wellbeing and the gentle art: emotion, engagement, meaning
TRANSCRIPT
Wellbeing and the Gentle Art: Emotion, Engagement, Meaning and
Accomplishment in Brazilian Jiu Jitsu Practitioners
Siobhan Fogarty
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Higher Diploma in Psychology at Dublin
Business School, School of Arts, Dublin.
Supervisor: Dr. Rosie Reid
Word Count: 8,904
April 2020
Department of Psychology
Dublin Business School
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Table of Contents
Declaration ................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................................... 3
Wellbeing and the Gentle Art: Emotion, Engagement, Meaning and Accomplishment in Brazilian Jiu Jitsu
Practitioners ................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Brazilian Jiu Jitsu ..................................................................................................................................................... 7
Positive and Negative Emotion ................................................................................................................................. 8
Engagement ............................................................................................................................................................. 10
Meaning .................................................................................................................................................................. 13
Accomplishment ...................................................................................................................................................... 15
Degree of Practice .................................................................................................................................................. 16
Rationale ................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Methods ...................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Participants ............................................................................................................................................................. 20
Design ..................................................................................................................................................................... 21
Materials ................................................................................................................................................................. 22
Procedure ................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Ethics ....................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Results ......................................................................................................................................................................... 26
Descriptive Statistics ............................................................................................................................................... 26
Inferential Statistics ................................................................................................................................................ 29
Discussion ................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Key Findings ........................................................................................................................................................... 35
Strengths and Limitations ........................................................................................................................................ 39
Implications and Future Research .......................................................................................................................... 40
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................................. 41
References .................................................................................................................................................................. 42
Appendix A ................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Appendix B ................................................................................................................................................................. 68
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Declaration
‘I declare that this thesis that I have submitted to Dublin Business School for the award of HDip
Psychology is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated, where it is
clearly acknowledged by references. Furthermore, this work has not been submitted for any other
degree.’
Word count: 8,904
Signed: Siobhan Fogarty
Date: 10th April, 2020
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Dr. Rosie Reid and Dr. Pauline Hyland for their patience and expertise. My
parents for their love and support, and Little Face for her unwavering friendship.
To all the JiuJiteiros, may we have post-pandemic training together soon.
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Abstract
Research suggests that subjective wellbeing decreases the risk of chronic illness and mental health
issues, and is therefore a pertinent personal and societal concern. Brazilian Jiu Jitsu (BJJ) has been
associated with a range of desirable social and psychological outcomes. This quantitative study
examined if significant differences would exist between practitioners and non-practitioners in
levels of negative emotion and wellbeing (as measured by positive emotion, engagement, meaning
and accomplishment). A further aim was to investigate if degrees of practice might influence these
variables in practitioners. Participants (N = 653) completed an online questionnaire including a
modified PERMA-profiler measure. Analysis showed that practitioners demonstrated
significantly higher levels of wellbeing. Advanced practitioners demonstrated lower levels of
negative emotion, while frequent practitioners exhibited higher levels of wellbeing. Future
research is recommended to establish a causal relationship between BJJ and wellbeing as the sport
may show promise as a mental health intervention.
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Wellbeing and the Gentle Art: Emotion, Engagement, Meaning and Accomplishment in
Brazilian Jiu Jitsu Practitioners
Wellbeing can be understood as the “experience of feeling good and functioning well”
(Huppert, 2014, p. 9). However, wellbeing is considered “intangible, difficult to define, and even
harder to measure” (Thomas, 2009, p. 11). Seligman argues that it is a construct consisting of
several measurable components which contribute to wellbeing but do not define it (2011). Recent
research has defined wellbeing in terms of the ability to fulfil goals (Foresight Mental Captial
and Wellbeing Project, 2008) and happiness (Pollard & Lee, 2003). Further, Seligman (2010)
posits that happiness consists of three elements: positive emotion, engagement and meaning.
Historically, two approaches have emerged in relation to the study of subjective wellbeing: the
hedonic approach which emphasised positive affect, low negative affect and happiness (e.g.
Kahneman, Diener & Schwarz, 2003); and the eudaimonic approach which accentuated human
development and purpose in life (e.g. Rogers, 1961; Ryff, 1989). The multi-dimensional
approach to wellbeing, which combines both hedonic and eudaimonic aspects, has been adopted
by multiple researchers (e.g. Huppert, 2014; Seligman, 2011).
Shah and Marks assert that an important goal for any democratic government should be
citizens with high levels of wellbeing (2004). Hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing are pertinent to
quality of life as people age and research suggests that subjective wellbeing reduces the risk of
chronic illness and promotes longevity (Steptoe et al., 2015). Keyes (2004) has shown that those
with low levels of wellbeing are at a much greater risk of developing depression and health
issues such as cardiovascular disease. It has been shown that even a small change in the average
level of symptoms in the population results in a large decrease in the number with disorder;
hence, an intervention which promotes even a small positive change may result in a large
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increase in wellbeing on a population level (Huppert et al., 2005). Lyubomirsky and her
colleagues propose that intentional activities are important drivers of psychological wellbeing
(Lyubomirsky et al., 2005; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2006). Thus, an intentional activity such as
martial arts may increase wellbeing.
Martial Arts and Wellbeing
Empirical research regarding the effect of martial arts practice on wellbeing is divided as
participation has been associated with both positive and negative outcomes (Vertonghen &
Theeboom, 2012). In a well-cited longitudinal study (N = 477) Endresen and Olweus (2005)
reported concerning findings amongst power athletes. Similar findings, regarding increased
aggression, have been found (e.g. Mutz, 2012; Sofia & Cruz, 2017). However, martial arts have
been associated with a range of desirable social and psychological outcomes. In a cross-sectional
study (N = 72) Steyn and Roux (2009) found that wellbeing was significantly higher in
taekwondo practitioners in relation to personal growth and self-acceptance scores when
compared with hockey players and a non-sport group. Some studies have argued that martial arts
can contribute to a high level of wellbeing known as flourishing (Hackney, 2013; Croom, 2014)
and many researchers propose that martial arts might be an effective therapeutic intervention
(Fuller, 1988; Woodward, 2009). Additionally, a recent metanalysis (N = 507) (Harwood,
Lavidor, & Rassovsky, 2017) found that martial arts reduced problematic externalising
behaviour and these findings have been substantiated in several articles (e.g. Zivin et al., 2001;
Twemlow et al., 2008).
Contention within the field may be due to a failure to differentiate between the various
arts. Traditional martial arts (e.g. karate, aikido, judo) seem to reduce negative outcomes, while
modern competitive martial arts (e.g. boxing, MMA, wrestling) may increase problematic
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behaviours (Nosanchuk & MacNeil, 1989). For example, research has found that aikido and
karate practitioners displayed less aggression than boxers (Graczyk et al., 2010). Findings
suggest that martial arts have their own qualities which lead to different outcomes and grouping
them together (e.g. Endresen and Olweus, 2005) is problematic. To address this limitation the
current study focuses on benefits associated with a single martial art, Brazilian Jiu Jitsu (BJJ).
Zivin et al. Proposed that outcome differences between the martial arts may be due to the varying
philosophical foundations associated with them (2001). BJJ arguably has the appropriate
philosophical foundations to improve wellbeing as mastering the art is considered a way of
mastering oneself in and outside of the dojo (Gracie & Danaher, 2003). Practitioners claim that
BJJ improved their lives through increased self-confidence, perseverance, stress relief and
physical health (Chinkov, 2014; Chinkov & Holt, 2016).
Brazilian Jiu Jitsu
BJJ is a modern martial art with a traditional ethos. Known as “The Gentle Art”, it is a
form of ground fighting which utilises joint locks and strangles and is characterised by live
sparring without strikes. Developed from traditional Japanese Jiu Jitsu, it incorporates the
concept of “Ju” which denotes “giving way”. BJJ is founded upon the philosophy of maintaining
control through positional leverage as opposed to brute force. Thus, it is possible for a physically
weaker person to neutralise a stronger opponent. Further, BJJ is known as the gentle due to the
utilisation of submissions not punches or kicks. In traditional martial arts (e.g. Karate),
practitioners may practice techniques without a resisting opponent (kata). In BJJ there is no kata,
the live sparring (rolling) aspect of the art is practiced using maximal effort against a resisting
opponent. The risk of injury is mitigated by allowing practitioners to signal submission by
“tapping out” whenever they feel discomfort from a choke or lock (Hogeveen, 2013).
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There is a dearth of research in the literature regarding BJJ and wellbeing specifically.
One such study found that BJJ practitioners (N = 63) had increased optimism and life satisfaction
when compared with non-practitioners (N = 76) (Wojdat et al., 2017). However, it has been
argued that a measure of life satisfaction does not adequately capture the essence of wellbeing
and that effective measures must include an evaluation of eudaimonic elements (Huppert, 2014).
The transformative potential of BJJ has been argued (e.g. Reusing, 2014; Chinkov & Holt, 2016)
and the idea that it shows promise as an intervention is explored explicitly in several studies (e.g.
Gladstone, 2018). Specifically, Farrer (2019) argues that BJJ is a form of embodied therapy that
promotes camaraderie and Collura posits that this aspect of the sport can be employed as a tool
for veteran reassimilation (2018). Resilience has been shown to be an important factor of
wellbeing (Smith & Smith, 2015). Resilience refers to an ability to implement adaptive strategies
to cope with discomfort and adversity (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004). BJJ is known as the human
game of chess (Hogeveen, 2013) referring to a unique aspect of the art which utilises an overall
fighting strategy as well as specific positions (Gracie & Danaher, 2003). These strategies are
adapted based on opponent responses during a match, making BJJ the ideal vehicle for
developing resilience.
Positive and Negative Emotion
Historically, mental health interventions largely assumed that in reducing negative emotion
wellbeing would naturally occur and that a reduction in negative emotions was the limit to what
was achievable. With the advent of positive psychology (Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2014),
increasing positive emotion is now seen as a necessary adjunct to traditional methods of treating
pathology. Authors have acknowledged the need for positive and negative affects to be seen as
distinct dimensions (Heady, 2006); rather than opposite ends of the same continuum (Bradburn,
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1969). Indeed, the inclusion of both positive and negative affect is required for an accurate
assessment of hedonic wellbeing (Steptoe, 2015). A relationship exists between life satisfaction
and the organisation of positive versus negative concepts in memory (Robinson and Hippel,
2006) and positive and negative emotion has been shown to inversely effect both present and
projected wellbeing (Busseri, Choma and Sadava, 2012). Research asserting that positive
emotion is a key component of wellbeing abounds within positive psychology (Seligman, 2010;
Fredrickson 2006) and beyond (Berridge and Kringelbach, 2011). The adaptive function of
negative emotion is often acknowledged in the literature (e.g. Nesse, 1994; Keltner and Gross,
1999). More recently, the importance of positive emotion in a range of functions has been
demonstrated; these include stress (Folkman, 2008), physical health (Kok et al., 2013) and
improved cognition (Isen, 2004). Recent literature has shown that positive emotion has an
enduring effect on resilience and optimism, this negates negative emotions such as depression
(e.g. Fredrickson, 2003; Peterson and Seligman, 1984)
The role that martial arts might play in increased positive emotion is largely absent from
the literature and the current study seeks to address this deficit. Chen and Cheesman (2013)
briefly included positive cognitions such as optimism and joy in their investigation of mental
toughness in MMA (N = 136). Bodin and Martinsen (2004) conducted one of few studies in the
literature which addressed both positive and negative affect. They observed significant increases
in positive affect; reductions in negative affect and state anxiety; and increased self-efficacy
during martial arts. Interestingly, the authors found no significant changes during physical
activity that did not involve martial arts. Higher levels of positive emotion and sustained
psychological wellbeing have been documented in the literature when physical activity is
habitual (e.g. Pasco et al., 2011; Vallerand, 2012). Recent research found that Karate practice
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may be useful in decreasing anger in adolescent boys (Ziaee et al., 2012) and an early study
found that Judo had a positive effect on anger scores (Reynes & Laurent, 2004). Toskovic (2001)
showed that a single bout of Taekwondo practice resulted in improvements in depression and
anger scores. Further, a recent study (N = 24) suggested that martial arts which integrate
mindfulness may result in positive emotional regulation outcomes (Milligan et al., 2017).
Recent martial arts research has primarily focused on aggression (Vertonghen &
Theeboom, 2010). This trend is apparent in the BJJ literature which shows decreased aggression
in practitioners (e.g. Wojdat et al., 2017; Blomqvist, 2019). The rolling aspect of BJJ
distinguishes it from other combative arts and ensures practitioners are frequently engaged in
mindfulness and rigorous exercise. Physical exercise results in increased levels of serotonin
(Young, 2007), higher levels of which have been related to positive mood (Flory et al., 2004). As
a grappling art, physical touch is significantly higher in BJJ than in other martial arts. Physical
touch increases endogenous oxytocin (Morhenn et al., 2008) which is related to a broad range of
positive effects including decreased stress (Uvnäs-Moberg, 1998). Seligman, Parks and Steen
(2004) demonstrated that interventions which target positive emotion are effective in decreasing
depression and increasing happiness. As such, additional research identifying potential activities
which increase positive emotion is of great value. Authors now widely agree that the hedonic
approach only accounts for a part of wellbeing (Huppert, 2014). It is important to consider other
eudaimonic components in a multidimensional conception of wellbeing.
Engagement
Engagement refers to a state of complete absorption, interest, and involvement in an
activity or the world in general (Seligman, 2004; 2011). Within positive psychology engagement
is used interchangeably with the concept of flow, “the holistic sensation that people feel when
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they act with total involvement” (Csikszentmihalyi, 2000, p. 36). Flow may be understood as a
state of maximal engagement. Flow is related to concepts such as peak experience and peak
performance (Maslow, 1964; Williams, 1993; Privette, 1983) and corresponds to an optimal
psychophysical state (Biasutti and Frezza, 2009). While flow became popularised through
positive psychology (Czikszentmihalyi, 1990) similar concepts exist within Eastern traditions
(e.g. Taoism). Engagement is frequently associated with wellbeing across a broad range of areas
in the literature (e.g. Bryce & Haworth, 2002; Bakker, 2005). Seligman posits that engagement
plays an important role in improving human experience and a meaningful life (2004; 2012).
Further, Rath et al. (2010) consider engagement to be one of five essential elements in
developing wellbeing. Rogatko (2009) demonstrated that engaging in flow promoting activities
resulted in higher levels of positive emotion in university students (N = 57) and Schueller and
Seligman (2010) showed that engagement was correlated with higher levels of subjective
wellbeing in a large study (N = 13,565). They suggest that engaging and meaningful activities
more strongly influence wellbeing than positive emotion alone.
Csikszentmihalyi observed that the martial arts are an ideal vehicle for flow (1997). Indeed,
flow state is similar to the concept of Mushin (no mind) in martial arts (Krein & Illundain, 2014).
Despite an abundance of literature relating to flow in sports (Csikszentmihalyi, 1999; Jackson,
1992), comparatively little research has been conducted on flow in martial arts specifically. One
of few studies demonstrated flow state in elite Judo athletes (N = 8) over a 14-week period
(Ruiz-Barquín et al., 2014). BJJ provides many of the conditions necessary to attain a flow state.
Clear proximal goals and immediate feedback are important conditions for achieving flow
(Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2009). BJJ provides clear proximal goals and the rolling aspect
provides immediate feedback on the efficacy of a performed technique. The Challenge/Skill ratio
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is an integral condition for achieving flow (Nakamura & Csikszentmihayli, 2009). In order to
maintain a flow state, an activity must be neither too challenging (resulting in anxiety) nor too
easy (resulting in boredom). In BJJ when two players of similar technical skill are sparring the
challenge/skill ratio is optimal for flow. Additionally, when one player possesses more skill than
their opponent it is possible for them to modify their approach in order to increase the level of
challenge and presumably reenter flow. Due to the endless complexity of technique in BJJ it is
possible to engage progressively more complex challenges. Thus, the opportunities for flow are
endless (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997).
In a study of subjective wellbeing and flow in music students (N = 84, challenge/skill
balance was found to be an important predictor of both positive and negative affect. Further,
clear goals were found to be an important predictor of satisfaction with life (Fritz & Avsec,
2007). Kotler & Diamandis (2015) identify additional environmental conditions that may enable
flow state: a high consequence, rich environment and deep embodiment. BJJ provides high
consequence and an environment rich in novelty, unpredictability and complexity due to the
immense scope of technique and variation in style. BJJ involves deep embodiment where
practitioners experience a multi-sensory immersion. Additionally, flow state is related to
intrinsically motivated or autotelic activities (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975). BJJ involves task-
oriented goals, suggesting that practitioners are intrinsically motivated and assess their progress
in terms of effort and improvement (Øvretveit, Sæther & Mehus, 2018). Research is very limited
concerning flow and BJJ specifically. In one study Pope (2019) suggests that flow state is
common in BJJ and that it can be understood in the context of spiritual practice. Considering the
possibility for high levels of engagement in BJJ and the link between flow and increased
wellbeing more research is needed.
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Meaning
Meaning in life refers to the pursuit of worthwhile goals and life purposes (Rekker, 2000)
and belonging to and serving something bigger than yourself (Seligman, 2012). Meaning is
frequently proposed as one of the essential elements of wellbeing (e.g. Seligman, 2012; Ryff &
Singer, 2008) and a lack of meaning is strongly associated with wellbeing deficits in later life
(Steger, Oishi & Kashdan, 2008). Meaning acts as a protective factor in relation to mental health
issues including stress and depression (Halama, 2014). Some potential correlates of meaning
have been suggested in the literature. Identity and goal development are possible important
components of personal meaning (Dittman-Kohli & Westerhof, 2000). Positive emotions have
been suggested as potentially predisposing individuals to experiencing life as meaningful (King,
Hicks, Krull & Del Gaiso, 2006). Additionally, religion is frequently cited as an important
mechanism for deriving meaning (e.g. Van Tongeren, Hook & Davis, 2013). Empirical research
on developing and understanding meaning in life is sparse and possible correlates relatively
disparate. Given its relevance to overall wellbeing, additional research regarding increased
meaning in life is required. The way in which martial arts may affect a sense of meaning is a
largely unexplored area.
The limited existing research would seem to support the notion that martial arts can
provide a greater sense of meaning. The literature suggests that meaning may be derived from
martial arts through identity formation. One such example, investigating the effect of martial arts
training on female participants, found that practicing Karate profoundly altered their self-concept
(Guthrie, 1995). A more recent ethnography argued that MMA encouraged identity exploration
and that practitioners craft stories which imbue the physical training with meaning (Green,
2016). Martial arts may contribute to meaning formation in that it often becomes a spiritual
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endeavor for practitioners. An ethnographic study of Kung Fu that spanned six years found that
Wing Chun develops from a secular activity into a practice that holds sacred meaning for
practitioners (Jennings, Brown & Sparkes, 2010). In fact, the search for spiritual meaning may
contribute to an individual’s choice to pursue martial arts initially. In a study by Twemlov,
Lerma and Twemlow (N = 170) the search for spiritual meaning was reported by 111
participants as a key motivating factor in choosing to pursue martial arts (1996) and BJJ is often
cited as being a spiritual endeavor for practitioners (e.g. Nelson, 2018).
Purpose, significance and coherence are highlighted in the literature as central
components of meaning (e.g. Martela & Steger, 2016; Heintzelman & King, 2014). Purpose
alludes to pursuing goals and significance refers to the extent that an individual believes their life
has value or importance. Coherence relates to the degree of routine in a person’s life, which
allows life to make some degree of sense to that person. Ludwig (1997) found that routine
facilitates wellbeing by providing meaning. BJJ may bring additional meaning for its
practitioners by providing purposeful attainment of various goals related to the practice. This
develops self-efficacy, significance related to a sense of belonging and greater coherence from
the routine of a consistent training schedule. BJJ practice is an opportunity for social interaction
and provides a sense of belonging within the specific academy and the wider BJJ community.
Social relationships are considered an important aspect of that which makes life meaningful
(Hicks, Schlegel & King, 2010). Lambert et al. found that experimentally increasing
belongingness increased the sense that one’s life is meaningful (2013). This finding supports
previous research showing that meaning in life is positively related to the degree that a person
feels their relatedness needs are being met (Hicks & King, 2009). Further, the literature
emphasises the importance of meaning in both a global and daily sense. In a study examining
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how an individual’s daily experiences influenced their perceived sense of meaning (N = 62) it
was found that positive daily social and achievement events were related to greater daily
meaning (Machell, Kashdan, Short & Nezlek, 2015). As BJJ provides the opportunity for
positive social interaction and accomplishment it is a possible unexplored avenue for both an
increased sense of meaning in life and increased daily meaning.
Accomplishment
Even in the absence of positive emotion, engagement and meaning; individuals are none
the less still motivated to achieve (Foregard, Jayawickreme, Kern & Seligman, 2011). Recent
literature frequently associates a sense of accomplishment with increased wellbeing (e.g.
Seligman, 2004; 2011) and accomplishment has been additionally associated with increased
meaning in life (e.g. James, 2005). One study (N = 218) found that intrinsic motivation to
academic accomplishment was positively associated with life satisfaction and optimism in
university students (Hamdan-Mansour, Hamaideh, Arabiat & Azzeghaiby, 2014). Wellbeing has
been defined in terms of the ability to fulfil goals (Foresight Mental Capital and Wellbeing
Project, 2008) and Ryff and Singer posit that environmental mastery contributes to overall
wellbeing (2008). A relationship between positive emotions, negative emotions and
accomplishment has been suggested regarding academic and athletic achievement (e.g.
Seligman, Kamen and Nolen-Hoeksema, 1988; Seligman, Nolen-Hoeksema, Thornton &
Thornton, 1990). Additionally, Brunstein (1993) found that goal achievement had a mediating
effect on other aspects of personal goal setting and subjective wellbeing in a student population
(N = 88). More recent support for the association between wellbeing and accomplishment is
provided by Hassanzadeh and Mahdinejad (2013). They reported a significant relationship
between happiness and achievement motivation in graduate students (N = 50) following
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administration of the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) and the Achievement Motivation
Questionnaire (AMQ).
Martial arts practice may contribute to a sense of accomplishment in a variety of both
tangible and personal ways. Twemlow and Sacco (1998) allude to how participation in marital
arts may contribute to this sense through tangible markers of accomplishment such as belt testing
and special rewards. BJJ provides tangible markers of accomplishment involving belt
progression and is a competitive sport with the potential for medal and title attainment in both
professional and amateur practitioners. The martial arts offer practitioners concrete status and
recognition (Twemlow & Sacco, 1998). A recent study by Ko and Kim (2010), conducted to
examine why people participate in martial arts, demonstrated that establishing a sense of
personal accomplishment may be a motivating factor in participation. The study (N = 307) found
that growth related factor means, including achievement, were high and that participation in
martial arts is highly motivated by growth-related motivation (such as value development and
actualisation). As practitioners appear to focus on the achievement of mastery goals (Øvretveit,
Sæther & Mehus, 2018), accomplishment within BJJ may be defined by self-improvement or
skill development. Accomplishment resulting from skill acquisition has been shown to contribute
to overall feelings of wellbeing (Wilkinson, 1996). Despite this, there is little in the recent
literature examining whether BJJ contributes to a sense of accomplishment.
Degree of Practice
Vertonghen and Theeboom (2010) posit that classic martial arts studies primarily focused
on the personality traits of practitioners and employed cross-sectional designs. Further, the
majority of cross-sectional designs comprised groups based on the level of experience in a
specific martial art. The majority of studies have found that the number of years training has a
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positive impact on personality traits (e.g. Duthie et al., 1978; Kurian et al., 1994). However,
Kroll and Carlson (1967) found no significant personality profile differences between karate
practitioners of various levels of experience (N = 61). Layton (1990) identified that advanced
karateka demonstrated decreased state and trait anxiety when compared with their less
experienced counterparts (N = 93). It has been noted that many cross-sectional studies comparing
the different levels of experience in martial arts practitioners fail to account for self-selection
effects (Vertonghen & Theeboom, 2010). Failure to account for such effects is a limitation as
participants in such studies may have demonstrated certain personality traits that inclined them
toward martial arts initially or caused them to give up practice.
Research regarding degree of practice has received little attention in the BJJ literature.
One of few examples was recently undertaken by Faro and colleagues (2019) in a cross-
sectional, in-event study to assess the effect of belt rank on competition anxiety (N = 113).
Interestingly, the less experienced athletes demonstrated no change in self-confidence following
their first fight, despite decreased anxiety. Comparatively the more experienced practitioners
experienced an increase in self-confidence as they advanced. The authors concluded that belt
level did not affect competitive anxiety or self-confidence generally but it did affect how it
changed during a competition. This suggests that degree of practice may affect the experience of
some personality traits or negative emotions in certain settings. Current research in relation to
experience level has been somewhat inconsistent and research regarding the effect of training
frequency has been neglected in the literature.
Rationale
Research on martial arts has largely focused on dysfunction and as detailed here, is often
inconclusive. Given the paucity of research regarding the martial arts and wellbeing, the current
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study seeks to address this deficit in the literature. There is little research on BJJ generally and
even less in relation to wellbeing and the aforementioned components. This study will employ a
multidimensional approach to wellbeing incorporating both hedonic and eudaimonic elements.
An assessment of both negative and positive emotions will fulfil the hedonic requirement; while
meaning, accomplishment and engagement encompass the eudaimonic approach. Each wellbeing
component is conceptually linked and aligns with the underlying philosophy of BJJ. Thus, the
current study will explore negative emotion and wellbeing in BJJ practitioners as measured by
these individual components and address a further gap in the literature regarding degree of
practice. Given the importance of wellbeing for both individuals and societies (Steptoe, 2015), an
additional aim of this study is to identify a possible wellbeing intervention.
Hypothesis 1
There will be a significant difference between BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners in the
components of wellbeing.
Hypothesis 2
There will be a significant difference between BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners in levels of
negative emotion.
Hypothesis 3
There will be a significant difference between training frequency groups in the components of
wellbeing.
Hypothesis 4
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There will be a significant difference between training frequency groups in levels of negative
emotion.
Hypothesis 5
There will be a significant difference between training duration groups in the components of
wellbeing.
Hypothesis 6
There will be a significant difference between the training duration groups in levels of negative
emotion.
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Methods
Participants
A sample of 653 participants were included in the final analysis, thus satisfying the
required sample size (Cohen, 1992). Participants were sampled from both a general and BJJ
practitioner population via online social media platforms (Facebook and Instagram).
Participation was voluntary and no incentives were provided. Data was collected using an online
questionnaire through convenience and snowball sampling. Participants were from a wide range
of countries which included: Ireland (35%), the United Kingdom (21%) and the United States
(13%). Only participants over 18 years of age were included and there was no upper age limit.
Those under 18 (N = 12) were removed. Participants chose from four age categories: 18-25 (N =
193), 26-35 (N = 307), 36-50 (N = 125) and over 50 (N = 23), see Table 1. Five participants did
not disclose age information.
Table 1.
Descriptive Statistics for Age Categories.
Group Age
Frequency Valid Percent
BJJ Practitioner 18-25 156 34.40
26-35 227 50.00
36-50 70 15.40
50+ 1 .20
Total 454
Non-Practitioner 18-25 37 19.10
26-35 80 41.20
36-50 55 28.40
50+ 22 11.30
Total 194
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Participants were asked to declare if they currently practiced BJJ. Two central groups
were defined as BJJ practitioners (N = 455) and non-practitioners (N = 198). Male participants
dominated the practitioner group (N = 329) and the non-practitioner group was predominantly
female (N = 118). Two participants from the practitioner group did not disclose gender
information. In addition, those in the non-practitioner group included participants who exercised
regularly (N = 114). The BJJ practitioner group was further delineated into degree of practice
groups relating to frequency of training and duration of training. The frequency of training group
consisted of practitioners who trained infrequently (2 or less training sessions per week),
moderately (3-5 sessions) and frequently (6 or more sessions). The duration of training group
consisted of novice (training for 2 years or less), intermediate (3-5 years) and advanced
practitioners (6 years or more).
Design
The current study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional approach. Specifically, a
differential, between subjects, non-equivalent group design was used in relation to all
hypotheses. This design allowed for non-randomised group assignment. This was preferred given
that participants self-selected into the BJJ practitioner or non-practitioner groups. The
practitioners were assigned to degree of practice groups based on their answers regarding the
number of years training and the number of training sessions per week. For hypothesis 1 the
independent variable (IV) was BJJ practice. The dependent variable (DV) was wellbeing
(positive emotion, engagement, meaning and accomplishment) as measured by the PERMA-
profiler (Butler & Kern, 2015). For hypothesis 2 the IV was BJJ practice and the DV was
negative emotion, as measured by the PERMA-profiler. For hypothesis 3 the IV was training
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frequency and the DV was wellbeing. For hypothesis 4 the IV was training frequency and the
DV was negative emotion. For hypothesis 5 the IV was training duration and the DV was
wellbeing. Finally, for hypothesis 6 the IV was training duration and the DV was negative
emotion.
Materials
The online questionnaire consisted of an information sheet preceding three sections
comprising 26 items in total, see Appendix A. The first section contained demographic questions
related to gender, location and age. The second section included a modified version of the
PERMA-Profiler: A brief multidimensional measure of flourishing (PERMA-profiler; Butler &
Kern, 2015), see Appendix A. The third section consisted of researcher-developed questions to
ascertain if the participant was a BJJ practitioner (“Do you currently practice Brazilian Jiu
Jitsu?”), the training duration (“How long have you been training?”) and the training frequency
(“On average, how many times a week do you train?”). Additionally, the section included
questions for non-practitioners. These related to how often they exercised (“Do you exercise
regularly?”) and the type of exercise (“What is the main type of exercise you engage in?”).
Participants were shown a debrief message upon completion of the questionnaire, see Appendix
B.
The PERMA-profiler is a 15-item (three per domain) non-diagnostic, self-reported
measure designed to assess Seligman’s five pillars of wellbeing: positive emotion, engagement,
relationships, meaning and accomplishment (2011). Three items regarding negative emotion can
also be included to provide additional information (Butler & Kern, 2015). All of the relationship
items (e.g. “To what extent do you feel loved?”) were removed in the current study as the
remaining items were deemed more appropriate in assessing the chosen sample. Removing this
23
item had no implications for scoring as the total score of each domain is calculated separately by
the average of the three items. Further, it has been suggested that the five PERMA domains can
be defined and measured as separate but correlated constructs (Seligman, 2011).
The PERMA-profiler comprises an 11-point Likert scale, with 0 indicating extremely low
levels and 10 indicting extremely high levels. Labels appear only on the end points as anchors
(e.g. “not at all” and “completely”). All items are worded in a positive direction and there is no
reverse scoring. For positive emotion the PERMA-profiler measures general tendencies towards
feeling contentment and joy (e.g. “In general, how often do you feel positive?”). For negative
emotion the Profiler measures tendencies towards feeling sad, anxious and angry (e.g. “In
general, how often do you feel anxious?”). Engagement items measure a tendency towards being
absorbed, interested, and involved in an activity or the world itself (e.g. “How often do you lose
track of time doing something you enjoy?”).
The meaning items measure a tendency towards having a sense of purpose in life (e.g. “In
general, to what extent do you lead a purposeful and meaningful life?”). For accomplishment the
PERMA-profiler measures subjective feelings of accomplishment and staying on top of daily
responsibilities (e.g. “How often are you able to handle your responsibilities?”). Brief
instructions preceded the PERMA-profiler which asked the participant to read each question and
indicate a number (0-10) which they felt best described them. They were reminded to answer as
honestly as possible and that all answers were anonymous, see Appendix A. Each domain was
demonstrated to have good internal reliability. Cronbach’s alpha was .88 for positive emotion,
.71 for negative emotion, .72 for engagement, .90 for meaning, and .79 for accomplishment
(Butler & Kern, 2016). Support was also found for convergent and divergent construct validity
(Ryan et al., 2019).
24
Procedure
A link to the questionnaire was posted on Instagram and Facebook along with a brief
description of the study. Participants were encouraged to share the study to ensure snowball
sampling and a number of high-profile BJJ athletes did so. Upon beginning the questionnaire,
participants were initially met with an information sheet inviting them to take part, see Appendix
A. The BJJ focus of the study was not initially revealed in order to prevent priming of the
participants prior to completion. Participants were assured that the questionnaire had been widely
used in research and that contact information for support services would be provided on the final
page.
It was highlighted that the questionnaire was voluntary and confidential. Therefore,
participants were advised that following submission it would not be possible to withdraw from
the study. Inclusion criteria was stated (i.e. Participants must be over 18 years of age). It was
necessary for participants to confirm they were over 18 and consent to the study before they
could proceed. Following the demographic and standardised questionnaire sections of the study,
participants were presented with the BJJ question. Branching was used to direct practitioners and
non-practitioners to the appropriate subsequent items. The average time of completion was four
minutes and 28 seconds. Following completion of the questionnaire, participants were directed to
a debriefing page which thanked them for taking part. It informed them of the BJJ aspect of the
study and provided them with contact information for support services should they need them,
see Appendix B.
25
Ethics
The current study was completed in line with the Psychological Society of Ireland (PSI)
and Dublin Business School ethical guidelines. The research proposal received approval from the
Dublin Business School Ethics Board. As participants are drawn from a general and BJJ
population over the age of 18, vulnerable participants were not targeted. Given the nature of the
PERMA-profiler, there was a possibility that some items may cause distress. For this reason, a
debrief procedure was included in order to provide contact information for support services. All
participants were required to provide consent before it was possible to proceed with the
questionnaire. The study involved a low level of deception in that the BJJ aspect of the study was
not initially stated. However, participants were informed of the nature of the study in its entirety
as part of the debriefing procedure. This ensured informed consent. All data collected was de-
identified as no participant was asked for any identifying information, thus ensuring anonymity
and confidentiality. For this reason, the right to withdraw could only be extended until
submission of the questionnaire. Participants were made aware of this via the information page.
All data was stored in a secure manner at all times on a password protected computer. The
information sheet also informed participants of any dissemination or reporting.
26
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics for the entire sample (N=671), such as mean and standard deviation
(SD) measures for each psychological variable, are presented in Table 2.
Table 2
Descriptive Statistics of Psychological Measures for Overall Sample
Variable
N Mean SD Range Min Max Variance α
Positive Emotion 664 6.46 1.77 9 1 10 3.14 .84
Negative Emotion 670 4.62 1.90 10 0 10 3.61 .74
Engagement 669 7.29 1.60 10 0 10 2.57 .65
Meaning 668 6.75 2.09 10 0 10 4.35 .88
Accomplishment 668 6.93 1.52 10 0 10 2.32 .70
All of the mean wellbeing component scores were above the midpoint of the scale.
Scores ranged from positive emotion as lowest (M = 6.46) to engagement as highest (M = 7.29).
Negative emotion scores (M = 4.62) were close to the midpoint in a range of scores from 0 to 11.
There was a good range of scores as demonstrated by the min and max. Mean scores were
comparatively lower than general population results (Butler & Kern, 2016). However, the
comparison sample (N = 31,966) was predominantly American. In addition, Table 2 shows
reliability indicators. Cronbach’s Alpha established satisfactory levels of internal reliability for
each of the variables, with the exception of engagement which didn’t perform as adequately as
desired (α = .65).
27
Central tendency and dispersion measures were carried out for wellbeing components by
group. The BJJ practitioner group constituted 69.7% of the sample (N = 455), while 198 were
non-practitioners. 57.3% of non-practitioners exercised regularly (N = 114). Participants that did
not disclose if they were practitioners or non-practitioners were removed from the sample (N =
18). Thus 653 participants were included in the hypothesis testing. Table 3 showcases descriptive
statistics of psychological measures for BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners.
Table 3
Descriptive Statistics of Psychological Measures for BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners
Group Variable Mean SD Range Min Max
Variance
BJJ Positive Emotion 6.68 1.60 9 1 10 2.55
Negative Emotion 4.43 1.82 10 0 10 3.31
Engagement 7.61 1.39 8 2 10 1.93
Meaning 7.01 1.85 8 2 10 3.41
Accomplishment 7.20 1.32 7 3 10 1.75
Non-BJJ Positive Emotion 6.22 1.85 8 2 10 3.43
Negative Emotion 4.93 1.95 9 1 10 3.80
Engagement 6.85 1.57 7 3 10 2.45
Meaning 6.42 2.20 9 1 10 4.83
Accomplishment 6.51 1.59 7 3 9 2.53
As can be seen in Table 3, BJJ practitioners had higher mean scores across the wellbeing
components and lower negative emotion (M = 4.43) than non-practitioners. Component scores
ranged from positive emotion as lowest (M = 6.68) to engagement as highest (M = 7.61). The
mean score for engagement (M = 7.61) is considered a moderately high score in the context of
the range going from 0 to 11. Component scores ranged from positive emotion as lowest (M =
6.22) to engagement as highest (M = 6.85) for non-practitioners. The mean scores for both
28
positive emotion (M = 6.22) and meaning (M = 6.42) indicate sub-optimal functioning in the
non-practitioner sample.
The practitioner sample was further demarcated to form groups concerning degrees of
practice, see Table 4 for descriptive statistics regarding training frequency and training duration.
Table 4
Descriptive Statistics of psychological measures for Degrees of Practice Groups
Groups
N % Variable Mean SD
Training Frequency
Infrequent 92 20.3 Positive Emotion 6.42 1.57
Engagement 7.13 1.48
Meaning 6.86 1.86
Accomplishment 6.85 1.33
Negative Emotion 4.59 1.61
Moderate 275 60.7 Positive Emotion 6.68 1.66
Engagement 7.65 1.40
Meaning 6.91 1.91
Accomplishment 7.19 1.34
Negative Emotion 4.40 1.84
Frequent 86 19.0 Positive Emotion 6.70 1.81
Engagement 7.92 1.31
Meaning 7.21 1.99
Accomplishment 7.49 1.29
Negative Emotion 4.50 2.05
Training Duration
Novice 205 47.1 Positive Emotion 6.49 1.71
Negative Emotion 4.67 1.86
Engagement 7.55 1.50
Meaning 6.81 1.92
Accomplishment 7.09 1.37
Intermediate 156 35.9 Positive Emotion 6.69 1.69
Negative Emotion 4.51 1.77
Engagement 7.63 1.32
Meaning 7.00 2.07
Accomplishment 7.19 1.37
Advanced 74 17.0 Positive Emotion 6.95 1.46
Negative Emotion 3.86 1.74
Engagement 7.62 1.38
Meaning 7.50 1.43
Accomplishment 7.42 1.26
29
Table 4 demonstrates slightly higher mean scores across the wellbeing components and
lower mean scores for negative emotion as training duration increases. Training frequency mean
scores follow a similar trajectory with the exception of negative emotion scores between those
who train frequently (M = 4.50) and a moderate amount (M = 4.40). The training duration group
consisted of predominately novice practitioners (N = 205), while advanced practitioners were the
least represented (N = 74). In relation to training frequency, 275 practitioners reported training a
moderate amount, while those who train frequently were the least represented (N = 86).
Inferential Statistics
Hypothesis 1
A one-way multivariate ANOVA was conducted to identify if BJJ practitioners and non-
practitioners differed significantly in levels of wellbeing. A series of regressions were run to
identify and remove multivariate outliers by checking whether all mahal distances were below
the critical level (13.82). It was necessary to correct for nine outliers in the practitioner group and
14 in the non-practitioner group. Multivariate results are reported at a .025 significance level as
Levene’s test indicated that equality of variance could not be assumed across the components in
the current result. Pillai’s Trace was employed throughout as it is more robust to cope with
unequal N values.
The test revealed that there was a statistically significant difference in levels of wellbeing
between BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners (F(4, 614) = 12.06, p< .001, effect size = .07).
Following a Bonferroni adjustment to .0125, significant univariate differences were found for the
groups on all wellbeing components, see Table 5.
30
Table 5
Univariate MANOVA Results for Practice Groups (df = 617) in Wellbeing Components
Variable
BJJ practitioner Non-practitioner F P η2
M SD M SD
Positive Emotion 6.68 1.60 6.20 1.86 10.28 <.001* .02
Engagement 7.61 1.39 6.87 1.57 33.68 <.001* .05
Meaning 7.00 1.84 6.41 2.20 11.44 .001* .02
Accomplishment 7.20 1.32 6.49 1.59 32.79 <.001* .05 *p< .0125
The null hypothesis states that no significant differences would exist between the groups
in the components of wellbeing; therefore, the null was rejected. The results imply that BJJ may
be important in terms of its potential as an intervention for increased wellbeing. Specifically, in
relation to increased positive emotion, engagement, meaning and accomplishment (Figure 1).
Hypothesis 2
An independent samples t-test was conducted to identify if a significant difference would
exist between BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners in levels of negative emotion. The t-test
found that there was a statistically significant difference between negative emotion level of BJJ
practitioners (M = 4.44, SD = 1.82) and non BJJ practitioners (M = 4.95, SD = 1.95) (t(627) = -
3.06, p = .002, CI (95%) -.82 -> -.18). The null hypothesis states that no difference would exist
between the groups on levels of negative emotion; therefore, the null was rejected. The results
imply that BJJ may be important in terms of its potential as an intervention for decreased
negative emotion. Significant mean comparisons for negative emotion and the components of
31
wellbeing between BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners are demonstrated graphically in Figure
1.
Figure 1
Comparison of Wellbeing and Negative Emotion of Practitioners v. Non-Practitioners
Hypothesis 3
A one-way multivariate ANOVA was conducted to identify if training frequency groups
differed significantly in levels of wellbeing. The test found that there was a statistically
significant difference in levels of wellbeing between training frequency groups (F(8, 882) = 3.25,
p = .001, effect size = .03). However, following a Bonferroni adjustment to .0125, significant
univariate differences were found only for engagement (F(2, 444) = 7.46, p = .001, effect size =
.03) and accomplishment (F(2, 444) = 5.03, p = .007, effect size = .02). No significant
32
differences for the groups on meaning (F(2, 444) = .95, p = .39) or positive emotion (F(2, 444) =
.89, p = .41) were found.
More specifically, a Hochberg’s GT2 post hoc analyses revealed that those who train
frequently had significantly higher levels of accomplishment than those who train infrequently
(Mean difference = .64, p = .004, CI [95%] .16, 1.12). Those who train frequently also had
significantly higher levels of engagement than those who train infrequently (Mean difference =
.81, p < .001, CI [95%] .30, 1.31). Further, those who train a moderate amount had significantly
higher levels of engagement than those who train infrequently (Mean difference = .51, p = .008,
CI [95%] .11, .92). It was found that increased training frequency resulted in higher levels of
wellbeing (in relation to engagement and accomplishment) in BJJ practitioners (Figure 2).
Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected.
Hypothesis 4
A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to identify if a significant difference
would exist between training frequency groups in levels of negative emotion. The test showed
that levels of negative emotion did not differ significantly between the three training frequency
groups (F(2, 450) = .40, p = .668). Therefore, the null hypothesis failed to be rejected. These
findings imply that training frequency may not be as important as other variables in terms of
decreased negative emotion in BJJ practitioners. Mean comparisons for negative emotion and the
components of wellbeing between training frequency groups are demonstrated graphically in
Figure 2.
33
Figure 2
Comparison of Mean Wellbeing and Negative Emotion for Training Frequency Groups
Note. Engagement and accomplishment differed significantly at the .0125 level.
Hypothesis 5
A one-way multivariate ANOVA was conducted to identify if training duration groups
differed significantly in levels of wellbeing. The test found that there was no statistically
significant difference in levels of wellbeing between the training duration groups (F(8, 848) =
.99, p = .441, effect size = .01). Following a Bonferroni adjustment to .0125, no significant
differences for the groups were found on accomplishment (F(2, 426) = .1.60, p = .203),
engagement (F(2, 426) = .21, p = .809), positive emotion (F(2, 426) = .2.18, p = .809) or
meaning (F(2, 426) = 3.16, p = .043). Therefore, the null hypothesis failed to be rejected.
Hypothesis 6
34
A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to identify if a significant difference would exist
between training duration groups in levels of negative emotion. The test showed that levels of
negative emotion differed significantly between the training duration groups (F(2, 432) = 5.45, p
= .004). More specifically, a Hochberg’s GT2 post hoc analyses highlighted that advanced
practitioners had significantly lower levels of negative emotion than novice practitioners (Mean
difference = -.81, p = .003, CI [95%] -1.40, -.23) and intermediate practitioners (Mean difference
= -.65, p = .033, CI [95%] -1.26, -.04). Thus, the null hypothesis was rejected. As is
demonstrated in Figure 3, these findings suggest that as training duration increases negative
emotion decreases.
Figure 3
Comparison of Mean Negative Emotion for Training Duration Groups
35
Discussion
Key Findings
The central aim of this study was to identify if significant differences would exist in
levels of negative emotion and wellbeing amongst BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners.
Further, the research hypotheses sought to examine the effect of training duration and frequency
on levels of negative emotion and wellbeing in BJJ practitioners. Group differences were
explored from a global perspective through the idea of wellbeing but also in relation to negative
emotion and the individual wellbeing components: positive emotion, engagement, meaning and
accomplishment. This research aimed to address major deficits in the martial arts literature
regarding the relationship between wellbeing and BJJ, and in relation to the influence of training
frequency more generally.
Hypothesis 1 predicted that significant differences would exist between BJJ practitioners
and non-practitioners in the components of wellbeing. The research hypothesis was supported as
practitioners demonstrated higher levels of wellbeing than non-practitioners across all of the
components. These results were aligned with previous research that reported increased wellbeing
in martial artists when compared with a non-practitioner group (Steyn & Roux, 2009). Moderate
effect sizes were found for both accomplishment and engagement. This is in line with previous
research which reported a correlation between engagement and higher levels of subjective
wellbeing (Schueller & Seligman, 2010), and with research suggesting that martial arts may be
an ideal vehicle for flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). Further, the findings support the contention
that a sense of accomplishment is associated with increased wellbeing (Seligman, 2004).
Hypothesis 2 predicted that significant differences would exist between BJJ practitioners
and non-practitioners in levels of negative emotion. The research hypothesis was supported as
36
practitioners demonstrated lower levels of negative emotion than non-practitioners. Literature
regarding the effect of martial arts on negative emotion has been divided. However, the current
study looked at a specific martial art and is aligned with previous research that reported lower
levels of negative emotion amongst karate (Ziaee et al., 2012) and judo practitioners (Reynes &
Laurent, 2004). Over half of non-practitioners (57.3%) stated that they exercised regularly; thus,
the current study shows possible support for previous research that reported no significant
changes in negative affect during physical activity that did not include martial arts (Bodin &
Martinsen, 2004).
Hypothesis 3 predicted that a significant difference would exist between training
frequency groups in the components of wellbeing. The research hypothesis was supported as
significant differences existed amongst the groups in overall wellbeing, specifically in relation to
accomplishment and engagement. This result is aligned with previous research that reported an
association between goal achievement and increased wellbeing (Brunstein, 1993) and research
that considered engagement an essential element in developing wellbeing (Rath et al., 2010).
Post Hoc analysis revealed that those who train frequently had higher levels of accomplishment
than those who train infrequently. This aligns with research by Twemlow and Sacco (1998) who
suggest that participation in marital arts may contribute to a greater sense of wellbeing through
tangible markers of accomplishment (Twemlow and Sacco, 1998). BJJ practitioners who train
the most frequently are typically competitors who attain tangible rewards through competition
success.
Previous research has shown that accomplishment resulting from skill acquisition
contributes to overall feelings of wellbeing (Wilkinson, 1996). The current study aligns with this
research as those who train most frequently presumably acquire skills at a faster rate than those
37
who train infrequently. Contrary to the assertion that accomplishment is additionally associated
with increased meaning in life (James, 2005), no differences were found regarding meaning and
training frequency despite increased levels of accomplishment. This incongruity may be the
result of sample and measurement differences or imply that, for those who train frequently,
increased levels of accomplishment are experienced as distinct from a sense of meaning.
Post Hoc analysis further highlighted that those who train infrequently reported lower
levels of engagement than those who train frequently and a moderate amount. This aligns with
previous research that demonstrated flow state in elite Judo athletes (Ruiz-Barquín et al., 2014).
To reach an elite level, athletes must train frequently. Thus, it follows that in the current study
those who train frequently demonstrated higher levels of engagement than those who trained less
frequently. Previous research by Rogatko (2009) demonstrated that engaging in flow promoting
activities resulted in higher levels of positive emotion. Therefore, it was expected that those
engaging in such an activity more frequently would demonstrate higher levels of positive
emotion. However, in the current study frequent training resulted in higher levels of engagement
but not significantly different levels of positive emotion. This suggests that training frequency
has a greater effect on levels of engagement than positive emotion in BJJ practitioners.
Hypothesis 4 predicted that training frequency groups would differ significantly in levels
of negative emotion. The research hypothesis could not be supported as no significant
differences were found. There is a dearth of research relating to the effect of training frequency
in martial arts. However, the current result aligns with a study by Toskovic (2001) showing that a
single bout of Taekwondo practice resulted in improvements in depression and anger scores.
This suggests that extensive martial arts practice may not be required to demonstrate lower levels
of negative emotion. It is worth noting that, although not significant, those who train frequently
38
demonstrated slightly higher mean negative emotion scores than those who train moderately. The
frequent training group consisted of practitioners who train more than six times per week, many
of whom are professional athletes. One such athlete indicated to the researcher that training
professionally may have a negative effect on emotions such as anxiety. Additional research
concerning the effect of training frequency in professional BJJ athletes may be required.
Hypothesis 5 predicted that a significant difference would exist between training duration
groups in the components of wellbeing. The research hypothesis could not be supported as no
such differences were found. These results were aligned with research by Kroll and Carlson
(1967) who found no significant personality profile differences between karate practitioners of
various levels, suggesting that level of experience may not be an important factor in relation to
certain variables. However, contrary to the current findings; the majority of studies regarding
personality traits found training duration had a positive effect (e.g. Duthie et al., 1978; Kurian et
al., 1994). The current study focuses on different variables, concerning a different martial art and
as such any comparative analysis is tenuous. More research is required in relation to wellbeing
and BJJ generally so that meaningful comparisons can be made.
Hypothesis 6 predicted that training duration groups would differ significantly in levels of
negative emotion. The research hypothesis was supported as post hoc analysis revealed that
advanced practitioners demonstrated significantly lower levels of negative emotion than both
novice and intermediate practitioners. These findings suggest that training duration has a positive
effect on negative emotion in BJJ practitioners. This aligns with previous research by Layton
(1990) that identified that advanced karateka demonstrated less anxiety than less experienced
practitioners. There is little cross-sectional research regarding negative emotion and training
39
duration in the BJJ literature. However, the current result is aligned with findings by Faro et al.
(2019) who suggested that anxiety may work differently depending on the athlete's skill level.
Strengths and Limitations
A decent sample size was an important strength of the current study as this provides more
statistical power, more variation in the data and more generalisable findings. Further, a
multidimensional approach to wellbeing was adopted. Various elements were incorporated in an
attempt to more adequately capture the essence of wellbeing regarding a novel topic of inquiry.
However, a major limitation of this study was unequal sample sizes. Specifically, in relation to
BJJ practitioner and non-practitioner groups. Imbalance between these groups translated into
significant Levene’s across the wellbeing components. As having both unequal sample sizes and
variances could dramatically affect statistical power and Type 1 error rates it was necessary to
use more conservative answers in order to adjust for differences. Due to the cross-sectional
nature of the study, the research only measured one point in time. As emotional states can be
transient this may have had implications regarding the hedonic components of wellbeing.
The engagement measure did not perform as adequately as desired in the current sample.
This raises questions as to the accuracy of what was reported. However, as the alpha level was
above the lowest acceptable threshold (.60) it was considered acceptable to proceed with the
instrument. Selection bias may have been a confounding factor in this study as non-probability
sampling does not account for individual difference. Gender imbalance between the practitioner
and non-practitioner groups may have been a further confounding factor. As previous research
has not found gender differences regarding similar conceptions of wellbeing (Butler & Kern,
2016; Ryan et al., 2019), it was not considered an overt limitation in the current study. However,
40
future research is recommended to examine gender differences as they relate to BJJ and
wellbeing specifically.
Implications and Future Research
It is hoped that the current study may facilitate a greater understanding of the role BJJ
could play in decreased negative emotion and increased wellbeing. Findings may have important
implications for wellbeing and martial arts research alike. Training frequency was found to be an
important factor in increased wellbeing; given the limited research regarding training frequency,
this finding should inform future martial arts research. Additionally, training duration was found
to be an important factor in decreased negative emotion. Considering that previous martial arts
research has been divided regarding aggression and problematic externalising behaviour, it is
pertinent that BJJ was found to have a positive impact on negative emotion both in the short term
and with continued practice.
Given the importance of wellbeing in a range of positive personal and societal outcomes,
BJJ is a worthy topic of inquiry for future research to discern possible applications. The current
study provides insight as to the applicability of BJJ as a possible intervention and it is
recommended that future research employs longitudinal and experimental designs in order to
establish causal relationships. Additionally, future research is required to address limitations in
the current study such as implementing random group assignment and probability sampling. It is
recommended that studies employ a more reliable measure of engagement. Further delineation of
degree of practice groups might provide more meaningful comparisons. For example, those who
have trained frequently in the short term might be compared with those who have trained
moderately over many years etc.
41
Conclusion
In conclusion, this research sought to examine differences in wellbeing and negative
emotion amongst BJJ practitioners and non-practitioners. Practitioners demonstrated higher
levels of wellbeing across all of the components and lower levels of negative emotion when
compared to non-practitioners. In addition, those who trained more frequently demonstrated
higher levels of wellbeing in relation to engagement and accomplishment specifically. Finally,
training duration was found to have a positive effect on levels of negative emotion. Findings
suggest that training duration may be an important factor in decreasing levels of negative
emotion, while increased training frequency was associated with higher levels of wellbeing.
It is worth noting that given the small to moderate effect sizes demonstrated, proposed
applicability of the findings is tentative. However, it has been previously suggested that even a
small shift in wellbeing scores could produce a large increase in the percentage who are
flourishing on a population level (Huppert et al., 2005). The cross-sectional nature of this study
does not allow for the establishing of a cause and effect relationship and given the limitations,
caution should be employed in interpreting the results. Nonetheless, considering the divided
nature of previous martial arts research and the importance of fostering positive wellbeing, the
current study provides valuable insight concerning a nascent area of research.
42
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Appendix B
Debrief Sheet
Thank you for your answers and participation, it is greatly appreciated! Your responses have
been anonymously recorded.
This study is attempting to ascertain what differences might exist in wellbeing between Brazilian
Jiu Jitsu practitioners and non-practitioners. Should you have any questions regarding the study
please email the researcher at the address provided.
If you feel that answering this questionnaire has raised some issues for you, please consider
contacting one of the support services listed below if living in Ireland, or speak to a friend,
family member or professional.
Some available supports that you may find helpful include:
Samaritans: 116 123
Available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. There is no charge to call.
Aware: 1800 80 48 48
Available Monday - Sunday, 10am - 10pm. There is no charge to call.