water and sanitation baseline report

Trustees: EG Annecke, ADH Enthoven, EA Pieterse, G Goven, L Boya, R Shabodien

Trust Reg. No.: IT3011/99. Vat Reg. No: 4110198795 P O Box 162, Lynedoch, 7603. Tel: 021 881 3196. Fax: 021 881 3294

R310, Lynedoch, Stellenbosch, South Africa NPO reg no: 051-245-NPO

Integrated Analysis

Water and Sanitation Baseline Report

Submitted by

The Sustainability Institute, Lynedoch, South Africa

E-Systems, Holland

under UNF-funded project,

“Integrated Resources Management for Urban Development”

(UNDP Project No. 00038512)

Trustees: EG Annecke, ADH Enthoven, EA Pieterse, G Goven, L Boya, R Shabodien

Trust Reg. No.: IT3011/99. Vat Reg. No: 4110198795 P O Box 162, Lynedoch, 7603. Tel: 021 881 3196. Fax: 021 881 3294

R310, Lynedoch, Stellenbosch, South Africa NPO reg no: 051-245-NPO

Acknowledgements

Sonja Pithey from Sonja Pithey Consulting for report compilation

John Frame from John Frame Consulting for compilation of financial inputs

Barry Coetzee from the City of Cape Town for information on policy and other

legislative issues

Shirene Rosenberg from the City of Cape Town for information, and report review

Wouter Roggen from the City of Cape Town for information, and report review

Craig Haskins from the City of Cape Town for information, and report review

Integrated Analysis Water and Sanitation Baseline Report: SI UNDP Cape Town Project v: Final Draft 18-Jul-07, p. 3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................................8

1.1 PROJECT LOCATION ...............................................................................................................................8 1.2 PROJECT SCOPE AND OUTCOMES ......................................................................................................... 10

2. POLICY AND KNOWLEDGE CONTEXT ......................................................................................... 11

2.1 NATIONAL LEGISLATION, POLICES AND STRATEGIES GOVERNING WATER AND SANITATION

MANAGEMENT .......................................................................................................................................... 11 2.1.1 Constitution of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996 .............................................................. 11 2.1.2 Water Supply and Sanitation Policy, 1994 and 1997 White Paper. ............................ 13 2.1.3 The Water Services Act 108 of 1997 ........................................................................... 13 2.1.4 National Water Act 1998 No 36 of 1998 ...................................................................... 13 2.1.5 Municipal Structures Act (Act 33 of 2000) ................................................................... 14 2.1.6 Municipal Systems Act (Act 32 of 2000) ...................................................................... 14 2.1.7 Basic Household Sanitation Policy (2001) ................................................................... 14 2.1.8 National Water Resource Strategy (2004) ................................................................... 14 2.1.9 National Water Conservation and Water Demand Strategy and Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy for the Water Services Sector (2004) .............. 15 2.1.10 Strategic Framework for Water Services (2003) ....................................................... 15 2.1.11 Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993 ........................................................ 15 2.1.12 National Disaster Management Act 2002 .................................................................. 16 2.1.13 National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) Act 107 of 1998) ........................ 16 2.1.14 Environmental Conservation (ECA) Act 73 of 1989 .................................................. 16 2.1.15 Municipal Finance Management Act, 56 of 2003 ...................................................... 16

2.2 PROVISIONAL SPATIAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY (GREEN PAPER), 2006 AND WESTERN

CAPE PROVINCIAL SPATIAL DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK, 2006 LEGISLATION, POLICIES AND STRATEGIES

GOVERNING WATER MANAGEMENT ......................................................................................................... 17 2.3 LOCAL GOVERNMENT (COCT) LEGISLATION, POLICIES AND STRATEGIES AND KEY INTERVENTIONS

GOVERNING WATER AND SANITATION MANAGEMENT ............................................................................. 17 2.3.1 Integrated Development Plan (2007) ........................................................................... 17 2.3.2 City Development Strategy (Sakha Ikapa 2030) ......................................................... 17 2.3.3 Metropolitan Spatial Development Framework (MSDF) .............................................. 17 2.3.4 Integrated Metropolitan Environmental Policy (IMEP) (GOTO 6.2) and Integrated Metropolitan Environmental Management Strategy (IMEMS) (GOTO 6.2) .......................... 18 2.3.5 Water Services Development Plan (WSDP) ................................................................ 18 2.3.6 Water Conservation and Demand Management Strategy for Cape Town (2007) ....... 18 2.3.7 By-Laws ....................................................................................................................... 19 2.3.12 Safety Health and Environment: Policy and Procedures Manual (2005) .................. 19 2.3.13 Sustainability Reporting ............................................................................................. 20

2.4 POLICIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY ............................................................................................................ 20 2.5 SUSTAINABILITY OF WATER AND SANITATION PROVISION IN CAPE TOWN ......................................... 23 2.6 CAPACITY BUILDING STRATEGIES ........................................................................................................ 25 2.7 WESTERN CAPE RECONCILIATION STUDY AND BERG RIVER CMA PROCESS ...................................... 26

3. REGULATORY AND INSTITUTIONAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................................ 29

3.1 REGULATORY SYSTEM......................................................................................................................... 29 3.2 INSTITUTIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 29

3.2.1 Historical Background .................................................................................................. 29 3.2.2 Current and Future Institutional Arrangements ........................................................... 30

3.3 WATER CONSERVATION AND WATER DEMAND MANAGEMENT (WC/WDM) ..................................... 33 3.3.1 Progress to date ........................................................................................................... 35 3.3.2 Case Studies ................................................................................................................ 37

4. WATER AND SANITATION INFRASTRUCTURE AND USAGE .................................................. 39


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4.1 WATER SUPPLY ................................................................................................................................... 40 4.1.1 Surface Water Resources ............................................................................................ 40 4.1.2 Groundwater Resources .............................................................................................. 43 4.1.3 Water Supply Infrastructure ......................................................................................... 44 4.1.4 Alternative Sources of Water ....................................................................................... 46 4.1.5 Water Demand ............................................................................................................. 47 4.1.6 End Use ....................................................................................................................... 49 4.1.7 Water losses and un-accounted for water ................................................................... 51

4.2 BASIC SANITATION AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT .......................................................................... 54 4.2.1 Basic Sanitation ........................................................................................................... 55 4.2.2 Wastewater Treatment and Infrastructure ................................................................... 55 4.2.3 State of Infrastructure .................................................................................................. 58 4.2.4 Wastewater Effluent and Environmental Impact .......................................................... 59 4.2.5. Sewage Sludge ........................................................................................................... 60 4.2.6 Wastewater re-use ....................................................................................................... 61 4.2.7 Grey water ................................................................................................................... 63

4.3 SERVICE LEVELS .................................................................................................................................. 64 4.4 URBAN WATER CYCLE ........................................................................................................................ 66 4.5 ASSET MANAGEMENT .......................................................................................................................... 66 4.6 GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS ASSOCIATED WITH WATER AND SANITATION ........................................ 67

4.6.1 Biogas .......................................................................................................................... 70 4.7 SUMMARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS ........................................................................................... 70

5. TECHNOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS ............................................................................................. 73

5.1 EXISTING TECHNOLOGIES AND ENERGY .............................................................................................. 73 5.2 ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS ................................................................................................ 74

5.2.1 Alternative sources of water ........................................................................................ 74 5.2.2 Technologies to reduce water consumption ................................................................ 75 5.2.3 Wastewater treatment technologies ............................................................................ 76 5.2.4 Catchment Planning and Integrated Urban Water Resource Management (IUWM)... 79 5.2.5 Centralised vs. decentralized wastewater treatment technologies .............................. 80

6. FINANCIAL ASPECTS.......................................................................................................................... 83

6.1 WATER DEMAND AND WASTEWATER DISPOSAL ................................................................................... 84 6.1.1 Tariffs, Income and Expenditure .................................................................................. 85

6.2 SEWERAGE TREATMENT ...................................................................................................................... 89 6.2.1 Alternative Sanitation Technologies ............................................................................ 89

6.3 BILLING SYSTEM ................................................................................................................................. 90 6.4 HOW THE WWTPS BUDGETS ARE DETERMINED................................................................................... 90 6.5 HOW NEEDS ARE DETERMINED ............................................................................................................. 92 6.6 HOW PRIORITIES SET ............................................................................................................................ 93 6.7 HOW FINAL DECISIONS MADE............................................................................................................... 93 6.8 CHALLENGES AND CONSTRAINTS ........................................................................................................ 94

7. CONSTRAINTS AND CHALLENGES AND FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS .......................... 95

7.1 INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES ........................................................................................................................ 95 7.2 FINANCIAL ISSUES ............................................................................................................................... 96 7.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH ISSUES ............................................................................................... 97 7.4 TECHNOLOGY AND INFORMATION ISSUES ............................................................................................ 97 7.5 FUTURE RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................................................. 98

8. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 99


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Background In spite of the significant economic growth, the City of Cape Town faces huge socio-economic and development challenges. In the water and sanitation sector years of inadequate investment in infrastructure has lead to a crises situation in the wastewater sector. An estimated R 1, 5 billion is required to upgrade wastewater treatment facilities to meet legal discharge requirements. Development has been curtailed in areas with inadequate supply infrastructure and/or overloaded wastewater treatment plants, at a huge social, economical and environmental cost. Amidst the constraints and limitations of restructuring, budgets cuts and staff losses, this sector has however managed to ensure that the majority of formally housed citizens in Cape Town have reliable access to clean water and proper functioning sanitation services. Great strides have been made with by-laws and the development of a service delivery plan, which aligns with the growth and development objectives of the City. More recently, the Council committed to a R759 million strategy, which aims to guide water conservation and demand management over the next 10 years and reduce demand by 323 Ml/day. Most citizens however, who tolerate the risk related realities of their un-serviced and overcrowded dwellings, polluted rivers, oceans and skylines and the consequences of inappropriate development would question the extent to which „paper commitments‟ are being met. This report provides a baseline of useful information in the Water and Sanitation service, with specific reference to the City of Cape Town and does not attempt to represent the entire scope of information available. This baseline report is one of three drafted for a broader project “Integrated Resource Management for Urban Development”, aimed at identifying more sustainability practices in the water, energy and waste sectors . Two independent consultants were involved: Sonja Pithey and John Frame, who was responsible for the financial chapter. Key issues and findings are summarised as follows:

Institutional Challenges Human Resources: Staff placement is overdue and the success of emerging

strategies appears to demand additional, highly skilled resources. This specialised sector requires ongoing capacity development within and outside Council in order to ensure meaningful participation in future decisions.

Restructuring: Ring-fencing of the service and the separation of the Water Service Authority and Water Service Provider needs to be resolved while the Berg River Catchment Management Agency process, currently underway, creates an unique opportunities to revisit the „forms and functions‟ of the service.


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Integrated Planning and Operations: The latest Waster Services Development Plan is the first to align with the Integrated Development Plan (IDP). External integration with National and Provincial processes , and internal integration amongst within line functions as far as planning and operations are concerned, remains on ongoing concern.

IUWM: The changing institutional landscape offers an ideal opportunity for the adoption of Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) philosophy and practice. Research support exists in this rapidly emerging field which offers the City an opportunity to spearhead international best practice in resource management.

Operational Challenges Capital Requirements: The financial stability of the service is at risk with a

rising debt of R2 billion. Last year R 2, 6 billion was spent on operational (running) cost and R450 million on capital cost. R1, 5 billion is required for wastewater treatment plants to meet discharge standards. Revenue collection, dependency on cross-subsidisation and sustainable tariffs are key to future income for the service.

Water Demand: Due to effective water restrictions and demand management initiatives water use dropped from 920 Ml/day in 2000 to the current 745 Ml/day. R759 Million was recently committed over the next ten year to strategy aimed at reduce demand by a further 323 Ml/day, which is estimated to ensure a comfortable supply beyond 2025. The estimated benefits of the strategy is R 1 694 million. Success would require long term evaluation and sustained capital commitment, beyond changes in ruling politics.

Unaccounted for water: Latest calculations indicate that more than 23% of the water in the city cannot be accounted for and could be lost due to unmetered consumption, leakages or billing/meter errors. The financial implications of the loss of revenue for 186Ml/day water are significant.

Wastewater treatment: Wastewater and reticulation suffer a “Cinderella syndrome”. Years of financial neglect have lead to the current wastewater treatment crises. Treatment plants are overloaded and discharge substandard effluent to the environment and more than 50% of the current budget (R404 million) focuses on the aging reticulation network. Ribbon cutting sermons at sewage treatment plants are scarce although the requirements of various Acts are being contravened.

Basic Sanitation: More than 30 000 people living in Cape Town do not have access to basic sanitation. In addition no provisions are in place to meet the basic needs of 7 700 informal dwellers that arrive in Cape Town each year. Human rights violations, insufferable living conditions and environmental impacts are extreme and linkages with the housing crises need to be strengthened.

Resource Management Challenges Water: The DWAF driven Reconciliation Study, currently underway will prioritise

water supply options future demand. Most of the 81 million m3 water from the new Bergwater Dam will be allocated to the City, who effectively reduced their demand well below the (2003) crises predicted in 1999. Groundwater use is


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under development and only 7% of treated effluent is currently being re-used. A local pilot desalination plant aims to test the financial viability of this option

Loss of Environmental Service: Most of the rivers receiving treated effluent are severely degraded and many coastal bathing beaches are not safe to swim in during summer months, due to contaminated stormwater and wastewater discharges. Many urban waterbodies have lost their ability to clean up pollution and are not fit for any recreational purposes.

Human health risks:. Toxic algal blooms and polluted runoff from poorly services settlements (grey and black water) pose a serious health risk to neighbouring communities. Clear links between pollution and human health/quality of life could possibly increase the profile of these issues.

Energy and GHG: Local information linking the service to energy and Greenhouse Gas issues is scarce. A pilot project at Athlone, which currently vents the electrical production equivalent of R2, 8 million in biogas, could test alternative technologies and approaches. Feasible energy saving technologies have been identified in the water and wastewater sector and could be tested. The potential contribution of sewage sludge to the energy sector is also under exploited.

Findings of this study substantiate the strategic interventions for the water and sanitation sector, proposed in the National Strategy for Sustainable Development. These are:

Sustaining our ecosystems and using natural resources efficiently

Investing in sustainable infrastructure

Creating sustainable communities

Enhancing systems for integrated planning

Building capacity for sustainable development

Key recommendations

The following recommendations are presented in addition to those summarised in the comprehensive Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy:

Resolve institutional reform issues and appoint staff as matter of urgency

Develop internal financial and business skills

Adopt philosophy and practice of IUWM, and ensure alignment with key National, Provincial and Local future planning initiatives

Gauge progress with WC/WDM strategy and ensure the document and commitment remain „live‟

Develop capacity to enforce by-laws

Investigate alternative technologies for wastewater treatment and disposal, including sewage sludge

Develop indicators which link human health/quality of life health to environmental degradation

Develop wastewater effluent re-use guidelines

Conduct an energy audit in the water and sanitation service which a few to identify opportunities for savings

Investigate use of energy from wastewater (biogas and sludge) and implement the Athlone pilot project


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The future of water resource management in the City of Cape Town harbours many untapped opportunities for innovation and transformation. The paperwork is done.

1. Introduction

The Sustainability Institute in Lynedoch, have secured UNF-funding for their “Integrated Resource Management for Urban Development” project. This report provides baseline information about the Water and Sanitation service, with the emphasis on Cape Town. It is one of the three baseline studies drafted during the first phase of the project. Baseline reports have also been drafted for the energy and the waste sectors. These three baseline reports represent the first phase of the broader process, which aims to assist Cape Town with identification of more sustainability practices.

1.1 Project Location

The project focuses on the area under jurisdiction of the City of Cape Town (COCT). The COCT is located in the Western Cape Province and covers approximately 2 500 m2 of land in the south-eastern corner of South Africa.


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Figure 1: Project Location

The City of Cape Town has a 371km long coastline and varying topography which ranges from the low lying Cape Flats area to high mountains such as Table Mountain, which towers more 1000m above sea level, and is fairly close to the sea. Cape Town‟s rivers are relatively small and are generally not used for domestic water supply. Most rivers in the City have carried the brunt of urban development, displaying poor water quality1 and high levels of alien infestation and siltation. Some larger city rivers worth mentioning are the Salt-, the Diep-, the Black-, the Eerste-, Kuils-, Moddergat- and Lourens rivers. The rivers which are utilised as water sources lie mostly outside of the City of Cape Town jurisdiction. These are the tributaries to the Berg River namely the Wolwekloof and Banhoek tributaries, Sonderend-, Palmiet-, Klein Berg- and Leeu rivers. Of these, the Berg River which flows in a northerly and later westerly direction is by far the largest.

Cape Town has 64% of the Western Cape‟s population (Census 2001) and it generates 76% of the regions Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The City is blessed with unique geophysical features and natural resources, which form the backbone of the highly lucrative tourism industry. Its mountains, coastline and rich biodiversity are part of an extremely valuable natural heritage has become increasingly threatened by the pressures of urban development. The socio-economic and development challenges of the City are huge. During the past decade poverty and unemployment have almost doubled, the housing backlog has more than doubled, drug-related crime has tripled, HIV prevalence has increased tenfold and public transport has deteriorated2. This social deterioration has ironically occurred in spite of the significant economic growth (4% annual increase in GGP), improvements in the provision of basic services (water, waste, electricity) and expansion of the tourism industry. Decades of distorted development in the city has manifested in highly skewed distribution of income and wealth. In Cape Town there is a trend towards rising poverty (from 25% in 1996 to 38% of households living below or marginally above the household poverty line in 2005). High levels of poverty and unemployment raises the issue of affordability of the service. The document will attempt to highlight these and other critical issues facing the water and sanitation sector in the City of Cape Town.

1 See Water Quality indicators in the Sustainability Report, COCT, 2005

2 COCT, 2007 :Executive Summary :Water Services Development Plan (WSDP)


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1.2 Project Scope and Outcomes

This baselines report summarises available information relating to the management and operation of the water and sanitation systems in Cape Town. Information has been sourced from a broad spectrum of (mostly local) references, the majority of which are “unpublished” internal City of Cape Town documents, and Council Portfolio Committee reports. This document is submitted electronically and consists of two components:

Water and Sanitation Baseline Study - Text document in Word Format

Water Resource References – Spreadsheet in Excel Format with links (where available) to the actual document.

Information in this Main text document will be discussed under 7 headings:

1) Introduction and background 2) Policy and Knowledge Context 3) Regulatory and Institutional Environment 4) Water and Sanitation Usage Patterns 5) Technology Interventions 6) Financial Aspects 7) Challenges, Constraints and Future Plans

This document aims to summarise key issues and publications and further investigation into highlighted documents or issues is enabled via the reference systems and Water Resource References spreadsheet and accompanying CD. This reference tool is a first attempt to collate key polices, documents and research papers in the water and sanitation sector, in a user friendly table. Where available, hyperlinks have been established to the actual documents, which are saved on the same CD as the spreadsheet. In order to remain effective, this spreadsheet should be updated on a regular basis to reflect the rapidly changing legal and research environment in the water and sanitation sector.

../Local%20Settings/Application%20Data/Microsoft/Word/Water%20Resource%20Reference.xls


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2. Policy and Knowledge context

South Africa is a water poor country and yet prior to 1994, not much had been done to address this reality. Water allocation and sanitation provision was driven by racial bias and the previous National Water Act 54 of 1956, placed industrial and agricultural water needs above any social and/or environmental water concerns. Although a mismatched distribution of water between various user groups is still evident today, national water policy in South Africa is at the frontier of international thinking and the soundly underpinned by the principles of equity, sustainability and efficiency. The gap between policy and practice however remains one of the key challenges to water managers in all tiers of government. The following item briefly outlines key policy documents and their implications for the water sector, post 1994.

2.1 National Legislation, Polices and Strategies Governing Water and Sanitation Management

The following sections provide an overview of the National legislative environment within which water management occurs in South Africa. A brief synopsis of the relevance to the water sector is provided. Where indicated, a link will provide access to the full document in the Water Resource References spreadsheet (when read in CD format), which accompanies this word document.

2.1.1 Constitution of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996

The Constitution presents an overarching obligation to sustainable environmental management, which calls for local government to provide services in a sustainable manner, provide a safe and healthy environment for all communities, promote social and economic development and ensure transparent governance. Section 156 of the Constitution includes a set of prescribed legislative and executive functions of local government which include issues such as air pollution, municipal planning, provision of infrastructure such as electricity, municipal transport systems (air, road, rail and water), health services, water and sanitation services and stormwater management.

The right to a healthy environment, which is protected for present and future generations, is assigned in Section 24 of this Act. Recent legislation such as the Promotion of Administrative Justice Act serves to support the


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constitutional rights of citizens and facilitate effective enforcement of those rights. The importance of access to water on an equitable basis has formed part of the political debate since the development of the Freedom Charter and the establishment of the new Constitution and Section 27 (1) (b) states that “Everyone has the right to have access to sufficient water”. Post 1994, the new Constitution paved the way for a fundamental water law review process. The following table provides a summary of the major phases of the water policy process:

Figure 2: Water Policy Process: Major phases and activities

3

In the WRC review, from which the above table was extracted, other macro policy development which followed the promulgation of the Constitution, such as the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), are expanded

3 From : An Assessment of the Water Policy Process in South Africa (1994-2003), WRC Report

No TT232/04, June 2004


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upon. These broader processes and the principles contained therein had a direct influence on the water policy development process. The following section will briefly summarise the intent of some of the key acts, policies and strategies, that are ultimately rooted in Constitution and which have a bearing on the water and sanitation sector.

2.1.2 Water Supply and Sanitation Policy, 1994 and 1997 White Paper.

These documents saw a fundamental shift in national government involvement in the delivery of basic water and sanitation services to previously disadvantaged people, many whom were in rural areas. The concept of domestic water for basic human needs and realistic pricing also accompanied this process.

2.1.3 The Water Services Act 108 of 1997

This Act primarily legislates the municipal function for providing water supply and sanitation services. Its mandate stems from the Constitutional right to sufficient water and the Act gives local authorities the ability to manage their own water supply. As part of the Integrated Development Plan (IDP)4, the Act stipulates that every water service authority must prepare a Water Services Development Plan (WSDP)5. The Act includes measures to promote water conservation and demand management.

2.1.4 National Water Act 1998 No 36 of 1998

The National Water Act is acknowledged as one of the most progressive water acts in the world and has been translated into many languages, including Chinese6. The act represents the outcome of a consultative water law review process, which started in 1994 under the then Minister of Water Affairs and Forestry, Kader Asmal. A key shift in emphasis had occurred and the principles of equity, efficiency and sustainability have become common drivers of many new strategies and policies emerging from this act. This act legislates the protection, use, development, conservation, control and management of the water resource both groundwater and surface water. Its mandate stems from the Bill of Rights in the Constitution, Section 24, that states that „everyone has the right to an environment that his not harmful to their health and well-being‟. This Act represents a progressive departure from water management attempts in the early 1900, which merely controlled irrigation. Water law development and management has seen the emergence of increased legal protection of the sources and all users of water. The current act is in line with international water management protocol, because all of aspects of the hydrological cycle must be accounted for and managed.

4 IDP: A strategic plan drawn up by the Municipality to guide all future development.

5 WSDP : A business plan setting out the ways in which the water service authority must plan and

deliver water services to business and individuals in the area of jurisdiction 6 Impumelelo Case Studies, 2004 : Water


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Various policies and strategies have stemmed from this act to address the various components of the water cycle.

2.1.5 Municipal Structures Act (Act 33 of 2000)

The establishment of municipalities in accordance with the requirements relating to categories and types of municipalities is provided for in this act. The division of functions and powers between categories of municipalities is outlined and this Act allocates the responsibility for water services to the District Municipality or local municipality if authorized by the Minister of Provincial and Local government.

2.1.6 Municipal Systems Act (Act 32 of 2000)

This act focuses of the internal systems and administration of a municipality. The Act introduces the differentiation between the function of an authority and that of a provider. It focuses on the internal systems and administration of a municipality and identifies the importance of alternative mechanisms for providing municipal services and sets out certain requirements for entering into partnerships. The Act requires that all Municipalities draw up an Integrated Development plan (IDP) to strategically guide all future development in the Municipal area.

2.1.7 Basic Household Sanitation Policy (2001)

Four key themes emerge from this policy7:

Demand driven development

Affordable systems

Dual responsibility

Full participation Of these four, DWAF states that demand driven development is the single most important concept.

2.1.8 National Water Resource Strategy (2004)

This strategy sets out the blueprint for water management in South Africa. It clarifies the differences between the National Water Act and the Water Services Act and reconciles demand for water with available supply. The role of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry as central decision makers is clearly defined and cooperation amongst various tiers of government and various water management sectors, such as Catchment Management Agencies (CMA) is promoted as the key to success of future resource management.

7 Impumelelo, 2004 Series of Best Practice, Water


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2.1.9 National Water Conservation and Water Demand Strategy and Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy for the Water Services Sector (2004)

The Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy for the Water Services sector form one of three components of the National Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy (NWC/DM). The other two components are the Agriculture sector strategy and the Industry, Mining and Power Generation sector strategy. The NWC/DM is itself a contribution to the National Water Resource Strategy (NWRS), which is a requirement of the National Water Act. The WC/DM Strategy document for the Water Services sector outlines the objectives, constraints and opportunities as well as institutional roles to those involved with WC/DM. References to useful supporting guidelines and tools to implement the strategy are also included8.

2.1.10 Strategic Framework for Water Services (2003)

The national Strategic Framework for Water Services is a critical policy document setting out the future approach to the provision of water services. Of the national targets set, the most critical for Cape Town are9:

All people are to have access to functioning basic water supply by 2008 (achieved in CCT in 2005/06)

All people are to have access to functioning basic sanitation by 2010 (CCT are aiming for 2012 due to the extent of the requirement and its unique constraints)

Investment in water services infrastructure should total > 0,75% of GDP

Institutional reform of regional water services providers to be completed by 2013, with Water Services managed and accounted for separately

Annual reporting on key performance indicators to be started.

2.1.11 Occupational Health and Safety Act 85 of 1993

This act is essentially aimed at protecting workers at the workplace against potential hazards in terms of health and safety. In order to comply with the requirements of this is act, the City of Cape Town has a Health and Safety Management System10 in place which outlines the procedures required to create and maintain a safe and healthy work environment for al Water Services employees.

8 DWAF, 2004: Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy for the Water

Services Sector, Pg 23. 9 From COCT, 2007 WSDP

10 COCT, 2005 : Safety, Health and Environment Policy and procedure Manual


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2.1.12 National Disaster Management Act 2002

The National Disaster Management Act emphasises preparedness, prevention and mitigation. The act calls for the drafting of disaster management plans, which outline contingency plans and emergency procedures. Of particularly significance to the water services is the requirement to develop contingencies and emergency procedures to deal with the floods, dam safety, drought and water pollution.

2.1.13 National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) Act 107 of 1998)

The National Environmental Management Act gives affect to the Constitutional rights to a healthy living and working environment, and provides legal power to prevent or limit environmental degradation by the activities of government or the private sector. NEMA is an overarching piece of legislation that provides a framework for environmental principles and policies and their implementation11. Some of the principles such as “polluter pays”, “environmental justice” and “integrated environmental management” and requirements such as “community participation”, “empowerment” and “environment education” bring new challenges to governance, management and enforcement. Pertinent to all sectors of services delivery is also the demand for social, environmental and economic sustainability. The Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) requirement for activities, which could have a significant impact on the environment, is specified in Section 24 of this act.

2.1.14 Environmental Conservation (ECA) Act 73 of 1989

The ECA aims to reduce the potential negative environmental impacts of activities related to development, and to promote sustainable development. Activities that would require and EIA , mentioned above, are listed under Section 21 of this act and sections 22, and 26 set out procedures for conducting an EIA. Various activities within the water and waste service fall within the EIA Regulations.

2.1.15 Municipal Finance Management Act, 56 of 2003

This act outlines the roles and responsibilities of Municipalities in terms of their financial management systems. Supply Chain Management requirements and procurement procedures are specified. Although intended to streamline procurements, the lengthy procedures and contract limitations of the Act often hinders service delivery in the water sector.

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Impumelelo, 2004 : Series of best practice : Environment


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2.2 Provisional Spatial Growth and Development Strategy (Green paper), 2006 and Western Cape Provincial Spatial Development Framework, 2006 Legislation, Policies and Strategies Governing Water Management

These two provincial strategies form the overarching growth and development frameworks for the Province. Key challenges and opportunities are highlighted and targets are set. These documents provide the medium term strategic framework, which should be fleshed out in the various Integrated Development Plans for each Local Authority. Various Provincial Growth and Development Strategies should in turn meet the National requirements.

2.3 Local Government (COCT) Legislation, Policies and Strategies and key interventions Governing Water and Sanitation Management

The following sections outlines the key polices and strategies that have been developed by the City of Cape Town to meet Provincial and National requirements:

2.3.1 Integrated Development Plan (2007)

As mentioned above, the Municipal Systems Act, 32 of 2000, requires that Municipalities draw up a strategic plan which should guide all future developments. The Integrated Development Plan (IDP) identifies Municipalities development priorities and is used by political, business and community leadership to determine activities and operational plans and guide the allocation of resources. It also seeks to alleviate poverty, boost local economic development, eradicate unemployment and promote the process of reconstruction and development12. The Municipal Systems Act (2000) and the Municipal Financial Management Act (2003) require that the IDP be reviewed annually.

2.3.2 City Development Strategy (Sakha Ikapa 2030)

The City is currently developing a long term Human Settlement Plan. This strategy aims to result in substantial changes in settlement patterns, land use, energy and water and waste issues.

2.3.3 Metropolitan Spatial Development Framework (MSDF)

The Metropolitan Spatial Development Framework aims to guide the management of future settlement development in order to promote integration, equity, redistribution, environmental protection and quality of life. The spatial implications of concepts highlighted in the IDP are visualized in this document, which should direct decisions on public capital and operating expenditure, as well as private development proposals. The highly fragmented spatial planning and documentation of the past has made the integration of more than 200 local development frameworks into one

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COCT, 2005 Integrated Development Plan 2005/6


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integrated document such as the MSDF, a highly complicated and time consuming task.

2.3.4 Integrated Metropolitan Environmental Policy (IMEP) (GOTO 6.2) and Integrated Metropolitan Environmental Management Strategy (IMEMS) (GOTO 6.2)

IMEP represents the City of Cape Town‟s overarching environmental policy, and was adopted by the City in October 2001. It is a statement of intent and a commitment to certain principles and ethics. IMEP has lead the way for the development of various sectoral strategies which detail goals, targets, programmes and actions needed to ensure sustainable resource use and management in the City of Cape Town. The Policy provides a vision for the environment of Cape Town in the year 2020, which includes the following13 :

“Wastewater treatment facilities will be efficient and comply with legislative requirements, and “Water and energy resources and utilisation will be optimally and efficiently managed”

The Integrated Metropolitan Environmental Strategy which followed outlines the implementation plan for achieving the 2020 vision.

2.3.5 Water Services Development Plan (WSDP)

The Water Services Act, 1997, requires that all Water Services Authorities (WSAs) prepare a Water Services Development Plan. Thereafter the WSAs have to periodically review, update and adapt the plan as well as report annually on progress with its implementation. To date the City of Cape Town has developed three reports, of which the latest 2006/07 to 2011/12 is currently in draft format. The WSDP is essentially a 5 year business plan setting out the way in which the WSA must plan and deliver services to individuals and businesses in its area of jurisdiction.

2.3.6 Water Conservation and Demand Management Strategy for Cape Town (2007)

The City of Cape Town recently adopted a new Water Conservation and Demand Management Strategy14, which links directly with vision and principles Water Services Department, and meets the water resource management, water conservation and water demand management requirements of the Water Act and the Water Services Act. The most recent WC/WDM strategy replaces and/or incorporates all previous related plans and

13

COCT, 2001 Integrated Environmental Management Policy 14

COCT, 2007 Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy (Final Draft)


19

programmes15, and presents a very comprehensive, albeit optimistic, future commitment for the water service. The strategy is discussed in more detail in the next chapter.

2.3.7 By-Laws

The following table provides a summary of the City of Cape Town by-laws that relate to the water services:

By-law Date

promulgated Short Description Effect on Water Services

Water 1 September 2006

To control and regulate water services in the City

More effective management of the use of water and sanitation services by users

Wastewater and Industrial Effluent

1 September 2006

To control and regulate sewerage and industrial effluent and discharges

More effective management of the discharge of industrial effluent by users

Credit Control and Debt Collection

Still in draft form. (Existing policy dated June 2004)

To give effect to the Council‟s credit control and debt collection policy, its implementation and enforcement, as required by Section 98 of the Municipal Systems Act, 32 of 2000, and to give effect to the duty imposed by Section 96 of the Municipal Systems Act to collect all money that is due and payable to the Council.

Water Services is more financially sustainable.

By-law relating to Stormwater Management

23 September 2005

To provide for the regulation of stormwater management and to regulate activities which may have a detrimental effect on the development, operation or maintenance of the stormwater system

More effective management of the discharge of stormwater by users

Treated Effluent In preparation To control and regulate the use of treated effluent in the City

More effective management of the use of treated effluent by users

Table 1: By-laws affecting Water Services

16

2.3.12 Safety Health and Environment: Policy and Procedures Manual (2005)

The purpose of this document is to outline the procedures that are required to be developed and put into practice to fulfill the requirements of the Occupational Health and Safety, Act No. 85 (OH&S Act) of 1993. The NOSA Management System has been adopted as a framework for this policy.

15

Replaces 2001 Policy and 2005 10 Point Conservation Plan 16

COCT, 2007 WSDP


20

2.3.13 Sustainability Reporting

This report, formally know as the State of the Environment Report, tracks the health of the City in terms of key indicators. Of particular significance to the water and sanitation sector is the reporting on matters such as health of rivers, vleis and coastal bathing areas, and access to basic services. The document provides a means of benchmarking tracking overall progress and performance of the City.

2.4 Policies for Sustainability

The UN Millennium Declaration was adopted in September 2000 during the largest gathering of world leaders in history (147 Heads of State and Government and 189 Member States) committing their nations to a new global partnership to reduce extreme poverty. This series of time-bound targets, with a deadline of 2015, have become known as the Millennium Development Goals. The declaration contains 8 goals, 18 targets and 48 indicators for addressing extreme poverty in its many dimensions: income poverty, hunger, disease, lack of adequate shelter, and exclusion, while promoting gender equality, education, and environmental sustainability. In the context of this review, the following extracts17 from MDG particularly significant:

Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability Goal 7 has the following targets:

Target 9. Integrated the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs and reverse the loss of environmental resources Target 10. Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation

Target 10 has the following two water and sanitation related indicators:

Indicator 30: Proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water source, urban and rural Indicator 31: Proportion of population with access to improved sanitation, urban and rural

South Africa‟s written commitment to sustainability is evident and its progress at meeting the MDG‟s is outlined in the Department of Environmental Affairs

17

From UN Millennium Project website : www.unmillenniumproject.org/index.htm

http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/index.htm


21

and Tourism‟s (DEAT) latest strategy for sustainable development (described below). At the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, the commitment to sustainable development was reaffirmed and poverty eradication was placed at the centre of its efforts. In their recently published National Framework for Sustainable Development (NFSD) in South Africa18, the DEAT have attempted to develop and consolidate a National Strategy and action plan to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. The Vision of the National Strategy for Sustainable Development is:

“South Africa aspires to be a sustainable economically prosperous and self-reliant nation state that safeguards its democracy by seeing to the fundamental human needs of its people by managing it limited ecological resources responsibly for current and future generations and by advancing the efficiency of integrated planning and governance through collaboration nationally, regionally and globally.”

The Strategy identifies the following water and sanitation related risks:

Water shortage due to a combination of climate change and increased demand if exiting technologies and management practices remand unchanged

Declining quality of water supplies and resultant const increases of infrastructure design and expenditure do not take into account the need to mitigate pollution impacts from human systems

Shrinking supply relative to demand coupled to an agriculture and industry bias in pricing structure which push up prices for domestic households beyond affordability levels of poor communities

Impact of climate change on both water supplies and irrigation requirements of the agricultural sector in certain critical river catchment areas

Rising levels of sewerage output as middle class settlements expand and pit latrine systems are installed in low-income areas where soil structure are inappropriate, with limited efforts to re-use and recycle these flows of nutrients and chemicals.

The NSSD has identified the following priorities area for strategic intervention:




18

DEAT, 2006 : National Strategy for Sustainable Development. (Draft Integrated Strategy for Review)


22


Building capacity for sustainable development The Freedom Charter and Bill of Rights in the Constitution of South African paved the way for a water law review process which saw a fundamental shift in emphasis towards the principles of equity and sustainability. The Preamble of the National Water Act, 1998 makes the following ultimate recognition19:

“..that the ultimate aim of water resource management is to achieve the sustainable use of water for the benefit of all users;”

Key post-constitutional developments in water law policy included the development of the Water Law Principles20 which lead to the White Paper on a National Water Policy for South Africa21. These principles and policies were followed by the promulgation of the Water Services Act and the National Water Act, 1998 as discussed above. Implementation initiatives such as the National Water Resource Strategy and the National Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy, references above, represent the overall National policy framework within which the water services operates. In print the sustainable management of our scarce water resources is a driving philosophy which has underpinned all the post 1994 water management processes and documentation. At the local government level, the City of Cape Town has made noteworthy progress in terms of incorporating the concept of sustainable resource management into their driving policies and strategies. Overarching documents such as the IDP, MSDF and IMEP set the City wide values and objectives. The first vision statement of the City‟s IDP is:

“… to establish Cape Town as a sustainable city that offers a future to our children and their children”

Under IDP Strategic Focus Area: Sustainable Infrastructure, the following is particularly significant:

Objective 3.1 “improved leveraging of the available funds without compromising the Council’s ability to sustain service delivery”

The strategic intent of the Water Services is expressed in their vision22 :

19

DWAF, 1998 National Water Act 20

DWAF 1996 Water Law Principles 21

DWAF 1997 White Paper on National Water Policy for South Africa 22

COCT, 2007(Power Point Presentation) :Water and Sanitation -WSDP Executive Summary


23

“To become a leader in the provision of equitable, sustainable, people-centred, affordable and credible water services to all”.

In their efforts to cut back on printed paper, the City recently compiled a reference CD, which contains the equivalent of over 800 printed pages of policy and strategy documents towards sustainable development23. Many of the water resource management realities today however indicate practices which are contradictory to the intent of the policy documents governing water management.

2.5 Sustainability of water and sanitation provision in Cape Town

The City of Cape Town has made great strides towards the development of sustainable policies, but most citizens who tolerate the risk related realities of their un-serviced and/or overcrowded dwellings, polluted rivers and oceans and skylines and the consequences of inappropriate development would question the extent to which „paper commitments‟ are being met. The preceding section has highlighted the abundance of water and sanitation related policy documents and processes. Although South African water law is at the frontier of international water law development, the realities of past injustices more often than not, retards the policy implementation process. The following critical water and sanitation related challenges were identified in the Cities most recent Water Services Development Plan (WSDP)24 :

Eradicating the backlog of basic sanitation services

Achieving the essential targets for reducing water demand

Meeting the wastewater effluent standards and thereby reducing the impact on the water quality of urban rivers,

Asset management and ensuring that infrastructure is extended in time to meet the development growth demands.

Ensuring full cost recovery and debt management at a fair tariff, and financing of capital investment.

Many of the above practice are in direct violation of various tiers of legislation. The WSDP furthermore offers the following alarming insights:

Of the R750 million in capital expenditures required to manage water and sanitation services sustainably, the Water and Sanitation

23

COCT, 2006 (CD): City of Cape Town policy and strategy documents towards sustainable development through integrated environmental management 24

COCT, 2007 :WSDP Executive Summary


24

Services Department is currently only getting approximately R450 million(based on 2006/7 budget). There is a shortfall of R300 million in capital funds.

Block capital finance to relay water mains was eliminated in 2001/02. The water reticulation system suffers from budgetary neglect.

In 2005/6 the City eliminated its contribution to the Capital Renewal Reserve (CRR), which is a fund for the upgrading and replacement of infrastructure and is funded from the surplus made in previous financial years.

Finances for the Water and Sanitation Services Department have been deteriorating due in part to poor revenue collection and increasing bad debt, and there is currently no funding source through which to maintain infrastructure.

No funding for the upgrade and replacement of infrastructure was available up until June 30th, 2007.

Finally, “the pressures to deliver” (or speed at which results need to be achieved) often pose the biggest threat to the sustainability of projects. Pressures could be (one or a combination of) legal, political, financial and/or social environmental reasons. A pilot service delivery project, which used DWAF‟s Dense Settlement Strategy in Kalkfontein25, highlights the importance of community participation in all aspects of a project. Time constraints in service delivery projects often leads to token or no public involvement. In his paper, Scmitz26, highlights some of the concerns related with accelerated pace of delivery. These were combined with general observations and project lessons to develop the following checklist:

Project Sustainability Check List:

Needs driven projects are easier to implement than desktop developed projects (bottom up vs. top down approach)

Alignment should be ensured with broader strategies and policies (e.g. Acts, IDP, MSDF etc)

Community participation is required at all levels : from planning to operations

Monitoring and evaluation systems should be determined before hand and implementation and sustained

Appropriate technology, that meets social, economic and environmental requirements to be used

25 Della Togna M & Pithey S , 2003 (VIDEO and CD). Improving Services Trough Dialogue. The

Kalkfontein Stormwater Project. Rainbow Circle Films, Cape Town.

26

Scmitz, T, 1999 : Rethinking delivery : A review of efforts of DWAF, CPS Policy Analysis


25

Affordability of service: capital and long term operational cost (very important) should be determined and committed over the long term

Ownership and accountability is required throughout the lifetime of a project

These items are particularly significant to fast tracked water and sanitation projects in high density/low-income areas, where basic services are often politicised.

2.6 Capacity building strategies

The Water Conservation and Water Demand Strategy placed a high priority on capacity building. The following extracts indicate progress in this regard:

Hlonipha Amanzi (Respect Water) Programme27

In 2006/07 Water and Sanitation Services launched their “Hlonipha Amanzi” Programme. The programme covered 30 informal areas.

The project was aimed at informing and educating informal communities on the basic services provided. The campaign promoted and encouraged community cooperation to better manage valuable resources such as water, to help keep the environment and themselves clean and to prevent the spread of diseases associated with an unhealthy environment. Through this it was hoped to build better communities. The objectives of the project were:

Promotion of sustainable service delivery

Promotion of improved management of existing resources

Promotion of health and well-being of individuals

Education on how to be responsible and create a safe, secure and hygienic community

Making information/reporting lines more accessible A series of workshops were held in each area covering topics such as service delivery elements, vandalism, unhealthy environments, disease/germs and what the community can do to prevent this. The workshops culminated in washing of hands, tea/coffee and sandwiches for all and presentation of certificates for all attendees as well as a bucket, soap, and soap dispenser. The last workshop in each area also had lucky draws for small prizes, like retail store vouchers and food hampers. The sustainability and effectiveness of initiatives need to be gauged.

27

From COCT 2007, WSDP


26

2.7 Western Cape Reconciliation Study and Berg River CMA Process

A study to identify and prioritise future water supply is currently underway. The Western Cape Reconciliation Study aims to develop future strategies to reconcile projected water demands with the supply from the Western Cape Water Supply System (WCWSS)28. The Reconciliation Study builds upon previous studies such as Western Cape System Analysis study undertaken between 1989 and 1995 and other more recent water resource planning studies. The outcome will be a shortlist of options to be studies at feasibility level and the study has been designed to facilitate public input into the selection and screening of options. The Reconciliation Study will also be used to launch the process to establish a Catchment Management Agency (CMA) for the Berg Water Management Area (WMA). The objective of the Berg CMA will be to manage the water resources within the Berg WMA and to involve stakeholders in the protection, use, development, conservation, management and control of these water resources29. This process is discussed in the next chapter. The following table provides a list of Water Demand Management and Water Supply Options to be considered in the Study and should be read in conjunction with the accompanying map:

28

WCWSS : The system includes five large dams, namely the Upper and Lower Steenbras and the

Wemmershoek Dams owned by the City of Cape Town, and the Voëlvlei and Theewaterskloof Dams owned by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. In addition, there are a number of smaller dams and weirs including the Kogelberg, Rockview, Kleinplaas and Misverstand Dams. 29

From DWAF, 2005 Newsletter 1 : Western Cape Reconciliation Study and Berg River CMA Process


27

Table 2: An initial list of Water Demand Management and Water Supply Options to be considered in the Western Cape Reconciliation Study.

WS - Wide Spread implementation of options across the system area. OMA - Outside Map Area

Water Supply Options Water Demand Management Options SURFACE WATER SCHEMES AGRICULTURAL WATER DEMAND MANAGEMENT

Dams: River Release Management:

1 Twenty-Four Rivers 23 Riviersonderend 2 Waterval River 24 Berg River 3 Lower Wit River 25 Voëlvlei/Misverstand 4 Upper Wit River Irrigation Practices:

5 Upper Campanula Scheme WS Canal and Farm Dam Losses Diversions: WS Crop-Deficit Irrigation

6 Lourens River WS Drip/Microjet /Sprinkler irrigation 7 Eerste River

8 Olifants River (Keerom) TRADING OF EXISTING ALLOCATIONS

9 Upper Wit River 26 Eikenhof Dam 10 Upper Molenaars River 27 Lower Berg River 11 Michells Pass 28 Greater Ceres Dam (Koekedouw Scheme) 12 Voëlvlei Augmentation Phase 1

Dam Raisings: REMOVAL OF INVASIVE ALIEN PLANTS

13 Misverstand WS Within catchments 14 Lower Steenbras WS Riparian Zones 15 Theewaterskloof 16 Voëlvlei Augmentation Phases 2 and 3 URBAN WATER-DEMAND MANAGEMENT

Transfers: WS Leak detection and repair 17 Brandvlei to Theewaterskloof Transfer WS Pressure management

WS Use of water-efficient fittings GROUND WATER SCHEMES WS Metering and plumbing repairs in low income areas

18 Table Mountain Group Aquifer WS Use of grey water 19 Cape Flats Aquifer WS Use of well points and boreholes 20 West Coast Aquifers including recharge WS Metering 21 Newlands Aquifer WS Tariffs and surcharges / credit control

WS Water User education DESALINATION WS Rainwater tanks

22 Desalination alone/with co-generation of energy WATER RE-USE

OTHER SCHEMES WS Exchange reclaimed wastewater for commercial irrigation OMA Congo River Options WS Industrial re-use OMA

Tanker /Inflatable bladders

WS Reclamation to potable water standards

OMA Orange River (Sea/Surface Pipeline) WS Urban irrigation OMA Towing of Icebergs WS New housing (dual reticulation)

WS Aquifer recharge


28

Figure 3: Location of initial Water Demand Management and Water Supply Options to be considered in the Western Cape Reconciliation Study30

30

DWAF 2005 Western Cape Reconciliation Process and Berg River CMA Process, Newsletter May 2005


29

3. Regulatory and Institutional Environment

3.1 Regulatory System

The previous chapter lists most of the policies and guidelines which govern activities in the water and sanitation sector. This report is submitted with a spreadsheet which provides a summary of the Acts, policies and regulations and key documents which govern water and sanitation management in the City of Cape Town. It is evident that the current regulatory system demands an understanding of a broad spectrum of laws policies and regulations. In our evolving democracy, South Africa‟s laws and polices are constantly being amended and/or updated or replaced. Most municipal managers are however so overburdened by their operational responsibilities that little time is available to stay abreast of changing laws. .

3.2 Institutions

The following sections will briefly discuss the historical and future institutional arrangements in the water and sanitation management sector of the City of Cape Town.

3.2.1 Historical Background

It is important to reflect on the historical perspective of the current system of Municipal Water Services management in the City of Cape Town. The following section is extracted from the most recent (2007) draft Water Serviced Development Plan31: Prior to 1994, the current City of Cape Town area consisted of a large number of smaller municipalities, or councils. The dominant municipality was the Cape Town City Council (CCC), which at the time also owned and operated the bulk water supply system. Outside of the CCC area, the bulk supply system and the secondary distribution systems of the various municipalities were separated, with metered bulk off-takes used by the CCC for billing purposes. Within the CCC area however, the bulk- and secondary systems were integrated, since all its consumers were billed directly. With the political changes in 1994, the smaller municipalities in the CMA were amalgamated into 6 Metropolitan Local Councils (MLC‟s), with the Cape Metropolitan Council (CMC) as a regional local authority in charge of bulk services This prompted a separation of the bulk- and secondary systems in the old CCC area. In December 2000, the unified City of Cape Town (CCT) was formed, by the amalgamation of the six short-lived MLC‟s and the former CMC.

31

COCT, 2007: WSDP


30

Currently the Bulk Water Branch within the CCT operates the bulk water supply system, and supplies water to the Reticulation Branch‟s eight reticulation districts who in turn distribute the water to the end users. The number of districts may reduce from eight to four for operational efficiency. The eight districts are required to interact with 22 sub-councils from a political perspective to ensure co-ordination and integration at political level.

The Drakenstein (including the towns of Paarl and Wellington) and Stellenbosch Municipalities located outside the CCT area, also purchase water in bulk from the CCT. Raw water is treated at water treatment plants which are operated by the Bulk Water Branch, from where it is distributed via a network of large diameter pipelines and reservoirs to the districts. The bulk networks are operated by the Bulk Water Branch up to the metered connection points of the eight districts. Downstream of the meters, the secondary distribution networks are operated by the respective districts. Wastewater collection and treatment is also carried out in-house, with the wastewater collection function falling under the Reticulation Branch, whilst treatment is undertaken by the Wastewater Treatment Branch.

3.2.2 Current and Future Institutional Arrangements

The Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, who are the custodians of South Africa‟s water resources and the key national department to whom local government are accountable to. The current organizational structure for water management in the City of Cape Town is as follows:

WDM & Strategy Customer & Revenue Management

Technical Services

Bulk Water Supply

Wastewater Treatment

Water and Sewerage Reticulation

Water Services Directorate

Figure 4: Water Services Organisational Structure

32

32

COCT 2007 Water Conservation and Demand Management Strategy for Cape Town


31

Reports on institutional matters are riddled with references to lack of capacity, significant staff losses, delays in the transformation process and low staff moral. Two current institutional reform processes are currently underway and could have major implications for the future operations and management of water services in the City of Cape Town:

The Separation of the Water Services Authority and the Water Services Provider, and

The Establishment of the Berg River Catchment Management Area The following section provides a synopsis of these processes and the anticipated consequences:

3.2.2.1 Separation of Water Services Authority (WSA) and Water Services Provider (WSP)

Cape Town‟s intent follows the national agenda, which is to set up a public and tariff service for water provision with economic growth and job creation set as high priorities. The decision to set up a separate Water Services Authority (WSA) and a ring-fenced Water Services Provider (WSP) was reconfirmed by Council in June 2004 based on the recommendations of a USAID funded review of potential business units33. This institutional reform process is also guided by the Strategic Framework for Water Services (SFWS)34 which provides the following definitions:

Water Services Authorities have the constitutional responsibilities for planning, ensuring access to and regulating provision of water services within the area of jurisdiction. They ay provide waters services themselves and/or contract external water services providers to undertake the provisions function on their behalf. They are responsible for securing licenses from DWAF (or CMA‟s where established) and regulate provision of water through by-laws and contracts Water Service providers are the organizations that assume operational responsibility for providing water and/or sanitation services and where that services is provided on behalf of a water service authority is must do so in terms of a service delivery agreement (contract) with the water service authority

33

ODA, aloeCap and Africon, 2004 : “High level review of the project to establish internal business units for Electricity, Water and Sanitation and Solid Waste Management Services” 34

DWAF, 2003, Strategic Framework for Water Services


32

The SFWS sets goals and targets for water services in South Africa and provides a road map for the establishment of and separation of the authority and the provider. The process in Cape Town has been delayed due to delays in the transformation process. A WRC survey35 identified the following key international trends in institutional development:

A move towards integrated water cycle management

Increasing separation of regulatory and operational responsibilities

A move towards the decentralization of operations

Increasing emphasis on public participation, especially in policy making and planning

A move towards treating water as an economic resource

Greater adoption of commercial management practices and techniques

Increased private sector involvement

3.2.2.2 Establishment of the Berg River Catchment Management Area (CMA)

The National Water Act provides for the establishment of CMAs as statutory bodies to manage water resources within hydrologically defined catchments, called Water Management Areas. The City of Cape Town falls within the Berg River (and Breede River) Water Management Area and is one of the key role-players in the establishment of the Berg River CMA. As established in the previous chapter, the Berg River CMA process is currently being rolled-out concurrent with the Western Cape Reconciliation Study. Each CMA will be responsible for managing water resources within a defined Water Management Area. The initial functions are36:

To investigate and advise on the protection, use, development, conservation, management and control of the water resources;

To develop a catchment management strategy;

To co-ordinate the activities of water users and water management institutions;

To promote community participation on the protection, use, development, conservation and control of water resources; and

35

WRC, 1994 Financial and Institutional Review Survey Report: Palmer Development Group 36

DWAF, 2005 Western Cape Reconciliation Process and Berg River CMA Process, Newsletter May 2005


33

To promote co-ordination between the implementation of its catchments management strategy with the implementation of water services development plans by water services authorities (municipalities).

3.3 Water Conservation and Water Demand Management (WC/WDM)

”The City of Cape Town has adopted a multimillion rand water savings strategy for the next ten years.”

COCT , 200737

As early as 1995, the City of Cape Town committed to a 10% saving on the historical demand for water, but only by 2002 did the Integrated Water Resource Planning (IWRP) study38 provided a comparative evaluation of various water demand initiatives and supply augmentation schemes that could assist in developing a strategy. The study concluded that water conservation and water demand management ranked highly in terms of affordability, implementation timeframes and was generally found to be more environmentally and socially acceptable. The Khayelitsha Pressure management project, implemented as part of the 2001 Strategy was very successful and received wide recognition. The implementation of the first strategy was however not sustainable and due to numerous institutional challenges the initial commitment and resources to WC/WDM were significantly reduced during 2003/2004 financial year and again during 2005/2006. Water demand management did not appear to be a budget priority. The City of Cape Town has recently adopted a new Water Conservation and Demand Management Strategy39, which links directly with vision and principles Water Services Department, and meets the water resource management, water conservation and water demand management requirements of the Water Act and the Water Services Act. The most recent WC/WDM strategy replaces and/or incorporates all previous related plans and programmes40, and presents a very comprehensive, albeit optimistic, future commitment for the water service. The purpose of the 2007 WC/WDM strategy, is summarised as

37

COCT, 2007 Media Release 11 June 2007, Communications Department 38

COCT, 2001 : Integrated Water Resource Planning study – Main Report 39

COCT, 2007 Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy (Final Draft) 40

Replaces 2001 Policy and 2005 10 Point Conservation Plan


34

“to ensure the long-term balance between available Water Resources and water demand, to postpone the need for expensive capital infrastructure projects for as long as it is economically viable and to minimise water wastage.”

Financial efficiency occurs as a main theme throughout the document and it is hoped to achieve these by :

Reduce operating costs by reducing non–revenue demand (Unaccounted for water)

Improving operation and maintenance , and

Postponing the need for large expensive infrastructure projects.

Increasing income from consumers through more equitable tariffs and capacity building amongst non-paying consumers (Current levels of loss of income could be as high as R 205 million per annum (20% of total demand at an average selling price of R3.5 /kl)41.

The strategy is divided into 5 goals, which in their turn are divided into 21 objectives. Goals and Objectives fall under two categories:

Implementation Goals and Objectives, which will result in direct reduction of water demand, and

Enabling Goals and Objectives, which address the institutional and financial aspects of the strategy.

The following section provides a summary of these: Implementation Goals and Objectives:

Goal A: CCT must by 2010 reduce and maintain the non-revenue

water to below 15% of the total average demand and within accepted

international benchmarks.

Goal B: Water wastage by consumers should be reduced and

maintained to below 2% of the total demand by 2012 and most

consumers should achieve acceptable water efficiency benchmarks by

2016.

Goal E: Reduce the projected potable water demand to an average

growth rate of no more than 1% pa. for the next 10 years and

conserve Cape Town‟s Water Resources.

41

COCT, 2007 WSDP


35

Enabling Goals and Objectives:

Goal C: CCT must by 2009 ensure and maintain ongoing effective management systems and implement Integrated Water Resource Planning in all decisions regarding water resources augmentation, bulk infrastructure development and water efficiency projects. Goal D: CCT must adopt WC/WDM as one of the key water service delivery strategies, and must give priority to its implementation and ensure an ongoing adequate enabling environment

3.3.1 Progress to date

During the last two years a number of successful WC/WDM projects had been implemented, most notable projects were the M‟fuleni Integrated Leak Repair Project, the Fixit Project (see case studies), the education campaigns, treated effluent recycling and various pressure management projects. The focus on these projects has reduced non-revenue demand. In addition the tariffs for treated effluent re-use are being rationalised and should result in additional income. The additional income is intended to be ring-fenced for use on WC/DM projects42. The expected budget for the 2007/2008 financial year is approximately R 7 million for Operations and R 22 million for capital projects. The key projects to be implemented are43:

Pressure reduction – Mitchells Plain

Recycling of treated effluent – Athlone

Awareness and consumer education – city wide

Enhancement of existing infrastructure

Comprehensive leak projects in low income areas

Fix it leak project – (ad-hock repairs of large leaks)

Other small projects -city wide on priority basis

Anticipated savings have been estimated for all these projects.

The strategy predicts the following savings :

Reduction of water wastage from an estimated 148 Ml/day to 111 Ml/day

Reduction of inefficient water usage from 210 Ml/day to 147 Ml/day

Further treated effluent re-use of approximately 65 Ml/day

42

COCT, 2007 :WSDP Executive Summary 43

COCT, 2007 : (Council Report) Adoption of long-term water conservation and water demand management strategy and financial plan, incorporating adoption of treated effluent strategy and master plan


36

Reduction in the normal natural growth rate due to new consumers by 25 % per annum. Reduce growth rate from 3% to 2%. (excluding reduction of existing water usage)

It is estimated that water demand can potentially be reduced by 323 Ml/day.

The total programme financial requirements for the next ten years are: WC/WDM strategy, budget summary of key projects (representing 85% of the budget)

Objective Programme Operating Capital Total x 1000

A1.1 Pressure reduction R 1 110.0 R 9 990 R 11 100

A1.2 Establishment of leak detection task teams R 7 560.0 R 3 240 R 10 800

Objective A2 A2.1 Comprehensive water supply management

projects in previously disadvantaged areas

R 80 800.0 R 121 200

R 202 000

Objective A3 A3.2 Preventative maintenance R 10 200.0 R 0 R 10 200

Objective A4 A4.2 Meter management /replacement programme R 0.0 R 37 300

R 37 300

B1.1 Consumer awareness campaign R 24 700.0 R 0 R 24 700

B1.2 Consumer education campaign R 15 610.0 R 0 R 15 610

B1.3 School education R 21 850.0 R 0 R 21 850

B1.4 Special events R 10 000.0 R 0 R 10 000

Objective B2 B2.2 enforcement of by-laws R 7 340.0 R 0 R 7 340

B5.1 Implement a plumbing retro –fit programme R 37 850.0 R 0

R 37 850

B5.4 Implement an on-going support programme for

large consumers

R 7 880.0 R 0

R 7 880

Objective E1 E1 Recycling of water from wastage plants to

parks & industry

R 20 569.0 R 185 121

R 205 690

Objective E2 E3.1 Support working for water programme R 8 550.0 R 0 R 8 550

Objective C1 C1.1 Establish Distircti management areas R 460.0 R 4 140 R 4 600

C2.1 Management Information System R 0.0 R 27 500 R 27 500

C2.2 Upgrading the telemetry system, remote

communications (cell)

R 0.0 R 27 980

R 27 980

Other Small projects R 70 596.0 R 17 649 R 88 245

Total R 325 075.0 R 434 120.0 R 759 195

Objective C2

Objective A1

Objective B5

Objective B1

Table 3: WC/WDM Budget requirements of key projects (10 year total)

The estimated financial requirement for the next ten years is R 759 million whereas the benefit of implementing WC/WDM over the next 10 years is estimated at approximately R 1694 million44. This saving is summarised as follows: Operating costs saving 131.26 Increased revenue, reduce commercial losses, debt management 600.64 Saving from deferring capital projects 1721.73 Revenue from sale of treated effluent 278.17 Sub total 2 453.62 Less cost of strategy 759.20

Total net economic benefit 1694.43

44

COCT, 2007 : (Council Report) Adoption of long-term water conservation and water demand management strategy and financial plan, incorporating adoption of treated effluent strategy and master plan


37

3.3.2 Case Studies

3.3.2.1 Pressure Management

The WC/DM strategy estimated that the pressure reduction (where excess pressure is reduced in a supply zone, reducing losses through leaks) can reduce the overall water demand by 25.02 Ml/day. The City of Cape Town recently completed pressure management projects in Mfuleni and Gugulethu. The following extracts from the latest WSDP45 summarise the findings: Mfuleni The average pressure in this township was reduced from 7 to 4 bar, generating a saving of 36 000 kl (R200 880) per month. The night flows were significantly reduced by more than 50%. The low project cost of R300 000 yields a very short payback period of only 2 months. Investigations are being done to further reduce the pressure at night, by means of time-modulated specialist controllers. Gugulethu Further savings can be obtained from the system installed, but current statistics indicate a saving in the region of 48 180kl (R 268 844) per month. The payback period is only 1 month. It is estimated that combined reductions in demand from the projects has already resulted in savings of approximately 2.5 Ml

3.3.2.2 Leaks Management

This programme involves the fixing of leaks in domestic plumbing on private property. The City recently undertook two projects: Mfuleni Integrated Leaks Project The project aimed to integrate various aspects of interaction between the community and the City with respect to Water and Sanitation Services. Capacity building and training were included with the intent to develop plumbing skills in the community. Initial results look promising. The average monthly water consumption per property was has been reduced from 18,5kl /month to 11,4kl/month. A 7kl /month saving per property of which there are in the region of 8 000 in this area, represents a significant saving and the payback period has been estimated at 5 months. FixIt Leaks Programme This programme targets indigent homes (properties under the value of R100 000). Indications were that 10% of these used in excess of 30kl per month, which was deemed to be unacceptably high. The project prioritised the

45

COCT, 2007 WSDP


38

largest-volume users in this category. As an incentive, it is agreed that arrears will be written off, should the owner keep a leak-free property for 6 months after the repair is complete. To date 8 000 leak repairs have been completed at an average saving of 25kl per households per month. It is estimated that an investment of R95 000 will continue to yield an approximate saving of R558 000 per month


39

4. Water and Sanitation Infrastructure and Usage

The limited financial situation in the City versus the high demand for new housing has created a scenario where the City is not in a position to maintain existing infrastructure and to provide the required bulk infrastructure for connection of new developments.

WSDP, 2007

The current state of bulk water and wastewater infrastructure is a limiting constraint to the social upliftment and economic prosperity of the City. Water supply and sanitation provision has become a limiting factor to the future growth and development in the City. A review of infrastructure and fixed assets in 200346, assessed the state (condition) and value of infrastructure and estimated the replacement value of all water and sanitation infrastructure at R17,5 billion. The following table provides a breakdown of this figure:

Water Supply Infrastructure Replacement Value R mil

Dams and catchments 932

Treatment Works 1 021

Water Reticulation 8 073

Water Pump Stations 314

Reservoirs 1 268

Depots (shared) 30

Sub Total 11 638

Wastewater Infrastructure

WW treatment works 1 420

Sewer Reticulation 4 159

Sewer Pump Stations 284

Depots (shared) 30

Sub Total 5 893

Total 17 531

Table 4: Water and wastewater infrastructure replacement cost

47

In short, the City has failed keep up with the maintenance and development of infrastructure, and has contributed to extensive asset stripping. International good practice dictate that around 2% of expenditure should be directed toward Operations and Maintenance.

46

Shands, Asch and Africon Engineering : Review of the infrastructure and fixed assets of the Water and Sanitation Service, 2003 47

COCT, 2007 :WSDP Executive Summary


40

The following provides a summary of water supply and sanitation infrastructure and highlight some of the shortcomings identified in the asset review:

4.1 Water Supply

4.1.1 Surface Water Resources

The following map indicates the location of key components to the water supply system.

Figure 5: Main components of the Water Supply Infrastructure

48

The major dams from which the COCT is supplied (Wemmershoek, Theewaterskloof and Voelvlei) are situated outside the City of Cape Town boundary. Theewaterskloof dam, near Villiersdorp, is the major water source

48

COCT, 2006 WSDP


41

and it forms a part of a large inter-basin water transfer scheme that regulates the flow from the Sonderend-, Berg- and Eerste rivers. The Voëlvlei dam, near Gouda relies on diversion works in the Klein Berg, Leeu and 24 Rivers for its water supply. The Wemmershoek dam is situated in the mountains near Franschhoek and is supplied from various small rivers in the Wemmershoek mountains (e.g. Tierkloof- and Olifants rivers). The Steenbras Upper dam and Steenbras Lower dam are situated inside the COCT boundary, in the Hottentots-Holland mountain range near Gordon‟s Bay, and serve a dual purpose of providing an upper reservoir for the Steenbras Pumped Storage Scheme and for supplying water for domestic/industrial use to the City. Other smaller dams include the dams on Table Mountain (Woodhead, De Villiers, Hely Hutchinson, Victoria and Alexandra) which are used to supply water to the southern suburbs and the Peninsula, and the dams at Simons Town (Kleinplaas and Lewis Gay) which provide water to the Peninsula. The bulk of the Cities water is obtained from surface water, which represents 440,5 Mm3 /year , or 97% of the total yield. This water is stored in dams over the wet winter months for use during the dry summer months. Groundwater sources only account for 6,64Mm3/year or 1,46% of the total yield. The following table provides and overview of the sources, their ownership and yield.

DAMS/RIVERS OWNED &

OPERATED BY

APPROXIMATE % OF TOTAL SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS**

FIRM YIELD*

(1:50 YEAR)

M m3

CCT Registered Usage

Major Sources % M m3

Theewaterskloof Dam/

Kleinplaas Dam

DWAF

DWAF

48.3% 219 120

Voëlvlei Dam DWAF 23.2% 105 70.5

Palmiet River DWAF 5% 22,5 22.5

Wemmershoek Dam CCT 11.9% 54 54

Steenbras Upper and Steenbras Lower Dam

CCT 8.8% 40 40

Total 97.1% 440.5 307

Minor Sources Approx. yields


42

DAMS/RIVERS OWNED &

OPERATED BY

APPROXIMATE % OF TOTAL SUPPLY REQUIREMENTS**

FIRM YIELD*

(1:50 YEAR)

M m3

CCT Registered Usage

Simon‟s Town:

Lewis Gay Dam

Kleinplaas

CCT 0,4% 1,85 1.85

Land en Zeezicht Dam

(From Lourens River)

CCT 0,1% 0,5 0.5

Table Mountain:

Woodhead

Hely-Hutchinson

De Villiers Dam

Victoria Dam

Alexandra Dam

CCT

0.88% 4 4

Grand Total 98.5* 446.86 313.35*

*Excludes the Groundwater resources : Altantils Aquifer and Albion Springs **Approximate % : On an annual basis the usage from the various sources may vary. The Western Cape Water System (WCWS) is operated so as to minimise spillage by placing a water demand on the dams that are most likely to spill during the wet winter period

Table 5: Surface Water Resources

49

The figure shows that the bulk of the water (more than 70 -75%) is obtained from DWAF owned dams, with the balance provided by the Cities own sources. The total yield for the City is estimated at 446.86 Mm3 for a 1:50 year of rainfall. The following graph, however indicates the fluctuation in % of storage capacity over a 12 year period. The strained capacity experienced in 2004 and 2005, with dams reaching a 12 year low of 26% full in April 2005, resulted in accelerated water conservation and demand management strategies, the details of which are outlined in the previous chapter.

49

COCT, 2007 WSDP


43

Figure 6 : City of Cape Town dams :12 Year trends in storage capacity

4.1.2 Groundwater Resources

Information regarding groundwater use in the City of Cape Town is scarce and dated and does not appear to be monitored and/or captured. The following table provides a summary of the available information :

Table 6: Table Groundwater resources

Albion Spring is situated in Rondebosch. It was completed in 1890 and has a treatment capacity of 4,5 Mℓ/day. Raw water is obtained directly from the Albion Spring, the pH is adjusted by aeration, and the water is chlorinated and

Aquifer No. of Boreholes

Firm Yield (1:50 yr)

Mm3/year

% of Total Requirements

Albion Spring Not applicable Approx. 1.64 1.46% of total resources

Atlantis 44 5

Cape Flats Not yet developed 18

Newlands Not yet developed 10

Total 6.64

CITY OF CAPE TOWN DAMS: 12 YEAR GRAPH INDICATING % OF TOTAL STORAGE CAPACITY

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

19

-Ja

n

02

-Fe

b

16

-Fe

b

01

-Ma

r

15

-Ma

r

29

-Ma

r

12

-Ap

r

26

-Ap

r

10

-Ma

y

24

-Ma

y

07

-Ju

n

21

-Ju

n

05

-Ju

l

18

-Ju

l

02

-Au

g

16

-Au

g

30

-Au

g

13

-Se

p

27

-Se

p

11

-Oct

25

-Oct

08

-No

v

22

-No

v

06

-De

c

20

-De

c

DATE

% F

UL

L

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007


44

then pumped directly into the distribution system of the City of Cape Town. The Atlantis supply scheme comprises of two aquifers, one at Witzands and one at Silwerstroom, with an estimated 44 boreholes extracting groundwater from this source. The Cape Flats aquifer sits below the sandy deposits of the Cape Flats. Its storage capacity is estimated at 128Mm3, but the rate of natural recharge is estimated at only 18 Mm3/annum50. Use of this aquifer and the Newlands aquifer, which could yield an estimated 10 Mm3/annum, has not been developed. Extracted from the most recent draft WSDP, the total amount of treated water supplied by the City of Cape Town is summarised as follows:

2001/02 (mil m

3)

2002/03 (mil m

3)

2003/04 (mil m

3)

2004/05 (mil m

3)

2005/06 (mil m

3)

Total water treated 287.5 301.4 310.2 282.7 294.5

The total bulk water supplied within the Cape Metropolitan Area for the financial year ending June 2006 was 272 million cubic meters (average 745 Ml/day). This includes Unaccounted-for-Water (UAW) and bulk losses in bulk pipelines. The City also supplies approximately 62 Ml/d to Water Services Authorities and other minor consumers outside its area of jurisdiction, for a total of 807 Ml/d. The historic growth in demand between 1973 and 1997 is approximately 4% per annum.

4.1.3 Water Supply Infrastructure

A review of infrastructure in 200351 provides detailed account all fixed assets in the water services and gives an indication of the state of infrastructure, the book value, and replacement value of fixed assets. For detailed information the detailed review should be consulted. Information was also extracted from an internal City of Cape Town document which summarises bulk water supply infrastructure52. The following summary aims to sketch an overall impression:

Dams and springs Figure 5 indicates that the City of Cape Town operates 5 major dams and one spring. These dams vary in age from 1896, when the Table Mountain dams which were constructed to 1980, when the Wemmershoek dam was completed. The replacement value of the dams and catchments were estimated at R 932 million.

50

COCT, 2005 : Water Resources and Water Resource Planning, Background information for WSDP (Internal Document) 51

Ninham Shands, Asch and Africon Engineering : Review of the infrastructure and fixed assets of the Water and Sanitation Service, 2003 52

COCT, 2005 : Existing Bulk Water Supply Infrastructure. Background Information for Water Services Development Plan(Internal Document)


45

Depots

The water services has 9 operational depots. Replacement value of these was estimated to be R 58 million.

Water Treatment Plants

13 Treatment plants with an approximate replacement value of R1 billion, threat raw water to dinking water standards. The treatment plants have a theoretical treatment capacity of 1 669,5 Ml/day. The oldest treatment facility, at Kloofnek was constructed in 1926, and the most recent was at Witsands, completed in 2000, to serve the west coast water community needs of Atlantis.

Water Storage Reservoirs

The City operates 20 bulk water and 117 smaller reservoirs in its area of jurisdiction. Faure, Plattekloof and Blackheath are the largest three. The reservoirs have a combined storage capacity of 3 602 Ml and are estimated to have a replacement value of R1,3billion.

Pump stations

More than 55 water supply pump stations are operated throughout the City and have a combined installed power of 46 135 kW. Pump stations have an estimated replacement value of R 314million.

Water reticulation The 9 629 273 km of pipeline which is used to convey bulk and treated water, accounts for 70% of value of the water supply infrastructure. Replacement value of this asset is estimated at R8 billion. The total replacement value of all investigated water supply infrastructure is estimated at R11,6 billion. State of infrastructure The bulk water system in the northern areas is under stress during peak periods. The EIA of the augmentation scheme in this area is underway. Most alarming however the losses are recorded which relate to the state of the reticulation system. Future requirement:

This network of pipes and connectors accounts for 70% of the water supply systems fixed assets and there is an urgent need to survey and capture the state of this system and programme a plan of remediation.


46

4.1.4 Alternative Sources of Water

Various studies have indicated that Water Demand Management and Water Conservation (WC/WDM) initiatives are the most feasible water augmentation options to meet the growing water demand for the city53.

Alternative sources of water currently under construction and/or investigation includes:

Dams : Berg Water Project : Construction is underway. The project includes a new dam on the farm, Skuifraam, a supplemental scheme and ancillary works. This project will make an additional 81Mm3 of water available.

Groundwater : Table Mountain Group Aquifer Option54 (groundwater) The exploratory drilling phase is to be complete by 30 June 2008. The Cape Flats and Newlands aquifers also require further investigation and development.

Seawater : (Desalination) The City of Cape Town is currently negotiating with V&A Waterfront about a possible desalination pilot plant. Advances in desalination technology over the last decade have decreased the costs associated with this technology significantly. It is currently estimated that the cost of water from a desalination plant would be in the order of R5 /m55.

Rain harvesting : The most popular method would be to collect rainwater with tanks from the rooftops. Due to the winter rainfall and high cost of tanks, this method has not been explored in Cape Town, but the most recent WC/DM strategy56 has proposed a programme to investigate this option for low-income areas, to stimulate food gardens.

Unconventional water sources, not currently under investigation, but listed as another programme in the above WC/WDM strategy includes :

Ice berg harvesting Sea water desalination Weather modification (Cloud seeding) Capturing storm water discharge into the sea Importation of water - Shipping of fresh water Suppression of evaporation Recharging of ground water aquifers

53

COCT, 2007 WSDP 54

For more information on the Table Mountain Aquifer Investigation go to www.tmg-acquifer.co.za 55

COCT, 2007 WSDP 56

COCT, 2007 WC/WDM

http://www.tmg-acquifer.co.za/


47

Water trading Water trading with other water users in the Western Cape is highlighted as a feasible option. This could involve the City of Cape Town purchasing water rights from other users such as agriculture on a temporary or permanent basis, for their own use. The programme calls for further investigation and feasibility studies on this matter. The “Reconciliation Study”, discussed in Chapter 2 of this report, provides a summary of the supply potential and spectrum and status of alternative sources currently under investigation.

4.1.5 Water Demand

Water demand has dropped from 920 Ml/day in 2000 to 745 Ml/day The previous chapter has indicated that for the financial year ending June 2006, the City received 272 000 000m3 /year or 745 Ml/day of water. The distribution of water demand in the City of Cape Town, from the latest WSDP is as follows:

Category %age

Commercial & Industrial 15%

Departmental Cluster 2%

Domestic Cluster 6%

Domestic Full 45%

Government 2%

Miscellaneous 5%

Municipal 3%

Schools and Sportsfields 2%

Non-Revenue Demand 21%

Table 7: Distribution of Water Demand

Domestic (Residential) use makes up the bulk (51%) of the demand for water. The second biggest user, Non-Revenue Demand (also known as Unaccounted for Water), presents an alarming statistic, which due to discrepancies in calculations, is currently being reviewed57. Indications are that this figure may be as high as 23 %. Third biggest water user in the City is Commerce and Industry (15%).

57

John Frame, (Pers Com) : Ongoing revised calculations of Non-Revenue Demand


48

The City of Cape Town currently provides a full level of service to approximately 656 800 formally registered customers. This customer base is broken down as follows:

Customer Type Number Commercial 15 680

Industrial 5 044

Department 10 567

Miscellaneous 8 952

Domestic* 616 557

TOTAL 656 800 * Includes cluster housing and sectional title.

Table 8: Customer base with full level of service58

Domestic customers include customers in cluster housing and sectional title. Customers dwelling in backyard shacks number about 150 000 (2005 figure). The following graph indicates the demand trend since 1991.

BWP= Berg Water Project, with addition of new Skuifraam dam, increasing supply by 81Mm3

Figure 7: Water demand curves against the backdrop of existing supply59

The actual demand reduced from 1999 until 2001 due to the drought and water restrictions. The demand started increasing again from 2001 until 2003

58

COCT, 2007 WSDP 59

COCT, 2007 WSDP

CCT Demand Projections

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

19

91

19

93

19

95

19

97

19

99

20

01

20

03

20

05

20

07

20

09

20

11

20

13

20

15

20

17

20

19

Year

Bu

lk S

up

plie

d (

mil

lio

n c

ub

ic m

etr

es)

Existing Supply

Supply incl. BWP

Unconstrained

Low Water Demand

Actual

2007/08 IDP

WDM Strategy


49

but never recovered to the original level achieved in 1999. From 2003 until now the demand started declining again due to further restrictions. The current level of 272 million m 3 per annum (745 Ml/day , during 2006) is 64 million m 3 less than the demand of 2000, which was 336 million m3 per annum(920 Ml/day). We are currently using 14% less water than in 2000. The trend can be ascribed to the successful restrictions and water conservation and demand management strategies, discussed in the previous chapter. The effectiveness of water demand initiatives and previous and current water restrictions can be seen in the drop in actual demand since 2003. The risk of severe restrictions has been reduced and the Berg Water Project, which is aimed for completion at the end of 2007, brings an additional 81Mm3 of water into the supply stream. With its Water Demand Strategy and restricted use, the City has committed itself to minimal growth in water demand (see IDP and WDM projections), way below the low water demand projections anticipated in 2002. The low water demand curve, anticipated that further water resources would be required by 2013. The latest projections based on WDM and IDP however indicates that the need for new water resources could be postponed until much later. The City is currently working on figures to update these projections.

4.1.6 End Use

There is an urgent need for more accurate end use data in the City of Cape Town.

The most recent local information regarding end use is possibly in the Water Consumption Study for the City of Cape Town60 which conducted an extensive literature review and published results of an end use survey which they conducted in the City of Cape Town. Published values for unit demand indicate that a low, typical and high per capita demand is considered to be 50-, 300- and 650 liters/capita/day (l/c/d) respectively, by global standards. The global minimum standard is accepted to be about 50 l/c/d. The South African studies showed that the low-, typical- and high demands are 50-, 150- and 300 l/c/d locally. The study found limited information on end-use share, the difference between indoor and outdoor use. Garden water demand appears to contribute most to residential water demand (if a garden were present and were irrigated). The study found that the share of water used for garden irrigation varies

60

COCT, 2005 Water Consumption Study, Community Engineering Services


50

considerably from one study to another. It is clear from literature that garden water demand is hard to predict. An interesting pattern emerged regarding the share of indoor water demand by different indoor end-uses. In all cases the toilet, bath-shower and washing machine are the most significant indoor end uses, and the published values based on measured data are similar. It was found that these three end-uses represent about 75% of the total indoor use (based on international studies, which appear to be more extensive and accurate than many local studies). Findings of the survey for unit demand, garden demand and indoor demand are categorized according to internet responses (likely high income users) and hand-out responses (likely low income users). With regards to price elasticity it was found that garden water demand would reduce more than indoor water demand if the price of water is increased.

4.1.5.1 Water use distribution

Sourced information on the use distribution was still presented according to the previous Metropolitan Local Council (MLC) districts boundaries, as is therefore described according to these. The six previous MLC‟s have subsequently been replaced by 20 Sub Councils as follows:

Figure 8: Previous 6 Metropolitan Local Councils

The following (past and projected) population statistics have been extracted:

City of Cape

Town

Population

2001

Population

2006

Avg

Growth

% 2001

- 2006

Population

2016

Avg

Growth

% 2006

- 2016

Population

2031

Avg

Growth

% 2016

- 2031

Cape Town 1,130,175 1,187,229 1.0 1,253,867 0.6 1,280,143 0.1


51

Table 9: Projected Population Growth for the City of Cape Town61

The following table summarises the average yearly consumption per area for the period 1999 - 200662. For further reference, this data contains monthly usage per MLC are for the period Jan 2004 – December 2006 and yearly total usage for the period 1999 – 2006.

Table 10: Water usage per previous MLC boundary billing area

According to these broad boundaries there is a direct link between population size and water usage. The Cape Town area, which represents 33% of the total population, uses 34 % of the water and Helderberg, which represents 5% of the population, uses 6% of the water.

4.1.7 Water losses and un-accounted for water

The following section is extracted from a recent report63 to the Trading Services and Infrastructure Portfolio Committee to, in an attempt to create an understanding of unaccounted water losses in the City of Cape Town.

The definition of UAW as used by Water Services is from the South African Bureau of Standards (SABS) Code of Practice (SABS 0306:1999): The Management of Potable Water in Distribution Systems. In the code, UAW is defined as:

61

COCT, 2006 WSDP 62

From King,Peter 2007, Unpublished Water Usage tables 63

COCT, 2007 Understanding Water Losses: Report to Trading Services and Infrastructure Portfolio Committee

Tygerberg 976,412 1,075,394 2.0 1,174,194 0.9 1,214,732 0.2

Blaauwberg 173,452 271,370 11.3 374,080 3.8 433,181 1.1

South Peninsula 406,354 437,676 1.5 481,640 1.0 519,724 0.5

Oostenberg 319,710 389,351 4.4 470,436 2.1 525,466 0.8

Helderberg 148,114 186,084 5.1 243,517 3.1 282,601 1.1

Total 3,154,217 3,547,104 2.5 3,997,734 1.3 4,255,847 0.4

City of Cape Town

Population

2006

Average yearly

water usage in

kl

% Use

Cape Town 1,187,229 81 578 702 34

Tygerberg 1,075,394 70 279 566 28

Blaauwberg 271,370 24 919 863 10

South Peninsula 437,676 30 501 599 12

Oostenberg 389,351 24 902 349 10

Helderberg 186,084 15 380 471 6

Total 3,547,104 247 562 510 100


52

“Unaccounted-for water: the difference between the measured volume of water put into the supply and distribution system and the total volume of water measured to authorized consumers whose fixed property address appears on the official list of the water services authority”.

The UAW as defined above comprises both physical and non-physical losses. The components of UAW are:

Physical losses: o authorised but unmetered consumption o authorised but unmetered usage o reservoir overflows and leakage o distribution main bursts and leakage Non-physical losses: o unauthorised unmetered connections o inaccurate meters o errors in billing and administrative systems

UAW can be seen as water leaving the system that is not measured in some way i.e. not accounted for. A summary of the water balance for the 2005/06 financial year is given below. Total water treated: 290,698,195 m3 Total water supplied to consumers: 235,776,671 m3 Total UAW: 54,921,524 m3 Total UAW as % of total water treated: 18.9 % The following table presents a 12 month moving average of unaccounted for water in the City of Cape Town:


53

UAW 12 Month Moving Average

0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

25.0%

Jun-0

5

Jul-05

Aug-0

5

Sep-0

5

Oct-

05

Nov-0

5

Dec-0

5

Jan-0

6

Feb-0

6

Mar-

06

Apr-

06

May-0

6

Jun-0

6

Figure 8: 12 Month moving average of UAW

The most recent WC/WDM strategy64 indicates that the total unaccounted for water is estimated at 23.3% or 186 Ml/day.

The strategy explains that statistics on UAW do not necessarily reflect the quantum of water wasted. The measurement of minimum night flow (MNF), which is made up of reticulation losses and consumer wastage, is a proposed as an alternative indicator. In a residential area where there is no industrial water usage it can be assumed that most of the Minimum Night Flow recorded from data logging is water wastage made up of the following:

Leaks in the reticulation systems

Leaks within the consumers‟ properties (i.e. plumbing leaks)

Indiscriminate wastage of water (i.e. people leaving taps open)

Automatic flushing urinals (i.e. urinals in schools and public buildings) It is however concluded that the overall MNF in CCT cannot be accurately calculated due to the absence of adequate district management areas in certain areas. The overall minimum night flow in CCT is estimated at 20 % to 35% of the total average demand. This amounts to between 159 Ml/day and 279Ml/day.

A recent Council Report on Unaccounted Water65 states the following challenges which Water Services must still address in reducing water losses, namely:

Move towards more informative method of reporting on water losses.

64

COCT, 2007 Water Conservation and Demand Management Strategy 65

COCT, 2007 Understanding Water Losses: Report to Trading Services and Infrastructure Portfolio Committee


54

Ensuring the accuracy of the water balance by addressing both the accuracy of measuring devices and the accuracy of the data used in the balance calculation.

Further planning and creation of distribution system zones to allow problem areas to be identified.

Ensure a strategy is in place to replace obsolete or inaccurate consumer meters.

Ensure all authorised but currently unmetered use is reasonably measured. Ensure all new connections are placed on the billing system. Audits and investigations done to identify unauthorised consumption like

illegal connections and unauthorised use of hydrants. Large consumer meter audit and meter sizing analysis. Further application of pressure management to reduce leakage levels. Establishment of mains leak detection and repair programme.

Water Services is in the process of compiling a detailed strategy for addressing the above issues and challenges regarding the measurement and reduction of water losses.

4.2 Basic Sanitation and Wastewater Treatment

“To most people sewerage is not sexy. Politicians do not hurry to be photographed cutting ribbon on a new sewerage plant”. Cape Times 66

The dysfunctional state of the sewage infrastructure in the City of Cape Town is often front page news. Under the heading “Sewage Shock” the Cape Times editorial, cited above, furthermore highlights the environmental consequences and limitations to development caused by the lack of past investment in the sewage infrastructure. In her 2007/8 budget speech, the City of Cape Town‟s mayor cautions against the negative impacts on development, public health and the environment and emphasis the need for investment in sewage infrastructure67. The following section provides a summary of basic sanitation and wastewater treatment realities in the City of Cape Town. Two critical issues from this chapter are:

Provision of basic services to existing informal settlements and new arrivals

Upgrading and extending the existing wastewater treatment facilities

66

Cape Times, 3 April 2007 : Editorial 67

Cape Times, 3 April 2007 : Inadequate Management hinders development by Anel Powell


55

4.2.1 Basic Sanitation

The bucket system will not be eradicated as long as informal housing persists in Cape Town, city officials say.

Cape Argus, 3 April 200768 The fate of shack dwellers using buckets for toilets was decided at a City of Cape Town Council meeting where a call was made to address the housing backlog of 400 000, before upgrading sanitation services to „informal‟ dwellings. It was argued that proper sanitation services could be provided once people were moved to areas where this was possible. The latest WSDP69 reports that approximately 30 000 households do not have access to basic sanitation, while 17 050 remaining informal households have a basic service which includes toilet shared at by less than 5 households per toilet. The households that do not have access to basic sanitation have access to an emergency level of service, which includes black buckets, of which 2 857 still need to be replaced. The WSDP furthermore highlights the lack of sanitation for the current influx of approximately 7 700 households per annum into the informal settlements.

4.2.2 Wastewater Treatment and Infrastructure

The following map indicates the location of key components of the wastewater treatment network:

68

Cape Argus, 3 April 2007: Shack Dwellers stuck with buckets by Lindsay Dentlinger 69

COCT, 2007 WSDP


56

Figure 9: Main components of the wastewater treatment infrastructure

70

The City‟s bulk wastewater infrastructure consists of the following71:

20 Wastewater Treatment Works

3 Marine Outfalls

27 Major pump stations

15 Major interceptor sewers

70

COCT, 2006 : WSDP 71

COCT,2001 : Bulk Water Infrastructure and Statistics (Internal document)


57

Approximately 120 km of bulk gravity sewers

In addition to the above, there are approximately 395 smaller pump stations and associated reticulation networks, responsible for sewage conveyance across the city. The major portion of the wastewater flow of approximately 567 Mℓ/day generated within the CMA is conveyed through pumping installations and treated at 20 wastewater treatment works. Only 32, 5 Mℓ/day is disposed of via the three marine outfall pipelines. The following schedule provides a comprehensive overview of key Wastewater Treatment Works data:

WW

TW

Type

Perm

it v

olu

me

(Ml/annum

)

Desig

n C

apacity -

H

ydra

ulic

Load

(Ml/day)

Pre

sent hydra

ulic

lo

adin

g (

Annual

daily

avera

ge)

Pre

sent hydra

ulic

loadin

g (

Ml pa)

Hydra

ulic

capacity

availa

ble

for

develo

pm

ent (%

)

Desig

n C

apacity -

O

rganic

Load

(CO

D k

g/d

ay)

Desig

n C

apacity -

Org

anic

Load -

popula

tio

n

equiv

ale

nts

Pre

sent O

rganic

lo

adin

g -

pe's

(annual daily

avera

ge)

Capacity still

availa

ble

for

develo

pm

ent?

(%

)

Dis

charg

e v

olu

me

(Ml/annum

)

Additio

nal

requirem

ent

within

5 y

ears

?

Athlone AS 73,000 105 106.8 38,982 nil 99,000 900,000 788,527 12.4 38,982 no

Bellville AS 14,691 54.6 51.8 18,907 5.1 63,930 581,182 561,047 3.5 17,837 yes

Borcherds Quarry

AS 12,045 33 31.1 11,352 5.8 39,600 360,000 400,000 NIL 10,900 no

Camps Bay Sea Outfall 2,000 5.5 2.1 767 61.8 4,400 40,000 19,903 50.2 766 no

Cape Flats AS 91,250 200 135.2 49,348 32.4 199,100 1,810,000 1,164,078 35.7 40,000 no

Dover Ox Pond - 0.01 0.005 2 50.0 - - - 50.0 nil no

Gordons Bay AS 1,290 3.1 2.7 986 12.9 1,530 13,909 16,400 NIL 986 yes

Green Point Sea Outfall 10,950 40 26.8 9,782 33.0 25,600 232,727 175,000 24.8 9,782 no

Hout Bay Sea Outfall 3,600 9.8 4.5 1,643 54.1 8,820 80,182 32,762 59.1 1,643 no

Klipheuwel RDU - 0.07 0.1 37 NIL 50 455 750 NIL 0 yes

Kraaifontein AS + BF 2,810 17.5 18.8 6,862 NIL 17,500 159,091 125,415 21.2 6,300 yes

Llandudno RDU 114 0.28 0.19 69 32.1 175 1,591 1,036 34.9 69 no

Macassar AS 13,280 57 36.2 13,213 36.5 40,755 370,500 236,382 36.2 12,920 no

Melbosstrand

AS 5,475 5.4 2.9 1,059 46.3 2,700 24,545 15,753 35.8 200 yes

Millers Point RDU - 0.06 0.06 22 NIL 66 600 600 NIL 22 yes

Mitchells Plain

AS 9,024 45 33 12,045 26.7 52,800 480,000 392,895 18.1 12,045 no

Oudekraal RDU 1.26 0.03 0.03 11 NIL 33 300 300 NIL 11 no

Parow AS 438 1.2 1.0 365 16.7 748 6,800 7,092 NIL 0 yes

Philadelphia Ox Pond - 0.086 0.075 27 12.8 - - - 10.0 0 yes

Potsdam AS + BF 14,700 32 35.5 12,958 NIL 33,600 305,455 385,000 NIL 8,319 at present

Scottsdene AS 2,140 12 10.3 3,760 14.2 10,200 92,727 68,417 26.2 3,300 yes

Simons Town

BF 730 5 2.3 840 54.0 3,040 27,636 12,710 54.0 840 no

Wesfleur AS 2,372 14 9.8 3,577 30.0 16,800 152,727 87,713 42.6 0 yes

Wildevoelvlei AS 2,555 14 9.9 3,614 29.3 9,460 86,000 73,615 14.4 3,613 yes

Zandvliet AS 16,790 59 52 18,980 11.9 41,300 375,455 336,341 10.4 18,980 at


58

WW

TW

Type

Perm

it v

olu

me

(Ml/annum

)

Desig

n C

apacity -

H

ydra

ulic

Load

(Ml/day)

Pre

sent hydra

ulic

lo

adin

g (

Annual

daily

avera

ge)

Pre

sent hydra

ulic

loadin

g (

Ml pa)

Hydra

ulic

capacity

availa

ble

for

develo

pm

ent (%

)

Desig

n C

apacity -

O

rganic

Load

(CO

D k

g/d

ay)

Desig

n C

apacity -

Org

anic

Load -

popula

tio

n

equiv

ale

nts

Pre

sent O

rganic

lo

adin

g -

pe's

(annual daily

avera

ge)

Capacity still

availa

ble

for

develo

pm

ent?

(%

)

Dis

charg

e v

olu

me

(Ml/annum

)

Additio

nal

requirem

ent

within

5 y

ears

?

present

Treatment Type : AS= Activated Sludge Ox Pond = Oxidation pond BF = Bio-filter RDU = Rotating Disk Unit

Table 11: Wastewater treatment data72

There is a critical shortage of treatment capacity (hydraulic and/or organic) at in the areas experiencing the rapid expansion i.e: Bellville, Klipheuwel, Gordon‟s Bay, Kraaifontein, Parow and Potsdam. Other significant statistics form the same report cited above includes:

Approximately 31,0 Ml/d (5,9%) of wastewater is discharged directly via marine outfall sewers

53 000 tonnes/annum of dry sludge is estimated to be produced

Approximately 31 Ml/d (6%) of treated effluent is re-used

The total effluent received at the treatment works is given in the table below:

2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06

Total (Ml) 193 453 192 083 195 865 196 214 196 498 198 891

Inc / dec -0.7% +2.0% +0.2% +0.1% +1.2%

This represents 88.3% and 84.3% of the water supplied to consumers in 2004/05 and 2005/06 respectively. The relatively high proportion can be attributed to the stormwater ingress.

4.2.3 State of Infrastructure

The strategic assessment of the bulk wastewater infrastructure conduced in 1999 73 evaluated the performance of wastewater equipment, processes and management systems and identified where improvements were necessary. This comprehensive 37 volume report, which assessed requirement over the next 20 years, has provided the basis for the identification of future management interventions. As noted above, the operational realities in the wastewater department have however not been able to keep to these recommendations. Media attention and the latest WSDP continues to highlight the deteriorated state of infrastructure, particularly the sewer system. This alarming fact is due to under-provision for essential maintenance and replacement of aging infrastructure over several years. Major pipe collapses, leakages and stormwater infiltration requires urgent attention. Many sewer systems are

72

COCT, 2007, WSDP 73

CMC, 1999 : Strategic Assessment of Bulk Wastewater Infrastructure : Study Synopsis (Ninham Shand and Africon)


59

running over capacity and discharging sub-standard effluent and sewage sludge into the receiving water and marine environments. The areas where water and sewer infrastructure are severely stressed and are in need of significant upgrades include74:

West Coast / Parklands development corridor

De Grendel / N7 development node

Northern development corridor

Bottelary development corridor

Fast-track housing projects (e.g. N2 Gateway)

Maccassar / AECI development node

4.2.4 Wastewater Effluent and Environmental Impact

The following table provides a summary of the % compliance of WWTW to the treatment standards prescribed by DWAF.

Table 12: % Compliance of WWTW to DWAF standards

75

The figure shows that 70% or 14 out of the 20 wastewater treatment plants in the City of Cape Town have less than 75% compliance to the DWAF standard, as far as one or more of the listed variables are concerned. Although many wastewater practices are in directly violating the Water Act, DWAF have favoured a „cooperative governance‟ approach and steered clear any intentions to enforce their laws at this stage

74

COCT, 2007 WSDP, Executive Summary 75

COCT, 2007 WSDP

WORKS Susp Solids Chem OxDemand

Ammonia E Coli

Athlone 98 98 98 0

Bellville 78 82 62 2

Borcherds Quarry 100 98 86 65

Cape Flats 49 47 49 83

Gordons Bay 100 98 96 93

Klipheuwel 96 60 38 89

Kraaifontein 98 92 76 89

Llandudno 96 98 96 42

Macassar 100 90 72 80

Melkbosstrand 100 100 100 94

Millers Point 69 29 76 95

Mitchells Plain 98 96 92 48

Oudekraal 79 67 85 81

Parow 86 72 88 66

Potsdam 86 26 20 26

Scottsdene 96 89 96 91

Simons Town 76 4 37 62

Wesfleur – Domestic 100 98 100 100

Wesfleur - Industrial 88 45 88 60

Wildevoelvlei 94 94 100 96

Zandvliet 98 100 92 98

MORE THAN 90% COMPLIANCE75% - 90% COMPLIANCELESS THAN 75% COMPLIANCE


60

The Cities State of the Rivers76 report documenting the health of rivers in the greater Cape Town area found the ecological health of rivers downstream of final effluent discharges from Wastewater Treatment Works “poor” to “bad”. Degradation of the rivers, wetlands and coastal bathing areas, toxic algae blooms and alien infestation are some of the consequences of polluted discharges. In addition, altered flows and canalization have diminished the system‟s capacity to self cleanse, or assimilate pollution. Water Quality Indicators show severe environmental degradation. The impact on human health has however not been quantified, and there is an urgent need link human health issues/quality of life with degraded environments in order to increase the profile of this issue.

4.2.5. Sewage Sludge

Wastewater treatment has three by products. Wastewater (liquid) and biogas (gas) and sewage sludge (solid). It is estimated that the City produces 48 415 ton of sewage sludge per year of which 57% was beneficially used in 2006.

WORKS ESTIMATED ANNUAL

SLUDGE PRODUCTION - Tons

QUANTITY BENEFICIALLY USED JAN TO DEC 2006 -

Tons

% BENEFICIALLY

USED

MONTHLY PRODUCTION

- tons

Athlone 7,500 0 0.0 625

Bellville 5,250 5,889 112.2 438

Borcherds Quarry 4,000 1,881 47.0 333

Cape Flats 11,000 4,000 36.4 917

Gordon's Bay 140 0 0.0 12

Kraaifontein 1,100 890 80.9 92

Macassar 2,800 2,789 99.6 233

Melkbosstrand 150 150 100.0 13

Mitchells Plain 4,250 104 2.4 354

Potsdam 4,500 4,500 100.0 375

Scottsdene 825 800 97.0 69

Simon's Town 100 0 0.0 8

Wesfleur 1,100 1,100 100.0 92

Wildevoelvlei 800 800 100.0 67

Zandvliet 4,900 4,900 100.0 408

TOTAL 48,415 27,803 57.4 4,035

Table 13: Beneficial sludge utilisation

77

Due to the potential health risks, beneficial use of sewage sludge is governed by stringent regulations78. Many under utilised opportunities exist for beneficial use sewage sludge, especially at Athlone wastewater treatment plant which produced 7,500 tons of sludge per year.

76

Cited in COCT, 2006 WSDP for 2006/7 77

King, P Pers Com and unpublished graph 78

DWAF, 2006/7 Guidelines for Utilisation and Disposal of Wastewater sludge (Volume 1-5)


61

The following disposal processes were considered in an earlier strategic investigation for bulk wastewater79

Incineration

Composting

High lime process

Drying and pelletisation

Co-disposal on landfill

Direct agricultural use

Manufacture of organic fertilizer

Brick making and allied fields

Co-combustion in coal fired power stations The City of Cape Town currently uses composting (Vissershok), land application (Athlone) and pelletisation. The eventual selection of the final disposal option will determine the preceding treatment processes and costs.

As current information regarding uses and quantities is scarce, opportunities for beneficial use of sludge, especially in the energy sector, should be the subject of further investigation.

4.2.6 Wastewater re-use

“The investigation established that the potential of treated effluent use could be expanded to 170 Mega liters per day (40% of the total summer waste water treated per day) at an average total supply cost of below R2,0 / kl. This equals 30% of the annual supply from the new Berg River Dam project.” COCT, 2007: Review of Progress

Treated effluent re-use is possibly the most underexploited resource in the City of Cape Town! Two thirds of the City‟s water consumption ends up in more than 20 Wastewater Treatment Works across the City from where the final effluent is normally discharged back into the environment. Thus far, the majority of Golf Courses in the City are using treated effluent for irrigation purposes, as do parks and sport fields. A limited number of Industries are also benefiting from the lower tariff, of re-used water. The total existing average daily summer re-use is estimated at 30 Ml per day or 7% of the total waste water treated80. As cited above, it has been established that re-use can be increased from 7% (30Ml/day) to 39% (170Ml/day).

79

CMC, 1999 : Strategic Investigation of Bulk Wastewater, Study Synopsis, Cape Wastewater Consultants 80

COCT,2006 Water Services Annual Report 2005/6


62

A feasibility assessment in 2004 determined that at R2.00 per kilolitre, 23 000 000 kl/year (63 Ml/day) can (in the short term) be recycled to a number of potential large consumers. The following financial implications, extracted form the progress report above, illustrate the financial feasibility: “To achieve the 63 Ml/day saving of potable water, it will cost the City in the order of R202M (NPV). At an average R 2 /kl the income generated once completed will be approximately R 51 million per year. This implies that the programme will pay itself in approximately four years and will subsequently be generating an income for CCT.” The City of Cape Town has identified three main programmes to achieve the objective of maximizing treated effluent and these are as follows81:

Installations and modifications to infrastructure to the value of R202 million

Operations, maintenance and effective management of the treated effluent systems

Consumer and financial management The following table summarises the cost and flow related figures of immediate “quick win” and longer term effluent reuse opportunities:

PLANT EFFLUENT REUSE Site

Present Immediate Cost Long term

Cost Total

Ml/d Ml/d NPV(R/m) Ml/d NPV(R/m) Demand

Athlone 2.911 0 0 14.787 41 17.698

Bellville 4.133 0.000 0 7.103 40 11.236

Cape flats 2.620 0.204 0 5.356 32 8.180

Gordons Bay 0.000 0.291 0 0.763 4 1.054

Kraaifontein 0.833 3.202 0.54 0.623 2 4.657

Macassar 2.038 0.000 0 4.949 13 6.986

Mitchells Plain 0.000 0.000 0 3.528 14 3.528

Parow 0.699 0.175 0.45 0.437 1 1.310

Potsdam 4.657 0.000 0 19.212 13 23.869

Scotsdene 0.116 3.202 2.5 1.182 9 4.500

Wesfleur 0.175 0.000 0 1.863 9 2.038

Wildevoelvlei 0.000 0.000 0 2.765 11 2.765

Zandvleit 0.291 0.000 0 2.329 13 2.620

Total 18.473 7.073 3.49 64.895 202 90.441

Table 14: Effluent re-use: Immediate and long term opportunities

81

COCT, 2007 WSDP


63

The income that could be generated from the immediate works that would cost R 3.49 million would release 7 Ml of effluent for re-use and generated an estimated at R 5.2 million per annum.

The Athlone, Bellville, Cape Flats and Potsdam works have the highest effluent re-use potential and it is estimated that 64.89 Ml of effluent could be made available for re-use in the long term, at a cost of R202 Million. A major extension to the Potsdam Treated Works includes a new intake chamber, two new pump stations, a filtration plant, 4km of pipeline and a 40Ml storage reservoir. This scheme is able to re-use 17Ml/day of treated effluent, saving on the same amount of potable water use. It was constructed at a cost of R19,0 M82.

4.2.7 Grey water

There are two key issues relating to grey water in the City of Cape Town:

The current risk that it poses to human health and the receiving environment in informal areas

The unexplored potential of grey water as an alternative water resource

The City of Cape Town‟s Greywater guidelines83 define grey water as the runoff from informal settlements as a result of emergency water supply which consists of wastewater from the washing of laundry, personal bathing and cooking activities. Grey water from un-serviced or poorly services areas is highly contaminated with organics, nutrients and pathogens. The bulk of the grey water from informal settlements is discharged to the stormwater system, where is causes severe pollution, poses health risks to neighbouring communities, and has huge maintenance cost implications. The current guidelines propose that Grey water should be disposed of to the sewer system or to a soak-away, where the soils allow for this practice. The latest WSDP 84 reports on a pilot grey water management pilot project in an informal settlement in Khayelitsha. The project aims to establish the impact of aeration on a stormwater trench which collects grey water. More information needs to be obtained about the long term objectives and sustainability of this project.

82

COCT, 2007 WSDP 83

COCT, 2005 : Greywater Guidelines 84

COCT, 2007


64

Grey water from formal serviced areas is less prone to harmful pathogens and the nutrients therein offer opportunities for re-use in gardens and/or toilet. One of the objectives of the City of Cape Town‟s latest Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy85 is to promote alternative water resources and technologies which include the following:

Promote rain harvesting

Promote local borehole extraction for small consumers

Promote grey water reuse

Investigate unconventional Water Resources The strategy notes the need for to address the health and pollution issues related to this practice and proposes that the following activities of this programme that need to be budgeted for:

Development of guidelines and regulations regarding the use of grey water

Research into products that can assist into grey water reuse

Pilot project into grey water reuse

Promoting the use of grey water

4.3 Service levels

The following table shows the service levels categories used by the City of Cape Town:

Category WATER

Inadequate No access to basic water supply as defined below. (Water would generally be obtained at great difficulty from other residents supplied at an emergency, basic or full level of supply.)

Emergency Partial access to basic water supply, as dictated by site-specific constraints (e.g., high dwelling densities).

Basic a) The provision of potable water (usually through communal taps/standpipes):

within 200 meters of a household;

at a ratio of not more than 25 households per tap (based on 25 liters per person per day at a flow rate of 10 liters per minute);

with an effectiveness of not more than 7 days interruption supply to any consumer per year; and

b) the provision of appropriate education in respect of effective water use.

Full House connection

85

COCT, 2007 WC/WDM Strategy


65

SANITATION

Inadequate No access to sanitation as defined below. (Residents would either share with other residents, supplied at a basic or full level of supply, their sanitation facilities, or would provide for themselves – often through unhygienic means. In many instances these residents are being serviced by the CCT through the weekly removal of 20 litres open stercus “black bucket” containers, a service which is to be replaced.)

Emergency Partial access to sanitation (more than 5 households per toilet), as dictated by site-specific constraints (e.g., high dwelling densities),

Basic a) The provision of a shared toilet (at a ratio of not more than 5 families per toilet) which is safe, reliable, environmentally sound, easy to keep clean, provides privacy and protection against the weather, well ventilated, keeps smells to a minimum and prevents the entry and exit of flies and other disease-carrying pests; and

b) the provision of appropriate health and hygiene education.

Full On-site Waterborne, Septic Tank or French Drain

Table 15: Service level categories

86

Both existing formal developed and informal areas (excluding rural areas) in the City of Cape Town generally meet the minimum standards for water supply as required by the Water Services Act 108 (of 1997) i.e. a communal standpipe within 200 m walking distance (with a minimum supply rate of 25 litres per person per day at 10 litres per minute). All of the 847 000 consumer unit‟s formal households have either a metered water connection to the house or to a yard toilet with water tap (uncontrolled volume supply). The first 6 kilolitres per month are supplied at no charge (free basic). Informal areas have communal standpipes and water is provided free. The latest WSDP87 reports that approximately 30 000 households do not have access to basic sanitation (inadequate), while 17 050 remaining informal households have a basic service which includes toilet shared at by less than 5 households per toilet. The households that do not have access to basic sanitation have access to an emergency level of service, which includes black buckets, of which 2 857 still need to be replaced. 768 000 Households discharge to the sewer treatment works. Formal households generally have water-borne sewer connections with the first 4, 2 kilolitres of sewerage conveyed at no charge (free basic) although households with a property value of greater than R100 000 used to pay a fixed charge dependent on the value of the property. This fixed charge will be discontinued from 1 July 2007. .

86

COCT, 2007 WSDP 87

COCT, 2007 WSDP


66

4.4 Urban Water Cycle

The following useful schematic is from the Water Conservation and Demand Management Strategy:

Figure 10: Urban water cycle in COCT

88

4.5 Asset Management

Infrastructure management is one of the key strategy drivers of the Water Services Strategy. An asset management plan is a plan developed for the management of one or more infrastructure assets that combines multi-disciplinary management techniques (including technical and financial) over the life cycle of the asset in the most cost effective manner to provide a specified level of service. A significant component of the plan is a long-term cash flow projection for the activities89.

88

From Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy, COCT 2004 89

COCT, 2005 Project Definition Report for the Asset Management Plan for the Trading Services


67

Various Water Services reports have acknowledged that the lack of a proper Asset Management System contributed extensively to the deterioration in infrastructure and service delivery in the City of Cape Town. A project was launched in 2003 to develop a Strategic Municipal Asset Management Plan (AMP) for the Trading Services to ensure that:

Asset requirements and asset management strategies are driven by defined service levels and performance standards, and are linked to strategic planning objectives as defined in the Integrated Development Plan [IDP];

Scarce financial resources are properly allocated and managed to optimise investment in infrastructure; and

A long-term (life-cycle) approach is taken when determining asset operations, maintenance, renewal and development strategies.

The project entails a six staged approach:

Stage 1: Improvement Strategy Development Stage 2: Basic Asset Register Stage 3: Basic Asset Management Stage 4: Improved Maintenance Management Stage 5: Introduce Advanced Asset Management Techniques Stage 6: System Optimization

To date the programme has been facilitated through an asset care centre and managed through a bureau arrangement with asset performance management specialist PRAGMA Africa.

4.6 Greenhouse gas emissions associated with water and sanitation

A scoping study on energy efficiency and greenhouse gas mitigation projects was conduced for the City of Cape Town in 200290. The purpose of the study was to demonstrate how energy efficiency retrofits could assist the COCT to achieve ongoing energy consumption and operational cost savings in municipal services, to improve existing quality of municipal service, and to reduce local pollution and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to the atmosphere due to their municipal services.

The scoping report uses the GHG contribution statistics from an earlier survey91 as its point of departure. This study found solid waste land fills sites are the largest contributor to GHG emissions (tonnes CO2 equivalent) at 37% and that water and sewerage only contributes 6%. The study results are summarised as follows:

90

COCT, 2002 : Scoping Investigation Report on Energy Efficiency and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Projects for the City of Cape Town 91

Sustainable Energy Africa & COCT, 2002 (Unpublished report): Greenhouse Gas Inventory for the City of Cape Town


68

With regards to water and sewerage, it appears as if the study only considered emission related to energy consumption. Verification is required on whether the statistics above include the methane (CH4) emissions from wastewater treatment plants. The study makes various energy saving recommendations per sector, of which the following is relevant to the water supply and wastewater sectors: Water Supply: The main opportunities for energy efficiency are:

Scheduling of pumps

Use of more efficient pumps and/or technologies such as variable speed drives (VSD)

Adjusting the diameter of existing pipes to more efficient dimensions

Repairing cracks and leaks in the distribution system

Redirecting water flow more effectively through the installation of new valves, and

Expanding the volumes of water containment areas and holding tanks The following feasible projects were recommended for implementation (cost estimates for 2002):

Atlantis : Install VSDs on all large pumps of Altantis pumping station (at the Silwerstroom WTP) at a cost estimate of R522,000 and potentially reduce electricity by 3 072 870 kWh , saving R460 930. The project payback period was estimated at 1.3years, which could result in emission reductions of 2 735 tonnes CO2 per year, 24 tonnes SOx emissions, 12 tonnes NOX emissions and 1 tonne particulate emission per year.

Wynberg: Install VSDs on all large pumps at a cost of R 1 179 000 and potentially reduce electricity by 5 236 237 kWh, saving R 785

Waste

37%

Street lighting

24%

Buildings

18%

Vehicle fleet

15%

Water & sewerage

6%

Figure 11: Sectoral contribution to greenhouse gas emissions


69

436. The project payback period was estimated at 1,5 years, which could result in emissions of 4 660 tonnes CO2 per year, 41 tonnes SOX emissions, 21 tonnes NOX emissions and 2 tonnes particulate emissions per year.

Wastewater As aeration is the largest component that contributes to electricity consumption, the following was recommended ;

Change the aeration process form surface aeration to blower (diffused air) aeration

The largest WWTW (Athlone, Bellville, Borcherds Quarry and Cape Flats) already have blower aeration and the following 6 cases were proposed:

Description Macassar Zandvliet Wildevoelvlei Potsdam Gordons Bay Melkbos Strand

Annual energy consumption savings [kWh] 3,504 MWh 2,313 MWh 1,226 MWh 1,367 MWh 259 MWh 154 MWh

Maximum demand reduction [kW] 400 kW 264 kW 140 kW 156 kW 30 kW 18 kW

Annual energy cost of current system [Rand/yr] R1,282,308 R918,877 R567,394 R463,334 R122,003 R53,725

Annual savings in cost due to modification [Rand/yr]

R512,923 R367,551 R226,958 R185,334 R48,801 R21,490

Initial capital investment [Rand] R1,900,000 R1,500,000 R1,200,000 R1,200,000 R400,000 R350,000

Net present value [Rand] R1,584,502 R996,926 R341,818 R59,049 -R68,474.22 -R204,009

Internal rate of return [%] 28% 25% 18% 13% 8% -4%

Straight payback period [years] 3.7 4.1 5.3 6.5 8.2 16.3

Straight payback period [months] 44 49 63 78 98 195

Discounted payback period [years] 4.6 5 7 9 12 20

Discounted payback period [months] 55 60 84 108 144 240

Annual CO2 emission reductions [tonnes/yr] 3,119 2,058 1,091 1,216 231 137

Annual SOX emission reductions [tonnes/yr] 28 18 10 11 2 1

Annual NOX emission reductions [tonnes/yr] 13 8 4 5 1 1

Annual particulate emission reductions [tonnes/yr]

1.09 0.72 0.38 0.42 0.08 0.05

Table 16: Wastewater treatment works aeration conversion analysis results.

Macassar presented the most attractive business case as a change in aeration system was estimated to result in a net reduction in electricity of 3 504 MWh, (nearly 40% from the current). These reductions, together with the reduced electricity demand (400 kW), would bring associated cost savings of R 512,900 per year. The capital cost for the new systems was estimated at approximately R1.9 million. Thee straight payback period was estimated at 3.7 years and the discounted payback period at 4.6 years. Reduced electricity consumption was estimated as 3 119 tonnes CO2 emission reductions per year, 28 tonnes SOX, 13 tonnes NOX and 1 tonnes particulate emission reductions per year. The status and progress of these projects needs to be assessed.


70

4.6.1 Biogas

The process of anaerobic digestion (biomethanation) of wastes produces methane rich biogas and effluent. Biogas mainly consists of methane (60-75%), carbon dioxide (25-40%) and can be used for cooking/heating or motive power or electricity through dual-fuel, gas engine, low pressure gas turbines or steam turbines92. Athlone wastewater treatment plant which treats 105 Ml of sewage per day, currently vents over 4 000 000 m3 (1857 tons) of methane to the atmosphere per year. All eight of its 1000 m3 anaerobic digestors are not capturing biogas for re-use and indications are they are going to be decommissioned93 in the near future. In slides94 from his discussions with the COCT, Mark Wells highlights the following statistics: • 4,000,000 m3/year of biogas • 107,826 GJ/year of energy • 7 GWh/year of electrical power (at 25% conversion efficiency, at 65%

methane in the overall biogas volume produced). • R2,800,000 per year worth of electricity production (at 40cents per kWh) • 37,600 tons/year of CO2 green house gas equivalent abated by burning

methane • 7064 tons/year CO2 saved from coal emissions • R2,100,000 per year worth of Carbon Credits (CDM funding at R48/ton) (Assumes 10% line losses + one month down time per year) Proposals are made to re-use biogas from Athlone to generate electricity, convert to bio-diesel or methane gas cars or sell/pipe gas to homes for use. The sewage to gas proposal at Athlone estimates that R14 million capital investment and R 500 000/a operating cost could earn the City R2,8 million in energy savings and R2,1 in carbon credits, resulting in a payback period of 3,2 years. There is a need for further investigation into biogas production and re-use potential at other COCT plants such as Cape Flats (1, 5 times more than Athlone, some used), Mitchells Plain (1/3 of Athlone, dysfunctional gas collector), Kraaifontein (vented) and Simonstowns (vented).

4.7 Summary of Environmental Impacts

92

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, India http://mnes.nic.in/u3.htm 93

King, P Pers Com, May 2007 94

Wells, M 2005, (Power Point Presentation) Athlone Biogas and Integrated Farming Systems, Concept Discussions with the COCT, Agama Energy 6 September 2005

http://mnes.nic.in/u3.htm


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The City of Cape Town has made great strides towards the development of sustainable policies, but most citizens who tolerate the risk related realities of their un-serviced and/or overcrowded dwellings, polluted rivers and oceans and skylines and the consequences of inappropriate development would question the extent to which „paper commitments‟ are being met. Investigations have been conducted in some catchments to determine the impact of wastewater treatment facilities on vulnerable waterbodies. Due to time constraints and the relocation of the relevant department and their library (Catchment Stormwater and River Management Department) a comprehensive referenced list of these investigations could not be included. It is however understood that information is available for the following:

Wildevoelvlei (WWTW impact)

Rietvlei(WWTW impact)

Zeekoevlei(WWTW impact and groundwater)

Houtbay (Marine discharge impact)

Fasle Bay (Marine discharges)

Kuils River (WWTW impact)

Salt River (WWTW impact)

The following section provides an overview of some of the key environmental issues that stem directly from the water and sanitation service:

Flow alteration: Large volumes of treated effluent are discharged into the receiving environment, altering natural flows, with most significant impacts on summer low-flow conditions. Dams and water abstractions and alter normal flow regimes, which disturbs natural fauna and flora migration patterns.

Water Quality deterioration: Most of the water bodies that receive treated effluent, including bathing beaches show severe signs of deterioration, due to the continued discharge of substandard effluent. In addition, health and environment is compromised by runoff from un-serviced areas (grey and black water), which contains high levels of faecal coliform bacteria and could carry waterborne diseases of epidemic proportions.

Nutrient Enrichment (Eutrophication): Final effluent and runoff from poorly serviced areas is high in nitrates and phosphates, which when discharged into the receiving environment, creates opportunities for alien aquatic weeds, such as water hyacinth, to flourish. Toxic algal blooms have also been recorded in two water bodies in the City which receive final effluent from wastewater treatment plants.


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River bed and bank alteration: Sewage spills and runoff form urban areas cause rivers siltation. In order to prevent flooding river need to be cleared (mostly mechanically) of silt and alien vegetation which causes bed and bank habitat destruction. Years of digging have also deepened the profile of many rivers that use to be flatter in profile. In addition to the loss of habitat, this action also results in dangerously steep river banks that are often difficult to climb out of, in the event of an accident.

Nuisance: Wastewater treatment plants are often associated with bad odours, flies and unsightly water bodies. Although none of these should occur at a fully functional plant, few would volunteer to stay in the vicinity of one. (Ask the neighbours of Athlone WWTW).

Footprint: Water and wastewater treatment plants are traditionally big unsightly structures highly secured and inaccessible to the public. They often create a “sterilize” pocket in the urban landscape which contributes quite extensively to greenhouse gas emissions (see previous chapter).

Loss of environmental service: Not only do polluted rivers river represent a loss of a recreational and/or ceremonial amenity, the potential environmental service (ability to clean up/absorb spills etc) which it offers has also been lost.

Involvement of an informed public and officials in a process that would mitigate these challenges and still provide an affordable service is an ongoing challenge. The lead time for new infrastructure, including an Environmental Impact Assessment, could take up to 7 years. Future work in required in this field includes:

Linking human health risk to environmental risk in order to increase the profile of environmental degradation in the Cities waterways

Quantifying the value of the environmental service that the natural resources offers, in order to calculate the long term loss

Collate available information and quantify the current impact of WWTW on the receiving environment


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5. Technological Interventions

Energy represents the largest controllable cost of providing water or wastewater services to the public. California Energy Commission95

5.1 Existing Technologies and Energy

The following graph (under development) list technologies in water in sanitation in according to their energy demands:

Technology Energy Use (Ranked from high to low)

Bulk water supply Inter –basin transfer (national) (Lesotho) Inter-basin transfer (local) Catchment run-off Groundwater abstraction Rainwater harvesting

H ▼ L

95

Californa Energy Commission website www.energy.ca.gov

http://www.energy.ca.gov/


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Storage Dams Reservoirs Rainwater tanks Aquifers

H ▼ L

Water purification Sedimentation/flocculation Primary settling Boiling

H ▼ L

Transportation to end-users Pump stations Water vendors (transportation) Gravitational flow

H ▼ L

Sewage transportation Pump stations Transportation (conservancy tanks and bucket systems) Gravitational flow

H ▼ L

Sewage Treatment Aerobic Treatment (Activated sludge) Anaerobic treatment Primary :Screening (to sea) On site (e.g. VIP, septic tank) None (Greywater)

H ▼ L

Disposal Re-use : Domestic Re-use : Industrial Re-use : Recreational (Golf/sportfields/parks) Re –Use : Agricultural (Phillipi) Discharge to rivers/wetlands Discharge to groundwater Discharge to sea Discharge to stormwater system (Greywater)

H ▼ L

5.2 Alternative Technology Options

5.2.1 Alternative sources of water

Literature reviewed cites the most feasible alternative sources of water for the City of Cape Town as:

Groundwater

Treated Effluent

Desalinated seawater

In view of the dramatic impact of effective water conservation and demand management on water use, it is should not deemed feasible to consider more dams to supplement Cape Town‟s water supply. The environmental impacts of dams and potential water losses due to evaporation are well documented.


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The following table, compiled from information in a recent COCT Portfolio Committee report96 provides an overview of the various alternative sources of water currently being investigated, together with the status of the investigation:

Source Status Responsibility

TMG Aquifer Feasibility study underway COCT

Newlands Aquifer Feasibility study planned for 2007 COCT

Cape Flats Aquifer Feasibility study planned for 2007 COCT

Desalination Pilot plant feasibility study underway

COCT

Raising Steenbras lower damwall

Feasibility study planned for 2007 COCT/DWAF

Lourens river diversion

Update to pre-feasibility study planned for 2007

COCT/DWAF

Voelvlei phase 1 Update feasibility planned for 2007 DWAF

Mitchells Pass diversion

Pre-feasibility planned for 2007 DWAF

Effluent re-use Polices, standards and project pre-feasibility planned for 2007

COCT/DWAF

COCT: City of Cape Town DWAF: Department of Water Affairs and Forestry

Table 17: Summary of supply interventions, their study status and the responsible authority

An alternative use of resource, not listed above, is the use of underground aquifers for storing water. Namibia is leading the way in Southern Africa with this practice which negates the need for costly dams, reduces many of the environmental impacts (and evaporations) and creates an opportunity to recharge aquifers that might have been depleted by over-abstraction. In their most recent Strategy for Sustainable Development97, the DEAT calls for the development of a programme to use underground aquifers for sourcing and storing water in accordance with sustainability principles.

5.2.2 Technologies to reduce water consumption

The recently updated Water Conservation and Demand Management Strategy for the City of Cape Town98 list the following methods of reducing new demand by new consumers:

1. Installation of pre-payment systems (if economically, technically and

socially viable) 2. Installation of flow limiters (water demand devices) 3. Effective billing systems 4. Communication and education campaigns 5. Regulations and by-laws

96

COCT, 2007 An overview of the western cape water supply system reconciliation strategy and the roles and responsibilities of the city in implementation of the strategy, Report to Utility Services Portfolio Committee 97

DEAT, 2006 Strategy for Sustainable Development 98

COCT, 2007 Water Conservation and Demand Management Strategy


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6. Negotiations and incentives to developers 7. Improved reticulation design and plumbing standards 8. A high level of operation and maintenance, with rapid response to bursts

and leaks The Strategy estimates that increased efficiency of all new consumers can reduce the growth in water demand 25%. Key issues are selecting appropriate levels of service for different communities, ensuring efficient plumbing fittings (such as dual flush toilets), efficient reticulation design practices and pre-payment meters.

5.2.3 Wastewater treatment technologies

Sewage treatment technology has conventionally been considered as a „stand alone‟ solution to the sewerage. A recent WRC report99 highlights the interdependencies between water, food and raw materials and calls for a holistic approach where waste should be seen as a resource and the management thereof linked to water resource and nutrients. The following three steps are proposed:

Prevent and minimize waste (decrease consumption : water saving technologies)

Treat/re-useue/recover (Convert nutrients to protein : agriculture/aquaculture)

Safe disposal Conventional sewage treatment technology process typically involves the following three stages: 1. Primary Treatment - to settle out solids 2. Secondary treatment - to remove the dissolved and emulsified components 3. Tertiary treatment - to make the effluent fit to be received in the environment.

The figure100 is a generalized flow chart of the sewage renovation process used in on-site treatment. In addition to the processes shown, some removal of nitrogen, phosphorous, other nutrients, and other contaminants occurs due to primary and secondary treatment.

99

WRC, 2005 A 3 Step Strategic Approach to sustainable wastewater management 100

Virginia State University website : On site sewage treatment http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/waterquality/448-407/448-407.html#L5

http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/waterquality/448-407/448-407.html#L5


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There are various technologies and various biological treatment processes available101 e.g.: The process biochemistry could be one of three:

Aerobic process (e.g., activated sludge, wastewater maturation ponds, trickling filters, high-rate stabilization ponds).

Anaerobic process (e.g., anaerobic ponds, UASB-Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket reactors).

Facultative process (or mixed) (e.g., facultative ponds, some constructed wetlands, wastewater reservoirs).

The anaerobic process has the highest potential to produce energy. Methane is a by-product of digestion and could be converted to energy, and produce

101

Adapted from “Sewage Treatment Technologies” Juanicó - Environmental Consultants Ltd. Isreal : http://www.juanico.co.il

http://www.juanico.co.il/


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and income. A pilot biogas and integrated farming systems project is currently being proposed for Athlone wastewater treatment plant102. Due to their lower energy demands, anaerobic processes are cheaper than aerobic processes (pumping, aeration) and they also produce less sludge. In an interesting pilot project in Los Angeles, the LA Renewable Energy Project103, wastewater is used for electricity generation. Sewage sludge is pumped into reservoirs underground from where geothermal methane is collected for energy. There is an increasing global trend away form costly high tech solutions to wastewater management. The UNEP‟s Water and Sanitation programme have made phytotechnology (using plants) a priority. Low cost solutions such as constructed wetlands, stabilization ponds and anaerobic baffled reactors are being looked at as solutions to wastewater problems with specific reference to grey water and urban sewage. The following web-linked UNEP manuals104 offer wastewater technology and planning guidance:

Waste Stabilization Ponds and Constructed Wetlands - Design Manual, 2005

Integrated Watershed Management - Ecohydrology & Phytotechology - Manual, Nov 2005

Water and Wastewater Reuse - An Environmentally Sound Approach for Sustainable Urban Water Management , Nov 2005

Phytotechnologies; A Technical Approach in Environmental Management, [FMS7] March, 2003

Managing Urban Sewage; an Introductory Guide for Decision-makers [FMS10], March, 2003 –

Guidelines for the Integrated Management of the Watershed –Phytotechnology and Ecohydrology [FMS5], December, 2002

Biosolids Management; An Environmentally Sound Approach for Managing Sewage Treatment Plants Sludge [FMS1] November, 2002

International Source Book on Environmentally Sound Technologies for Wastewater and Stormwater Management [TP 15] March, 2002 –

Environmentally Sound Technologies in wastewater treatment for the implementation of the UNEP Global Programme of Action (GPA) "Guidance On Municipal Wastewater, January, 2002

102

Wells, M 2005 Athlone Biogas and Integrated Farming System 103

LA Renewable Energy Project www.physorg.com 104

UNEP website : http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/WS/publications.asp

http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/Water_Sanitation/ponds_and_wetlands/index.asp

http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/Water_Sanitation/ponds_and_wetlands/index.asp

http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/Water_Sanitation/integrated_watershed_mgmt_manual/index.asp

http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/Water_Sanitation/integrated_watershed_mgmt_manual/index.asp

http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/Water_Sanitation/wastewater_reuse/index.asp

http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/Water_Sanitation/wastewater_reuse/index.asp

http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/Freshwater/FMS10/index.asp






http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/TechPublications/TechPub-15/main_index.asp



http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/Freshwater/SB_summary/index.asp



http://www.physorg.com/

http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/WS/publications.asp


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Each technology has its advantages and disadvantages regarding construction costs, operational costs, energy use, size, operation simplicity, stability and reliability. Issues to consider:

Public health and environment protection.

Low construction and operational costs.

Issues which could be more sites specific include:

Availability of land

High cost of conveyance of sewage

Availability of trained operators

Optomising re-use of effluent

5.2.4 Catchment Planning and Integrated Urban Water Resource Management (IUWM)

“The IUWM approach is an important strategy in providing water services of adequate quality and quantity to as many people as possible, thereby moving towards the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of halving the number of people without access to water and sanitation by 2015.” UNEP, IETC Brochure105

An interesting global trend in sewage treatment plant design and water and wastewater management, is catchment based planning and management. The approach demands a move away from the design of a treatment plants as an isolated event, towards design within a broader planning framework. In this approach a relatively simple sewage treatment plant design would have been preceded by a broader catchment planning exercise, which highlights the social, environmental and economic opportunities and constraints in that catchment. The catchment becomes the unit of management and planning and the final choice of sewage treatment technology and any other intervention in the catchment would take public health and environmental consideration into account. This approach demands the involvement of a multi-disciplinary team of professionals and goes beyond the classical engineering biased processes of the past. The City of Cape Town face the following challenges regarding catchment based planning:

Responsibility : There is no single department responsibility for the entire water cycle or Integrated Urban Water Management

105

UNEP webpage : www.unep.or.jp/ietc/brochures/iuwm.pdf

http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/brochures/iuwm.pdf


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Fragmentation : Water issues, planning issues and socio-environmental issues are managed as separate entities and are not sufficiently integrated

Speed of development: There are problems with „developmental blueprints‟ (what should go where) for the City as a whole and fast tracked emergency planning is undertaking to meet development needs. Due processes such as public participation, integration and investigation of alternative technologies suffers as a result of time constraints.

The City of Cape Town has a Catchment, Stormwater and River management department who are responsible for the management of the stormwater system (including surface water bodies)106. They are however not responsible for the entire water cycle. Although the water and sanitation service is one of the largest impactors on the stormwater system (increased flows, Greywater run-off etc) their planning and operational systems do not adequately integrate with those of Stormwater. An innovative new opportunity for the City is to implement the philosophy and practice of Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM). The following extract form the Water Research Commission IUWM programme explains107:

“…this (IUWM) is a new field that has emerged as a direct result of conclusions drawn by international and local agencies that sanitation, waste disposal, urban stormwater and runoff, water reticulation cannot be considered to be stand alone issues as they have in the past”

The implementation of IUWM could ensure that all water related processes are planned and managed with a view toward their collective social, economic and environmental impact. This approach would require a paradigm shift within the existing water and sanitation sector of the City of Cape Town.

5.2.5 Centralised vs. decentralized wastewater treatment technologies

Most of the formal developed areas in Cape Town are served by one of the 20 large (centralised) wastewater treatment plants. By definition a decentralised wastewater system treats sewage from homes and business that are not connected to a centralised wastewater treatment plant and includes on site and cluster system108. A septic tank and soak-away or Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) toilet are typical on-site systems, whereas a

106

COCT, 2002 Catchment, Stormwater and River Management Strategy 2002-2007 107

WRC Website : www.wrc.org.za/downloads/knowledgereview/2002/Integrated.pdf 108

EPA, 2004 : Primer for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Systems http://www.epa.gov/OWM/primer.pdf

http://www.wrc.org.za/downloads/knowledgereview/2002/Integrated.pdf

http://www.epa.gov/OWM/primer.pdf


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plant that treats a small group of houses or a development, relatively near their location, is typically a cluster system. This section highlights issues for consideration and emphasises the need for more research in this field. Issues for consideration: Centralised vs. Decentralised systems:

Planning: Centralised systems offer a regional solution to wastewater treatment, whereas ownership and operational issues regarding decentralised systems could require more planning and consultation.

Capital and Operating Cost: Centralised systems are often more capital and labour intensive and more expensive to maintain.

Collection and Conveyance costs: Sewer collection via a vast network of pipelines and rising mains often contribute to 80% of the overall cost of treatment. Decentralised systems could place re-usable wastewater and sludge closer to potential users, saving again on conveyance.

Energy: Due to the extensive distances from source to treatment and larger volume of sewage, centralised systems are more energy consuming than smaller localised systems.

Land requirement/footprint: Centralised systems have a larger physical and carbon footprint.

Skills requirements: Centralised system often requires highly skilled operators and large operational teams, whereas decentralised systems tend to be more low-tech and “hands-on”.

By products: Both systems offer opportunities for re-use of water and solids (sludge) and biogas. Large volumes of effluent generated at centralised systems are often discharged back into the environment at one place. Smaller systems impact less on flow receiving environment, provided that the water quality requirements are met. Groundwater contamination is often associated with decentralised systems such as soak-away systems. Larger volumes of biogas at centralised systems possibly make secondary uses more financially feasible.

A brief internet search produced the following examples of decentralised treatment projects underway elsewhere:

India: Sukriti Engineers109 offers decentralised treatment technologies based on the ground and available land considerations which includes:

Underground sewage treatment plants based on bio filters

Mobile, containerised sewage treatment plants or

Compact plants

109

Sukriti Engineers in : www.tradeindia.com

http://www.tradeindia.com/


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Germany: Heidelberg-Neurott110 decentralised membrane sewage treatment demonstration plant produces wastewater fit to swim in. Each house has a small pump that leads to an influent storage tank, where mixing occurs before treatment by the pre-manufactured unit.

Figure 12: Process flow chart for the membrane bioreactor plant in Heidelberg-Neurott 101

The US Environmental Protection Agency‟s reference document for municipal wastewater treatment111 provides a comprehensive overview of various centralized and decentralized wastewater treatment types. There is extensive scope for research into the viability (financial, social and environmental) of decentralised wastewater treatment, possibly as a potential solution to the City of Cape Town‟s wastewater treatment crises for new developments? Opportunities for treated wastewater and sludge re-use closer to source are also favoured by this approach. Choice of appropriate technology (operating skills, cost), to serve the purpose intended (quality of final effluent/sludge), without compromising human or environmental health, remains one of the biggest challenges in this regard.

110

Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology www.igb.fraunhofer.de/start.en.html 111

EPA, 2004 Primer for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Systems http://www.epa.gov/OWM/primer.pdf

http://www.igb.fraunhofer.de/start.en.html



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6. Financial Aspects112

Over the last decade of the restructuring of Water and Sanitation Services within the broader context of the restructuring of the City there have been ongoing annual operating and capital budget cuts. Staff that have left the service through natural attrition have in many cases not been replaced, resulting in a critical skills shortage particularly of engineers and project managers. The budget cuts have meant that infrastructure expansion and maintenance have fallen behind. In particular, much of the wastewater treatment and sewer pipelines and pump stations infrastructure are in critical need of expansion, upgrading and replacement. The water tariff is low when compared to other major cities in South Africa. In addition bad debt has grown to a massive R2.0 billion (R1.5 for water and R0.5 for sanitation).

112

The chapter was written by John Frame and contains numerous extracts from the COCT Water Services Development Plan 2007/8 – 2011/12, referenced elsewhere in this document, which he co-authored and project lead


84

The severe drought of 2004/05 resulted in water restrictions at a 20% level of reduction. In order to maintain the momentum of a water saving culture of the customers a 10% level of restrictions has been in force since November 2005.

6.1 Water demand and wastewater disposal

The total amount of water sold (billed) versus what was delivered (water treated) is given in the table below:

2001/02

(mil m3)

2002/03 (mil m

3)

2003/04 (mil m

3)

2004/05 (mil m

3)

2005/06 (mil m

3)

Total water treated 287.5 301.4 310.2 282.7 294.5

Billed (Total) * * * 222.5 235.8

Billed (External customers) 19.9 22.5

Unbilled metered and unbilled unmetered (est)

* * * 6.0 6.0

Total authorised * * * 228.5 241.8

Non-Revenue demand 54.2 52.7

* Pre-SAP figures not available

Table 18: Water billed vs. water treated

The growth in water demand over the last 5 years has been 2.7% or 0.5% per annum compared to an historic 3-4% per annum. This reduction in demand growth has been as a result of increased consumer awareness due to the severe water restrictions of 2004/05 and water demand management initiatives. In the 2005/06 the breakdown of water usage in the different categories was:

Category %age Water Usage

Commercial & Industrial 14.6% 39,604,273

Departmental Cluster 1.9% 5,296,873

Domestic Cluster 5.5% 15,085,701

Domestic Full 45.1% 122,767,813

Government 1.6% 4,337,839

Miscellaneous 5.1% 14,003,230

Municipal 2.6% 7,182,864

Schools and Sportsfields 1.9% 5,284,754

Unbilled (estimated) 2.2% 6,000,000

Non-Revenue Demand 19.3% 52,390,255

TOTAL 271,953,601

Table 19: Water usage in different categories

In addition an amount of 22,542,399 m3 was sold to external customers.


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Domestic consumption accounted for 50.7% and non-revenue demand for 19.3 % of the total demand.

6.1.1 Tariffs, Income and Expenditure

The budgeted income for the financial year 2006/07 is given in the table below:

Item Amount

User Charges for Services -1,598,153,508

Rent of Facilities and Equipment -122,434

Interest earned on Arrears -110,000,000

Operating Grants and Subsidies -170,254,241

Other Income -11,739,398

Internal Charges Revenue -813,340,495

Internal Cross Subsidization Revenue -35,952,000

TOTAL -2,739,562,077

Table 20: Budgeted income for 2006/7

The total water and sewerage expenditure budget for 2006/07 is given in the table below:

EXPENDITURE 2006/07

Salaries Wages and Allowances 348,212,131

General Expenses - Other 252,573,115

Bulk Purchases 249,710,992

Contract Services 66,388,599

Grants and Subsidies 0

Bad Debts / Working Capital Reserve 324,859,627

Repairs and Maintenance (primary) 77,564,987

Repairs and Maintenance (secondary) 52,695,467

Depreciation 129,473,185

Depreciation (new assets)

Interest Internal Borrowings 110,398,783

Interest (new loans)

Transfers to&from Reserves/Appr Acct 70,787,876

Internal Utilities Expenditure 48,242,231

Bulk Charges Expenditure 735,111,956

Insurance Departmental Expenditure 11,824,557


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Internal Contribution Expenditure 92,040,000

Activity Based Costs -92,304,405

Corporate Support Services 134,362,233

TOTAL

2,611,941,335

Table 21: Expenditure for 2006/7

The costs are split 60% water and 40% sewerage. A balanced budget is aimed at where the income equals the expenditure. Historically water income subsidized the rates income but this is to be discontinued from the 2007/08 financial year. The projected water usage in each category (and each block – e.g. there are 6 blocks for single residential domestic) with the tariff applied to each determines the “user charge for services”. The volume of sewerage disposed is based on the water consumption and user charges for sewerage are based on a fixed and volumetric charge. The fixed charge, which is based on the value of the property, will no longer apply from 2007/08. Water and sewerage tariffs are set each year for various levels of water restrictions - 0%, 10%, 20% and 30%. A bulk tariff is charged to external users. The average cost of water and sanitation for the financial year 2006/07 is R7.07 per Kl of water sold. The average cost of water is R4.95 per Kl consumed and that of wastewater or sewerage is R2.79 per Kl disposed.

6.1.1.1 Water Tariffs

Water tariffs for a 10% restriction level for the financial years 2006/07 and 2007/08 are given in the table below:

TARIFFS 2006 / 2007 TARIFFS 2007 / 2008

Domestic Full Water that is used predominantly for domestic purposes and supplied to single residential properties.

0-6 0 0-6 R0

+6-12 R2.56 +6-12 R 3.05

+12 – 20

R5.46 +12 – 20 R 6.50

+20 – 40

R8.08 +20 – 40 R 9.63

+40 – 50

R9.98 +40 – 50 R 11.90

+50 R13.17 +50 R 15.70


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TARIFFS 2006 / 2007 TARIFFS 2007 / 2008

Commercial – Water supplied to premises predominantly of a commercial nature Industrial - Water which is used in manufacturing, generating electricity, land-based transport, construction or any related purpose.

R 5.83 Comm / Ind R 6.95

Schools / Sport – Any educational activity / sporting body

R5.15 Schools / Sport R 6.14

Domestic Cluster – Bulk metered flats, cluster developments including single title and sectional title units. An allowance of 6 Kl per unit per month at zero cost upon submission of affidavits stating the number of units.

R5.47 Dom. Cluster R 6.52

Government - National and Provincial Departments

R5.53 Government R 6.59

Municipal – Departmental use R5.15 Municipal R 6.14

Homeless people shelters – Accredited shelters registered with the City of Cape Town.

n/a 0 – 0.75 /person R0

+0.75 /person R6.14

Miscellaneous – All consumers who do not fall within the above categories.

R5.53 Miscellaneous R 6.59

Miscellaneous External - All consumers supplied outside the City of Cape Town.

R6.61 Miscellaneous External

R 7.88

Bulk Tariff - Exclusive of the Water Research Commission Levy Only for Bulk Supply to other Municipalities and for cost recovery from Water Services Reticulation of the City of Cape Town

R2.21 Bulk Tariff R 2.37

Table 22: Water Tariff

6.1.1.2 Sanitation Tariffs

Sewerage (sanitation) tariffs for a 10% restriction level for the financial years 2006/07 and 2007/08 are given in the table below:


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VOLUMETRIC TARIFFS

TARIFFS

2006 / 2007

TARIFFS

2007 / 2008

Domestic Full- Single residential properties. 70% of water consumption to a maximum of 35 kl of sewage per month (70% of 50 kl water equals 35 kl of sewage)

0 – 4.2 0 0 – 4.2 0

+4.2 – 8.4 R1.68 +4.2 – 8.4 R 3.78

+8.4 – 28 R4.10 +8.4 – 14 R 8.04

n/a +14 - 28 R8.79

n/a +28 - 35 R 9.23

Homeless people shelters – Accredited shelters registered with the City of Cape Town.

n/a

0 – 0.525 /person

R0

+0.525 /person

R5.20

Domestic Cluster - Bulk metered flats, cluster developments. Including sectional and single title units. 90% of Water Consumption (* see note) An allowance of 4.2 kl per unit per month will be made available at zero cost upon submission of a signed affidavit stating the number of units supplied from that metered connection.

R4.04 R 9.10

Industrial and Commercial - Schools, hospitals, Government: National / Provincial and any other – 95% of water consumption (* see note)

R2.51 R 5.65

Departmental - 95% of water (* see note) consumption excluding facilities not connected to the sewer system

R2.31 R 5.20

Table 23: Sanitation Tariff

6.1.1.3 Life line Tariffs

All domestic properties receive 6 kilolitres of water free per month while the first 4.2 (70% of 6 Kl) per month of sewerage is disposed free of charge. Effectively consumers that use more water cross subsidize those that use


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less. In addition all properties that are valued at R100 000 or less receive a R20 Indigent Grant and do not attract a fixed charge for sewerage. At 2006/07 tariffs this Indigent Grant meant that consumers could use 10.695 kilolitres of water and dispose of 7.487 kilolitres of sewerage per month without attracting a charges. However, due to the increase in tariffs in 2007/08 the Indigent Grant has been increased to R30 as is applied to the water account. The property value that attracts the Indigent Grant has been adjusted to R199 000. Previously a sewerage connection attracted a fixed and volumetric charge. However, from 2007/08 all sewerage will be charged volumetrically.

6.2 Sewerage Treatment

The total amount of sewerage treated is given in the table below: 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06

Total (Ml) 193 453 192 083 195 865 196 214 196 498 198 891

The increase over the last 5 years has been low (2.7%) in line with the low increase in water demand. The operating and maintenance costs for the wastewater treatment works for 2006/07 is given in the table below:

Item Budget 06/07

Operating R 129,482,484

Maintenance R 29,016,191

TOTAL R 158,498,675

Table 24: Operating and maintenance cost for 2006/7

The cost is therefore R0.80 per Kilolitre (R0.973 including overheads but excluding capital charges) of wastewater treated. The ratio of water treated to water supplied to properties is 0.67. Since water ingress into the sewer system is a problem, all the water treated does not originate as potable water but a proportion is storm water and ground water. This ingress results in higher costs of treatment and affects water quality. The cost of constructing a conventional wastewater treatment plant is approximately R6 to7 million per megalitre of installed capacity.

6.2.1 Alternative Sanitation Technologies

Alternative sanitation technologies such a dry sanitation have mainly been tested in informal areas. Approximately 3,000 septic tank systems exist in the former South Peninsular Administration.


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There have not been studies within the city to examine the financial implications of applying new technologies to new areas. Social acceptance is considered a major obstacle. The unit costs of other waste processing systems such as biolytic, multi-system approaches and separation toilets (e.g. urine diversion) needs further research.

6.3 Billing System

The billing system used to bill users is the SAP system which sends out a consolidated bill for rates, solid waste, electricity (where conventional meter), water and sewerage. The City is divided into 20 billing areas, which coincide with the meter reading areas. Bills are therefore sent out on a daily basis after the meter reading has been loaded into the system and verified. There are strict deadlines for the bills to go out so meter reading runs to a strict schedule. Currently all users are divided into the following rate categories.

Bulk Water Bulk Water Other Departmental Water Municipal Standpipe Goverment Water Miscellaneous External Miscellaneous Water Water for Schools Domestic Water Cluster Commercial Water Industrial Water Water Domestic Full Water contracts Citywide Miscellaneous Municipal Water Standpipes Shared Water Meter

Each rate category has a unit rate for the volume of water consumed. Water availability charges apply where there is no water usage but a connection exists.

6.4 How the WWTPs budgets are determined

The operating budgets for WWTPs are determined in a similar way to the result of the service. Operating budgets are based on the previous year plus


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an inflationary increase. Changes in technology and in the way the plant is operated is also taken into account. Often, capital budget constraints do not permit higher expenditure that will result in longer term lower costs or higher income. Multi-year Capital Spending Strategy The low budget and the high needs over the last 5 years has meant that only very critical projects have received the go ahead. However, from 2006/07 the Council has adopted an approach of ensuring that the core services like water and sanitation have sufficient funds for the need. The historical and future capital budgets and the funding sources are given below: Capital Budget 2004/05 to 2006/07

2004/05

R mil

2005/06 R mil

2006/07 R mil

EAMS 0.1 10.1 0.0

BULK WATER 13.0 27.3 17.8

RETICULATION 156.0 278.3 307.6

SUPPORT SERVICES 0.0 4.0 0.0

SCIENTIFIC SERVICES 0.0 3.0 0.0

WASTE WATER 61.7 78.7 87.7

WDM 0.0 0.0 2.0

N2 GATEWAY 13.6 0.0 0.0

OTHER 0.0 0.0 8.5

W & S SERVICE TOTAL 244.5 401.3 423.6

Table 25: Capital Budget for 2004/5 – 2006/7

Funding Sources 2005/06 and 2006/07 were:

2005/06 R mil

2006/07 R mil

AFF (now CRR) 55.4 62.0

BICL 22.6 53.0

CMIP 4.5 0.0

DWAF 1.7 0.3

EFF 161.6 152.1

MIG 137.5 141.1

Other 18.1 15.1

TOTAL 401.3 423.6

Table 26: Funding sources for 2005/6 and 2006/7

The projected Capital Budget for the years 2007/08 to 2011/12

2007/08 2008/09 2009/10 2010/11 2011/12


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R mil

R mil R mil R mil R mil

Reticulation 404.1 313.0 190.7 172.7 131.5

WWT 133.0 174.3 145.3 163.4 185.0

Bulk water 77.8 357.6 579.1 426.0 389.0

WDM 22.5 21.5 25.5 14.1 12.8

Support 3.0 3.5 4.0 27.2 27.7

Water Meter repl. 16.0 16.0 16.0 18.3 19.2

Informal settlements 56.4 55.6 47.1 38.0 39.9

EAMS 31.3 55.2 40.2 42.0 42.0

Scientific Services 2.3 1.4 1.3 1.7 1.7

TOTAL 746.4 998.1 1049.2 903.4 848.7

Note: the first 3 years correspond with the 3 year capital budget. Table 27: Project Capital Budget for 2007/8 – 2011/12

Funding Sources for the years 2007/08 to 2011/12 are projected to be:

2007/08 R mil

2008/09 R mil

2009/10 R mil

2010/11 R mil

2011/12 R mil

Capital requirement 746.4 998.1 1049.2 903.4 848.7

Grants (MIG & DWAF) 179 188 197 207 217

CRR 100 120 144 173 207

Nett Capital from EFF 467.4 690.1 708.2 523.4 423.7

CRR = Capital Replacement Reserve

EFF = External Financing Fund

Table 28: Funding Sources for 2007/8 – 2011/12

The capital budget is set to increase significantly from approximately R400 mil per annum to over R800 million with EFF set to increase from around R150-R160 million to R460-R700 million. This is to ensure that the necessary infrastructure is built to cater for growth in the city and existing infrastructure is maintained and upgraded or replaced.

6.5 How needs are determined

Master plans of the future infrastructure requirements are drawn up based on the capacity and location of existing infrastructure and where new and infill development is planned for the City. The nature of the development determines future water demand and wastewater disposal requirements. These in turn determine the additional capacity that is required and where it is required. In addition the performance of the existing infrastructure is monitored and infrastructure that requires upgrading or replacement is identified. The infrastructure needs are therefore determined based on what is required for growth and what infrastructure needs to be upgraded or replaced based on its performance.


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There is currently an initiative that will ensure that all master planning is based on the same base data for the Bulk Water, Wastewater Treatment, Reticulation and Water Demand Management. Currently base data is fragmented and planning is not fully integrated.

6.6 How priorities set

The overarching method of determining priorities is through the Integrated Development Plan or IDP and the Water Services development Plan (WSDP) which is a sector plan of the IDP. The infrastructure needs are determined by technical master plans as outlined above. On an annual basis, through the IDP and WSDP process, which is guided by national policies and legislation, goals and objectives are set. The current situation is assessed and the strategic gap is identified. From this strategies are developed to ensure that the gap is closed. Once projects have been identified these are entered into the draft capital budget. A process of determining the priorities is then followed until a final capital budget is determined. The process of determining which projects are priority is not easy despite the IDP and WSDP process. In recent years due to the tight capital budget the method of determining which projects should go ahead has been based on a risk analysis that determines that consequences or impact of not doing the project and the likelihood of these impacts.

6.7 How final decisions made

The final decision as to what will be submitted to Council rests with the Directors and Executive Directors in conjunction with the Finance Directorate. The total capital budget is set based on the impact on the tariffs and the affordability thereof for the whole municipal account. Theoretically, because Water and Sanitation Services generates its own income the total budget can be determined by financial modeling. However, this has not always been the case and the service often “cross-subsidizes” the rates capital budget. The high debt of the service has also reduced affordability. Many infrastructure projects, especially bulk projects, impact the capital budget for numerous years. In approving the project the Council has in effect approved that portion of the capital budget for a number of years to come. This is not always fully understood by the decision makers who have tended to only want to approve projects for one year despite the IDP and WSDP‟s five year horizon. Ultimately the Council decides from what is submitted and within the budget constraint what projects go ahead.


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6.8 Challenges and Constraints

There are numerous financial challenges that need to be overcome. Probably the most critical is the high and rising debt (currently R2.0 billion) as it puts the financial sustainability of the service at risk, increases the cost of providing the service and affects the service‟s ability to attract much needed capital to maintain, upgrade and extend infrastructure. The Capital requirements over the next 5 years are extremely high with EFF set to increase from around R150-R160 million to R460-R700 million. While the proper asset management will increase costs in the short term, they will reduce costs in the longer term and the life cycle costs will be reduced i.e. assets that are properly maintained last longer. Additional staff are required to improve the financial management of the service as well as ensuring that infrastructure is maintained, upgraded and extended. All these needs will necessitate increases in tariffs significantly above inflation. The affordability of these tariffs, particularly for low-income groups need to be tested. Other challenges include:

Ensuring that the tariff structure remains stable (brings in the necessary income) while implementing the comprehensive water demand management strategy.

Increasing income.

Reducing targeted costs without lowering levels of service delivery.

Reducing the cost of capital.

Devising innovative solutions for funding capital projects.

Improving data integrity particularly as it pertains to customer information and income generation.

Incentives, financial or otherwise, for water saving devices and alternative sanitation technologies.


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7. Constraints and challenges and future recommendations

Findings of this study substantiate the strategic interventions for the water and sanitation sector, proposed in the National Strategy for Sustainable Development113. These are:





Building capacity for sustainable development The following section provides an outline of the key issues and recommendations gathered during the course of this analysis:

7.1 Institutional Issues

Changing Environment: A high level of adaptability is demanded from officials who are operating in a rapidly changing regulatory and institutional environment.

113

DEAT, 2006 : National Strategy for Sustainable Development. (Draft Integrated Strategy for Review)


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Capacity: Capacity constraints exist do to long overdue vacancies. Low staff morale is counter-productive to the high expectations on service delivery

Integration: Future planning scenarios needs to fast tracked within the various tiers of government, amongst the various line functions in within the various departments of the water and sanitation service.

Budget Timeframes: The “pace to deliver”, once financial commitment is secured, is often driven by financial limitations (spend the money before we lose it). Sustainability is risked in fast tracked projects with limited public and other line-functions involvement. Projects may suffer from lack of ownership by communities and officials! This is particularly true for service delivery projects in high density low income areas.

Capacity building: In order to ensure meaningful participation within and outside Council, the water and sanitation service needs to explore methods to creating an understanding of the highly technical issues it deals with.

7.2 Financial Issues

Increasing bad dept The water and sanitation service‟s financial sustainability is at risk due to its rising dept (R2 billion) and realistic tariffs need to be charged to ensure desperately needed capital.

Revenue Collection : Billing, metering and revenue collection needs to be improved

Skills Shortage: There is a critical shortage of much needed financial management skills in the water and sanitation service.

Unaccounted for water: Latest figures indicate that this could be as high as 23%, represented a loss of revenue for 186 Ml/day water.

The key financial strategies for CCT in the IDP are114:

Reducing salary costs to acceptable levels, taking into account the City‟s new operating model and transferring savings to improve the maintenance of assets;

Reducing the cost of servicing long-term debt with innovative methods of borrowing and capital financing;

Reducing the dependency on cross-subsidisation from tariff-based services to within acceptable norms;

Maintaining rate and tariff adjustments within national norms and guidelines, ensuring the national and local economy are not undermined;

114

From COCT, 2007 :Executive Summary :Water Services Development Plan


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Making adequate provision for free basic services for the poor, to ensure that there is no further marginalisation of poorer communities or individuals through the entrenchment of the indigent policy;

Preparing realistic income budgets with adequate provision for non-recovery to ensure the expenditure reflected for each year can be fully covered by cash receipts;

Ensuring that adequate cash reserves are maintained to cover legislated funds and provisions.

Implementing these financial strategies in the context of the implementing the WSA and WSP arrangements will go a lot way to putting Water and sanitation Services on a sustainable path.

7.3 Environmental and Health Issues

Loss of amenity: Most of the rivers receiving treated effluent are severely degraded and many coastal bathing beaches are not safe to swim in summer months due to contaminated stormwater and wastewater discharges.

Health Risks: Toxic algal blooms and polluted runoff from poorly services settlements pose a serious health risk to neighbouring communities. The links with Environmental Health practitioners needs to be strengthened.

Low Profile of Pollution in budget allocations: There are no clear links between pollution and human health/quality of life which could possibly increase the profile of the Cities strained water bodies. The water sectors contributions include sub standard effluent discharges, runoff from informal settlements pumps station overflows, leaking reticulation which impact on surface and groundwater.

Increased maintenance Invasive aquatic weeds flourish in the nutrient enriched water bodies, where they choking rivers, enhance flood risks and required capital intensive maintenance operations to be cleared. Sludge spills silt of rivers, which also required costly maintenance to avoid floods.

Energy from waste: In view of Cape Town‟s energy crises, the use of existing bio-gas and sewage sludge as energy source should be explored as a matter of urgency. An energy audit within the water and sanitation sector would assist with identification of large consumers.

Climate change: The impact of climate change, and sea level rise need to be assessed within the water and sanitation service, which has significant infrastructure on the Cities coastline.

7.4 Technology and Information Issues

Forecasting models: The current method of demand forecasting results in a wide range of future scenarios. International models based


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on “end-use” demand analysis appear to provide a greater level of confidence.

Water saving devices: The availability and affordability of many of the water saving devices promoted in the Water Conservation and Demand Management Strategy needs to be ensured in order for the strategy to meet its goals.

Alternative technologies: There is an urgent need for a detailed investigation into alternative technologies for water and wastewater treatment. The role of technologies such as solar disinfection, decentralised wastewater treatment and innovative bio-gas sewage sludge re-use should be explored in new and existing developments.

Greywater: Innovative solutions need to be explored to deal with the highly polluted run-off from un-serviced and/or poorly serviced settlements.

Effluent re-use: The City is currently re-using only 7% of the potential 39% of treated effluent available for this purpose. This untapped resource offers huge opportunities for innovative development. Guidelines for the re-use of treated effluent within the urban environment need to be develop as a matter of urgency.

7.5 Future Recommendations

The following recommendations are presented in addition to those summarised in the comprehensive Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy:

Resolve institutional reform issues and appoint staff as matter of urgency

Develop internal financial and business skills

Adopt philosophy and practice of IUWM, and ensure alignment with key National, Provincial and Local future planning initiatives

Gauge progress with WC/WDM strategy and ensure the document and commitment remain „live‟

Develop capacity to enforce by-laws

Investigate alternative technologies for wastewater treatment and disposal, including sewage sludge

Develop indicators which link human health/quality of life health to environmental degradation

Develop wastewater effluent re-use guidelines

Conduct an energy audit in the water and sanitation service which a few to identify opportunities for savings

Investigate use of energy from wastewater (biogas and sludge) and implement the Athlone pilot project


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Amidst the constraints and limitations of restructuring, budgets cuts and staff losses, the water and sanitation sector has managed to ensure that the majority of formally housed citizens in Cape Town have reliable access to clean water and properly functioning sanitation services. Great strides have been made with by-laws and the development of a service delivery plan, which aligns with the growth and development objectives of the City. More recently, the Council committed them selves to a R759 million strategy which will guide water conservation and demand management over the next 10 years. The future of water resource management in the City of Cape Town harbours many untapped opportunities for innovation and transformation.

8. References

Cape Times, 3 April 2007: Editorial Cape Times, 3 April 2007: Inadequate management hinders development by Anel Powell Cape Argus, 3 April 2007: Shack dwellers stuck with buckets by Lindsay Dentlinger

CMC, 1999: Strategic Assessment of Bulk Wastewater Infrastructure : Study Synopsis (Ninham Shand and Africon) COCT,2001: (Internal document) Bulk Water Infrastructure and Statistics COCT, 2001: Integrated Water Resource Planning Sudy – Background, Results and Recommendations (Ninham Shand and Arcuss Gibb) COCT, 2001: Integrated Environmental Management Policy for the City of Cape Town

COCT, 2002: Catchment, Stormwater and River Management Strategy 2002-2007


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COCT, 2002: Scoping Investigation Report on Energy Efficiency and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Projects for the City of Cape Town COCT, 2004: Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy COCT, 2005: Integrated Development Plan for the City of Cape Town 2005/6

COCT, 2005: Project Definition Report for the Asset Management Plan for the Trading Services COCT, 2005: Greywater Guidelines

COCT, 2005: Safety, Health and Environment Policy and Procedure Manual COCT, 2005: (Unpublished Internal Document) Existing Bulk Water Supply Infrastructure. Background Information for Water Services Development Plan COCT, 2005: Water Consumption Study, Community Engineering Services COCT, 2006: Water Services Development Plan for the City of Cape Town 2006/7 COCT, 2006 (CD): City of Cape Town policy and strategy documents towards sustainable development through integrated environmental management COCT, 2007: Water Services Development Plan for the City of Cape Town 2007/8-2011/12 (Draft 4) COCT, 2007: (Unpublished Council Report) An overview of the Western Cape water supply system reconciliation strategy and the roles and responsibilities of the city in implementation of the strategy, Report to Utility Services Portfolio Committee COCT, 2007(Unpublished Power Point Presentation): Water and Sanitation -WSDP Executive Summary – J de Bruyn COCT, 2007: (Unpublished Council Report) Understanding Water Losses: Report to Trading Services and Infrastructure Portfolio Committee COCT, 2007: Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy (Final Draft) COCT, 2007: (Media Release 11 June 2007): City Adopts Multimillion Rand Water Saving Strategy, Communications Department COCT, 2007: (Unpublished Council Report) Adoption of long-term water conservation and water demand management strategy and financial plan, incorporating adoption of treated effluent strategy and master plan DEAT, 2006: National Strategy for Sustainable Development. (Draft Integrated Strategy for Review)


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Della Togna M & Pithey S, 2003: (VIDEO/ CD). Improving Services Trough Dialogue. The Kalkfontein Stormwater Project. Rainbow Circle Films, Cape Town.

DWAF, 2003, Strategic Framework for Water Services DWAF 1996: Water Law Principles DWAF 1997: White Paper on National Water Policy for South Africa DWAF, 1998 National Water Act DWAF, 2004: Water Conservation and Water Demand Management Strategy for the Water Services Sector DWAF 2005 (Newsletter)Western Cape Reconciliation Process and Berg River CMA Process, Newsletter May 2005 Frame, J 2007: (Pers Com) : Ongoing revised calculations of Non-Revenue Demand Impumelelo, 2004: Series of best practice : Environment Impumelelo, 2004: Series of best practice : Water King, P 2007, (Pers Com) and unpublished Water Usage tables Ninham Shand, Asch and Africon Engineering, 2003: Review of the infrastructure and fixed assets of the Water and Sanitation Service ODA, aloeCap and Africon, 2004: High level review of the project to establish internal business units for Electricity, Water and Sanitation and Solid Waste Management Services Scmitz, T, 1999: Rethinking delivery : A review of efforts of DWAF, CPS Policy Analysis Sustainable Energy Africa & COCT, 2002: (Unpublished report): Greenhouse Gas Inventory for the City of Cape Town Wells, M 2005:(Power Point Presentation) Athlone Biogas and Integrated Farming Systems, Concept Discussions with the COCT, Agama Energy 6 September 2005 WRC, 1994: Financial and Institutional Review Survey Report: Palmer Development Group Report No 571/6/94 WRC, 2004: An Assessment of the Water Policy Process in South Africa (1994-2003), Report No TT232/04, WRC, 2005 A 3 Step Strategic Approach to sustainable wastewater management (Nhapi, I & Gijzen, H) Referenced Websites:


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Local

Water Research Commission Website: www.wrc.org.za Department of Water Affairs and Forestry www.dwaf.co.za City of Cape Town: www.capetown.gov.za

Table Mountain Aquifer Investigation go to www.tmg-acquifer.co.za

International UN Millennium Project website : www.unmillenniumproject.org/index.htm Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology www.igb.fraunhofer.de/start.en.html EPA, 2004 : Primer for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Systems http://www.epa.gov/OWM/primer.pdf Sukriti Engineers in : www.tradeindia.com

Juanicó - Environmental Consultants Ltd. Isreal“Sewage Treatment Technologies” : http://www.juanico.co.il

Californa Energy Commission website www.energy.ca.gov

UNEP webpage : www.unep.or.jp Ministry of New and Renewable Energy : India http://mnes.nic.in/u3.htm Virginia State University website : On site sewage treatment http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/waterquality/448-407/448-407.html#L5

http://www.wrc.org.za/

http://www.dwaf.co.za/

http://www.capetown.gov.za/

http://www.tmg-acquifer.co.za/

http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/index.htm

http://www.igb.fraunhofer.de/start.en.html


http://www.tradeindia.com/

http://www.juanico.co.il/

http://www.energy.ca.gov/

http://www.unep.or.jp/

http://mnes.nic.in/u3.htm

http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/waterquality/448-407/448-407.html#L5

water and sanitation baseline report

Documents