VOLUME IV, NUMBER 1 SPRING, 1995

Chile Institute I

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Flower i - a-

Fertilization and ontrolled Crosses

bv Dr. Paul W, Boslmd'and Eric VotWa

As stated in the last issue of the Chile Institute Newsletter, fertilization can have two meanings. Previously, nutrient requirements of chiles were addressed; this time fertilization will address pol- lination. Pollination, or sexual reproduction, is the uniting of male and female gametes or repro- dudive cells. From this union, a seed is pro- duced.

peratures exceed 95 degrees F., pollen will abort and the fruit-set will be reduced. In some cases, spraying hormones--such as Bloom Set-on the flowers may prevent blossom drop.

Flowers of chiles are perfect, meaning that each flower has both male and female organs. The sexual organs are easy to distinguish, so crossing chiles is relatively easy Pollination is the transfer

Flowers begin to form when the chile plant of pollen from an anther to a stigma. When the branches. Flowering is dichotomous, meaning anther is mature, it opens and releases pollen. that one flower forms, then two, Pollen may be transferred in two then four, then eight, and so on. ways: crosspollination and self- The number of flowers produced pollination. is very large compared to those CrO~~-pOll~natiOn is In cross-pollination, the pollen is that actually set fruit, and a larger quite in transferred from an anther of one percentage of the early flowers set plant to a stigma of another plant. fruit than the later flowers. The chiles grown outdoors. In self-pobation, the pollen is key factor affecting fruit set is transferred from an anther to the night temperature, which ideally stigma of the same flower, or to should be between 65 and 80 degrees F. Fruit will the stigma of another flower on the same plant. not set when the temperature is above 85 degrees Early botanists grew chiles in greenhouses.

at night because of excessive transpiration, Without insects, the chiles self-pollinated. Thus - which causes the blossoms to drop. Blossoms in earlier literature, chiles were considered to

also drop because of excessive nitrogen, high self-pollinating. Chiles do self-pollinate, but - winds, and lack of pollination. If daytime tem- their ability to

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Flower Fertilization, continuedfiom previous page. with sexual reproduction. It is important to remember that if seed is to be saved the flowers

cross-pollinate is far greater than expected. should not be allowed to cross-pollinate. In a Cross-pollination is quite common in chiles future issue, we will discuss ways to prevent grown outdoors. Studies have indicated that 30 such out-crossing. to 70 percent of chile flowers will cross-pollinate depending on location and season. There is a

hile breeders make con- trolled crosses between chile plants in order to combine

genes of interest, and with a little 1 practice you toocan make your own crosses.

Figure 1 Selecting the Flower Bud

Select a flower bud that has not opened. A chile flower has both

higher percentage cross-~ollhation in male (stamens, consisting of anther and filament) chiles than in tomatoes. Cross pollination in and female (pistil) reproductive organs. chiles is enhanced by the structure of the chile flower because the extended styles and the presence of nectar encour- aged insects to visit the flower and aid in cross pollination. Because of genetic recombination, plants origi- nating from seed can be quite dif- ferent from the parent and from each other. Plant breeders can therefore develop new varieties

Figure 2 Opening the Flower Bud

Using forceps or tweezers, care- fully remove the petals from the flower buds to expose the repro- ductive organs.

The Chih Institute Newsletter Executive Secretary: Dave DeWitt MartlnSaelnaenn, Border Poodg NM Editor: Dave DeWitt Offie Supporh Karen Ortega, Shamn T~jillo Javter Va~gas, La8 Cruces, NU Art Directol: Lois Beghold

The Chile Institute Board of Directom NGW M ~ C O stah uni-ty OX omdo l'ha chile Institute Chair: Emrna Jean Cenantes, CerPantes Enterprises, Inc Vado, wm: Box 30003, Dept 3Q, NMSU, Las C m , NM 88003 NM

LOUIS Bfad, Las Cruces, NM Dr. John Owens, Dean, College of Agtlculture and H m

0 646-3028 Bcanomle A Non-Pmflt Intematlonal Organization Devoted to the Shldy of Paul W. bland, Las Cm* NM

Dave DeWitt, Qlilc Prppctmagazine, Albuquerque, NM Dr. L d o y Da*rty, chahlm, Dept of lwQmmy and

=?lDr. Paul W. b l a n d Hortlcultu~

Jamea Peguson, Old El Paso Foods, Anthcny. TX Dr. Gary Cmnlnghaq Dkckx Agricultural Expedment Station

Figure 5 Pollinate the Flower.

Transfer the pollen to the tip (stigma) of the pistil.

Figure 3 Emasculating the Flower

The male parts of the flower are composed of anthers attached to small filaments. Pollen is produced in the anther. In order to prevent self-pollination, the anthers must be removed. Remove them, but be sure to leave the central pistil in place.

Figure 4 Collecting Pollen.

Collect Pollen from the open flower of another chile plant. A small paint brush or a bee stick can be used to collect and transfer the pollen.

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Figure 6. Label the Cross. After the fruit ripens, harvest the seed and l

Label the cross so that it may be identified as plant it as you would any seed. Remember to 1 ! - the fruit matures. The fruit will look like all the label the cross in the garden. You will be able to

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other fruit on the plant because the cross resides see the results of yo& cross as the the seeds grow in the growing seeds, not in this year's pod into mature plants.

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Back Issues of The Chile Institute Newsletter -- . I - I.

$2.50 each postpaid c- - Volume I, No. 1 (Fall, 1992). Message from The Director; Chile Conference Roundup, "Green Gold" Video.

Volume 11, No. 1 (Spring, 1993). Message from the Dean. Capsicum Communique. NM Chile Conference Report.

Volume 11, No. 2 (Fall, 1993). Hot Peppers Are For the Bids. Home Drying and Storage of Capsicums. How Many Species Are There, Anyway?

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, Volume 111, No. 1 (Winter, 1994). Chiltepin Preserve. Capsaicin Bans Barnacles. The Nomenclature Controversy. The Elusive Pollinator and Other Pepper Puzzles.

Volume 111, No. 2 (Spring, 1994). Stalking the Coyotes of the Plant World. The Chile Cancer Scare. Measuring Chile Pungency. Pepper Profiles. 2 Volume 111, No. 3 (Summer, 1994). Plans for ICC Released. Profile of Dr. Ben Villalon. Post-Harvest Shipping and Handling of Peppers. Balance of Chiles Deficit Drops.

Volume 111, NO. 4 (Fall, 1994). The Hottest Habanero? Special National Pepper Conference Issue with Summaries of Major Papers Presented at the 12th Biennial Conference.

Volume IV, No. 1 (Winter, 1995). How to Fertilize Chiles. Autopick Pepper. Datil Do It-Excerpt from The Habanero Cookbook. Persons wishing to order back issues should indicate the issues wanted and make checks out to NMSU Foundation/Chile Institute, and send them to The Chile Institute, Box 30003, Dept. 3Q, NMSU, Las Cruces, NM 88003.

I The Pepper Paradise of Ara, Nigeria by D. MWIBeI and MBry W m , Mkh8el McNulty, and hson .WaIsmIth

Editor's Note: Insfifufe mem-- ber Dr. D. Michael W a r n is a pqfiessm of anthropology at Iowa State University and director o f the Centerfm Indigenous Knowledge for Agriculture and Rural Development (CIKARD). This 0qpnizutia.n studies and pre- srmes indigenous knowledge,- community-bad local knowledge that is un& to a given culture- or socidy. As this goes to press, he and his wjfe Mary are return- ing to Nigeria to be installed as Y m b a chi@. This report is from .

a pm'ous h i p . Mmy Warren is a I native ofAra and experf on Afrrcan languages; Michael '

McN26lty is Profsssm o f Geography and Acting Associate Provost fbr International Afiirs, Univm' t y of Iowa; Jason Walsmith is a student of an thro-

b pology and journalism at Iowa State Univmity.

nic groups along the West African coast for their highly .

seasoned food. The most high- ly pungent peppers & pre- ferred, often making the food inedible by the uninitiated. .

Ara is a typical, traditional Yoruba community of about

10,000 located in the tropical rainforest of southwestern Nigeria. It is a pepper lover's paradise. Like most rural Yoruba communities, Ara pro- duces a wide variety of pep- pers and spices used in the local cuisine. The Yoruba word

1 Letludc group of south- . western Nigeria is widely noted for its very spicy cuisine.

about 20 million in Nigeria, but. I their descendants in the New World number several million in places like Haiti and the I Bahia part of Brazil where they * have ereatlv influenced the cul- -

tcue &d &sine. m e Yontba Dried&&- -

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are widely known by other eth- sh red peppen laid ozctfm sale in the outdoor Ara marrcet.

for red pepper is "ata" of which . there are numerous varieties such as ata funfun (light-col- ored hot pepper, Capsicum annuum), ata rod0 (small, round, red hot pepper, Capsicum chinense), and ata wewe (tiny red hot pepper, Capsicum frutescens). One also finds the large, sweet, red pep- per, tatase. The African black pepper, a climber on trees, is known as ata iyere (Piper guineense). Other spices that are popular are atale ('"pepper in the ground), ginger (zingiber offianale); atare ("pepper of goodness"), Guinea pepper (Aframomum melegue- ta); and eeru (African black pepper), peppery black fruits produced on a tree (Xylopia

aethiopica). One finds all of these, both fresh and dried, at the Ara outdoor market.

The Yoruba have delicious cuisine that is highly varied but almost always includes large, fiery doses of ata, ata iyere, atale, and atare. These are also very common ingredi- ents in many of the herbal mix- tures used as traditional medi- cines. w

ICC Donations

P ersons donating at least $100 to the International Center for Chile Building

Fund will receive a certificate electing them to the ICC Hall

of Flame. The names will also be inscribed on a plaque in the ICC building. You do not have 1 to be a member of the Institute to donate to the building fund; membership fees are in addi- tion to your donation. b

Please send your donation to The Chile Institute, Box 30003, i Dept. 3Q, NMSU, Las Cruces, NM 88003. Please make checks 1 out to "'NMSU Foundation/ Chile Institute/Building Fund. We will give regular updates in our Chile Institute Newsletter regarding progress on the building fund drive. For a complete brochure of the facili- ty, please write to the above address.

1 Publications Available from The Chile Institute I Clzopsicum: A Comprehensive

recently been updated by the inclusion of 350 more citations. It now contains about 5,400 technical citations in thirteen categoria including taxonomy, genetics, breeding, biochemistry, produc- tion, and disorders. It is avail- able on 3.5-inch diskettel 5.95- inch diskette, or hard copy for $50 postpaid.

Chile Peppers: A Selected Bibliography of the Cer;ps&umsI by David A. DeWtt, has more than 1,100 citations primarily concerned with non-technical articles and books on the history

and cutinary arts of Capsicums, with other sedans un srdening and nutrition/medicElne. It is available on 35-inch dbkettef 5.95-inch diskette, or hard copy for $90 pxtptid.

Chile Pepper Slhfe Set, 90 slides of the major pod types and varieties, $7.50 each or $1 00 postpaid for the set

P m c e e d l ~ of the 19th 8itnnial Nstionsl Pepper con*~e , Aug. 4994, Las Cruces, NM, hetra copy, $1 5.00 postpaid.

Freeing Green Chile, W&, $1.525 id*

Canning Green Chile, booklet, $1 .,e5 postpaid.

CBpsicum Pepper Varieties and ClassifVc8tion, booklet, $950 pastpaid.

Chi le Prep~ration and k c i i , w e t / $2.00 postpaid.

Pasom wishing to urder publi- c&bm or slides should indicate format desired, make check out to NMSU FoundatidChile I r s t i ~ , and send them to The Chile Institute, t3ox 30003, Dept. 3Q M U , Las Cwa, Nhn 88003.

O~publications are also miIab1q please wnwnte fbr detailsa

C A P S I C U M N E W manks to Institute Advisory INTERNATIONAL PEPPER ACREAGE Boevd member Jim lurk of PetoSeed f i r the fallowtng According to a '93 survey for TAES, the U.S. ranks I l th and Mexico 6th in

On pepper acreage: and n 8 t i 0 ~ / India chile acreego

UP rocessed Capsicums (pep- per) exports have increased four-fold over the five year ................... ..................*.....e.

period from 1 989 to 1993 and is PEPPER ACREAGE BY VARIETY IN THE UNITED STATES the largest of all spices exported. Fresh spice sales, of which pep- pers were $44 million, exceeded $50 million in 1993. Mexico and Canada accounted for 80% of the U .S. exported dehydrated chile powder and paprika. And check this quote from the Foreign Agricultural Service Trade Highlights: Tapsaicin, the active agent, is proven to ease neuronal mechanisms of pain and reduce the symptoms of a range of afflic- tions, including psoriasis, arthritis, and contact allergy."

There are approximately 125,000 acres of commercially grown peppers in the United States of which approximately 1 6% are hot, In Mexico, there are 204,000 acres of which less than 5% are sweet, primarily for export only. In Canada, 3,750 acres of peppers are grown of which 89% are sweet.

Jalapeno M, Tam JalapeAo #I, Hybrid Jalapeiio, Mitla, Eariy JalapeAo, Tam

Vera Cnrz and local strains Cheese Strains Cayenne Large Red Thick and local strains Cascabel la Cherry Sweet Red Cheny Large Cubanelle Hungarian Yellow Wax Hot Sport (Mississippi and Louisiana strains) Tabasco Romanian Sweet Sweet Banana Floral Gem Pepperoncini - Italian strain Santa Fe Grande PoblanoIAncho Serrano Italian White Wax Mild Finger types (Petite Simh, Orlando Banana Mini Banana, etc.)

Misc. (Pueblo Hot, Carolina Hot, Hot Finger, hybrid 878R, Gold Spike, Habanero, Carolina Cayenne, Mulato, Pasilla/Chilaca, Fresno, Datil, Chiltepin, Etc.)