water resources chapter 13 core case study: water conflicts in the middle east: a preview of the...
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Water ResourcesChapter 13
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Core Case Study: Water Conflicts in the Middle East: A Preview of the Future• Water shortages in the Middle East: hydrological poverty
• Nile River
• Jordan Basin
• Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
• Peacefully solving the problems
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Three Major River Basins in the Middle East
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13-1 Will We Have Enough Usable Water?• Concept 13-1A We are using available freshwater
unsustainably by wasting it, polluting it, and charging too little for this irreplaceable natural resource.
• Concept 13-1B One of every six people does not have sufficient access to clean water, and this situation will almost certainly get worse.
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Freshwater Is an Irreplaceable Resource That We Are Managing Poorly (1)• Why is water so important?
• Earth as a watery world: 71%
• Freshwater availability: 0.024%
• Poorly managed resource
• Hydrologic cycle
• Water pollution
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Freshwater Is an Irreplaceable Resource That We Are Managing Poorly (2)• Access to water is • A global health issue• An economic issue• A women’s and children’s issue• A national and global security issue
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Girl Carrying Well Water over Dried Out Earth during a Severe Drought in India
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Most of the Earth’s Freshwater Is Not Available to Us• Hydrologic cycle • Movement of water in the seas, land, and air• Driven by solar energy and gravity
• People divided into• Water haves• Water have-nots
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We Get Freshwater from Groundwater and Surface Water (1)• Ground water
• Zone of saturation
• Water table
• Aquifers• Natural recharge • Lateral recharge
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We Get Freshwater from Groundwater and Surface Water (2)• Surface Water• Surface runoff• Watershed (drainage) basin• Reliable runoff
• 1/3 of total
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Natural Capital: Groundwater System: Unconfined and Confined Aquifer
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Fig. 13-3, p. 316
Unconfined Aquifer Recharge Area
Precipitation Evaporation and transpiration Evaporation
Confined Recharge Area
Runoff
Flowing artesian well
Well requiring a
pump Stream
InfiltrationWater table Lake
InfiltrationUnconfined aquiferLess permeable
material such as clay
Confined aquiferConfining impermeable rock layer
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We Use a Large and Growing Portion of the World’s Reliable Runoff• 2/3 of the surface runoff: lost by seasonal floods
• 1/3 runoff usable • Domestic: 10%• Agriculture: 70%• Industrial use: 20%
• Fred Pearce, author of When the Rivers Run Dry
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Case Study: Freshwater Resources in the United States• More than enough renewable freshwater, unevenly distributed
• Effect of• Floods• Pollution• Drought
• 2007: U.S. Geological Survey projection • Water hotspots
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Average Annual Precipitation and Major Rivers, Water-Deficit Regions in U.S.
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Fig. 13-4a, p. 317
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Fig. 13-4a, p. 317
Average annual precipitation (centimeters)
41–81 More than 122
Less than 41 81–122
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Fig. 13-4b, p. 317
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Fig. 13-4b, p. 317
Shortage
Acute shortage
Adequate supply
Metropolitan regions with population greater than 1 million
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Water Hotspots in 17 Western U.S. States
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Fig. 13-5, p. 318
Substantial conflict potential
Highly likely conflict potential
Unmet rural water needs
Moderate conflict potential
Washington
OregonMontana
North Dakota
Idaho South DakotaWyoming
Nevada NebraskaUtah
Colorado Kansas
CaliforniaOklahoma
New Mexico
Texas
Arizona
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Water Shortages Will Grow (1)
• Dry climate
• Drought
• Too many people using a normal supply of water
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Water Shortages Will Grow (2)
• Wasteful use of water
• China and urbanization
• Hydrological poverty
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Natural Capital Degradation: Stress on the World’s Major River Basins
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Fig. 13-6, p. 319
Europe Asia
North America
Africa
South America Australia
Stress
High None
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Long-Term Severe Drought Is Increasing• Causes• Extended period of below-normal rainfall• Diminished groundwater
• Harmful environmental effects• Dries out soils• Reduces stream flows• Decreases tree growth and biomass• Lowers net primary productivity and crop yields• Shift in biomes
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In Water-Short Areas Farmers and Cities Compete for Water Resources• 2007: National Academy of Science study• Increased corn production in the U.S. to make ethanol as an alternative fuel
• Decreasing water supplies• Aquifer depletion• Increase in pollution of streams and aquifers
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Who Should Own and Manage Freshwater Resources? (1)• Most water resources• Owned by governments• Managed as publicly owned resources
• Veolia and Suez: French companies• Buy and manage water resources • Successful outcomes in many areas
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Who Should Own and Manage Freshwater Resources? (2)• Bechtel Corporation• Poor water management in Bolivia
• A subsidiary of Bechtel Corporation• Poor water management in Ecuador
• Potential problems with full privatization of water resources• Financial incentive to sell water; not conserve it• Poor will still be left out
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13-2 Is Extracting Groundwater the Answer?
• Concept 13-2 Groundwater that is used to supply cities and grow food is being pumped from aquifers in some areas faster than it is renewed by precipitation.
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Water Tables Fall When Groundwater Is Withdrawn Faster Than It Is Replenished• India, China, and the United States• Three largest grain producers• Overpumping aquifers for irrigation of crops
• India and China• Small farmers drilling tubewells • Effect on water table
• Saudi Arabia• Aquifer depletion and irrigation
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Trade-Offs: Withdrawing Groundwater, Advantages and Disadvantages
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Fig. 13-7, p. 321
TRADE-OFFS
Withdrawing Groundwater
Advantages DisadvantagesUseful for drinking and irrigation
Aquifer depletion from overpumping
Available year-roundSinking of land (subsidence) from overpumping
Exists almost everywhere
Aquifers polluted for decades or centuries
Renewable if not overpumped or contaminated
Saltwater intrusion into drinking water supplies near coastal areas
No evaporation losses
Reduced water flows into surface waters
Cheaper to extract than most surface waters
Increased cost and contamination from deeper wells
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Natural Capital Degradation: Irrigation in Saudi Arabia Using an Aquifer
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Case Study: Aquifer Depletion in the United States• Ogallala aquifer: largest known aquifer• Irrigates the Great Plains• Water table lowered more than 30m• Cost of high pumping has eliminated some of the farmers• Government subsidies to continue farming deplete the aquifer further• Biodiversity threatened in some areas
• California Central Valley: serious water depletion
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Natural Capital Degradation: Areas of Greatest Aquifer Depletion in the U.S.
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Fig. 13-9, p. 322
Groundwater Overdrafts:
Moderate
Minor or none
High
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Natural Capital Degradation: The Ogallala is the World’s Largest Known Aquifer
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Fig. 13-10, p. 323
WYOMINGSOUTH DAKOTA
NEBRASKA
COLORADOKANSAS
OKLAHOMANEW MEXICO
Miles
0
100TEXAS
Saturated thickness of Ogallala Aquifer
Less than 61 meters (200 ft.)61–183 meters (200–600 ft.)More than 183 meters (600 ft.) (as much as 370 meters or 1,200 ft. in places)
0
160Kilometers
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Groundwater Overpumping Has Other Harmful Effects (1)• Limits future food production
• Bigger gap between the rich and the poor
• Land subsidence• Mexico City
• Sinkholes
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Groundwater Overpumping Has Other Harmful Effects (2)• Groundwater overdrafts near coastal regions• Contamination of the groundwater with saltwater
• Undrinkable and unusable for irrigation
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Solutions: Groundwater Depletion, Using Water More Sustainably
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Fig. 13-11, p. 324
SOLUTIONS
Groundwater Depletion
Prevention Control
Waste less water Raise price of water to discourage waste
Subsidize water conservation
Tax water pumped from wells near surface waters
Limit number of wells Set and enforce minimum stream flow levels
Do not grow water-intensive crops in dry areas
Divert surface water in wet years to recharge aquifers
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Science Focus: Are Deep Aquifers the Answer?• Locate the deep aquifers; determine if they contain freshwater or
saline water
• Major concerns• Geological and ecological impact of pumping water from them• Flow beneath more than one country
• Who has rights to it?
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Active Figure: Threats to aquifers
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13-3 Is Building More Dams the Answer? • Concept 13-3 Building dam and reservoir systems has greatly
increased water supplies in some areas, but it has disrupted ecosystems and displaced people.
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Large Dams and Reservoirs Have Advantages and Disadvantages (1)• Main goals of a dam and reservoir system• Capture and store runoff
• Release runoff as needed to control:• Floods• Generate electricity• Supply irrigation water• Recreation (reservoirs)
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Large Dams and Reservoirs Have Advantages and Disadvantages (2)• Advantages• Increase the reliable runoff available• Reduce flooding• Grow crops in arid regions
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Large Dams and Reservoirs Have Advantages and Disadvantages (3)• Disadvantages• Displaces people• Flooded regions• Impaired ecological services of rivers• Loss of plant and animal species• Fill up with sediment within 50 years
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Large Dams and Reservoirs
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The Ataturk Dam Project in Eastern Turkey
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Some Rivers Are Running Dry and Some Lakes Are Shrinking• Dams disrupt the hydrologic cycle• Major rivers running dry part of the year• Colorado and Rio Grande, U.S.• Yangtze and Yellow, China• Indus, India• Danube, Europe• Nile River-Lake Victoria, Egypt
• Lake Chad Africa: disappearing
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Case Study: The Colorado River Basin— An Overtapped Resource (1)• 2,300 km through 7 U.S. states
• 14 Dams and reservoirs
• Located in a desert area within the rain shadow of the Rocky Mountains
• Water supplied mostly from snowmelt of the Rocky Mountains
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Case Study: The Colorado River Basin— An Overtapped Resource (2)• Supplies water and electricity for more than 25 million people
• Irrigation of crops
• Recreation
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Case Study: The Colorado River Basin— An Overtapped Resource (3)• Four Major problems• Colorado River basin has very dry lands• Modest flow of water for its size• Legal pacts allocated more water for human use than it can supply• Amount of water flowing to the mouth of the river has dropped
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Case Study: The Colorado River Basin— An Overtapped Resource (4)• What will happen if some of the reservoirs empty out?• Economic and ecological catastrophe• Political and legal battles over water
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The Colorado River Basin
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Aerial View of Glen Canyon Dam Across the Colorado River and Lake Powell
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The Flow of the Colorado River Measured at Its Mouth Has Dropped Sharply
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Fig. 13-16, p. 328
35
30 Hoover Dam completed (1935)
25
20
15 Glen Canyon Dam completed (1963)
10
Flow
(bill
ion
cubi
c m
eter
s)
5
0
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year
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Case Study: China’s Three Gorges Dam (1)• World’s largest hydroelectric dam and reservoir
• 2 km long across the Yangtze River
• Benefits• Electricity-producing potential is huge• Holds back the Yangtze River floodwaters• Allows cargo-carrying ships
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Case Study: China’s Three Gorges Dam (2)• Harmful effects• Displaces about 5.4 million people• Built over a seismic fault
• Significance?
• Rotting plant and animal matter producing CH4
• Worse than CO2 emissions• Will the Yangtze River become a sewer?