water efficiency planning and capacity development for ... · * appendix b benchmarks used in...

Water Efficiency Planning andCapacity Development for Water

and Wastewater Utilities

A handbook for water conservation and efficiencyprepared by the Iowa Association of Municipal Utilities

through a grant from the Iowa Energy CenterJune 2002

The Iowa Association of Municipal Utilities (IAMU) represents 549 cities withmunicipal water, wastewater, electric, gas, and telecommunications systems.

Mission: To support and strengthen Iowa’s municipal utilitieswww.iamu.org

IOWAASSOCIATION OF MUNICIPAL

UTILITIES

The Iowa Energy Center is a research, demonstration and educational organizationdedicated to increasing Iowa’s energy efficiency and use of renewable fuels.

The Iowa Energy Center’s mission focuses on three areas:Energy EfficiencyRenewable Fuels

Information Transfer and Energy Educationwww.energy.iastate.edu

Thanks to Michael K. Anderson, P.E., Iowa Department of Natural Resources,for review and assistance with this handbook.

WATERWISE

was prepared by the

through a grant from the

CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTSPREFACE -- How to Use This Handbook ..................................................................... ..1

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... ..2

WATER EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION PLANNING ........................................ ..4

WATER ACCOUNTING ............................................................................................... 12

COSTING AND PRICING ............................................................................................ 14

SYSTEM IMPROVEMENTS ........................................................................................... 15

MUNICIPAL WATER EFFICIENCY AND CONSERVATION ....................................... 19

RESIDENTIAL WATER EFFICIENCY............................................................................. 21

COMMERCIAL/INDUSTRIAL WATER EFFICIENCY ................................................... 25

WATER SHORTAGES AND EMERGENCIES ................................................................ 27Action Plan 1 -- “Water Watch” .................................................................................. 28Action Plan 2 -- “Water Warning” .............................................................................. 29Action Plan 3 -- “Water Emergency”........................................................................... 31

REFERENCES.................................................................................................................. 33

REFERENCES AND RESOURCES ON CD-ROMU.S. Environmental Protection Agency Water Conservation Plan Guidelines

* Title Page, Table of Contents, and Executive Summary* Part 1 Information for States* Part 2 Overview of the Guidelines* Part 3 Basic Guidelines (10,000 or less population)* Part 4 Intermediate Guidelines (10,000-100,000 population)* Part 5 Advanced Guidelines (over 100,000 population)* Appendix A Water Conservation Measures* Appendix B Benchmarks Used in Conservation Planning* Appendix C Glossary of Terms* Appendix D Information Resources* Appendix E Federal Funding Sources for Water Conservation* Appendix F State Contact List

Excerpts from Code of Iowa on Water Resources* 455B.262 Declaration of policy and planning requirements* 455B.265 Permits for diversion, storage, and withdrawal* 455B.266 Priority allocation

CONTENTS

Excerpt from Iowa Administrative Code on Water Conservation* 567--52.9(455B) Water Conservation

Municipal Water Efficiency and Conservation Practices* Fact Sheet on Indoor Pools* Fact Sheet on Outdoor Pools* Shape Up Your Recreation Center* Sourcebook on Natural Landscaping for Public Officials

Residential Water Efficiency* Residential Uses of Water Report from AWWA* Residential Water Conservation Software from U.S. EPA* Water Efficiency Measures for Residences* Low Flow Toilets* Water Efficiency Measures for Landscaping* Water and Energy Saving Tips* Drop by Drop: Water Conservation in Iowa City* Water $mart Landscaping by Polk County Extension Service

Commercial/Industrial Water Efficiency* Commercial/Industrial Water Conservation Fact Sheet* Water Efficiency Measures for Commercial Businesses* Water Efficiency Measures for Industry* Water Conservation for Hospitals* Water Conservation for Restaurants* Water Conservation for Schools, Colleges, and Athletic Facilities* Water Conservation for Commercial Buildings* Water Conservation 10-Step Approach for Businesses* Water Conservation Can Mean Big Savings to Small Companies* EPA's Water Alliances for Voluntary Efficiency (WAVE)

Water Emergency Materials* Residential Information Sheet* Large User Information Letter* News Release* Sample Water Conservation Ordinance

Capacity Development Training Manuals* Managerial Issues* Technical Issues* Financial Issues

Water and Energy Efficiency* Watergy: Taking Advantage of Untapped Energy and Water Efficiency Opportunities in

Municipal Water Systems* Tap Into Savings: How to Save Energy and Money in Your Water or Wastewater System

PREFACE --How to Use This Handbook

This handbook is intended toprovide an introduction to waterefficiency and conservation planningas part of overall system manage-ment. The handbook provides anoverview of the planning process anddiscusses various methods for savingwater and associated energy, includ-ing system improvements and end-user conservation programs andtechnologies.

This handbook also updates aprevious publication, Water Conser-vation for Small Utilities: A PracticalGuide to Local Water ConservationPlanning, published in 1989 by theIowa Association of Municipal Utili-ties and the Iowa Department ofNatural Resources. The updatedinformation discusses water shortagesand emergencies and state-mandatedconservation measures.

Accompanying this printedhandbook is a CD-ROM whichcontains important resource andreference materials. The materialsincluded on the CD-ROM providelegal and regulatory references,planning guidelines, customer educa-tion materials, and other resourceinformation. References are oftenmade in the text of the handbook tomaterials on the CD-ROM.

The CD-ROM is set up as aninteractive Web site to make it easy tofind and navigate through the materi-als. A Web browser is required tonavigate through the menu. If the

user is working on-line while usingthe CD, it will provide automaticlinks to other Internet Web sites.Individual files may also be ac-cessed by viewing the file directorywithout using a Web browser.

Utilities without computer orInternet access may also requestprinted copies of any materialsincluded on the CD from IAMU.The complete menu of files on theCD is included in the handbook’stable of contents.

PREFACE -- How to Use This Handbook

References and Resources on theWATER WISE CD-ROM

● U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Water Conservation Plan Guidelines

● Excerpt from Iowa Administrative Code on Water Conservation

● Municipal Water Efficiency and Conservation Practices

● Residential Water Efficiency

● Commercial/Industrial Water Efficiency

● Water Emergency Materials

● Capacity Development Training Manuals

● Water and Energy Efficiency

1

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTIONto reduce quantity without sacrificingquality. That is, the same “quality oflife” can be achieved, at a lowercost, by careful examination of thenature of water use within utilitysystems.

Water efficiency and conserva-tion can provide alternatives formeeting drinking water needs orneed for wastewater treatment. Hereare some hypothetical examples:

● For a small water utility, construc-tion of a main for purchasingwholesale water from a nearbycommunity is the most affordableoption. However, quantities ofavailable water are limited. Acomprehensive water conservationprogram that reduces water re-quirements could make the whole-sale option feasible and defer newfacilities.

● A medium-sized water utilityexperiences extreme peaks everysummer due to lawn wateringalthough average daily demand iswithin the system’s capacity. Thecommunity’s older water treatmentfacility is being replaced. A waterconservation program focusing onwater-efficient landscaping educa-tion and seasonal rate adjustmentswould allow the utility to optimizethe size and design of the newfacility and allow for growth.

● A community’s wastewater systemis increasingly short of capacityand faces potential violations ofdischarge permits. The waterutility and wastewater utility could

What determines a water orwastewater system’s capacity todeliver services? First, its technicalcapacity: Does it have adequatesource water, well-functioninginfrastructure, and technical knowl-edge? Second, its managerialcapacity: Are staff and managersknowledgeable and well-trained?And third, its financial capacity:Does the system have sufficientrevenues and adequate fiscalmanagement and controls?

Water efficiency and conserva-tion are integral parts of a water orwastewater system’s capacitydevelopment and overall utilityoperational efficiency. Strategic useof water efficiency and conservationcan help a system:

● Defer or reduce the need forexpanded water supply facilitiesor wastewater treatment facili-ties;

● Reduce utility operating costs;and

● Reduce water withdrawals,protecting water resources.

This handbook uses two terms– “efficiency” and “conservation.”These terms do not mean the samething, but can complement eachother in an integrated resource plan.“Conservation” means a reductionin water use. “Efficiency” meansusing the minimal amount of waternecessary to accomplish a goal.Although at times pure conservationmeasures may be called for, wehave emphasized efficiency topromote the idea that it is possible

2

work together to encourage accel-erated use of water-saving toilets,showerheads, and washing ma-chines, deferring the need for newwaste treatment capacity.

Water and wastewater utilitiescan incorporate water efficiency intotheir planning whether or not they arefacing shortages. Water conservationhas been viewed as a temporarystrategy enforced during times ofdrought or other emergencies. Thisview is changing. First, there is agrowing recognition of the cyclicalnature of drought events. Second,water and wastewater managersincreasingly are viewing basic waterefficiency and conservation as part ofprudent, on-going, utility manage-ment.

Water and wastewater utilitiesare beginning to adopt an integratedresource planning approach. Electricutilities have been using this ap-proach for many years, doing least-cost analyses of the contributions ofboth the supply and the demand sideto system capacity.

Endorsed by the AmericanWater Works Association and theU.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA), the integrated resourceplanning approach considers the cost-effectiveness and reliability of waterconservation measures to reducedemand. Even the smallest water orwastewater facilities can use aspectsof an integrated resource approach toplan for meeting current and futureneeds.

The EPA’s guidelines for waterconservation plans can provide abasis for integrated resource planning.The guidelines can be used by all

INTRODUCTION

systems. The water conservationplan guidelines can be directlylinked to the three elements ofcapacity – technical, managerial,and financial — as shown below.

Water conservation plans arerequired by the State of Iowaunder Chapter 52.9(3). They aremost often considered in theissuance of water allocationpermits or permit renewals. Inaddition, there is a small scoringbonus on State Revolving LoanFund (SRF) applications for com-munities that have passed waterconservation ordinances andimplemented programs.

Type ofCapacity

Technical

Managerial

Financial

Elements of CapacityDevelopment

§Source wateradequacy§Infrastructureadequacy§Technical knowledgeand implementation

§Staffing andorganization§Effective externallinkages§Ownershipaccountability

§Revenue sufficiency§Fiscal managementand control§Credit worthiness

Elements of Basic WaterConservation

Universal metering§Source water metering§Service-connectionmetering and reading§Meter public-use waterWater accounting andloss control§Account for water§Repair known leaks

Information andeducation§Understandable waterbill§Information available

Costing and pricing§Cost-of-serviceaccounting§User charges§Metered rates

Common Elements of Capacity Development andWater Conservation Planning

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, WaterConservation Plan Guidelines, 1998.

3

WATER EFFICIENCY ANDCONSERVATION PLANNING

The preparation of a waterefficiency and conservation plancan meet several objectives,including:

● To create strategies for moreefficient operation of a water orwastewater system.

● To address water shortages oremergencies.

● To qualify the utility for bonuspoints in the scoring of anapplication for the State Revolv-ing Loan Fund (SRF) through theDNR.

● To show that the utility meetsviability criteria, which require awater conservation plan.

● To satisfy the Iowa Departmentof Natural Resources (DNR)requirement for a plan to besubmitted with an application fora new water use permit orrenewal of an existing permit.

The steps described below arepart of the U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA)’s 1998basic guidelines for conservationplanning for smaller utilities. Thefull set of instructions for followingthese guidelines are included on theCD-ROM which accompanies thishandbook. In addition, the CDcontains the EPA’s intermediate andadvanced guidelines, which providegreater detail for larger utilities.

The first step in preparing a planis to decide on the utility’s goals.Water efficiency and conservationplanning goals could include someof the following:

● Eliminating, downsizing, orpostponing the need for capitalprojects;

● Improving the utilization andextending the life of existingfacilities;

● Lowering variable operating costs;● Avoiding new source develop-

ment costs;● Improving drought or emergency

preparedness;● Educating customers about the

cost and value of water andwastewater treatment;

● Improving reliability and marginsof safe and dependable yields; and

● Protecting and preserving waterresources.

The process of developing goalsshould include input from a cross-section of the community. This inputcould come from a few town meet-ings or brainstorming sessions, orfrom more extensive communityresearch and involvement.

The next step in the plan is todevelop a system profile to assesscurrent conditions. It should alsoconsider future needs. Theworksheet on the next two pagescan help in compiling informationfor a system profile.

CONSERVATION PLANNING

Note on Worksheets:

The worksheets onthe following pagesare included inWater ConservationPlan Guidelines, U.S.EPA, Part 3, which isincluded on the CD-ROM whichaccompanies thismanual, or on theU.S. EPA web site.Also included aredetailed instructionsfor using theworksheets. Utilitiesover 10,000population shoulduse the materials inthe Intermediate orAdvancedGuidelines, alsoincluded on the CD-ROM.

4


Water System Profile

SUMMARIZE SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

A SERVICE CHARACTERISTICS Number1 Estimated service population2 Estimated service area (square

miles)

B ANNUAL WATER SUPPLY Annual volume Percent metered3 Total annual water supply %

C SERVICE CONNECTIONS Connections Percent metered4 Residential, single-family %5 Other %6 Total connections %

C WATER DEMAND Annual volume Percent of total Per connection7 Metered residential sales8 Metered nonresidential sales9 Other metered sales10 Unmetered sales11 Nonaccount water [a]12 Total system demand (total use)

Total supply Percent of totalD AVERAGE & PEAK DEMAND Volume capacity capacity13 Average-day demand %14 Maximum-day demand %

Rate structure [b] Metering BillingF PRICING schedule [c] schedule [c]15 Residential rate16 Nonresidential rate17 Other rate

Prepared a Date Filed with stateG PLANNING plan ✓ ✓18 Capital, facility, or supply plan19 Drought or emergency plan20 Water conservation plan

(Worksheet continues)

5


Worksheet 3-1 (continued)

SUMMARIZE SYSTEM CONDITIONS

H PLANNING QUESTIONS Yes No Comment21 Is the system in a designated critical water supply area?22 Does the system experience frequency shortages or

supply emergencies?23 Does the system have substantial unaccounted-for and

lost water?24 Is the system experiencing a high rate of population and/

or demand growth?25 Is the system planning substantial improvements or

additions?

SUMMARIZE CURRENT CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES

Water conservation measures Approximateannual Is continuedwater savings Implemented implementation(if known) since (date) planned?

[a] Nonaccount water is water not metered and sold to customers (including authorized and unauthorizeduses). See Appendix A, figure A-7 and Worksheet A-2.[b] Uniform, increasing-block, decreasing-block, seasonal, or other.[c] Quarterly, monthly, or other.

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Conservation Plan Guidelines, Part 3, Worksheet 3-1.

6

Water Demand Forecast [a]Line Item Current 5-Year 10-Year

Year Forecast Forecast

A TOTAL ANNUAL WATER DEMAND

1 Current total annual water demand (from Worksheet 3-1) [a]

2 Current population served [b]

3 Total water demand per capita (line 1 divided by line 2) [b]

4 Projected population [b]

5 Projected total annual water demand (line 3 multiplied by line 4)

6 Adjustments to forecast (+ or -) [c]

7 Adjusted total annual water demand (line 5 plus line 6)

8 Current annual demand (line 1) and adjusted annual waterdemand forecast (line 7 for forecast years)

9 Current and projected annual supply capacity (from Worksheet3-1) [d]

10 Difference between total annual water demand and totalannual supply capacity (+ or -) (subtract line 8 from line 9)

B AVERAGE-DAY AND MAXIMUM-DAY DEMAND

11 Current and forecast average-day demand (line 8 divided by 365)

12 Current maximum-day demand (from Worksheet 3-1)

13 Maximum-day to average-day demand ratio (line 12divided by line 11)

14 Projected maximum-day demand (line 13 multiplied by line 11 forall forecast years)

15 Adjustment to maximum-day demand forecast [c]

16 Current (line 12) and adjusted maximum-day demandforecast (add lines 14 and 15)

17 Daily supply capacity (line 9 divided by 365)

18 Ratio of maximum-day demand to daily supply capacity (line 16divided by line 17)

[a] Separate forecasts should be prepared for large-volume users, as well as for nonaccount water (water not billed tocustomers) if nonaccount water is a significant amount (such as more than 10 percent of total production).[b] Managers can use connections instead of population and per-connection water use instead of per-capita water use.[c] Please explain adjustments to your forecast (lines 6 and 15), including effects of installed conservation measures andrate changes.[d] Supply capacity should take into account available supplies (permits), treatment capacity, or distribution systemcapacity and reflect the practical total supply capacity of the system, including purchased water.


Step three is to prepare a de-mand forecast for five and ten-yearperiods, including forecasts for theentire system as well as for separate

user classes. The worksheetbelow provides a simple waterdemand forecasting methodologybased on population.


7


Some utilities may have moreprecise methods already in place fordemand forecasting.

Step four involves identifyingand evaluating conservation mea-sures. The U.S. EPA identifies threelevels of measures that utilities canimplement. Level 1 measures arepractices that all utilities shouldimplement.

Level 1 measures include:

● Universal metering – source-water metering, service-connec-tion metering, metering public-use water;

● Water accounting and losscontrol – accounting for water,repairing known leaks;

● Costing and pricing – cost-of-service accounting, user charges,metered rates; and

● Information and education –understandable water bills,conservation information avail-able.

Level 2 and 3 measures maybe appropriate and cost-effective forsystems whose goals includemaking significant improvements inwater efficiency and conservation.Level 2 measures include:

● Water-use audits;

● Retrofits, such as showerheads,toilets, etc.;

● Pressure management; and

● Landscape efficiency.

Level 3 measures include:

● Replacements and promotions

● Reuse and recycling

● Water-use regulation

● Integrated resource management

Many electric and gas utilities inIowa have Level 2 and 3 measures inplace as part of their energy effi-ciency programs. They have pro-moted water and energy-efficienttechnologies such as low-flowshowerheads, horizontal axis clotheswashers, and faucet aerators. Waterutilities should consider partneringwith energy utilities to offer end-userconservation measures and to maketheir own systems operate as effi-ciently as possible.

A cost-effectiveness analysiscan be performed for each measurechosen, in order to compare variousmeasures in terms of dollars pergallon of water saved. Using thetable and the worksheet on thefollowing pages, planners can estab-lish a budget that will allow theutility to meet its conservation goals.

Note on Worksheets:

The materials on thefollowing pages areincluded in WaterConservation PlanGuidelines, U.S. EPA,Appendix B, and Part3, which are includedon the CD-ROMwhich accompaniesthis manual, or on theU.S. EPA web site.

8


Benchmarks for Savings from SelectedConservation MeasuresCategory Measure Reduction in Life span

end use (years)LEVEL 1 MEASURESUniversal metering Connection metering 20 percent 8 to 20

Submetering 20 to 40 percent 8 to 20Water accounting and loss control System audits and leak detection Based on system naCosting and pricing 10% increase in residential prices 2 to 4 percent na

10% increase in nonresidential prices 5 to 8 percent naIncreasing-block rate 5 percent na

Information and education Public education/behavior changes 2 to 5 percent na

LEVEL 2 MEASURESEnd-use audits General industrial water conservation 10 to 20 percent na

Outdoor residential use 5 to 10 percent naLarge landscape water audits 10 to 20 percent na

Retrofits Toilet tank displacement devices (for 2 to 3 gpcd 1.5toilets using > 3.5 gallons/flush)

Toilet retrofit 8 to 14 gpcd 1.5Showerhead retrofit (aerator) 4 gpcd 1 to 3Faucet retrofit (aerator) 5 gpcd 1 to 3Fixture leak repair 0.5 gpcd 1Governmental buildings (indoors) 5 percent na

Pressure management Pressure reduction, system 3 to 6 percent of na total production

Pressure-reducing valves, residential 5 to 30 percent naOutdoor water-use efficiency Low water-use plants 7.5 percent 10

Lawn watering guides 15 to 20 percent naLarge landscape management 10 to 25 percent naIrrigation timer 10 gpcd 4

LEVEL 3 MEASURESReplacements and promotions Toilet replacement, residential 16 to 20 gpcd 15 to 25

Toilet replacement, commercial 16 to 20 gpcd 10 to 20Showerhead replacement 8.1 gpcd 2 to 10Faucet replacement 6.4 gpcd 10 to 20Clothes washers, residential 4 to 12 gpcd 12Dishwashers, residential 1 gpcd 12Hot water demand units 10 gpcd na

Reuse and recycling Cooling tower program Up to 90 percent naWater-use regulation Landscape requirements 10 to 20 percent na

Graywater reuse, residential 20 to 30 gpcd naIntegrated resource management Planning and management Energy, chemical, na

and wastewater treatment costs

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Conservation Plan Guidelines, Appendix B, Table B-4.Compiled from various sources. Actual water savings can vary substantially according to a number of factors. Thesedata are provided for illustrative purposes only and may not be current or applicable. To the extent practical, plannersshould regionally appropriate or system-specific assumptions and estimates. na = not available

9


Selection of Conservation Measures

Line Measure Primary criteria for selecting or rejecting the conservation measure

for implementation [a]

Universal metering [B]1 Source-water metering2 Service-connection metering3 Meter public-use water

Water accounting and loss control [A]4 Account for water5 Repair known leaks

Costing and pricing [B]6 Cost-of-service accounting7 User charges8 Metered rates

Information and education [B]9 Understandable water bill10 Information available

Other Measures [b]11121314151617181920…

[a] This space may also be used to note special issues related to this measure, including legal or obstacles to its use thatpreclude further consideration.[b] See Appendix A for additional information on water conservation measures.[A] = measure affects average-day demand[P] = measure affects maximum-day (peak) demand)[B] = measure affects average and peak demand

Alr

eady

impl

emen

ted

✔

Plan

to im

plem

ent ✔


10


The fifth and final step in theplanning process is to specify strate-gies and timetables for implementingthe plan. Some of the questions to beanswered are:

● What issues need to be addressedbefore the plan can be imple-mented?

● What specific actions will theutility take to carry out its conser-vation measures?

● What will the utility do to addressthe impact of conservation onrevenues?

● How will the utility gain supportfrom key stakeholders and policy-makers?

Another part of this step is toconsider how the success of the planwill be evaluated. The utility shouldthink about:

● What data will be available?

● What new kinds of data willneed to be collected?

● How will the results of the waterconservation program beincorporated into future de-mand forecasting?

● What will be the means ofadjusting the conservationprogram if needed?

● How will the results of theprogram be communicated tothe public?

The following sections of thehandbook provide more detailabout specific efficiency andconservation measures and howto incorporate them into a waterefficiency and conservation plan.

11

WATER ACCOUNTING

WATER ACCOUNTINGWater efficiency and conserva-

tion starts not on the customer sideof the meter but on the utility side.The first step in addressing waterefficiency on the supply side is toimplement a system of wateraccounting. Without accuratewater accounting, water loss cannotbe estimated or controlled.

When all water services aremetered and recorded, the differ-ence between the water producedand the total water metered in thesystem is called water loss orunaccounted-for water. Unac-counted-for water includes waterthat is metered but not billed as wellas all unmetered water.

Water that is metered but notbilled may be used by city depart-ments for authorized uses such asmain flushing, storm drain flushing,street cleaning, public areas land-scaping, swimming pools, and otherpublic uses.

Some unmetered water may beused for the authorized publicpurposes listed above. The Ameri-can Water Works AssociationCommittee on Unaccounted-forWater recommends that no morethan one percent of total annualpumpage be used to cover theseuses.

Unmetered water may also beconsumed through illegal connec-tions and water leaks. Malfunction-ing system controls, inaccuratemeters, or accounting system errorsmay be preventing the utility from

metering and billing some water.

The worksheet on the followingpage provides a simple means ofwater accounting.

With an accurate picture of thesystem’s financial conditions througha water accounting process, theutility can more accurately figure thecost of water and convey that cost,through pricing, to the customers.The Iowa Association of MunicipalUtilities offers a new water unbun-dling service that will help youallocate and understand the costsrelated to your water utility.

Unbundling sorts out and putsinto categories the costs for theservices a utility provides. For waterutilities, costs are allocated to metercharges, distribution costs (dollars/gallon), and treatment plant costs(dollars/gallon).

A water unbundling spreadsheethas been developed and IAMUprovides technical support forutilities using the software. Thespreadsheet tool can be used for theinitial attempt to unbundle costs, andthen updated periodically to reflectnew budgets, changes in customerclasses, or other changes. Thespreadsheet can also be used for“what if” scenarios for future budget-ing.

For more information on waterunbundling, please contact IAMU.

Note on Worksheet:

The worksheet on thefollowing page isincluded in WaterConservation PlanGuidelines, U.S. EPA,Appendix A,Worksheet A-2,which is included onthe CD-ROM whichaccompanies thismanual, or on theU.S. EPA web site.

12

WATER ACCOUNTING

Water Accounting and Loss ControlLine Item Volume % of Amount

(gallons) in Line 11 Total Source Withdrawals and Purchases 100%2 Adjustments to source water supply [a]2A Adjustment for source meter error (+ or -)2B Adjustment for change in reservoir or tank storage (+ or -)2C Adjustment for transmission line losses (-) [a]2D Adjustments for other source contributions or losses (+ or -) [a]3 Total adjustments to source water (add lines 2A through 2D))4 Adjusted Source Water (subtract line 3 from line 1) %5 Metered Water Sales5A Metered residential sales5B Metered commercial sales5C Metered industrial sales5D Metered public sales5E Other metered sales6 Total metered sales (add lines 5A through 5D)7 Adjustment for meter reading lag time (+ or -)8 Adjustment for meter errors (+ or -) [a]9 Adjusted total meter sales (add lines 6 through 8)10 Nonaccount Water (subtract line 9 from line 4) %11 Metered and accounted-for but not billed11A Public-use water metered but not billed11B Other water metered but not billed12 Authorized unmetered water: operation and maintenance12A Main flushing12B Process water at treatment plant12C Water quality and other testing13 Authorized unmetered water: public use13A Storm drain flushing13B Sewer cleaning13C Street cleaning13D Landscaping in large public areas13E Firefighting, training, and related maintenance14 Other authorized unmetered use14A Swimming pools14B Construction sites14C Other unmetered uses15 Total authorized unmetered water (add lines 11A through 14C)16 Total Unauthorized Losses (subtract line 15 from line 10) %17 Identifiable water losses and leaks17A Accounting procedure errors [a]17B Malfunctioning distribution system controls17C Illegal connections and theft17D Meter inaccuracy17E Unavoidable water leaks17F Avoidable water leaks18 Total identifiable water losses and leaks (add lines 17A through 17F)19 Unaccounted-For Water (subtract line 18 from line 16) %[a] Methodology subject to industry and regulatory standards.

13

COSTING AND PRICING

COSTING AND PRICINGPricing can be an important

part of a water conservation planwhen it helps customers place atrue value on the water they con-sume.

There are several basic prin-ciples that systems should follow indeveloping their rate structures:

● Rates should cover the full costsof production, treatment, storage,and distribution of water;

● Rates should be fair and equi-table; and

● The rate structure should be easyto understand and customersshould know and understand thejustifications for rates.

There are four basic types ofrate structures:

● Uniform flat rate, in which cus-tomers pay the same amountregardless of quantity used;

● Single block rate, in whichcustomers are charged a constantprice per gallon regardless ofquantities used;

● Decreasing block rate, in whichthe price of water declines as theamount used increases; and

● Increasing block rate, in whichthe price of water increases as theamount used increases.

If the utility’s goal is to encour-age water efficiency and conserva-tion, only the last rate structure, theincreasing block rate, will be effec-tive. The other types of rate struc-tures actually encourage high con-sumption.

More complex methods ofadvanced pricing can be used tofine-tune the ability of the ratestructure to encourage conservation.Advanced pricing can include factorssuch as seasonal usage, dual metersso nonsewage use is not penalized,customer classes, marginal costs, andcost-recovery mechanisms.

Utilities should not ignore theissue of the impact of efficiency andconservation on their revenuestreams. Conservation will help thewater utility reduce variable costs(such as energy, chemical, andpurchased water costs) and couldallow for better accounting. In thelong term, conservation also willhelp the utility reduce fixed costs(associated with new capital facili-ties). In the short term, however,reductions in water use can lead to ashortfall in revenues needed to coverfixed costs and sustain the financialviability of the water system.

Rate design should allow thesystem to achieve demand reduc-tions while still recovering watersystem costs. When rate increasesare offset by usage reductions,customer bills and utility revenuescan be maintained.

14

SYSTEM IMPROVEMENTS

SYSTEM IMPROVEMENTSUnaccounted-for water in a

system, including municipal uses,should not exceed 15 percent. Onearea to target is water loss throughleaks. Any amount of water loss mayhave adverse effects on operation andrevenue. Many systems believe thatfixing the larger leaks, those that canbe visibly identified when theybubble to the surface, is sufficient.However, smaller leaks are just as bigof a concern. A ¼ inch diameter holein a main will probably not haveenough force to surface, but it maycause a water loss of over 8,400gallons of water per day and over261,000 gallons per month (at 60psi).

Not only do leaking pipes causewater loss, but they also createopenings for contamination in thedistribution system. Almost a quarterof the water-borne disease outbreaksreported in community water suppliesin the past 10 years were not causedby poor treatment but by contami-nants that entered vulnerable parts ofwater distribution systems.

A leak detection survey shouldbe routinely budgeted for and per-formed to minimize water loss.

Meter calibration, repair, andreplacement is another important partof a water efficiency and conservationstrategy. Inaccurate meters can be asignificant contributor to unac-counted for water, since metersseldom over-register but will gener-ally under-register or run slower.Meters may also be improperly sized.

Periodic calibration of systemsupply meters will provide moreaccurate measurement of thewater being pumped into thesystem. Field-testing of customermeters consists of randomlyreplacing an old meter with a newone, and then testing the oldmeter with a calibrated test bench.Some meters on larger customersmay need more routine inspectionand calibration for accuracy.

System efficiency is alsoimportant for wastewater systems.Inflow and infiltration into thesystem, causing flows to increase,can tax the system’s capacity.Increased inflow and infiltrationflows result from groundwaterseeping into the collection mainsthrough loose joints, main breaksor cracks, runoff from rainfallevents that enters manholes, orillicit connections from sumppumps or others.

Replacing cracked mainsfound through camera inspectionsand fixing manholes to reduceinflow and infiltration will reduceflows into the system, allow thesystem to operate more efficiently,and possibly forestall the need foradditional capacity. Routineinspections of customer metersand piping might turn upunmetered connections or im-proper discharges, such as resi-dential sump pumps, to sewerlines.

Leak Detection

Leak detectionstrategies may includeregular on-site testingusing electronic-assisted leak detectionequipment, a sonicleak-detection survey,water audits, or othermethods for detectingleaks along waterdistribution mains,valves, services, andmeters. The IowaAssociation ofMunicipal Utilitieshas information onleak detectionmethods and services.

15

SYSTEM IMPROVEMENTS

It is also important not tooverlook the potential for energyand dollar savings in the operationof water and wastewater treatmentand distribution systems. Pumpingsystems alone comprise 70-90% ofelectrical energy costs for municipalwater and wastewater systems. Inthe United States as a whole,municipal water pumping accountsfor nearly 2.5% of national electricuse.

In wastewater facilities, energyuse increases with the level ofneeded treatment. Ponds andlagoons are relatively low energyusers, while activated sludge,oxidation ditch, and extendedaeration plants are more energyintensive.

A system approach should betaken to addressing concerns aboutenergy use and identifying improve-ments. The ultimate goal of theprocess should be to maximize theoverall efficiency of the system.

Cost-saving measures inwastewater facilities may come inthe form of energy efficiency and/orload management measures. En-ergy efficiency measures reduceenergy consumption, while loadmanagement shifts energy use intooff-peak periods.

The most important areas toexamine in a wastewater facilityare:

● Pumping system efficiency. Thisincludes pump sizing and selec-tion of high efficiency motors,impellor efficiency, and pumpsystem design (e.g. parallelpumping).

● Control systems. Many wastewa-ter facitilies use control systems tocontinuously monitor the systemand to assist with load manage-ment.

● Variable frequency drives. VFDsenable motors to accomodatefluctuating demand, runningequipment at lower speeds anddrawing less energy while meetinglower pumping needs. They canbe used to vary flow more effi-ciently than valve positioning.

● Regular maintenance. Routinemaintenance of pumping systemsand other equipment can cutenergy use and prolong opera-tional life.

● Treatment processes. Identifyingmore energy efficient processescan present sizable cost savings insome systems.

● Sludge processing. Analysis ofsludge processing options shouldinclude the energy costs of eachoption. In the case of land dis-posal, this should include transpor-tation costs.

● Disinfection. There are cost andenvironmental tradeoffs withdifferent types of disinfection.Although chlorination is lessenergy intensive, there are con-cerns about chlorine residuals intreated wastewater. Ozonationand UV irradation are options thatare becoming more accepted.

● Co-generation. Anaerobic digest-ers for sludge stabilization producebiogas that can be burned to heatfacilities or generate electricity.

Note on Resources:

More information onenergy efficiency inwater and wastewaterfacilities is includedon the CD-ROM thatoccompanies thismanual. Check forWatergy: TakingAdvantage ofUntapped Energy andWater EfficiencyOpportunities inMunicipal WaterSupplies, by theAlliance to SaveEnergy, and Tap IntoSavings, by the IowaAssociation ofMunicipal Utilities.

16

SYSTEM IMPROVEMENTS

In water systems, the primaryenergy use is in pumping. Therefore,the first place to look for energysavings in an existing water system isin the pumps and motors used. Otherplaces to look for savings includecontrol systems, the disinfectionprocess, and distribution systemdesign.

Greater efficiency in pumpingand motor use can be achieved byusing variable speed pumps andmotors, using the highest efficiencyequipment that can be consideredcost-effective, and keeping pumpsand motors maintained.

Adjustable speed pumpingincreases efficiency by matchingflows with pump operation. Addingvariable frequency drives can reducecosts and increase the efficiency ofsystem operation.

Premium efficiency motors usedto drive pumps in water systems cost

more than typical motors, but canoften have a payback of two to 10years.

Control systems in waterfacilities can help manage energyuse by controlling pump opera-tion, monitoring pump efficien-cies, shifting loads to off-peakperiods, and controlling variablespeed drives or pumps.

Water and wastewaterutilities can track the efficiency oftheir system by developingbaseline information and periodi-cally monitoring their numbers.

The Alliance to Save Energystudied the way water utilitiesaround the world track systemefficiency and developed a set oftypical metrics for what they call“watergy” -- water and energyefficiency, shown in the tablebelow.

Typical Metrics for Tracking Watergy Efficiency

Cost

Total Water DeliveredTotal Cost *Example: gallons per dollar

Total CostTotal Water DeliveredExample: dollars per gallon

Supply

Total Water DeliveredTotal Amount of Energy UsedExample: gallons per kWh

Total CostTotal Input WaterExample: Gallons per gallonsentering system

Demand

Total Water DeliveredTotal PopulationExample: gallons per person

Total CostNumber of ConnectionsExample: gallons perconnection

* Including energy, water, capital depreciation, and maintenance

Source: Alliance to Save Energy. Watergy: Taking Advantage of Untapped Energy and Water EfficiencyOpportunities in Municipal Water Systems. Washington, D.C. 2002.

17

MUNICIPAL CONSERVATION

MUNICIPAL WATER EFFICIENCYAND CONSERVATION

Utility and city governmentscan initiate water-efficient practices,saving water and setting an examplefor customers. Some of the areascities can explore include swim-ming pools, landscaping, and waterconsumption in public facilities.

Municipal swimming poolsand recreation centers, whetherindoor or outdoor, are large waterusers but can save water throughsome simple techniques. Savingwater can add up to energy andcost savings for the city as well.

The major source of water andheat loss from swimming pools isfrom evaporation. For both indoorand outdoor pools, evaporationaccounts for 70% of total energyloss. An average uncovered out-door pool loses about an inch ofwater a week during the summer.

Covering the pool is the singlemost effective way of reducingwater and heat loss. On a typicalmunicipal pool, a manually oper-ated pool cover will pay for itself inwater and energy savings in lessthan one year. The more expensiveautomated covers have paybacks ofabout 4-5 years. For indoor pools,pool covers have the added benefitsof reducing the need for ventilationand decreasing the amount ofchemicals and cleaning.

Other water-saving techniquesfor swimming pools are:

● Buy a pool vacuum that returnswater to the pool instead of send-ing it down the drain.

● Backwash pool filters only whenneeded.

● Wait 30 minutes to backwashpool filters after the circulationsystem has been shut off. Half asmuch water will be needed toclean the filter.

● Lower the pool’s water level toreduce the amount of water thatcan be splashed out.

● Check the pool regularly for leaksand cracks and make repairspromptly.

● Consider lowering pool tempera-tures slightly, depending onswimmer comfort, to reduceevaporative losses. Lower pooltemperatures when the pool is notin use.

● Install low-flow showerheads inshower facilities.

Another area municipalities canaddress to demonstrate water effi-ciency and conservation is in land-scaping of city facilities, public parksand golf courses. A typical publicgolf course uses more than 8,000

Note on Resources:

More information onsaving water andenergy in swimmingpools is included onthe accompanyingCD-ROM. Refer tothe RSPEC Fact Sheetsfrom the U.S. Depart-ment of Energy.

18


gallons of water per day, about thesame as an average hospital. Water-wise landscaping can save water andmoney for city governments.

The benefits of landscape waterconservation for cities include:

● Lowering the peak water demandfor the water utility;

● Lowering the cost of installing andmaintaining city landscaping;

● Reducing the use of lawn chemi-cals; and

● Creating attractive and diversenatural areas.

Water-efficient landscaping forcities typically means three things:

● Rethinking the amount of turf areasthat are needed;

● Using native plantings wherepossible; and

● Keeping irrigation to a minimumand making sure it’s efficient.

Landscaping and open spacesmaintained by cities have typicallyfocused on expanses of turf grass.Unfortunately, turf grass is not welladapted to the Iowa climate and thustakes large amounts of water, chemi-cals, and labor to maintain. If turfgrass can be limited to only the mostpractical uses, cities can significantlyreduce landscape water use.

This idea of “practical turf areas”can be incorporated into city designand operation of landscaping aroundbuildings and on city streets, in parks,and on golf courses. Turf grass canprobably be completely eliminatedwhere it’s hard to mow or water, onsteep slopes, and in densely shadedareas. Turf areas should be largeenough to be functional and as small

as possible. For example, a smallarea of turf grass outside thepublic library could hold a tableor benches for reading, sur-rounded by a butterfly gardenestablished on the rest of the lawnarea.

City parks can provide open,grassy spaces needed for play-grounds, picnic areas, and ballplaying, with other areas con-verted to native plantings. Golfcourses also could convert turfgrass outside playing surfaces tonative plantings or groundcovers,increasing the challenge of thecourse at the same time they aresaving water.

Native plantings can take theplace of turf grass in certain areasand create significant cost savingsfor cities. Installing turf grass isexpensive, about $12,000 per acrefor sod and $4,000-$8,000 forseeding. This compares withabout $2,000 to $4,000 per acrefor seeding native prairieplantings. Maintenance of turfgrass areas can cost $2,000 peracre per year, while maintenanceon native landscaping is minimalonce it is established.

While turf grasses requirewater or they will go dormant,native plant species have evolvedto use water efficiently in Iowa’ssummer climate. Grasses andwildflowers indigenous to Iowarequire little watering, mowing, orother maintenance. Many nativeplantings need to be mowed onlyonce or twice per year, versusweekly or bi-weekly for turf grass.

Note on Resources:

An excellent guide tonative landscaping isA Sourcebook onNatural Landscapingfor Public Officialspublished by the U.S.Environmental Pro-tection Agency. It isincluded on the CD-ROM which accom-panies this handbook.

19

By limiting turf grass to “practi-cal turf areas” and installing nativelandscaping where appropriate,irrigation can be kept to a mini-mum. Where watering is needed,following the practices below willmake it as efficient as possible.

Cities can also set an examplefor citizens by using water conserva-tion practices in community facili-ties. The municipal government canimplement some of the same mea-sures recommended for its residentsand businesses, and reap the samerewards in cost-savings.

First, the city should determinewhere its water is being used. If thecity has carried out a water account-ing process, staff will have a goodidea of the types and amounts ofpublic water consumption. Next, thecity should implement the appropri-ate efficiency and conservationmeasures, which may include:

● Appointing a senior staff memberto be responsible for water effi-ciency in city facilities;

● Preparing a water-efficiencymaintenance plan based on thecity’s goals for saving water;

● Regularly checking equipment,piping, and connections to identifyleaks and make repairs promptly;

● Installing water-saving devices incommunity facilities, includinglow-flush toilets, low-flowshowerheads, and faucet aerators;

● Regularly inspecting plumbingfixtures for leaks and drips;

● Minimizing water used for wash-ing vehicles, driveways, or side-walks; and

● Educating city staff and residentsabout the city’s efforts to use waterwisely.

Additional information onefficiency and conservation tech-nologies and measures appropriatefor city facilities is contained in thechapters on the residential andcommercial sectors.


● Group plants with similar water-ing needs so that some are notover-watered while others areunder-watered.

● Schedule irrigation for earlymorning or evening hours toreduce water wasted throughevaporation during the day.

● Use drip irrigation or bubbler/soaker systems.

● Maximize the efficiency ofirrigation systems through use ofcontrollers, rain shutoff devices,and soil moisture sensors. Makesure the system is operatingproperly. Check for misdirectedor blocked sprays; broken heads,seals, pipes, or valves; andclogged or stuck heads.

● Reuse reclaimed water forirrigation.

20

RESIDENTIAL EFFICIENCY

RESIDENTIAL WATER EFFICIENCYIn Iowa, the average expected

per capita per day usage of water is150 gallons, according to the Depart-ment of Natural Resources. Aboutone-half to two-thirds of that water isused indoors, with the remaindergoing to outdoor uses. For mostpublic water systems in the U.S.,residential water use typically repre-sents 50 to 80% of billed waterdemand.

The table shows the results of anational survey conducted by theAmerican Water Works Association.Actual flow measurements werecollected on 1,188 single familyhomes in North America. Withoutconservation measures, a total of 72.5gallons per capita per day are con-sumed in indoor uses in a typicalhome.

The AWWA study also projectedpossible typical water savings throughconservation measures. According tothe study, the average home canreduce inside water use by approxi-mately 32% or by 22.9 gallons percapita per day.

The conservation measuresneeded to achieve the savings aboveinclude:

● Installing toilets that use 1.6 gal-lons per flush;

● Using low-flow showerheads ratedat 2.5 gallons/minute;

● Using 2.2 gallons/minute faucets;● Replacing standard clothes wash-

ers with high efficiency clotheswashers that use 30% less water;and

● Practicing routine, commonsense leak detection and con-trol.

The savings figures aboveshow changes from a case of noconservation to a full range ofconservation measures. In reality,many homes have some conserva-tion measures already installed,particularly if they have new orrecent replacement fixtures.There have been steady improve-ments in the efficiency of plumb-ing fixtures and appliances sincethe 1980s. In 1992, the EnergyPolicy Act established nationalmaximum allowable water-flowrates for toilets, urinals,showerheads, and faucets.

The efficiency of clotheswashers and dishwashers is alsoimproving as new models reachthe market. Energy Star, a na-tional standard and marketingprogram, allows consumers toeasily choose the most efficientmodels. Saving heated waterprovides consumers with a doublebenefit in water and energysavings.

Utilities that need to reducelong-term water consumption orflows at wastewater facilities canfind savings through residentialconservation measures. A combi-nation of public education, retrofitand replacement programs, andpricing signals is usually requiredto be effective.

Primary IndoorResidential WaterUses (in gallons percapita per day [gcd])

Toilets 20.1 gcd

Clothes washers15.1 gcd

Showers 12.6 gcd

Faucets 11.1 gcd

Leaks 10.1 gcd

Other 3.7 gcd

Source: AmericanWater WorksAssociation

21

The accompanying CD-ROMcontains a variety of public educa-tion materials that your utility cancustomize for your use. A publiceducation campaign can use newsreleases, utility publications, flyers,brochures, TV and radio advertis-ing, door hangers, communitypresentations, and many othermeans to reach customers withinformation about water conserva-tion.

Retrofit and replacementprograms target certain measuresand provide incentives to customersto adopt them. Retrofit and replace-ment programs can include give-aways of lower cost items such asshowerheads, faucet aerators, andtoilet dams; rebates on higherefficiency appliances; and directinstallation programs.

The following table showssome of the potential savings fromretrofits and replacements of exist-ing toilets, showerheads, faucets,clothes washers, and dishwashers


Measure

Toilet tank dam/displacement device

Showerhead retrofit (aerator)

Faucet retrofit (aerator)

Residential toilet replacement (1.6 gallon/flush)

Showerhead replacement (2.5 gallons/minute)

Faucet replacement (2.2 gallons/minute)

Residential clothes washer (Energy Star model)

Residential dishwasher

Reduction inwater use in gallons per capita per day (gcd)

2-3 gcd

4 gcd

5 gcd

16-20

8.1 gcd

6.4 gcd

4-12 gcd

1 gcd

Life span (years)

1.5

1-3

1-3

15-25

2-10

10-20

12

12

Potential for Water Savings from Selected Measures

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Conservation Plan Guidelines, 1998.

with more efficient devices or mod-els. These figures are based onassumptions about the age andcondition of existing fixtures andappliances and actual savings canvary substantially.

Some of the factors that shouldbe included when planning a retrofitor replacement program are:

● What is the current penetration ofhigh efficiency measures in yourcommunity? What types ofconservation measures are alreadybeing used by your customers?

● Availability of high efficiencyappliances. Are they availablethrough local vendors or will theutility have to supply them?

● Training of local contractors. Arelocal contractors knowledgeableabout the installation and opera-tion of high efficiency appliancesor will the utility need to providesome training and support?

22


● Determining incentives. Whatrebate amount will be necessary toachieve the needed participationand savings?

● Cost-effectiveness. Will the cost ofthe program be outweighed by itsbenefits to the utility and its cus-tomers?

● Partnering. Who are the potentialpartners that can support or en-hance the water or wastewaterutility’s efforts?

Many electric and gas utilities inIowa have given away or heavilydiscounted low-flow showerheadsand faucet aerators to promote bothwater and energy savings. A fewutilities are also rebating high effi-ciency clothes washers. Water orwastewater utilities could considerpartnering with their gas or electricutility to offer additional water-savingmeasures.

The use of pricing signals maybe necessary to change customers’water use behaviors beyond the useof other voluntary incentives. Theprevious chapter on Costing andPricing provides more information onconservation pricing strategies.

Outdoor water use varies greatlyby the season, climate zone, andamount of rainfall each year. Onaverage, outdoor water use by single-family homes in the U.S. is 31.7gallons per capita per day, accordingto a study by the American WaterWorks Association. The vast majorityof that use is for watering lawns,plants, and gardens.

Outdoor water use has typically

become an issue in Iowa commu-nities only during times of droughtor other water constraints (see thechapter on Water Shortages andEmergencies for more informa-tion). However, encouragingdifferent landscaping practices inorder to reduce water demandlong-term may also be part of autility’s water efficiency andconservation planning.

As discussed in the previouschapter on Municipal WaterEfficiency and Conservation, citiescan promote the use of nativelandscaping, practical turf areas,and efficient irrigation in residen-tial areas. Municipal officials canhelp remove some of the barriersto native landscaping throughmore progressive weed ordi-nances.

The Trouble With Toilets

The Energy Policy Act of 1992 man-dated low-flush toilets as a water conserva-tion measure. Since then, there have beenmany complaints about the new toilets.Legislation has even been introduced to

repeal the requirement.A survey in 1999 by the National Association of

Home Builders Research Center found that roughly four outof five respondents had experienced problems with thelow-flush units in the past year. Builders reported that theyhad more callbacks on low-flush toilets than on any otherproblem.

When the low-flush toilet is unable to clear the bowl,users resort to double flushing. This can defeat the goal ofwater conservation and skew the estimates of water savingsfrom low-flush toilets.

The low-flush units are improving, and some modelsmay work better than others. In an article on theWaterWise CD-ROM, a plumber rates the low-flush toiletsand recommends the models that work best.

23

According to the U.S. Environ-mental Protection Agency’sSourcebook on Natural Landscap-ing for Public Officials, there arethree main approaches to crafting ormodifying a weed law:

● Require a setback. This ad-dresses concerns about heightand appearance of native plantsby requiring that a setback orbuffer strip on the periphery ofthe property be maintained at amaximum height (such as 12inches). Vegetation behind thesetback and within the yard isunregulated except for control oflisted noxious weeds.

● Include broadly worded excep-tions for natural landscaping.These exceptions may accommo-date plantings that achieve thefollowing positive outcomes:Native plantings, wildlifeplantings, erosion control, soil


Note on Resources:

An excellent sourcefor information onmunicipal weedordinances andpolicies on nativelandscaping isA Sourcebook onNatural Landscapingfor Public Officialspublished by the U.S.Environmental Pro-tection Agency. It isincluded on the CD-ROM which accom-panies this handbook.

fertility building, biological con-trol, and public education.

● Encourage natural landscapingfor homeowners through designassistance, selling native plantsand seeds, specifically targetingcertain neighborhoods, creatingrecognition programs, and others.

24

COMMERCIAL/INDUSTRIAL EFFICIENCY

COMMERCIAL/INDUSTRIALWATER EFFICIENCY

This chapter will examine thepotential for saving water in smalland large commercial businesses,industry, and institutional facilities.The commercial/industrial sectortypically makes up 20 to 40% ofbilled water demand for a municipalutility. On a per-customer basis,though, commercial/industrial facili-ties are significant water users.

While there are some similaritiesin water use and equipment acrossthe commercial/industrial sector,generally different types of commer-cial/industrial facilities have differentwater-use characteristics and differentopportunities for conservation andefficiency.

For commercial customers,which provide or distribute a retailservice or product, water is typicallyused for domestic purposes, coolingand heating, cleaning and sanitation,and landscape irrigation. Hotels andmotels are large water users, forexample and can also benefit byinstalling water-saving measures.

Industrial customers, involved inmanufacturing and processing activi-ties, use water for heating and cool-ing, processing, washing, landscapeirrigation, for domestic use, and as aningredient.

Institutional customers aregovernment facilities, schools, col-leges and universities, hospitals and

clinics, prisons, military installa-tions, and places of worship.They use water primarily forheating and cooling, domesticpurposes, and landscape irriga-tion.

Some residential-type waterconserving fixtures and appli-ances, such as toilets,showerheads, faucets, clotheswashers, and dishwashers, arealso applicable in commercial,industrial, or institutional settings.In fact, the greatest water and costsavings in some facilities maycome from plumbing fixtures –more efficient toilets, urinals,showerheads, and faucets.

Some of the other commonways that businesses, industries,and institutions can conservewater and/or impact sewage flowsare:

● Determining where water isused. Sub-metering may beneeded to determine specificuses and costs.

● Leak detection and repair.Periodic shutdown may beneeded to identify leaks and fixthem.

● Water reuse and recycling.Water reuse is the use of waste-water or reclaimed water fromanother application.

Note on Resources:

The WaterWise CD-ROM includes anumber of fact sheetsand other materialson water conserva-tion for businesses,industries, andinstitutional facilities.

25

● Cooling water recirculation. Theuse of water for cooling in indus-trial applications represents oneof the largest water uses in theU.S. Recycling water with arecirculating cooling system canreduce water use by using thesame water to perform severalcooling operations. Technologiesinclude evaporative cooling,ozonation, and air heat ex-change.

● Rinsing. The use of deionizedwater for rinsing contaminantsfrom products can be reduced byeliminating some plenum flushes,converting from a continuous-flow to an intermittent-flow

system, and improving control ofthe use of deionized water.

● Water efficient landscaping.Reducing turf grass and replacingit with low-maintenance nativeplantings can significantly impactthe need for watering.

In some cases, particularly inprocess-oriented industries, a cus-tomized approach may be necessary.A water audit conducted by a trainedengineer or technician can helplarger or more specialized facilitiesidentify problems, calculate savings,develop a facility water conservationplan, and monitor results.

Water Conservation Can Mean Big Savings to Companies Large and Small

Besides reducing the cost of purchased water, water conservation can help commercial,industrial, and institutional facilities in reducing other costs as well, including:● Sewage fees;● Wastewater treatment;● Energy for heating and cooling water;● Chemicals; and● Purchase of new equipment and/or expansion of treatment systems.

A water audit to determine potential improvements should include the following:● Establishment of an internal team, including management, environmental, production, mainte-

nance, engineering, and other important personnel;● Identification of points of use, including all uses and piping;● Idenfication of sources of all incoming water streams (city, surface, ground);● Identification of discharge destinations for each water source;● Measurement of actual flow rates used in each process or from each source, with tracking

conducted for at least one month or long enough to determine a reasonable average;● Examination of water and sewer bills and attempting to reconcile measured use with records to

find unidentified sources of usage; and● Assessment of current water expenditures for entire facility and individual points of use.

The information gathered in the water audit will provide a starting point for finding areas forwater, energy, and cost savings.

Source: “Water Conservation Can Mean Big Savings to Small Companies.” www.manufactersmart.com/Features/April98/AprEdit18.html

COMMERCIAL/INDUSTRIAL EFFICIENCY

26

WATER EMERGENCIES

WATER SHORTAGES ANDEMERGENCIES

The earlier portions of thishandbook laid out the case for incor-porating water efficiency and conser-vation into the day-to-day as well aslong-term operations of water andwastewater utilities. There mayoccur, however, immediate wateremergencies that necessitate quickaction and measures to conserve.

What constitutes a water short-age or emergency? A water shortageor emergency can result from a lackof raw water supplies or lack ofpumping capacity from a treatmentplant. Contamination of the watersupply or equipment failure can alsoresult in a water emergency. Any ofthese can require the timely imple-mentation of water conserving mea-sures.

Discussed below are three basicplans, based on the severity of theshortage or emergency, for addressingquick action for water conservation inyour community.

The level at which your systemis operating can serve as an indicatorto determine the appropriate level ofconservation required from yourcustomers.

● 75% of pumping capacity –“Water Watch.” At this point,voluntary conservation may beimplemented as described inAction Plan 1.

● 85% of pumping capacity –“Water Warning.” At thispoint, restricted water useactivities may be implementedas described in Action Plan 2.

● 95% of pumping capacity –“Water Emergency.” At thispoint, water rationing may beimplemented as described inAction Plan 3.

Indicators of a declining rawwater supply include:

● Decrease in the normal pump-ing water level of the well

● Declining water recovery rateof water level in well

● Decreasing reservoir levelsmeasured in number of feetbelow spillway

● Decreasing reservoir levelsmeasured in number of feetabove intake

When indicators move backinto safe ranges, conservationcontrols can be eased or lifted.

27

Action Plan 1 –“Water Watch”

Action Plan 1 uses a voluntaryapproach to gaining cooperation,with a goal of reducing water useby 10%. Early voluntary coopera-tion can protect your utility againsta worsening situation. Customereducation and information is crucialto making this approach work.

Step 1: Assess SystemConditions

● Determine specific capacities ofyour constrained system, whetherwater or wastewater or both.

● Review usage patterns of resi-dential customers.

● Review usage patterns for com-mercial and industrial customers.

● Alert the utility governing bodyto the potential for a water emer-gency.

Step 2: Initiate WaterConserving Practices

● Keep pumps and other equip-ment in good working condition.Keep good records of what typesof pumps are used, who thesuppliers of the pumps are, wherethe pumps can be repaired in ashort time, and where availableparts are in inventory. An “open”purchase order, for use onlyunder emergency conditions, willallow repairs without goingthrough the purchasing agent forrepair parts.

● Initiate leak detection and repair

WATER EMERGENCIES

for your distribution system.

● Encourage the use of water savingequipment appropriate for ad-dressing the particular area ofshortage.

● Work with other city departmentsto conserve water, such as waterused for maintenance.

● Meet directly with your largestcustomers, review their water usepatterns, and assist them to createvoluntary conservation programs.

These activities can increase theamount of water conserved and helpyou address the system constraint.

Step 3: Initiate a PublicInformation Program for YourCustomers

A customer education andinformation campaign will help yourcustomers understand the need forvoluntary conservation. Theirunderstanding is crucial to gain theirsupport and compliance. Some ofthe ways to publicize the need forconservation include:

● Including information with cus-tomers’ bills;

● Publishing ads in local newspa-pers or shoppers;

● Posting reminders around thecommunity;

● Advertising on local radio or TVstations or on local cable access;

● Printing information in commu-nity publications;

Note on Resources:

A sample residentialflyer, sample com-mercial letter, andnews release areincluding on theaccompanying CD-ROM. They are inWord format and canbe customized for useby your utility.

28

WATER EMERGENCIES

● Making presentations to commu-nity groups; and

● Involving the local leaders, such asschool administrators, religiousleaders, organization presidents,and others.

Tier I Restricted Activities – Moderate to SeriousShortage or Emergency

● Use of water-consuming comfort air conditioning equipmentwhich consumes in excess of five percent of the water circulat-ing in such equipment.

● Watering or irrigation of lawns and all other outside vegetationexcept that direct applications of water not exceeding 1 inchper week are permitted before 8:00 a.m. and after 8:00 p.m. onflower and vegetable gardens, trees and shrubs less than 4 yearsold, and areas which were newly seeded or sodded prior toissuance of the emergency resolution.

● Washing of cars, trucks, trailers, boats, and other mobilevehicles or equipment except at commercial establishmentswhich provide that service.

● Washing of outdoor surfaces including buildings, sidewalks,driveways, patios, and porches.

● Nonessential cleaning of commercial and industrial equipment,machinery, and interior spaces.

● Filling, re-filling, or adding of water to provide swimmingpools, wading pools, reflecting pools, ornamental fountains, orany other structure making similar use of water.

● Permitting the loss of water through defective plumbing orfixtures, except where the customer can provide proof ofprompt repair of the defect.

● Serving water by restaurants except when it is specificallyrequested by customer.

● Use by a business or industry of an amount of water exceedingthe amount used during the corresponding month of theprevious year except where the business or industry is declaredby resolution of the board or council to be necessary for publichealth, safety, and welfare. Where there is no correspondingperiod of use, the utility will work with the customer to estab-lish an equitable base quantity.

None of these restricted activities would apply whenwater has been reclaimed or recycled after an essentialprimary use.

Action Plan 2 –“Water Warning”

If the situation addressed inAction Plan 1 worsens, or the actionstaken are not adequate, Action Plan 2is the next step. This plan does notrequire rationing, but it does involvemandatory restrictions on the waycustomers use water. The goal of themeasures in Action Plan 2 is toreduce water use by an additional 11-20%.

The elements of Action Plan 2are:

● Implement and evaluate ActionPlan 1 measures.

● Reassess system conditions.

● Analyze and establish appropriaterestricted water use activitiesthrough board/council resolution.

● Establish penalties and appealprocedures.

● Educate/inform utility customers.

The following are lists of activi-ties that could be prohibited during awater or wastewater shortage oremergency. The first tier addressesmoderate to serious situations, andthe second addresses severe systememergencies.

29

Tier II Restricted Activities – Severe Water Shortages

● All outside water use except for domestic, sanitation, and fire.

● All commercial and industrial uses of water not essential inproviding products and services.

● Irrigation of agricultural crops that may pose an immediatethreat to the utility’s available supply.

● Recreational and leisure water uses including lawn and golfcourse watering.

● Water used but not necessary for the preservation of life or thegeneral welfare of the community’s economic base.

Because health and safety issuesare of specific concern, reducingwater flow to a minimum should bethe alternative to disconnection.This can be done at the shut-off valveor by installing a flow restrictor onthe customer’s supply line.

Enforcement and AppealProcedures

Standard enforcement proce-dures for interruption of serviceshould be established. When re-stricted water use activities havebeen adopted through city ordi-nance, violations can be charged asmunicipal infractions. Local lawenforcement personnel can then becalled upon to assist in enforcingcivil penalties.

When a violation is charged asa municipal infraction, it is tried inthe district court. For other sanctionsimposed by the utility, an appealprocedure must be established. Forexample, an Appeal Board mayconsist of one member from yourutility’s governing board, the mayoror city manager, and three citizens.

Public Notice

Information on the restrictedwater use activities and the reasonsthe city is implementing them,should be part of a public educationeffort similar to the one in ActionPlan 1. Customers should be notifiedof the restrictions, the penalties forviolations, and the appeal process.Direct notification to customersshould be used in addition to otherinformation methods.

WATER EMERGENCIES

Penalties for ViolatingRestricted Activities

Penalties for use of meteredwater in violation of the restrictedwater use activities need to beestablished by council ordinance.

When restricted water useactivities have been adopted bycouncil ordinance, penalties forviolations can take the form of afine imposed by the city. Theseviolations are called “municipalinfractions.” Under Iowa law,violations to city ordinances arepunishable by civil penalties of upto $100 for the first offense and upto $200 for each repeat offense. An“order to abate” may also be issued.

Interruption of service isanother option for enforcement ofrestricted water use activities. Forexample, if after first and secondoffense penalties have been levied,the customer continues to violatethe restrictions, the utility caninitiate immediate interruption ofservice. Reconnection would bescheduled only after payment of areconnection fee.

Note on Resources:

A sample ordinancefor water emergenciesand enacting re-stricted use activitiesis included on theaccompanying CD-ROM.

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Action Plan 3 –“Water Emergency”

Access to service connections andwater meters must be assured atall times.

Base Allocation Determination

A base allocation amount foreach customer class must bedetermined. Classes may begenerally divided into residential,commercial, and industrial.

Special classes for nursinghomes, hospitals, motels, carwashes, and other businesseswhere water is basic to the opera-tion will need to be identified.You may want to offer the largestcustomers off-peak incentives todelay high usage during peakhours.

Two types of base allocationare:

1. Base allocation is a percentageof a typical winter month’susage, e.g. March billing, or thecorresponding month’s usagefrom the previous year.

a. Residential single-family (80%of previous usage)

b. Commercial (90% of previoususage)

c. Industrial (demonstrate con-servation activities)

d. Nursing homes/hospitals (90%of previous usage)

e. Motels (90% of peak seasonusage)

2. Base allocation is per house-hold amount, e.g. 3,000 gallons

WATER EMERGENCIES

In Action Plan 3, water is ra-tioned to customers according toclass of service. This plan requiresthat all customers be allocated amonthly water allotment and thatregular meter readings be taken todetermine customer compliance. Thequantity allotted is generally consid-ered to be the minimum required forinterior use.

Like in Action Plan 1, voluntarycooperation and voluntary conserva-tion are still essential. The Tier I andTier II restricted water use activitiesfrom Action Plan 2 can also beincorporated into a water allocationapproach.

The elements of Action Plan 3are:

● Implement Action Plan 1 activities.

● Establish restricted water useactivities as described in ActionPlan 2.

● Establish penalties and appealprocedures as described in ActionPlan 2.

● Determine customer classes andbase allocations.

● Determine premium charges.

● Adopt and publish final plan.

Monthly meter readings will benecessary for a water rationingprogram. Among your largest users,weekly meter reading will be useful.

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per month per single familyhousehold. Allotments given toall other classes of service arebased on individual water-usehistories.

Base Allocation Notice andAppeal Process

A notification process will benecessary to advise customers oftheir base allocations and penaltiesfor overuse of water. See ActionPlans 1 and 2 for background onpublic notification.

An appeal process allowingadjustment of the base allocation isalso necessary. The appeal boarddiscussed in Action Plan 2 may bedesignated to hear allocationappeals. For example, allocationadjustments may be needed forlarge families or changes in thenumber of building occupants.Adjustments may also be needed forcommercial and industrial custom-

WATER EMERGENCIES

ers with conservation practicesalready in place, since the capacityfor additional conservation may belimited.

Premium Rate Surcharge

A premium rate surcharge formetered water consumption inexcess of the base allocation shouldbe established. An example wouldbe a surcharge of $1.00 per 100gallons of water used in excess of thebase allocation.

Adjustment of the premium ratemay be allowed. This would occurin the case of a mechanical errorsuch as leaky pipes. The customer,however, must provide proof ofrepair such as a plumber’s statementor materials receipt. The adjustedrates would apply only to the billingperiod prior to the correction of thefailure.

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REFERENCESAlliance to Save Energy. “To Cope with Drought Conditions, Summer

Electric Reliability, Alliance to Save Energy Offers Consumers CombinedWater, Energy Saving Tips.” Web site at www.ase.org/media/newsreel/waterwater.htm.

_____. Watergy: Taking Advantage of Untapped Energy and WaterEfficiency Opportunities in Municipal Water Systems. Washington, D.C.2002.

Anderson, Michael K. “Drought Response and H2O Conservation –IDNR Perspective.” Powerpoint presentation. Summer 2000.

Angers, Jim. “How Can a Utility Best Conserve Water?” Opflow.May 2002.

Beecher, Janice A. “Integrated Resource Planning Fundamentals.”AWWA Journal. Vol. 87, No. 6/June 1995.

Buie, Leslie M. “Accounting for Lost Water.” AWWA Journal. Vol.92, No. 7/July 2000.

City of Los Angeles Water Services. “Water Conservation Tips forYour Business: A 10 Step Approach for Your Business.” Web site atwww.ladwp.com/water/conserv/business/index.htm. July 2001.

Iowa Association of Municipal Utilities/Iowa Department of NaturalResources. Water Conservation for Small Utilities: A Practical Guide toLocal Water Conservation Planning. Ankeny, IA. 1989.

_____. Capacity Development Training: Financial Issues. Ankeny, IA.2001.

Makar, Jon and Chagnon, Nathalie. “Inspecting Systems for Leaks,Pits, and Corrosion.” AWWA Journal. Vol. 91, No. 7/July 1999.

Manufacturers Mart. “Water Conservation Can Mean Big Savings toSmall Companies.” Web site at www.manufacturersmart.com/Features/Apr98/AprEdit18.html. April 1998.

Pekelney, David M., Chestnutt, Thomas W., and Mitchell, David L.“Cost-Effective Cost-Effectiveness: Quantifying Conservation on theCheap.” Proceedings of the American Water Works Conference. Toronto,Canada. June 1996.

REFERENCES

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Ploeser, Jane H. “Conservation and the Industrial Customer.” AWWAJournal. Vol. 88, No. 1/January 1996.

Tafuri, Anthony N. “Locating Leaks with Acoustic Technology.”AWWA Journal. Vol. 92, No. 7/July 2000.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Water Conservation PlanGuidelines (EPA 832-D-98-001). 1998.

_____. Cleaner Water Through Conservation (EPA 841-B-95-002).April 1995.

U.S. General Accounting Office. Water Infrastructure: Water EfficientPlumbing Fixtures Reduce Water Consumption and Wastewater Flows(Report to Congressional Requesters GAO/RCED-00-232). August 2000.

Vickers, Amy. Handbook of Water Use and Conservation. Amherst,MA: Waterplow Press. 2001.

WaterWiser-The Water Efficiency Clearinghouse. “Household Use ofWater.” Web site at www.waterwiser.org. March 2001.

REFERENCES

Note on Resources:

Many of the materialslisted in the refer-ences are included onthe CD-ROM whichaccompanies thismanual.

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water efficiency planning and capacity development for ... · * appendix b benchmarks used in...

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