Meanderingsofthe

WheelofDhamma

AComparativeStudyofsomeBuddhistMissions

NathanKatz

TempleUniversityPhiladelphia,PA.,U.S.A.

BuddhistPublicationSocietyKandy•SriLanka

TheWheelPublication257Copyright©Kandy,BuddhistPublicationSociety,(1978)

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BPSOnlineEdition©(2009)DigitalTranscriptionSource:BPS.Firstedition:1978

Forfreedistribution.Thisworkmayberepublished,reformatted,reprintedandredistributedinanymedium.However,anysuchrepublicationandredistributionistobemadeavailabletothepubliconafreeandunrestrictedbasisandtranslationsandotherderivativeworksaretobeclearlymarkedassuchandtheBuddhistPublicationSocietyistobeacknowledgedastheoriginalpublisher.

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MeanderingsoftheWheelofDhamma

I

Iwanttodiscusswithyoutoday[1]thecontemporarymissionaryactivitiesofBuddhiststothewesternworld.Inordertodosointelligently,itwillfirstbenecessarytoestablishtheessentialmissionarynatureofBuddhism,bothfromitsowninternaldynamicsasfoundinthePālisuttas,andalsofromsomehistoricalobservations.WeshallbeusingasparadigmstheclassicalBuddhistmissionsfromIndiatoLanka,ChinaandTibet.

WeshallthenconsiderwhathappenedtoBuddhisminLankaunderforeigninfluences,touchingbothuponsomeverynegativeaspects,butalsoonsomebrightspotsofrevitalizationinthepersonsofColonelOlcott,theAnagarikaDharmapāla,andothers.

Somemodernanthropologiststhesedaystalkaboutwhattheycalla‘pizzaeffect’—whensomeaspectofcultureisexportedandthenre-imported.WeshallapplythistheorytothecaseofBuddhisminordertodiscusstheemergenceofBuddhistmissionstothewestduringthepastseveral

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decades.

Finally,usingclassicalBuddhistmissionsasamodel,weshalldiscussthecontemporarymissions.Ourthesisisthatinthepast,Buddhistmissionaryactivitieshavebeenconductedinadialogicalmethod.IthasnotbeensosimpleasonecultureteachingDhammatoanother;rather,wehaveseenremarkablycreative,cooperativeeffortsinwhichbothpartiesbroughttothetasktheirownuniqueheritagesandperspectivesWeshallconcludewithanappraisal:thatmanyofus,orientalandoccidental,donotfullyunderstandtheimplicationsofthisdialogicaltypeofmission,andthatBuddhismcouldnottakefirmfootinginthewestunlessatruedialogueisenteredupon.

II

ThedisciplesoftheBuddhaarecalledsāvakas,fromtheSanskritroot(√sru,tohear.WhatthesedisciplesheardfromtheBuddhawasaradicallynewwayofdis-solvingthemultilemmaofourexistence,whichiscalledsaṃsāra.TheBuddha’sDhammawasradicallynewtotheextentthatituncompromisinglyandsingle-pointedlyfocusedontheunsatisfactorinessofhumanexistence(dukkha)andtaughtamethod(magga)foritsresolution,withoutresortingtoextraneousandcounter-productivetheorisinginsupportof

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theteaching.ThiswasaspuzzlingtohisdisciplesatthetimeoftheBuddhaasitistoustoday,butsomehowtheBuddhaemployedlanguage,metaphorandmythinaphilosophicallyunentanglingway,teachinginfullregardofthepersonwhomheaddressed.

Theideaofasāvaka,ahearer,isnotapassiveideal;itisamostactiveone.‘Hearing’theBuddha’smessageentailedsomeaction,usuallytellingotherswhathasbeenheard.AstrongparalleltotheBuddhistnotionof‘hearing’isfoundintheChristiannotionofa‘witness,’whichdoesnotmeananinactiveseeing,butalsocompelsthebelievertoacertaintypeofaction.ThustheearlyBuddhist‘hearers,’liketheearlyChristians,wereipsofactomissionaries.

Why?

Manyreasonsforthiscouldbeadduced,buttomentionjusttwo:

Inthefirstplace,alargeemphasisoftheBuddha’steachingwasthedevelopment(bhāvanā)ofsuchethicalstates(vihāra)asmettā,karuṇāmuditāandupekkhā,whichcouldbeapproximatedinEnglishbylove,compassion,empathyandequanimity.Onemethodconducivetothedis-solutionofsaṃsāra(nirodha)waspreciselythebhāvanā(cultivation)oftheseattitudes.Soonthewaytothesolutionofourproblems,wefindthataverykeenawarenessofthesufferingsofothersisdeveloped.Verysimply,wedesiretohelpthem.AndthewaytodothatwastomakeavailabletothemtheDhamma,thatindispensableraftforcrossingover

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frompaintobliss.

AnotherreasonfortheessentialmissionarynatureofBuddhismisitsclaimofuniversality.Muchofpre-BuddhisticIndianreligionwasalooseconfederationoflocalcults.Thisistruestilltoday.Thesecultswereprimarilytribalorregionalinnature,andonefindslocaldeitiesandritualspredominantinallregionsofmodernIndia,savethemosturban.Notribalgodwouldassuresvarga(Pālisagga,heaven),whichwasthegoalofthesereligions,forsomeoneoutsideofthetribe.Thereforethesoteriologicalimportofthesereligionswasethnicallyandtriballylimited.

TheBuddha,ofcourse,vehementlyrejectedallsuchpractices.Oneofthefirstfivesaṃyojanāni(fetters)withwhichonemustgrappleisthebeliefintheefficacyofjustthesetribalreligions:sīlabbataparāmāso.[2]TheBuddharejectedmorethanjustcaste(jāti);entailedinhisrejectionwasthedenialofallcultic,fetishistic,shamanisticandtribalreligiouspractices,asthesewereunderthepurviewofthebrāhmaṇa(priestly)caste.Inthiscontext,theBuddha’steachingwaspreciselythenegationoftheteachingsofthelocalisedreligions.Itcouldnotbeboundtoanyparticularlanguage.(Thismightnotseemsoremarkabletoday,butwemustrememberthatinIndia,Sanskritwasconsideredeternal,extantbeforeeventhegods.)Further,hecommandedhisdisciplestolearnmanydialectstoteachtheDhamma;[3]itsvalidityextendedbeyondthereachesoftheMagadhitongue.Infact,itwasextendedtoalltheworld,andeventoworldsbeyondthissectorofkāmaloka,therealm

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ofthefivefoldsense-desire.

Insummary,therearemanyreasonsfortheessentialmissionarynatureofBuddhism,butwehaveselectedtwoforourdiscussion:(1)thecultivationofsuchethicalstatesasmettā,karuṇāmuditāandupekkhā;and(2)theuniversalityoftheBuddha’steachings,asevidencedbyBuddha’srepudiationoflocalisedreligionsandlanguages.

III

ThehistoryofBuddhistmissionsbeganduringthelifeoftheBuddhahimself.Ofcourse,heisthemissionaryparexcellence,andhisdiscipleswereinstructedtofollowhisexample.ButtheexportingofBuddhismbeganwiththeestablishmentofaBuddhist-orientedgovernmentduringthereignofEmperorAsokaduringthethirdcenturyB.C.E.TheroleofAsokainthesemissionaryactivitiesiswellknownhereinLanka;hesenthisnephew,abhikkhuandarahat,Mahinda,toconvertthelocalkingofLanka,DevānampiyaTissa,atMahintale.TheoccasionoftheirmeetingisrememberedinLankaatthePosonpoya[4]day,anditappearsthatthesefirstmeetingswereinstancesofMahindainstructingtheSinghaleseaboutDhamma.ButintheSamantapāsādikā[5]wefindaninterestingpointmadebyMahinda.ThekingaskedhimwhetherDhammahadbeen

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establishedinLanka,andMahindarepliedthatwhileithadbeenintroduced,itdidnotyethavedeeproots.Mahinda’sclaimisthattheDhammacouldbeconsidereddeeplyrootedonlywhenaSinghalesehadreceivedupasampadā[6]inLanka,masteredDhammaandVinayahere,andwasabletoteach.IwouldseeinMahinda’ssagereplythefollowingcrucialdistinction:Thatone-waymissionaryactivitymightservetointroduceDhamma,butonlytruedialogicalmeetingcouldestablishit.MahindawasnotmerelyappealingtoSinghaleseprideinhisadmonition.HewaspointingoutthatDhammacantakerootonlywhenitbecomesthoroughlyinternalisedbyaculture,whichisexpressedinhisinsistenceonaSinghalesebeingabletolearnandpreachDhammainhishomeland.

Dr.M.M.J.MārasinghealsohaslookedwithfresheyesintoMahinda’smissionaryworkandfoundthatMahinda’steachingswerefundamentallyadaptationsoftheBuddha’steachingswhichweresuitableforthereligio-culticclimateofSriLanka.[7]HepointstoMahinda’sadoptionofpre-Buddhisticculticpracticessuchastree-worship,stillfoundinthevenerationoftheBo-treeinLanka,Yakkhacults,whichremainwithusintribalceremonies,andancestorworship,whichwouldexplainwhyMahinda’sfirstpublicpreachingwasofthePetavatthu.

WhenwesaythatMahindataughtanadaptationofDhammatosuittheclimateofLanka,wedonotmeanthistobetakeninanypejorativesense.WeshallseethatthiswasalsothecasewhenBuddhismwastransportedto

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China,toTibet,andineveryothersuccessfulmission.Weshallalsoofferthatthisiswhathasbeenandwillcontinuetobe,initsjourneystothewest.However,letusreturntoLanka.

BuddhismcontinueditsprocessofabsorptionintothefabricofLankancultureforseveralhundredyears,reachingtheculminationofthisprocessinthecommentarialtraditionoftheMahāvihāraandAnurādhapura.Asyouwellknow,BuddhaghosaandhiscolleagueswereabletosetthephilosophicalstandardsforTheravādaBuddhismbywritingauthoritativecommentaries(aṭṭhakathā)totheTipiṭaka.Whatwewouldofferisthis:thatinwritingthecommentaries,acertaintrendofthinkingfoundintheTipiṭakawasselectedandelaborated,athreadwhich,forreasonsasyetundetermined,wasfoundsuitablefortheintellectualclimateofclassicalLanka.Thisthreadwasquasi-realistic(somerecentscholarshaveunderscoredthispointandclaimBuddhismtobean“empirical”or“scientific”religion)andintellectual[8]asopposedtomysticalorsymbolic.Wewanttore-emphasisethatwedonotseethisasadivergencefromoriginalBuddhism,butitisunquestionablyanadaptation.Certainthreadsofthinkingfoundinthenikāyas[9]aretakenupandelaborated,othersarerelativelyneglected.AndthisprocessistheresultofthedialoguebetweentheIndianbearersofDhammaandtheLankanswhoaccepteditandmadeittheirown,uniquelytheirown.

LetusconsidertwootherinstancesofsuccessfulBuddhist

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missions—thosetoChinaandTibet.

PerhapsthemostinstrumentalindividualintheintroductionofBuddhismintoChinawasBodhidharma,anIndianmeditationmasterwhoisconsideredtheFirstPatriarchoftheCh’an(Zen)school,duringthefifthcenturyC.E.Nowonewordmustbeinsertedabouttheroleof‘founders’inBuddhistmissions:ThereneverisanyonepersonresponsiblefortheexportofDhammafromonecountrytoanother,andthereneverisanyoneevent,timeorlocationwhereorwhenithappens.Buddhists,however,traditionallyliketobelievethattherewas—hencethegreatreverencepaidtoMahinda,BodhidharmaandPadmasambhavainSriLanka,ChinaandTibetrespectively.BuddhismcametoChinalongbeforeBodhidharmadid.Itcameviathesilkroutes,fromGandharan(northwestern)India,throughKabul,Bamiyan,Samarkand,theGobioasesofKhotanandKucha,etcetera.Likewise,ithasbeendemonstratedclearlythatBuddhismwasfoundinLankabeforeMahinda.[10]Buttraditionpiouslyattributedtothesecharismaticleadersthesoleresponsibilityandpraiseforthesemissions.Perhapsthiswasduetotheiracceptancebytheroyalcourtsofthesecountries,butthisproperlyisthetopicforanotherpaper.

BodhidharmataughtDhammatotheChinese,andhewasanIndian.ButtheChinesegeniusmodifiedandadaptedBuddhismtotheirneeds,andtheCh’anschoolwasnotfullydevelopedtoitspresentformuntilseveralcenturieslater,duringthetimeofthePatriarchHui-neng.These

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modificationscontinued,anditwaslaterre-adaptedbytheKoreansandtheJapanese.TheeastAsianstooksomethreadsofBuddhismandwoveauniquefabric.Theyweremorepractical-mindedthantheIndiansandlessphilosophical;henceZen’snon-relianceontextsandphilosophy.Theyweremorenaturalistic,andtheybroughtnatureimagery,largelyborrowedfromTaoism,intotheirBuddhism.Theywerealsoneverquitehappywiththeteachingsofdukkha(suffering)andanattā(egolessness),orwiththeemphasisonmonasticdiscipline(vinaya),sotheyadaptedtheseideasaswell,anddevelopedamoreidealisticandpractice-orientedformofBuddhism.CertainlythetrendsemphasisedbytheChinesearepresentintheTipiṭaka,asaretherealisticandintellectually-orientedformofBuddhisminLanka.OurpointisthattheintroductionofBuddhismintoChinawasalsoadialogicalprocess,aco-operativeeffortofIndianslikeBodhidharmaandChineselikeHui-neng.

InTibetwefindasimilarstory.TraditionreportsatleastthreemajorwavesofmissionariesfromIndia:thatofPadmasambhava,thatofthemahāsiddhalineagefocusingonNāropaandMarpa,andthatofAtisa.OfcoursetherewereothercontactswithBuddhism:somefromthesilkroutesandpossiblyquiteearly;andthetraditionallyreveredtwoBuddhistqueens,onefromNepalandonefromChina,ofseventh-centurykingSrong-tsangam-po(Srong.brstan.sgam.po.).Padmasambhava’smissionismostfascinatingtohistoriansofreligion.[11]Inthiscase,thegreattantrācārya

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wasinvitedtoTibetbyKingSrong-tsangam-poatthesuggestionofAcāryaSantirakṣita,asaintlyintellectual.Padmasambhavawasamoredynamicsort,andthehagiographicaltraditionssurroundinghislifebearconstantimagesofhissubduinglocaldeitiesanddemons,whichhavebeeninterpretedashissublimationoftheshamanisticreligiousenergiesofpre-BuddhistreligioninTibet.Mostwesternscholarspaycloseattentiontothemoremiraculousaspectsofhislife,and,fascinatingthoughtheyare,TibetansequallyreverehimfortheestablishmentofthefirstBuddhistmonasteryinTibetatSam-ye(bSam.yas.).Healsowrotemanytreatisesonmeditationandyogawhicharestillhighlypopulartoday.LikeMahindainLanka,heisreveredasa‘secondBuddha’[12]becauseofthedialogicalnatureofhismission,onewhichdealtwithTibetancultureinitsownrightsadaptingDhammatosuittheneedsoftheTibetans.ItiswellknownthatnowherehasBuddhismevolvedsuchuniquesocialandculturalpermutationsasinTibet,withsuchinstitutionsastheDalaiLamaandothertul-kus(sprul.sku.),whoareconsideredmanifestationsofvariousaspectsofBuddhahood,recognisedassuchataveryearlyage,andbroughtuponastrictmonasticregimenofDhammaandVinayasothattheyweremostabletoleadtheTibetanpeoplebothspirituallyandpolitically.TibetanBuddhismlargelydrawsfromthesourceofmysticalandsymbolicthreadsoftheTipiṭaka.

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IV

EvenfromsuchacursorylookatthreemajorBuddhistmissionarymovements,IwouldliketoemphasiseagainthatthesuccessofsuchmissionshasdependedontheculturalsensitivityofthemissionariesfromIndiaandtheirgeniusforadaptation,aswellasthecreativeacceptanceofBuddhismbyindigenouspeoplesinLanka,ChinaandTibet,anacceptancewhichentailedamakingofBuddhismintotheirownreligion.Withoutthesedialogicalunderpinnings,IofferthatthesemissionswouldhavefailedandthatDhammawouldneverhavespreadbeyondIndia.

NowIwillaskyoutoholdthispointinmindwhileIbringanotherperspectivetobearontheissueofBuddhistmissions,thisoneborrowedfrommodernanthropology.Althoughthenameforthisphenomenonisratherlight-hearted,theconceptitselfisquiteseriousitiscalledthe‘pizzaeffect’andthistheorywasdevelopedbyProfessorAgehanandaBharati,chairmanoftheanthropologydepartmentatSyracuseUniversity.[13]Ishallfirstrelatetoyoutheparadigmofthe‘pizzaeffect’andthenshowitsapplicationtothecaseofBuddhism.

Severalhundredyearsago,themostcommonmiddaymealofworkingclasspeopleinSicilyandpartsofItalywasthepizza,whichisakindofflatwheatcakecoveredwithtomatosauceandperhapssomecheese.Itwasnotvery

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muchlikethepizzaoftoday,ifyouhavehadthejoyofeatingone,butaratherplaindishascommonasboutiquericeandcurryhereinLanka.Itwaspopularbecauseitwasthecheapestthingonecouldeat.

Betweentwoandonehundredyearsago,millionsofItaliansmigratedtotheUnitedStates,bringingwiththemtheirownformofChristianity,theirlanguageand,ofcourse,theireatinghabits.LikemostpeoplewhoemigratedtoAmerica,theireconomicstatusrosesharply,andthiswasreflectedintheirfood:theirhumblepizzabecameadornedwithallsortsofdelicacieslikesausages,anchoviesandextracheese—allthingsfarbeyondtheireconomicreachinSicilyandItaly.MoreslowlybackinItaly,economicconditionsrosealso.Now,theculturalgeniusofAmericaissynthesisandimprovisation,andwhiletheirAmericancousinsembellishedtheirpizzas,theItalians,nowabletoaffordmeatandpasta,gaveitupentirely.TwentyyearsagoapizzacouldnotbefoundinRome,sothoroughwastheworkingclassrejectionoftheirpreviouspovertyandtheaccoutrementsofpoverty—includingthepizza.Soitseemsthatpizza,likemillionsofItalianworkers,simplymigratedtoAmericafromItaly,gainingabitintheprocess.

Butthatisnottheendofthestory.Aseconomicconditionsrose,internationaltravelbecameavailabletobothItalian-AmericansandtoItalians.AndwhathappenedwasthatItaliansvisitingAmericaenjoyedpizzasomuchthattheytookitbackwiththem—sausages,anchoviesandall.TheendofthestoryisthatthepizzaisagainafavouriteinItaly,

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butinaformembellishedfromitshumbleancestoroftheworking-classlunch.

ThisiswhatBharaticallsthe‘pizzaeffect’:whenaculturalform(inthiscasethefood,pizza)istransportedtoanotherculturalmilieu,allbutforgotteninitsoriginalhome,thenre-importedtotheoriginalmatrix,usuallywithaddedembellishments.

WhathasthistodowithBuddhism?Plenty,especiallyinthecaseoftheTheravāda.

Duringtheimperialistperiod,Lankasufferedgreatly,andnoaspectofculturesufferedmorethanBuddhism.IneednotremindyouofthelegalsanctionsagainstBuddhistsunderforeignrulers,andthedecadentstateitwasinaboutonehundredyearsago.Butsomethingelsewasafoot.Buddhisttextswere‘discovered’fortheWestbyscholarslikeF.Max-Muller,T.W.Rhys-Davids,LordChalmersandHenryClarkeWarren.ThesescholarswerefollowinginthefootstepsofagreatreformeroftheSanghaandBuddhism,theVenerableWelawitaSaraṇaṅkaraSaṅgharāja(1698-1778),whosearduousworkincollectingola[14]manuscriptsinLankaisasadmiredbyTheravādasaṅghikasasitisunknowntowesternscholarship.ThesewereamongavanguardofwesternOrientalistswhotookthesetextstoOxford,CambridgeandHarvardandeditedandpublishedthem,makingthemavailabletoalargeraudiencethanperhapseverbefore.ThensuchrevitalizersasHenrySteeleOlcott,theAnāgārikaDharmapālaandTheosophistslike

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MadameBlavatsky,ineffect,broughtthesetextsbacktoLankaandre-energisedaslumberingBuddhism.OfcourseOlcott’sinterestintheBuddhistrevivalinLankawasstimulatedbywesternnewspaperaccountsofthefamousPanaduraDebates(1871),inwhichtherivalclaimsofBuddhismandChristianitywerepubliclyexamined.Olcott,therefore,didnotstarttheBuddhistrevival;ratherhewasanearlyandextremelyinfluential—especiallyinthefieldofpubliceducation—participantinit.

Are-emergentBuddhismplayedalargeroleintheindependencemovementinLanka,justasdidHinduismasinterpretedbyMahātmaGandhi(who,incidentally,firstreadtheBhagavadGītāinLondoninEnglish)andotherleadersoftheso-calledHinduRenaissance.WhatIwouldliketopointouttoyou,asI’msureyou’rewellaware,istheinfluenceoftheserevitalistsontheshapeofBuddhisminLankatoday.ProbablymanyofyoulearnedyourPāliintheEnglishratherthantheSinghalascript,andIwouldhazardaguessthattherearemoreP.T.S.editionsinyourhomesthanolamanuscripts.ThisisnottoimplythatyouoweyourBuddhismtowesterners—farfromit!Buttosomeextentyouoweit,intheformitnowbears,inEnglish-educatedcircles,tothis‘pizzaeffect’,eventhoughsuchCeyloneseastheAnāgārikaDharmapālaandĀnandaCoomaraswamyprobablyhadmoretodowithitthanMr.&Mrs.Rhys-DavidsandLordChalmers.

Whatdoesallofthisaddupto?IhopethatitindicateswhatIhavebeenemphasisingallalong:thedialogicalandtrans-

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nationalcharacterofBuddhistmissions.TheSinghaleseacceptedDhammafromMahindaintheirownuniqueandvitalway,justasLankawillcontinuetoembellishupontherevitalisedBuddhismofOlcottandDharmapāla.Ifthisisinanywayunclear,considertheuniqueand,assomesuggest,heterodoxteachingsofDr.AmbedkarinIndia,whosemillionsofBuddhistfollowershavedevelopedanewsocialDhamma,largelyundertheinfluenceofGandhijiandtheHinduRenaissance,whichwasundertheleadershipofsuchwesterneducatedandinfluencedmenasRammohanRoy,SwamiVivekānandaandGandhihimself,whointurngainedtheirinspirationsfromthelikesofSirEdwinArnoldandF.Max-Muller.NeitherHinduismnorBuddhismeverdiedintheirhomecountries,buttheirvitalityhadbeenseverelysappedbycenturiesofEuropeanimperialism,andforthetransfusionofnewenergiesintothesereligions,sucharadicalanthropologicalphenomenonasthe‘pizzaeffect’wasinorder.Weshallcontinuetoapplythe‘pizzaeffect’inthecontextofcontemporarymissionsshortly.

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GiventhismuchofanhistoricalandanthropologicalbackgroundonthesubjectofBuddhistmissions,IwouldnowliketoconsiderthepresentBuddhistmissionstothe

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westernworld.ByBuddhistmissionaryactivitiesinthewest,Idonotmeanmerescholarlypursuits.WhatImeanbyaBuddhistmissionisaseriousattempttoleadpeopleofanotherculturetoacceptrefuge(saraṇa)intheBuddha,DhammaandSaṅghaandtoliveaBuddhistlife.Additionally,thesemissionshaveastheirgoaltheconversionoflargenumbersofpeople,notmerelyafewintellectualsandartists,torightfullybecalledmissions.

Giventhissomewhatlimitedrangefortheuseoftheword‘mission,’IthinkwecansafelyagreethatBuddhistmissionstothewestareseveraldecadesoldatthemost.Oneveryinterestingthingaboutthesemissionsisthattheyare‘three-pronged’—thatis,theyinvolveTheravādamissionaries,Mahāyāna,especiallyZen,teachers,andTantricorVajrayānamissionaries.InthissensetheyareunlikeanypreviousmissionsinhavingthreedistinctformsofBuddhisminvolved.(Tosomeextent,thiswasalsothecaseintheintroductionofBuddhismtoChinaandTibet,buttoamuchlesserdegreeandcertainlywithoutsomuchconsciouscooperationamongthedifferingBuddhistsystems.)Therearesomespecialproblemswhichariseduetothisheterogeneousmissionaryactivity,manyofwhichrevolvearoundathoroughmisunderstandingofthenotionofekayāna,or‘onevehicle,’whichshallbetakenupabitlater.

TheravādamissionarieshavebeenactiveinAmericaandEuropeforaboutfourtosixdecades.PresentlywefindTheravādavihārasinWashingtonandLondon,andonecan

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seeEuropeanandAmericanbhikkhusandbhikkhunīsresidinginLanka,Burma,ThailandandIndiaforaboutthepastseventyfiveyears.MuchoftheinterestinTheravādaBuddhismcentresaroundvipassanāmeditationpracticeswhichhavebeenmadepopularinexcellentbooksbyNyanaponikaMahāthera[15]andbyProfessorDonaldK.SwearerofSwarthmoreCollege.[16]CurrentinterestalsorevolvesaroundAbhidhammaasaformofpsychology,andsomeresearchershavebeenattemptingtoleadtoanintegrationofsomeAbhidhammatechniquesandconceptsintowesternpsychologicaltherapeuticsystems.

ZenBuddhismmadeitswayintowesternculturethroughtheso-calledBeatnickmovementofthe1950s,ledbysuchpopularfiguresasJackKerouac,AlanWattsandAllenGinsbergwho,throughtheirnovels,essaysandpoetry,introducedsomeZenideasintowesternparlance.AllofthemweredeeplyindebtedtotheworkoftheJapanesescholar,DaisetzT.Suzuki.OnecanfindZenmeditationcentresinalmosteverymajorwesterncity,andIknowofonefull-fledgedCh’anmonasteryinSanFrancisco.MajorretreatcentresarefoundinNewYork,California,London,andotherareas,andsomepsychologists,suchasDr.EricFromm,havebeentakingaverykeeninterestinZenasapsychologicaltechnique.AtleasttwoofthesemajorZencentresarecurrentlyundertheleadershipofAmericanroshis(Zenmasters),andIfindthisquitesignificant.TheJapaneseroshishavebecomeconfidentenoughoftheirtransmissionstonameassuccessorstheirleadingwestern

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disciples.OneisremindedhereofMahinda’sadviceregardingthestatusofDhammainLanka:thatitwasfirmlyestablishedonlywhentheSinghalesethemselvescouldlearnandteachDhammaintheirowncountry.ThisappearstohavehappenedinthecaseofZeninAmerica.

AtthisjunctureIfeelcompelledtoofferacriticismofTheravādamissionaries.WhileitisundoubtedlythecasethatmoreWesternershavebeenordainedasTheravādabhikkhusandnunsthanofanyotherformofBuddhism,IknowofveryfewwesternTheravādamembersofthesaṅghalivinginthewestatthistime.ItseemsthatnearlyallofthemchoosetoremaininthemorespirituallyaccommodatingatmospheresofLanka,ThailandandIndia.This,Ifeel,isaneglectoftheirdutiestothewesternupāsakasandupāsikas.IftheTheravādaistogainastrongfootholdintheWest,itseemsabsolutelynecessarythatwesternTheravādasaṅghikasliveandteachinthewest.NonumberofSinghalesemonksorwesternupāsakascanfillthevoidleftbytheabsenceofwesternTheravādasaṅghikas,andIwouldcalluponyoutorememberMahinda’smessageinthiscontext.

TheVajrayānaisthemostrecentformofDhammatomakeitspresencefeltinthewest,andthishasbeenduetothetragicinvasionandtakeoverofTibetbythecommunistChineseabouttwentyyearsago.SeveralthousandTibetanrefugeeswereacceptedasimmigrantsinAmericaandsomeEuropeancountries,andmanythousandsmorehavearrivedsincethattime.Presentlytheyseemtobemaking

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moreimpactandgainingmoreconvertsthananyotherformofDhamma,asthereareseveralVajrayānamonasteriesinthewest—inNewJersey,California,France,Scotland,ColoradoandNewYork—withresidentVajrayānabhikkhusandbhikkhunīsofwesternorigins.Further,manyTibetantul-kushavebeenteachingmeditationtowesternersinlargenumbers,andmanythousandsofwesternershavetakenrefugeunderthem.ThereareVajrayānameditationcentresinnearlyeverymajorwesterncity,andtheVajrayānateachersthemselveshavebeenshowingsomeparallelsbetweenDhammaandpsychologytothewest.

Severalcrucialquestionsregardingthesemissionsconfrontus,andIwouldliketoposethree:

1. IsasaṅghanecessaryforBuddhismtoflourishinthewest?

2. HowshouldthewesternerviewthegreatdiversityofBuddhistsystems?Aretheyinaccordorcontradiction?Aretheyinfactidenticalorcomplementary?

3. WhatofBuddhismisessentialandwhatisdispensable?Howmuchofitneedbetransportedtothewest,andwhatofitismereculturalaccoutrementthatshouldbeleftinAsia:oratleastmodifiedtosuitwesternneeds?

Asforthefirstquestion,theroleofthesaṅgha:ItisundoubtedlythecasethatthesaṅghahasbeenindispensableinalletherinstancesofsuccessfulBuddhistmissionizing.Wehavealreadylamentedthepaucityof

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occidentalTheravādabhikkhusresidentinthewest,andwecalluponBuddhistsinAsiatosendusbacksomeofourownteachers.ButweshouldalsopointoutthatmanyBuddhistteachersfeelthatthemonasticidealisnotsuitableforthemodernwesternworld,andthatBuddhistsshouldconcentrateonteachingmeditationtothelaity.Onlytimewilltellthecorrectanswertothisquestion,butIwouldofferthatifwestudypreviousBuddhistmissionsandtakethemasaguide,thentheroleofthesaṅghaloomslargeindeed.RememberthecrucialtaskofPadmasambhavainestablishingthefirstBuddhistmonasteryinTibetatSam-ye,andrememberMahinda’sadmonitionabouttheimportanceofaSinghalesereceivingupasampadāinLankaandteachingDhammahimself.(SuchaceremonywasheldlastyearinLondon.)Thisiscertainlyoneofthequestionsforwhichdialogueiscrucial.

Thesecondpointalsoneedssomeperspective.ThehistoryofBuddhismhasseenliterallyhundredsofdifferentschoolsemerge,eachwithitsownconceptionsandpractices.IshouldpointoutthatLankaistheonlyBuddhistcountryinhistorywhichactuallysetupasortofgoverningbodyattheMahāvihārainAnurādhapurawhichdealtwithdoctrinalquestionsauthoritatively.AllotherBuddhistcountriesseemedcontentwiththepeacefulco-existenceofvaryingsystemsofDhamma.Ononehand,wemustadmiretheMahāvihāraforpreservingtheoldestrecordedteachingsoftheBuddhainarelativelyauthenticform.Ontheotherhand,wecannotagreethatalltherestofBuddhismisa

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degenerationfromthisstandard,asthealphaandomegaofDhammaisbodhi(enlightenment),andothersystemsseemtodoequallywellinteachingthissubtletransmission.CertainlyAmericaisquitecomfortablewithdiversity,andwecannotenvisageanyparallelinstitutionliketheMahāvihāraarisinginthewest.

ManypioneeringwesternBuddhists,suchasChristmasHumphreys,havesoughttoreduceBuddhismtothebarestminimum,togetatwhatisessentialanddiscardtherest.ColonelOlcotttriedsomethingsimilaringettingallBuddhiststoagreetosomefourteencardinalpointsofDhamma.ButthesefourteenpointscouldnotbesaidtoencompassDhamma,saveasabasisfordiscussionamongBuddhiststhemselves.

InsuchMahāyānatextsastheSrīmālāsūtra,[17]wecomeacrosstheBuddhisttechnicaltermekayāna,whichcouldbetranslatedliterallyas‘onevehicle.’NowoneprobleminpopulartreatmentsofBuddhisttechnicaltermsisthattheyareoftentreatedoutoftheoriginalcontextinwhichtheyarise,oftenleadingtosomemisleadingnotionsofproperapplicationoftheseterms.AsuperficialinterpretationofekayānamightcomedowntotheclaimthatoneshouldfindinBuddhismwhatiscommontoallformsofBuddhism,treatingtherestasinconsequential.Thisterm,especiallyinthemorematureMahāyānawritingsofBhāvaviveka,SantirakṣitaandsGam-po-pa,isusedtoconveytheideathatwhileconceptions,methods,etcetera,maydifferwidelyamongschools,nibbānaisstillnibbāna,andthatallschoolsof

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Buddhismleadtothatsamesublimegoal—todissolutionofsaṃsāraandtheattainmentofpeaceofmind.Inthissensealonecantherebesaidtobeonevehicle:fromtheperspectiveofultimatetruth(paramārtha-satyainMahāyānaterminology).Fromtherelativepointofvieworsaṃvrti-satya,therearemanyBuddhistsystems.Butthepointisthatthisdiversityisarichness,notalack,andthatdiversityofmethod(andtheMahāyānaseesallteachingsasupāya,method)existsbecausethereisdiversityofindividualswhoneeddifferentmethods.RatherthantrytoreduceallofBuddhism’sbeautifulfloweringsintoonehomogeneousandratherunappealingsoup,aBuddhistshouldpointwithpridetothedifferentmethodshisreligionhastoofferitsadherents.ThediversityofBuddhistsystemsyieldsanetherealharmony,andperhapsitwouldtakeBuddhistsfromAmerica,anationfirmlyrootedindiversity,toremindotherBuddhistsofthiskeypoint.

Thethirdpointadmitstomanydifferentapproaches.SomeBuddhistteachersinthewestfeelthatDhammacanbetranslateddirectlyintoanyculturalmatrixwithnolossofsubstance.ThiswouldseemtofollowfromtheBuddha’sadmonitiontoteachothersintheirownlanguage.[18]Othersareabitmorecautious,andfeelitisnecessaryforawesternstudenttolearntraditionalBuddhistcanonicallanguagesandevenspendsomeyearsintraditionalBuddhistcultures.Thisisadifficultquestion,anditsresolutioncouldonlybereachedbythedialogicalmethod.Oneapproachthatcertainlywouldnotworkwouldbefora

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BuddhistteachertoinsistthathiswholeculturalbaggagebeacceptedalongwithDhamma;thatis,awesternBuddhistneednotacceptyakkhasandexorcisms,althoughtheseareintegralpartsoftheobservablereligiouslifeofBuddhistsinLanka.NorneedawesternerlearntoperformtheteaceremonyorstudykaratetounderstandZen,althoughtheseareaspectsofJapaneseculturalimpact.Thestancecalledforhereisoneofthemiddleway.Buddhismneverlivesapartfromtheculturalcontextsinwhichitisfound;yetneverhasanentireculturaltraditionbeentransplantedinanaliensoil.IamsuggestingthatweneedtofindanAmericanBuddhism,suitabletothatcountry.AndthefindingofthisBuddhismwillemergeonlyfromalongandsustaineddialoguebetweenDhammateachersfromAsiaandDhammahearersinthewest.

Parenthetically,IwanttomentionthatoccasionallyIamastonishedbyhowmuchofcultureseemtransportable.OneaspectofTibetanculturewhichIhadalwaysthoughtcouldsurviveonlyinTibetwasthenotionofatulku,whichaswementionedbeforeisthediscoveryofachildasanembodimentofsomeaspectofBuddhahood.Iwasverysurprisedtoreadrecentlythatoneofthehighestlamas(bla.ma.)ofTibetclaimstohavediscoveredanAmericantulku,andthatthechildisnowbeingraisedaccordingtothecenturies-oldTibetantraditionofDhamma-education.[19]IamremindedbythisofMahinda’scommentsonthefirmestablishmentofDhammainLanka.

Letmereturnagaintothe‘pizzaeffect.’Whatoccurredin

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thecaseofthere-importationofBuddhismtoLanka(andalsowiththeHinduRenaissanceinIndia)wasthatawatered-down,intellectualformofDhammaemergedamongcertainclassesinthesecountries.PamphletswerewrittenabouthowBuddhismwasnotareligionatall,butaphilosophy.Iwouldofferthatnothingcouldbefartherfromthetruth.Buddhismisareligionintheverybestsenseoftheterminthatitaimsataradicaltransformationoftheperson.MayIremindyouthattheavowedgoalofphilosophy(inthewesternsense)hasbeenmerelyintellectualclarification,andwhilethismayplaysomerolewithinBuddhism,theBuddhahimselfdisparagedsuchactivitiesastendingnottowardthegoal.[20]Thegoalisnibbāna,andthisgoalisfullyreligious.Thisoverly-intellectualattitudefoundinsomecirclesinsouthAsiatodayis,Ifeel,oneoftheundesirableby-productsofthe‘pizza-effect,’asisasuperficialunderstandingofekayāna.IfBuddhismisadvertisedassodrylyintellectual,itwillneversucceedinthewest,whichisquitefedupwithmereintellectualism.

VI

ItisverydifficulttoappraisethemissionaryactivitiesofBuddhistsinthewest.ThereisnodoubtthatDhammahas

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beenintroducedthere,butonecannotsaywhetherornotithastakenfirmroot.WeareblessedwithmanygreatDhamma-teachersthere,aswellassomegoodstudents.Iwouldaskyou,asamajorBuddhistorganisationinarespectedBuddhistcountry,totakeseriouslymyobservationthatBuddhistmissionsaresuccessfulonlyinsofarastheyaredialogical,andIwouldaskthatthisdialoguewehaveundertakentodaybecontinuedintheinterestsofDhamma.IhopethatonedaywewillallrecogniseanAmericanBuddhism,whichofnecessitywillbedifferentfromSinghaleseorChineseorTibetanBuddhism,butwhichwillunquestionablybe‘Buddhism’intheverybestsense.AsthegreatBuddhistsofclassicalLanka,ChinaandTibetdid,wemustadaptaswellasadoptDhammaandmakeitourown.[21]

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Notes

1. ThispaperisarevisionofanearlierdraftreadbeforetheAll-CeylonBuddhistCongressontheoccasionoftheTwentyFifthAnniversaryoftheUnitedStatesEducationalFoundationinSriLanka,19thNovember,1977.

2. SaṃyuttaNikāya,P.T.S.edition,V,p.61.

3. VinayaPiṭaka,P.T,S.edition,II,p.139.ForadiscussionoftheSinghalesecontroversyregardirgtheinterpretationofthisverse,seeEtienneLamotte,Histoiredubouddhismindienne:desoriginesàl’êreSaka,Louvain:PublicationsUniversitaires,BibliothéqueduMusêon,Vol.43,1958,pp.610-614.

4. PoyaisSinghaleseforthePaliworduposatha,referringheretotheFull-moondayofthePosonmonth.Theseuposathadaysaredevotedtoreligiousobservancesbymonksandlaity.

5. Samantapāsādikā,P.T.S.edition,p.60.

6. UpasampadaisthehigherordinationofaBuddhistmonkasafull-fledgedBhikkhu.

7. M.M.J.Mārasinghe,“’Functional’BuddhismofSri

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Lanka.AMahindianAdaptationfromOriginalBuddhism,”Colombo:TheBuddhist,VesakNumber,May1977,pp.9-11.

8. TheintellectualemphasisoftheTheravādawasunderscoredinthefirstcenturyC.E.bytheganthadhura,vipassanādhuradebates.WhilethesetwomethodsoflearningandmeditativeinsightarenotviewedasantitheticalinTheravādaliterature,theprimacyofanintellectualcomprehensionofDhammaisadistinguishingmarkoftheSinghaleseTheravāda.Ofcourse,meditationhasalwaysbeenvital,asinanyformofBuddhism.Foramorepolemicaldiscussionofthosedebates,seeWalpolaRahula,HistoryofBuddhisminCeylon:TheAnuradhapuraPeriod,Colombo:M.DGunasena&Co.,2ndedition1966(1956),pp.159-160.

9. TheNikáyasaretheCollectionsoftheBuddha’sDiscourses,aspreservedinthePaliCanon.

10. B.W.Adikaram,EarlyhistoryofBuddhisminCeylon,Colombo:M.D.Gunasena&Co.1953(1946),p.48.

11. SeeKeithDowman(tr.),TheLegendoftheGreatStūpaandtheLifeStoryoftheLotus-BornGuru,Berkeley:DharmaPublishing,1973.

12. LynnA.deSilva,Buddhism:BeliefsandPracticesinSriLanka.Wellawatte:L.A.deSilva,1974,p.161:“anubuddha.”

13. WhileIhaveheardProfessorBharatilectureonthe

30

‘pizzaeffect,’Icannotrecallwherehehaswrittenaboutit.

14. Olamanuscript:atextwrittenonstripsofpalmleaf(ola),whicharethenboundintobooks.

15. NyanaponikaMahāthera,TheHeartofBuddhistMeditation.London:Rider,1962.

16. DonaldK.Swearer,SecretsoftheLotus.NewYork:Macmillan,1971.

17. ThisimportanttexthasbeenfluentlytranslatedbyAlexandHidekoWayman,TheLion’sRoarofQueenSrīmālā:ABuddhistScriptureontheTathāgatagarbhaTheory,NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.1974.

18. VinayaPiṭaka,P.T.S.edition,II,p.139.

19. LindsayMiller,‘‘ATibetanHolyManReborninMassachusetts,”NewYorkPost,August16,1976,p33.

20. MajjhimaNikāya,Cūla-MālunkyasuttaNo.63.

21. TheauthorwishestoexpresshisappreciationtotheVen.NyanaponikaMahātheraforvaluablediscussionsandsuggestionsregardingthistopic

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Foundedin1958,theBPShaspublishedawidevarietyofbooksandbookletscoveringagreatrangeoftopics.ItspublicationsincludeaccurateannotatedtranslationsoftheBuddha’sdiscourses,standardreferenceworks,aswellasoriginalcontemporaryexpositionsofBuddhistthoughtandpractice.TheseworkspresentBuddhismasittrulyis—adynamicforcewhichhasinfluencedreceptivemindsforthepast2500yearsandisstillasrelevanttodayasitwaswhenitfirstarose.

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TableofContents

Titlepage 2MeanderingsoftheWheelofDhamma 4I 4II 5III 8IV 14V 18VI 27Notes 29

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