what can we learn about gender equality and care policy ...ewds.strath.ac.uk/portals/50/ias...
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What can we learn about gender equality and care policy from academic research: The case of the Nordic countries Professor Tine Rostgaard, University of Aalborg, Denmark [email protected]
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Overview
• Gender equality in the Nordic and Danish welfare model
• Gender equality characteristics - Denmark and the Nordic
countries
• The Nordic/Danish model of social care for elderly
• The Nordic/Danish model of Early childhood education and
care
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Gender equality in the Nordic welfare model
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The pursuit of gender equality is said to
constitute one of the main characteristics
of the Nordic welfare model, both in the
labour market and in the private sphere
Also as one of the main societal values.
“Gender equality is integral to
Scandinavian citizenship Ellingsæter and
Leira (2006, p. 7)
Overskrift og underoverskrift i versaler. Nordic gender equality model the outcome
of a long development, consisting of
three important historical stages:
1. The formalization of equal rights of
women and men in legislation,
2. the facilitation of women’s take up of
paid labour,
3. this stage - of which we perhaps still are
to witness its full implementation –
represents women and men’s full sharing
of both economic and care
responsibilities of the family (Eydal).
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Gender equality is perceived as being not
only equality of opportunity, but also
equality of outcome and especially the
gendered division of unpaid and paid
work is central (Leira 2006).
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The Nordic gender equality model implies
the dual earner/dual carer model, calling
for men and women’s equal sharing of
the responsibility of care for children and
paid work
But mainly so in regards to child care
Here at a stage dominated by the effort to
reconstruct gender and gender relations
towards more active fatherhood
More implicit in regards to care for the
elderly
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Welfare regimes • SD/Universalist welfare regime: Universal state support for families,
high commitment to gender equality in work and care and strong
support for working parents (Nordic countries)
• Conservative/Social insurance welfare regime: Medium level of support
for families, mainly as cash benefits. Supports male breadwinner model
(Germany, France, Netherlands)
• Liberal/Residual welfare regime: low support for families, the few policies
in place targeted at special needs groups. State does not intervene and
wide support for market (UK, Australia, US, Switzerland)
• Mixed regime: Fragmented along occupational lines, combination of
universal and private services and benefits (Southern European
countries)
• Post-socialist model(s): Wide variation, but often Liberal/Conservative
corporatist mix
• (Amongst other Thevenon, 2010)
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Denmark as an outlier among Nordic countries
Different insitutionalisation of gender equality:
When gender equality was written into the law in 1970s,
women’s/gender equality committes abolished
Women’s movements not represented in political parties
EU membership since 1973 (Sweden since 1995, Finland since
and Norway not a member). EU directives shaped
Denmark’s approach to gender equality.
More liberal and negative gender equality discourse, focussing
on conservative family values
(Borschorst)
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Gender equality characteristics Denmark/Nordic countries
Overskrift og underoverskrift i versaler. In the European Gender Equality Index , (GE index)
Denmark ranks third among 25 EU MS,
(Plantenga et al, 2009).
Based on:
High female employment rate (ranked 5th in the
sharing of paid work)
Highly regulated labour market, with 37 hours work
week, 5-6 weeks annual vacation, 1-2 days of in
rel. to sick child, 10 care days per child.
Large public sector
But high part-time rate and gender segregated
labour market
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Labour force participation, Nordic countries
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Gender equality characteristics Denmark
Gender pay gap, 17% (EU average of 15%)
Adjusted for factors such as educational level, work
experience etc. there persist an unexplained
wage gap of 2-6 % (SFI, 2008).
Main explanatory factor for the gender pay gap is
the segregation at the labour market, where
women typically work in administration and care
and men in IT and technical science. Women are
also overrepresented in the public sector
(Ministry of Gender Equality, 2006).
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Low risk of poverty
Despite substantial gender pay gap, the in-work risk
of poverty is low for both men and women, at 4
% in 2007, EU27 at 8% (Eurostat). Due to high
re-distribution.
Denmark is placed on the 7th position out of EU25,
regarding the sharing of money between men
and women, based on the combination of gender
pay and gender poverty gap in the European
Gender Equality Index (GE index) (Plantenga et
al, 2009).
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Underrepresented in politics
Women are underrepresented in politics, with fewer
women than men in the Danish Parliament and in
local politics.
As a consequence, Denmark takes up a position well
behind Sweden and Finland in a European
comparison of equal sharing of decision-making,
placing Denmark on the 9th rank, among
countries such as Germany and Estonia
(Plantenga, 2009).
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Equal sharing of time
Danish men and women spend in total approximately the
same amount of time on the combination of housework and
paid work
Women spend 1 hour more daily than men on housework and
men spend 1 hour more daily than women on the job.
One explanation is that more women are working part-time
and they also often have shorter transport hours (SFI,
2002).
In a comparative perspective, the relatively equal sharing of
time between men and women places Denmark in the lead
position in a comparison of EU 25 MS (Plantenga et al,
2009).
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European Gender Equality Index
Source: Plantenga et al, 2009
Equal
sharing of
paid work
Equal
sharing of
money
Equal
sharing of
decision-
making
power
Equal
sharing of
time
5th 7th 9th 1st
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Work-family balance, %
18 OECD: Better Life Index
0,00
10,00
20,00
30,00
40,00
50,00
60,00
70,00
80,00
90,00
Employees working very long hours Employment rate of women with children
Time devoted to leisure and personal care
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19
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Total score work-family balance
Total score
work-family
balance
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The Nordic social care model: Denmark as a case
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Reconciliation in The Adult worker model
The emphasis on the adult worker model where women and men are assumed equally employable, has given impetus to a re-negotiation of formal and informal care responsibilities (Lewis, 2002)
Care policy laggard has led to a caring deficit =>Over the last 20 years the reconciliation of work
and family life has emerged as a policy priority for the European Union.
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The Nordic social care model Universality (Antonnen)
Public, formal and de-centralised approach (organisation,
regulation and financing);tax-based
Increasingly market based and increasing recognition of informal
care (elder care, Rostgaard & Szebehely).
Services but also cash
Professionalised, affordable, of high quality, and
generous/abundant services
High coverage and take-up rate, no stigma associated
High quality of services: professionalised, regulated, relatively
well paid
Promoting equality of outcome
Gender equality and the dual earner/dual carer model (day care,
Eydal and Rostgaard)
22
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Trends in social care
De-familisation (Esping-Andersen 1996; Lister 1998)
Commodification of care (Ungerson 2005;
Ostner/Knijn 2005). Re-familisation (Leira,
2002)/informalisation (Szebehely) Semi-formal care (Pfau-Effinger and
Geissler 2005). Marketisation and privatisation (Szebehely)
23
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Forms of care work, variation across countries
Forms of care work European societies
Formal care work
high
medium
Low
Denmark, Finland,
Germany, Austria, U.K.
Spain
Semi-formal care work
high
low
Germany
Denmark, Finland, Spain, U.K.
Undeclared work for care
high
medium
low
Spain
Germany, U.K.,
Denmark, Finland
Pfau-Effinger, FIWE project
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Formalisation/informalisation
Substitution of informal (unpaid) care by formal arrangements of care to a degree hitherto not experienced
Informal care increasingly managed and controlled
by state/municipal authorities. “The Nordic countries have sometimes been accused
of having been so charmed by their abundant public care services that they have ignored the significance of informal care” (Kröger, 2005)
25
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Dependant people have to rely too much on their relatives
Country % of adult citizens that agree
Denmark 42
Finland 50
Ireland 65
Ireland 65
Germany 66
UK 67
Sweden 70
Austria 70
EU27 71
Italy 75
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Source: Eurobarometer 2007
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Characteristics of Danish care for the older persons
Municipal responsibility for organisation and provision.
Mainly local tax financing
Politically administered at central level by Ministries of Social Affairs, not Health
High coverage and take-up rate, no stigma associated
High quality: professionalised, regulated Informal care by spouse/partner, but not often by other relatives Service approach: No major cash for care schemes, apart from care for terminally ill
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Main social services for the elderly in Denmark
Main principle: ageing in place
Home help – free choice and free of charge
Nursing home – payment of rent, and use of service (choice of
different items), max. payment
Service housing
Transport scheme
Adaptation of the home
Meals on wheels
Carer’s allowance
Day centres
Preventive visits
Re-enablement
Senior citizens' council and complaints boards
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Social expenditure on elder care
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Source: Huber et al. 2009, based on OECD, NOSOSCO , Eurostat and national sources.
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Social expenditure on elder care
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Weight of home care/institutional care in expenditure: DK: 75/25 CAN: 20/80
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% 65+ in institutional long term care
Source: Huber et al, 2009
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% 65+ with long term care at home
Source: Huber et al, 2009
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Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC)
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ECEC models
• Universalist countries of Northern Europa: Societal
approach to daycare encompasses the full-employment
paradigm. State provides parental leave, ECEC, and
family-friendly jobs.
• Central Europe: Long leave schemes with low or no pay.
Germany as an exception
• Countries belonging to residual/Liberal model as in
UK/Ireland: Encouragement of female labour take up but
no public and/or subsidized provision of day care
• Eastern Europe: Day care replaced by extended leave
schemes
• Unlike other policy fields, overall increase in spending on
ECEC (Lohmann, Rostgaard and Spiess, 2009)
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ECEC Denmark – main services and cash
Leave:
4 weeks maternity leave before birth, 14 weeks after birth
2 weeks paternity leave following birth
32 weeks parental leave
= 48 weeks after birth, of which 2 taken together
All weeks compensated with apprx. 380 pounds weekly/full wages
ECEC:
0-2 years: Nurseries, age-integrated, family day care, apprx. cost 180 pounds monthly, acc. to income, 7-17:00
3-6 years: Kindergarten, age-integrated, apprx. 140 pounds monthly, acc. to income, 7-17:00
6-14 years: after-school care, apprx. 100 pounds monthly, acc. to income, 7-17:00
Home care allowance
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Child care policy configuration
Denmark Sweden
0-1 year Paid parental leave (48* weeks), with
no father quota
Day care provision (17%)
Paid parental leave (69 weeks), with 8
weeks father quota
Day care provision (-)
1-2 year Day care provision (90%)
(Municipal schemes of cash for care)
Paid parental leave
(Municipal schemes of cash for care)
Day care provision (70%)
3-5 year Day care (96%) Day care provison (97%)
Child care policies and take-up for pre-school children in various age groups, Denmark and Sweden, 2007
Source: NOSOSKO, 2009. *62 weeks with part-time leave. In addition, 4 weeks prior to birth.
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Proportion of parental leave periods taken by fathers, 1997-2007, Nordic countries
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1997 1998 1999 2001 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Denmark
Finland
Iceland
Norway
Sweden
Source: Haataja, 2009
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How is the child cared for best?
Share of people who think that the form of childcare is the best way of organising childcare for children aged 0-3, % (Multiple answers possible)
Public and private day care centre/pre- school
Childcare predominantly by the mother
Childcare by both the mother and the father
Childcare by grand-parents or other relatives
Denmark 71 16 28 10
Germany 34 38 49 20
Netherlands 47 18 52 34
UK 30 27 40 20
EU27 44 33 39 23
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Source: Eurobarometer, 2010
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Affordability and quality
Share of people who think that:
Child care is affordable (Very + Fairly)
Child care is of good quality (very good + fairly good)
Support for public and private day care centre/pre- school
Denmark 59 81
71
Germany 50 62
34
Netherlands 40 71
47
UK 30 51
30
EU27 41 54
44
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Summing up
Nordic countries generally ‘social service states’ with aim to
faciliate gender egalitarian dual earner/dual carer model
Gender equality also a shared societal value
(Still) societal responsibility for the provision of care
The provision of high quality, affordable and subsidized social
care enables women to take up work and facilitates
reconciliation of work and family life
Extensive family policy does not appear to run counter to
women’s engagement in paid labour
Although tendency for horisontal and vertical labour market
segregation
The active fatherhood policies have succeded in involving more
fathers in the rearing of the young child, by increasing
fathers’ take-up of leave. Father quota efficient policy
instrument
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Thank you!
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