitigatingthetensionbetweenAmericaandIslamiseliminatingthisbias.The
mediashouldmakeagreaterefforttoexpendthesameamountofresourcescoveringnon-
MuslimterrorattacksasitdoesfortheIslamic-motivatedattacks.ThiswillgiveAmericansa
clearerandmorefact-basedperspective.
TheUnitedStatesisfarfromsolvingitsreligiouslibertyissuesandwilllikelynever
comeupwithasolutionthatleaveseveryonecompletelycontent.Withthecreationof
191Bailey,Ronald."DoMuslimsCommitMostU.S.TerroristAttacks?"Reason.com.ReasonFoundation,24Mar.2017.Web.01Apr.2017.
90
RFRAandRLUIPAtheU.S.addedthenecessarylegislationneededtosafeguardtherightsof
religiousminorities.Today,thebattleforMuslimsintheU.S.isfarmoreideologicalthanfact
based.Asaresultupholdingthelawsandthevaluesthatinspiredthemisevermore
important.MulticulturalismiscommonpracticeintheUnitedStates,thelandofliberty,
equalityandjustice,butthechallengewillbecontinuingthistradition.TheMuslim
populationispredictedtodoubleby2050dueinlargeparttoimmigrationaccordingto
Pew.TheclashbetweenMuslimsandAmericanswillnotdissipate.Altogether,thenew
administrationbringswithitavastlydifferentsetofvalues,fardifferentfromanyprevious
RepublicanAdministrations.TheUnitedStatesmustcontinuetoholditsvaluescloseand
embracediversity,especiallyreligiousdiversitynotonlyforthesakeofreligiousfreedom
andcivilrightsbutalsoforthesakeofnationalsecurity.FightingIslamwithbigotrywillnot
reduceitsthreat.FightingIslaminsteadwithacceptance,trust-buildingprogramsandfair
religiouspolicywill.
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CONCLUSION
AmericaandFrancearetwodemocraticnationsfoundedinthesameperiodwith
constitutionsthatguaranteeitspeopleverysimilarfundamentalrights.YettheAmerican
definitionofreligiousfreedomandunderstandingofreligioustolerancediffersimmensely
fromFrance’s.Forthemostpart,theAmericanethosofliveandletliveoraccommodation
haskeptthepeacebyupholdingreligiousfreedom.Tokeepthepeaceintheirnation,the
Frenchinstalledapolicyoflaïcité.
Todayweseetheresultsofthesedifferentpolicyapproaches.TheFrenchhavemade
itillegalforMuslimwomentowearheadscarves,andtheAmericanshavemadeitillegalto
discriminateagainstwomenwearingthem.EvenwhendatahasproventhatsomeMuslims
doposeathreattonationalsecurity,theU.S.CourtshaveupheldAmericanlawsandvalues
andagreedthatthethreatofasmallpercentageofMuslimsisnotenoughtojustifyspying
onMuslimcommunities,banningallMuslimsfromenteringthecountryandpassing
legislationthatlimitsreligiousexpressionintheguiseofnationalsecurityconcerns.This
hasnotalwaysbeenthecase,buttheU.S.hastriedtoenforceitspolicyoftolerance,non-
discriminationandinclusiontowardsMuslims,andhasinsteadfocusedoncombatting
foreignthreatsofIslam.Franceontheotherhandhasimposedaregimeoflaïcitéandcalled
forapublicspacefreefromreligion,leadingtolawsthattheMuslimcommunityoften
considersdiscriminatory.
Inrecentyearstherehasbeenanincreaseinlegislationandpolicythat
discriminates,restrictsandexcludesreligiousgroups,andthosepolicieshave
predominantlyandnegativelyaffectedMuslimsinbothcountries.Thesepolicieshavesent
themessagetoMuslimsthatIslamisnotconsistentwithAmericanorFrenchvalues,and
92
thatMuslimpopulationsposeadangertonationalsecurity.Thispolicyalsohastheeffectof
creatingbarrierstointegrationandexacerbatingrelationsbetweentheWesternand
Muslimworlds.Inspiteoftheirdifferences,bothcountriessharestrengthsandweaknesses
intheirapproachestopublicpolicy.
AprinciplestrengthoftheAmericanapproachisthevalueitplacesonreligious
tolerance.Thisemphasisonreligioustoleranceandfreedomhasbeeneffective.Therehave
beenfewerchallengesbyAmericanMuslimsovertherighttoreligiousfreedomthanthe
French,inlargepartbecausetheU.S.governmenthasnotpassedlegislationlimitingthe
religiousfreedomofMuslimsthewayFrancehas.Whentherehavebeendisputesof
religiousfreedomintheU.S.,manyhaveoccurredatthestatelevel.Somestateshavepassed
orattemptedtopasslegislationregulatingtheconstructionofmosques,stemmingfromthe
factthatafewmosqueshavebeenfoundtopreachradicalIslam.Otherproposedpolicies
haveattemptedtobanSharialaw,religiouswear,andMuslimimmigration,allofwhich
imposelimitsonreligiousfreedomanddiscriminateonthebasisofreligion.Nonetheless
thelackofnationalreligiouslegislationofthisnaturehaskepttensionsbetweenMuslims
andAmericarelativelylow,comparedtoFrance.
Thisisoneofthekeydifferencesbetweenthetwocountriesthatindicatesthatthe
U.S.willlikelycontinuetoprotectthereligiouslibertiesofitscitizensinthenextfouryears
despiteTrump’spresidency,whileFrance,ifLePeniselectedinthesecondroundofthe
presidentialelection,maynot.American’sattitudestowardsMuslimpeoplehavebecome
increasinglymorefavorablefrom53percentinNovember2015to70percentinOctober
93
2016,despitethemountinganti-Muslimrhetoric.192Oneexplanationforthisis,themore
Trumpemphasizedtheissue,themoretheDemocrats,whoarelargelyresponsibleforthe
hugeincreaseinfavorability,adoptedtheoppositeposition;thatMuslimsarenotinfacta
threattothecountry’sidentityorsecurity.ThisshouldprovidetheAmericanpeoplewith
hopeandoptimismforthefuture.Thesilverliningofapolarizingpresident,Trumpmay
opentheeyesoftheAmericanpeopletoapreviouslyunimaginedfutureandmobilizehis
opposition.HopefullythesameistrueofFrance,shouldLePenwin.
Trump’sapproachtoIslamisnotnew,butithasbeenthemostshockingofpast
presidents.TheU.S.tendstoreacttonationalsecuritythreatswithanoutwardapproach.
After9/11theU.S.respondedwithanoffenseandinvadedtwoMuslimmajoritycountries.
AfewyearslatertheU.S.soughttoreduceAlQaeda’sinfluencebymobilizinggroupsin
AfghanistantoaidtheU.S.initsoperationtoneutralizeBinLaden.Furthermore,theU.S.
hascontinuedtodefendmoderateleadersandgovernmentsabroadagainstradicalIslamic
governments.MeanwhileFrancetendstolookforpotentialdangerswithinthenation.Past
legislationinFrance,suchasthe2011headscarfban,hastargetedtheMuslimpopulation
withinthecountry.Morerecentlyafterastringofterrorattacksfrom2015to2017,the
FrenchgovernmenthasimposedlegislationthatlimitsthereligiousexpressionofMuslims
suchastheburkiniban,andhasimplementedpoliciesliketheDeclarationofStateof
EmergencypolicyfollowingtheNovemberattacks,thathasconstrainedthecivillibertiesof
thepopulation.Trump’sbanexemplifiesthecompletelydifferentAmericanpolicypattern.
Accordingtohim,hisExecutiveOrderseekstocontaintheforeignthreats.Itisdifficultto
determineifonepolicyresponsehasworkedbetterthananotherconsideringallofthe
192Telhami,Shibley."HowTrumpchangedAmericans’viewofIslam–forthebetter."TheWashingtonPost.WPCompany,25Jan.2017.Web.15Apr.2017.
94
geopoliticalfactorsthatinfluenceeachnation.Howeveronaverybasiclevel,itmaybe
possiblethattheU.S.strategyofeliminatingforeignthreatshasworkedbetterthan
France’sstrategyofpolicingitsMuslimpopulation.
BycomparingthenumberofIslaminspiredterrorattacksandchallengesto
religiousfreedomineachcountrywecandeducetheeffectivenessofeachstrategy.TheU.S.
hassufferedfewerterrorattacksbyMuslimsoradherentsoftheIslamicStatethanFrance
inthelastfewyears.193TherehavealsobeenfewerchallengesbyMuslimsovertherightto
religiousfreedom.AreasonableconclusionthenmaybethattheUnitedStates’strategyof
focusingonexternalthreatshasworked.But,uponcloserexaminationthistheoryseems
incorrect.ItisnotthatthefocusonoutsidethreatshasthwartedterrorattacksintheU.S.,
butratherthelackofstringentlawsthattargetandtreatallMuslimsasasecuritythreat
hasnotcreatedthesenseofexclusionofMuslimsthatFrenchpolicyhas.
TheFrenchhaveaproblemwithhomegrownterrorismthattheU.S.,atleastuntil2015,
didnothave.AresidentoftheFrenchbanlieueexplainedthathebelievedLarossiAbballa,
theFrenchjihadistterroristwhostabbedaFrenchpoliceofficerinDecemberof2016,had
committedanactofterrorbecauseofrevenge.HesaidtheFrenchgovernmentkeeps
pressuringthemtoconformandputthestatefirst,“butwewillnotgiveupourreligion.And
ifitleadstoaclash…”194ItthereforeseemslikelythattherootofFrance’sMuslimdilemma
stemsfromitsresponseofrestrictingreligion,whichhasdisproportionatelyaffected
Muslims.Thisbringsustoanotherpointofcomparison:integrationofeachcountry’s
Muslimpopulation.
193Therehavebeen17IslaminspireterrorattacksinFranceinthelastyearand11intheU.S.from2011-2015.194Worth,RobertF."TheProfessorandtheJihadi."TheNewYorkTimes.TheNewYorkTimesCompany,05Apr.2017.Web.14Apr.2017.
95
IntegrationhasfailedinFranceforseveralreasons.Itsrigidsenseofwhatitmeansto
beFrenchanditsone-waymodelofintegrationhavecreatedanenvironmentwhere
discriminationcanflourishbehindtheveiloftheFrenchtraditionofunity.Thelawsthat
attempttomakeeveryonethesamebyinstillingaregimeofsecularismcertainlyhavenot
helpedtheMuslimcommunityintegrate.OneissueisthattherigidFrenchidentitydoesnot
supportintegration.Forintegrationtobesuccessfulboththereceivingcountryandthe
immigrantpopulationmustmakeculturalsacrificesandcompromise.InsteadFrancehasa
modelofassimilation,whichclearlyhasnotbeensufficient.TheoppositiontoIslamin
Francehasbeenmanifestedinlegislationbanningveilsandburkinis.IndoingsoFrancehas
developedareputationespeciallyamongitsMuslimpopulationofbeingasanti-Islam.
FranceisunwillingtoacceptsomeoneasFrenchandMuslim.Thishascreatedanattitudinal
andsocialproblemcausingMuslimsinFrancetofeelunwelcome,isolatedandexcluded,
whichinturnhasledthemtowithdrawfromsocietyandhashurttheiroddsofsocio-
economicintegration.
Stillitisnotjusttherestrictivelawsaffectingreligion,butalsothelackofeconomic
progressamongMuslimimmigrantsthathasstifledintegration.Thetwoareveryclosely
related.Religiousdiscriminationhaspreventedimmigrantsfromeconomicintegration,just
aseconomicintegrationandthesettlementofMuslimsinthebanlieuehasledtheFrenchto
viewtheminanegativelight,as“other.”Muslimshavesettledinthebanlieueweretheyare
separatedfromtheFrenchandlackaccesstogoodeducationandschools.Theoutcomeis
lowerlevelsofincomeandeducationamongMuslimsinFrance.Muslimshavelessaccessto
education,facesocialdiscriminationinhiring,liveindefactoghettos,andlackgovernment
programstoincludeMuslimimmigrantsintotheworkforce.Thede-factodiscriminationis
96
linkedtoFrance’scolonialhegemonypriorto1960.However,therecenttensionshave
exacerbateddiscrimination.Lackofintegrationandsocio-economicinequalityisfarmoreof
anissueinFrance,thanitisinU.S.anditislikelybecausetheFrenchgovernmenthas
createdlegislationthatdisproportionatelyandobviouslydiscriminatesagainstMuslims.
Thegovernments’warinesstowardsMuslimsandfailureofintegrationhascreateda
greaterpotentialfordomesticterrorismtothrive.TheterroristoftheApril20,shootingin
ParisontheChamps-Eylsees,forwhichISISclaimedresponsibility,wasaMuslimFrench
nationallivinginabanlieueEastofPariswhohadaffirmedhishatredforpoliceandFrench
authorityonmultipleoccasions.195Theideologyusedtojustifytheterrorattackshas
nothingtodowithprotectingjobsorlegislationonreligion:itseesallofFrenchsocietyas
theenemy.Asaresult,France’santi-Muslimpolicieshavenotsucceededinintegratingtheir
Muslimcommunities,whichhascreatedasharpdivideinthenationthatincreasinglyposes
anationalsecuritythreat.
TheU.S.ontheotherhandhassucceedinginbalancingreligiouspolicyandnational
identityandsecurity.OneindicationofthisistheextentofintegrationamongMuslim
Americans.Apolicyofmulticulturalismandreligioustolerancehasencouragedintegration
intheU.S..Thispolicyhasledtoconsistentratesofeducationandsocio-economicand
culturalintegration.AhighpercentageofMuslimAmericans(30percent),foreignand
nativeborn,arecollegesgraduates,comparedto18percentofthegeneralAmerican
population.196Intermsofincome,MuslimsseemtobeonequalgroundwithAmericans,at
195Chazan,BarneyHenderson;David."Parisattack:policeofficerandsuspectshotdeadonChampsElysees."TheTelegraph.TelegraphMediaGroup,20Apr.2017.Web.20Apr.2017.196Bailey,Brian."Section1:ADemographicPortraitofMuslimAmericans."PewResearchCenterforthePeopleandthePress.PewResearchCenter,29Aug.2011.Web.13Apr.2017.
97
leastforthosewhomakeover$100,000ayear.197Amonglowerincomebracketsthegap
widens.TherehasalsobeenaslightdeclineinMuslims’incomesrecentyears,whichcould
betheresultofhigherratesofIslamophobiaandtheeconomicrecessionof2007to2009.
Furthermore,amajorityofMuslimAmericans(56percent)haveadesiretointegrateand
adoptAmericancustoms,astrongindicatorthatthecountryappearswelcoming.Another
markerofsuccessfulintegrationistheanswertothequestionof“howdoyouthinkof
yourselffirst?”OfU.S.Muslimspolled,49percentsaidMuslimsfirst,comparedto46
percentofChristianswhorespondedthattheyidentifyasChristianbeforeAmerican.These
areallsignsthatAmericanpolicyhassucceededinwelcomingandintegratingMuslims.
However,thiscouldallchangeinthenextfouryearsundertheTrump
Administration.ThebriefperiodsintheU.S.duringwhichanti-Catholicsandanti-alien
sentimentprevailedwerelimited,butTrumphasawokenanAmericanspiritthatfearsthe
foreignalienandcouldhaveaprofounddomesticimpact.Theleadersofanycountry,the
president,hisadministrationandanyofhisappointees,havethepowertochangelaws,
createnewlawsthroughexecutiveorders,andinterprettheminnewways.Iftheyhave
differentvaluesthanpastadministrations,theycaninfluenceachangeinestablished
precedentandattempttoredefinethemeaningofthelaws.Trumpandhisappointeeshave
thepotentialtodothis.Throughouthiscampaignandinthefirstfewmonthsofhis
presidencyPresidentTrumphasshownthathisvaluesandpolicysuggestionsare
strikinglydifferentthanourlastfewpresidents.Hispolicieswillaffecttheentirecountry,
butwillhavethestrongestimpactonMuslimswhohebelievesthreatentochangethe
Americanfabric.
197Bailey,Brian.
98
InFrancethefuturetoo,isshaky.Theideologicalgapbetweenthetwopresidential
candidates,thecentristMacron,andthefarrightLePen,resemblesthepolarizingU.S.
campaignbetweenClintonandTrump.Macronwonthefirstroundbyaslimmarginofthree
points.Whoeveriselectedwillimposehisorherviewsandpoliciesonthecountry,as
Trumphadbeguntodo.Thecandidatesstandmilesapartintermsofideologyandpolicy
agendas.TheworldisawaitingtoseewhowillcapturethevotesofFrenchcitizens.If
MarineLePenwinstheelection,FrancecouldshiftinthesamedirectiontheU.S.has.
PresidentialhopefulMarineLePenhassimilarpoliticstoTrump.Shehasrunonthe
sameplatformofclampingdownonIslamandkeepingMuslimsoutandoftenrefersto
radicalIslamandglobalismastwoevilforcesthathavethepotentialtodestroyFrance.Asof
now,noproposalforaMuslimimmigrationbanhasreachedtheFrenchsenate.But
accordingtoNationalFrontmayorSteeveBriois,aleadingmemberofLePen’scampaign,
thereisthepossibilityofaMuslimbanifLePenwins.Whenaskedwhetherhispartywould
consideremployingthesamebanasTrumphereplied,“Whynot…sometimeswemaytake
authoritarianmeasures,eveniftheyshock.”198ThisisapolicytheNationalfronthas
supportedsincethe1990’s,butonlyinthelastfewmonthshasitseemedlikely.
ThecurrentFrenchgovernmenthashowevercondemnedtheban,whichissurprising
consideringFrancedoeshaveseveralreligiouslawsthatwouldbyAmericanstandardsbe
considereddiscriminatoryandunconstitutional.
TheelectionofLePencouldradicallychangethefutureofreligiousfreedomand
discriminationpolicyinFrance,justasTrump’sbanandfuturepolicieshavethepotentialto
dismantlethecountry’sidentityasanationthatvaluesfreedom,rightsanddiversity.The
198“France’sFarRightNationalfrontsaysitcouldcopyTrump’stravelban.”TheLocal.TheLocal,Jan30.2017.02Apr.2017.
99
policytensionhereisthatAmerica,forthemoment,stillupholdsitsidentityasacountryof
immigrants,a“meltingpot”whereimmigrantscanbecomeAmericansandprosper,but
Trump’sactionsthreatentochangethis.InFrancetheelectionofMacroncouldshiftFrench
policytoamoreopenmodelthatembracesitsdiversepopulation,ortheelectionofLePen
couldreinforcerigidFrenchnationalidentity.Thefutureremainstobeseen.
Thereismuchatstakeinbothcountries.However,thereisalsomuchthatcanbe
drawnfromeachcountry’svaluesandlegalsystemthatcanbeusedtoimplementpositive
policychange.TheFrenchshouldtakeapagefromtheAmericansandadoptamore
inclusivespirit.IntermsofpolicyFranceshouldmoveawayfrommodelofstatefirst,by
changingthestandardforreligiousfreedomdisputestotheAmericanmodelwhichjudges
claimsthrougha“leastrestrictivemeans”test.Inaddition,citiesinFranceshouldcreate
trustbuildingandinformantprogramsamongpoliceandresidentsoftheMuslimmajority
banlieuetoreducetensionbetweenmarginalizedMuslimcitizensandthestate.IntheU.S.,
thegovernmentshouldcontinuetosupportreligiousfreedomandfurthermoredistance
itselffromreligion.ItshouldgetridofthereferencestoGodinthepledgeoftheallegiance,
onmoney,andinpublicschoolsespeciallyasthepercentageofChristianAmericans
declines.199Balancingreligiousfreedomandnationalidentityhasbecomeincreasingly
difficultasthemajorityineachcountryhasshrunkwiththearrivalofnewimmigrants
fromdiversereligiousandethnicbackgrounds.Withnewpresidentsineachcountrythe
futureisunpredictable.Butultimately,findingacomfortablebalancebetweenreligious
199ThepercentofChristiansintheU.S.hasdeclinedfrom74%in2007to63%in2014.InadditionProtestantismisnolongerthemajorityreligionofthecountry.Itispredictedby2050thatthenumberofMuslimswillbenearlyequaltothenumberofChristians.“Nones”ontheRise:One-in-FiveAdultsHaveNoReligiousAffiliation.”PewForumonReligion&PublicLife.
100
freedomandnationalidentitywillincreaseeachnation’ssecuritymaketheoddsof
harmonyandunityfarmorelikely.
101
APPENDIX:TheMuslimPopulationoftheU.S.
3.3 Million Muslims in the U.S.
1% of the U.S. population
69% 70% U.S. MUSLIMS U.S.CHRISTIANS Say religion is very important to them
102
APPENDIX:TheMuslimPopulationofFrance
7.5 % of the population is Muslim
15% of Paris is Muslim
Only 2,000 46% of Muslims French Women wear veils accept laïcité and French values of secularism Attend religious services… 5.1% 16.6% 31.3% FRENCH MUSLIMS FRENCH MUSLIMS FRENCH MUSLIMS Everyday Once a week Never
Veils…. 57% of French Muslim women do not wear a veil
23% always wear a veil 7% wear a veil except at their place of work or
school Percent Foreign born…
50% of French Muslims were born French 24% of French Muslims acquired French citizenship
26% remain foreigners
(Source: “Un Islam Francais Est Possible.” Institute Montaigne, Sept 2016.)
103
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